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PRESENTATION    OF  SAMUEL. 


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THE  POPULAR  AND  CRITICAL 


Bible  Encyclopedia 


AND 


SCRIPTURAL  DICTIONARY 


•  •  ••  •« 

•  •      •  •  » • 


FULLY   DEFINING  AND    EXPLAINING  ALL  RbSWoCTS' TER*& 


INCI^UDING 


•  ••  • 
•  • 

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•••  •  •    ••    •  J  •  • 

*    •••    •••• 


••  • 


••••  •     •       •.  • I      ■   » 

Biographical,   Geographical,  Historical*  •••*•••••*  ' 
Archaeological  and  Doctrinal   Themes 


Superbly  Illustrated  'with  Over  600  Maps  and  Engravings 


EDITED  BT 

RT.  REV.  SAMUEL  FALLOWS,  A,  M..  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 


ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 


ANDREW  C.  ZENOS,  A.  M.,  D.  D. 

(McCoauck  Theologial  Seminary) 


HERBERT  L.  WILLETT,  A.  M^  PL  D 

(UnhrcnitxfllOMato) 


VOLUME  III 


*  « 


CHICAGO 
THE  HOWARD-SEVERANCE  COMPANY 

1910 


V 


*: 


••  •  • 

•  •  • 


• » 


•  •  •  * 


•« 
* 


«•     T   •  • 
•  •    *••   •» 


•  •  •  •  •     . 

•  *-    •  •     • 

•  •     • 


•  ••, 

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«  • 


».  •  ••  •• 

• •  •• •* 

,•  •  •••• 

•  •  •  • 

,•  •   • 


Copyright,  1901, 

BY 

J.  Mitchell  Howard 


Copyright,  1904, 

BY 

J.  Mitchell  Howard 


•• 


» 


« 
« 


THIS  WORK  IS  SUPPLIED  ONLY  THROUGH  AUTHORIZED  CANVASSERS. 

BOOKSELLERS  CANNOT  OBTAIN  IT. 


vX 


* 
( 


;:nir  pHJiblNATlON 

/  -^  'J* 

OBDINATION  (or'dt-na'shiin).  the  act  of  con- 
f erring  holy  orders;  of  initiating  a  person  into  the 
ministry,  or  of  publicly  recognizing  the  relation 
which  nas  been  entered  into,  by  mutual  agree- 
ment, between  a  minister  and  the  church. 

In  Episcopal  churches  ordination  has  always 
been  esteemed  the  principal  prerogative  of  bish- 
ops, and  they  still  retain  the  function  as  a  mark 
of  their  spiritual  sovereignty  in  their  diocese  or 
jurisdiction. 

1.  Wble  Usafe.  (1/  Old  Testament  Ordi- 
nation was  practiced  early  in  Bible  times.  The 
Hebrew  priests,  Levites,  prophets,  and  kings  were 
solemnly  ordained  for  their  several  offices  (see 
under  their  several  articles).  Moses  thus,  i,  e., 
by  laying  on  of  hands,  appointed  Joshua  (which 
see)  &s  his  successor  (Num.  xxvii:i8;  Deut. 
xxxivrp). 

(2)  Example  of  Christ.  It  is  said  of  Christ, 
that  he  ordained  twelve  (Mark  iii:i4),  that  is, 
he  chose  them  to  the  office  of  apostleship,  as  he 
liimself  explains  it    (John  vi:7o). 

2.  In  the  Apostolic  Church.    (1)  Deacons. 

The  first  ordination  was  that  of  deacons.  They 
were  of  the  lowest  order  of  ministering  servants  in 
the  church.  In  character  grave,  not  double  tongued, 
not  given  to  wine  (Phil.  i:i;  i  Tim.  iii:io,  12, 

'3)- 
The  office  of  deacons  originally  was  to  serve 

tables,  the  Lord's  taible,  the  table  of  the  minister, 

and  of  the  poor.    They  took  care  of  the  secular 

affairs  of  the    church,  received    and    disbursed 

moneys,  kept  the  church's  accounts,  and  provided 

everything     necessary    for    its    temporal    good. 

Thus,   while  the  bishop  attended   to  the   souls, 

the  deacons  attended  to  the  bodies  of  the  people; 

the  pastor  to  the  spiritual,  and  the  deacons  the 

temporal  interests  of  the  church  (Acts  vi).    St. 

Paul  was  ordained  by  the  action  of  the  whole 

church   (Acts  xiii:i-3)- 

(2)  Elders.  Paul  and  Barnabas  are  said  to 
ordain  elders  in  every  church  (Acts  xiv:23)  or 
to  choose  them;  that  is,  they  gave  orders  and  di- 
rections to  every  church  as  to  the  choice  of  elders 
over  them.  The  word  that  is  used  in  Acts  xiv: 
23,  is  translated  chosen  in  2  Cor.  viiirip,  where 
the  apostle  speaks  of  a  brother  who  was  chosen 
of  the  churches  to  travel  with  us,  and  is  so  ren- 
dered when  ascribed  to  God  (Acts  x:4i).  For 
further  information  see  Episcopacy;  Presbyter; 
Presbytery. 

O&EB  (5'reb),  (Heb.  2? 'i?,  o-rabe'),  written  also 

Arab  and  Araibim,  occurs  in  several  passages  of 
Scripture,  in  all  of  which  it  is  translated  wiuow  in 
the  Authorized,  and  most  other  modern  versions. 

There  is  little  doubt  of  this  being  the  correct 
interpretation,  from  its  suitableness  to  all  the 
passages.  Thus  in  Job  xl  :22,  referring  to  be- 
hemoth it  is  said,  *The  shady  trees  cover  him 
with  their  shadow;  the  willows  (orabim)  of  the 
brook  compass  him  about*  So  the  Jews  when  in 
captivity  sang,  'By  the  rivers  of  Babylon,  there 
we  sat  down ;  we  hanged  our  harps  upon  the  wil- 
lows (orebim)  in  the  midst  thereof  (Ps.cxxxvii). 
And  again,  in  Is.  xliv:4,  *And  they  shall  spring 
up  as  among  the  grass,  as  willows  (orebim)  of 
the  water-courses.'  The  willow  is  as  applicable 
as  any  other  plant  to  the  other  passages,  quoted 
above,  in  which  orebim  is  mentioned.  (See  Wil- 
lows.) J.  F.  R. 

ORES,  BOCK  OF  (5'reb,  r6k  6v),  (Heb.  2^?. 
aW'robe\  the  raven's  crag),  the  place  at  which 
Gideon  slew  Oreb  (Judg.  vii:25;  Is.  x -.26),  thought 
by  some  to  be  east  of  Jordan. 

80 


1265 


ORION 


Keil  and  Delitzsch  say  (Com.,  in  loc.)  that  it 
was  "west  of  Jordan,  where  the  Ephraimites  had 
taken  possession  of  the  waters  of  the  Jordan  in 
front  of  the  Midianites."  It  was,  perhaps,  near 
the  point  where  the  Wady  Far'ah  in  Ephraim 
falls  into  the  Jordan  (Moore)  ;  Osh  el-Ghurab 
in  Judah  (Conder)  seems  too  far  south. 

OBEB  and  ZEEB  (5'reb  ^d  ze'eb),  (Heb. 
^!1^^,  orabe\  raven;  ^W,  seh-abe',  wolf),  the  remark- 
able names  (raven  and  wolf)  of  two  emirs  of  the 
Midianites,  who  were  made  prisoners  by  the  Eph- 
raimites in  attempting  to  recross  the  Jordan  alter 
the  victory  of  Gideon. 

They  were  put  to  death  by  the  captors,  and 
their  heads  carried  as  a  trophy  to  the  conqueror, 
who  was  then  on  the  other  side  the  Jordan  (Judg. 
vii:25;  viii:3).  The  first  of  these  princes  met 
his  death  near  a  rock,  which  thenceforth  bore 
his  name  (Is.  x:26)  ;  the  other  seems  to  have  at 
first  sought  refuge  in  one  of  those  excavations 
in  which  wines  were  preserved,  and  which  was 
thenceforth  called  the  winepress  of  Zeeb  (Judg- 
vii:25). 

"It  is  noticeable  that  Oreb  and  Zeeb  are  animal 
names,  such  as  occur  in  the  totem  stage  of  so- 
ciety. In  times  when  totemism  prevailed,  clans 
were  often  named  after  animals;  so  it  has  been 
suggested  that  Oreb  and  Zeeb  were  names  of 
Midianite  clans  (Stade,  GVl  i.  189)  :  if  they  were 
individuals,  the  names  would  belong  to  the  stage 
when  the  totem  tribe  was  passing  into  a  national 
organization  of  society  (Gray,  Heb.  Prop,  Names, 
114)/'     (G.  A.  Cooke,  Hastings'  Bib,  Diet.) 

OBEN  (5ren),  (Heb.  1?^,  o'ren,  ash  tree). 

1.  This  word  is  variously  translated;  but  from 
the  manner  i»  which  it  is  introduced,  it  is  im- 
possible to  determine  whether  any  of  the  transla- 
tions are  correct.  The  oren  is  mentioned  with 
other  trees,  of  whose  timber  idols  were  made,  in 
Is.  xliv:i4:  *He  heweth  him  down  cedars  (eres) 
and  taketh  the  cypress  (tirsah),  and  the  oak 
(allon),  which  he  strengtheneth  for  himself 
among  the  trees  of  the  forest ;  he  planteth  an  ash 
(oren),  and  the  rain  doth  nourish  it.'  Though 
the  English  version  renders  it  ash,  others  consid- 
er />m^-/r^^  to  be  the  correct  translation;  but  for 
neither  does  there  appear  to  be  any  decisive  proof, 
nor  for  the  rubus  or  bramble,  acfopted  for  oren 
in  the  fable  of  the  Cedar  and  Rubus,  translated 
from  the  Hebrew  of  R.  Berechia  Hannakdan,  bv 
Celsius  (Hierobot.,  i.  186).  (See  Cypress;  Oak.) 

J.  F.  R. 

2.  Third  son  of  Jerahmeel,  of  the  house  of 
Judah  (i  CHiron.  ii:25).     (B.  C.  before  1658.) 

OB  EVEB  (Heb.  ^),  law),  (Dan.  vi:24),  before, 

ere,  (Ps.  xc:2)  "before  the  mountains  were  brought 
forth,  or  ever  thou  hadst  formed  the  earth  and  the 
world." 

It  is  used  also  in  the  sense  of  either,  i  Sam. 
xxvi  :io,  "or  his  day  shall  come  to  die;  or  he  shall 
descend  into  battle,  and  perish."  It  is  now  ob- 
solete except  in  poetry. 

OBOAN  (6r'gan),  (Gen.  iv:2i;  Job  xxi:i2;  xxx: 
31;  Ps.  cl:4).    This  word  is  from  the  Heb.  2??,  oo- 

• 

^awb\  which  means  that  which  is  inflated  or 
blown,  and  is  applied  to  the  reed,  either  simple  or 
complex.    (See  Musical  Instruments.) 

OBION  (drl'fin).  (Heb.  ^^9?,  kes-eer,  strongX 

the  southern  cons  ilation  seen  in  November. 
(See  Astronomy.) 


08549 


ORNAMENT 


1266 


OSSIFRAGE 


O&NAMEKT  (6r'oi-m^t),  (Hebrew  generally 

^l^it  ad-e^',  trapping). 

1-  The  fondness  which  the  human  race  in  gen- 
eral, and  Oriental  nations  in  particular,  have  for 
personal  ornaments  was  shared  in  by  the  ancient 
Hebrews.  The  Bible  abounds  in  references  to 
the  appreciation  of  ornaments.  The  first  mention 
of  jewelry  is  in  Gen.  xxiv:22,  where  Abraham's 
servant  presented  Rebekah  with  earrings  and 
bracelets.  The  weakness  of  Hebrew  women  for 
jewelry  is  well  brought  out  ( Jer.  ii  -.32)  :  "Can  a 
maid  forget  her  ornaments?"  The  ornaments 
worn  by  the  Hebrews  consisted  of  bracelets,  neck- 
laces, earrings,  noserings  (Ezek.  xvi:ii,  12,  etc; 
Is. iii:  16-25), gives  a  graphic  picture  of  the  fashion- 
able woman  of  his  day  and  her  ornaments. 

2.  One  of  the  eminent  services  rendered  by 
Assyrian  and  Egyptian  archaeology  has  been  the 
revelation  of  the  wonderful  jjroficiency  to  which 
these  nations  had  attained  in  the  cutting  and 
setting  of  gems,  and  in  the  designing  of  gold 
and  silver  ornaments.  In  the  Arabian  Nights 
there  is  constant  allusion  to  the  beautiful  clothes 
worn  by  the  heroes  and  heroines  whose  exploits 
are  recorded.  Lucian,  in  his  Dialogues  of  the 
Dead  (*The  Pagan  Olympus'),  contrasts  the 
gorgeous  appearance  of  the  Oriental  divinities 
with  the  simple  elegance  of  the  Greek  images. 
The  tendency  to  excess  in  ornament  led  Milton 
to  describe  the  East  as  the  home  of  'barbaric 

fearl  and  gold'  (Par.  Lost,  ii.  4).  (G.  M.  Mackie, 
lastings'  Bib,  Diet.) 

3.  The  laying  aside  of  ornaments  appears  as 
a  sign  of  mourning  in  Exod.  xxxiii  :4. 

Figurative.  { i )  The  laws,  religion,  and 
prosperity,  which  God  gave  the  Hebrews,  are 
called  "excellent  ornaments;"  they  rendered 
their  nation  distinguished  from,  and  more  glori- 
ous than  others  (Ezek.  xvi:7,  11).  (2)  Useful 
instruction  and  faithful  reproof  are  "an  orna- 
ment;" they  ought  to  be  highly  prized,  readily 
received  and  complied  with;  and  so  will  render 
one  truly  honorable  and  respected  (Prov.  irg; 
XXV :  12).  (3)  The  apostles  exhort  the  women 
of  their  day  to  adorn  themselves  with  good  works 
(i  Tim.  ii:io),  and  with  a  meek  and  auiet  spirit 
rather  than  with  the  wearing  of  gold  (i  Pet. 
iii:4). 

OBNAN  (dr'nan),  (Heb.  lil?,  or-nawn',  strong), 

a  form  of  the  name  Araunah  or  Ornan  (i 
Giron.  xxi:i5,.  18,  20-25,  28;  2  Chron.  iii:i). 

OBOB,  or  ARAB  (dr'or.  or  ar'ar),  (Heb.  "»? '"'S. 

ar-o-ayr*),  occurs  in  two  or  three  places  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  has  been  variously  translated,  as  myricm, 
tamarisk,  and  tamartn. 

As  far  as  the  context  is  concerned,  some  of 
these  plants,  as  the  retam  and  tamarisk,  would 
answer  very  well;  but  the  Arabic  name,  arar,  is 
applied  to  a  totally  different  plant,  a  species  of 
juniper,  as  has  been  clearly  shown  by  Celsius 
iHierobot,  p.  ii,  p.  195),  who  states  that  Arias 
Montanus  is  the  only  one  who  has  so  translated 
the  Hebrew  arar  or  oror  (Jer.  xvii:6).  Several 
species  of  juniper  are  no  doubt  found  in  Syria 
and  Palestine,  as  has  already  been  mentioned  un- 
der the  head  of  Erss.  Robinson  met  with  some 
in  proceeding  from  Hebron  to  Wady  Musa,  near 
the  romantic  pass  of  Nemela. 

It  is  mentioned  in  the  same  situations  by  other 
travelers,  and  is  no  doubt  common  enough,  par- 
ticularly in  wild,  uncultivated,  and  often  inac- 
cessible situations,  and  is  thus  suitable  to  Jer. 
xlviii:6:    'Flee,  save  your  lives,  and  be  like  the 


heath  (oror)  in  the  wilderness.'  (See  Heath; 
Juniper.)  J.  F.  R. 

OBOTH  (6r'oth),  (Heb.  '^1%  o-raw'),  is  trans- 
lated herb  in  the  Authorized  Version;  it  is  gener- 
ally supposed  to  indicate  such  plants  as  are  em- 
ployed for  food. 

With  respect  to  the  meaning  of  oroth,  Rosen- 
miiller  sa^s  that  it  occurs  in  its  original  and 
general  signification  in  Is.  xxviiiQ,  viz.:  green 
herbs.  The  future  restoration  of  the  Hebrew 
people  is  there  announced  under  the  type  and 
figure  of  a  revival  of  the  dead.  *Thy  dew  is  a  dew 
of  green  herbs,'  says  the  prophet,  i.  e,  as  by  the 
dew,  gfreen  herbs  are  revived,  so  shalt  thou,  be- 
ing revived  by  God's  strengthening  power,  flour- 
ish again.  The  passage,  however,  appears  an 
obscure  one,  with  respect  to  the  meaning  of  oroth 
Celsius  has,  with  his  usual  learning,  shown  that 
mallows  were  much  employed  as  food  in  ancient 
times.  Of  this  there  can  be  no  doubt,  but  there 
is  no  proof  adduced  that  oroth  means  mallows. 

But  it  appears  to  us  that  oroth  should  be  con- 
sidered only  in  conjunction  with  pakyoth;  for  we 
find  in  2  Kings  iv  that  when  Elisha  came  again 
to  Gilgal,  and  there  was  a  dearth  in  the  land,  he 
said  unto  his  servant,  'Set  on  the  g^eat  pot,  and 
seethe  pottage  for  the  sons  of  the  prophets  (verse 
39)  ;  and  one  went  out  into  the  field  to  gather 
herbs  (oroth),  and  found  a  wild  vine,  and  gath- 
ered thereof  wild  gourds  (pakyoth)  his  lap  full, 
and  came  and  shred  them  into  the  pot  of  pot- 
tage, for  they  knew  them  not.*  From  this  it 
would  appear  that  pakyoth  had  been  mistaken  for 
oroth;  and  as  the  former  is  universally  acknowl- 
edged to  be  the  fruit  of  one  of  the  gourd  tribe, 
so  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  conclude  that  oroth 
also  was  the  fruit  of  some  plant,  for  which  the 
pakyoth  had  been  mistaken.  (See  Grass;  Herbs, 
Bitter;  Lentil.)  J.  F.  R. 

OBPAH  (dr'pah).  (Heb.  "?!?,  or-fiaw',  fawn,  or 

mane),  daughter-in-law  of  Naomi,  who  remained 
behind  among  her  kindred  in  Moab,  when  Ruth 
returned  with  Naomi  to  Bethlehem  (Ruth  i:4-i4). 
(See  Ruth.) 

OBPHAN    (dr'fan),    (Heb.   Dinj,  yaW'thome\ 

lonely.  Lam.  v:3),  one  deprived  of  one  or  both 
parents. 

Special  privileges  were  accorded  to  the  orphan 
by  the  Mosaic  Law,  as  well  as  to  the  widow  and 
stranger  (Deut.  xxiv:2i),  and  special  kindness 
and  leniency  enjoined  toward  them  (Deut.  xxiv: 
17).  Job  adduced  it  as  one  of  his  merits  that  he 
had  helped  the  fatherless  (ch.  xxix:i2,  etc.). 
James,  ch.  i:27,  classes  the  visitation  of  orphans 
amongst  the  acts  of  pure  and  undefiled  religion. 
The  word  (John  xiv:i8),  translated  "comfort- 
less" is  "orphans"  in  the  Greek. 

OSEE  (O'zee).  (Gr.  any^.  oh-say-ee'),  a  form  of 
Hosea  (Rom.  ix:25). 

OSHEA  (o-sh6'4).  (Heb.  ^t*^,  ho-shayah,  de- 

livcrer),  a  form  of  Joshua,  son  of  Nun  (Num. 
xni:8). 

OSPBEY  (6s'pri),  (Heb.  ^V*^^,  oz-nee^yaw'),  the 

f\s\i  t2Lg\t, Pandion  haliatus,  L.,  an  unclean  bird; 
the  breaker,  bone  breaker.    (See  Azaniah.) 

OSSIFBAGE    (ds'sl-frij).  (Heb,  ^^^,peh*res), 

the  lamnurgeier,  GyPmtus  barbatus,  L.,  the  largest 
of  the  vultures  of  the  Holy  Land. 

The  original  word  well  suits  the  remarkable 
habits  of  the  lammergeier,  or  bearded  vulture, 
known  also  among  the  Alps,  and  one  of  the  most 
formidable  birds  of  its  tribe.     It  is  mentioned 


OSTRICH  12 

with  the  osprey,  as  above.  The  propriety  of  the 
name  "ossi-frage" — i.  e.,  "bone -breaker" — is  seen 
from  the  following  description  :  "Marrow-boncs 
are  the  dainties  he  (the  lamiiiergeier)  loves  the 
best;  and  when  the  other  vultures  have  picked  the 
flesh  off  any  animal,  he  comes  in  at  the  end  of  the 
feast  and  swallows  the  bones,  or  breaks  them 
and   swallows  the  pieces   if  he  cannot  get  the 


n  OSTRICH 

growing  to  more  than  ten  feet,  and  of  a  gloity 
black  plumage ;  ihe  males  in  both  having  the 
great  feathers  of  the  wings  and  tail  white,  but 
the  females  the  tail  only  of  that  color.  Their 
dimensions  render  them  both  the  largest  animals 
of  the  feathered  creation  now  existing.  They  ap- 
pear promiscuously  in  Asia  and  Africa,  but  the 
troops  or  coveys  of  each  are  always  separate ; 
the  gray  is  more  common  in  the  south,  while  the 
black,  which  grows  largest  in  CafFraria,  pre- 
dominates to  the  north  of  the  Equator.  The  com- 
mon-sized ostrich  weighs  about  eighty  pounds. 

(2)  Hahlte.  Ostriches  are  gregarious — from 
families  consisting  of  a  male  with  one  or  several 
female  birds,  and  perhaps  a  brood  or  two  of 
young,  up  to  troops  of  nearly  a  hundred.  They 
keep  aloof  from  the  presence  of  water  in  the 
wild  and  arid  desert,  mixing  without  hesitation 
among  herds  of  ^u,  wild  asses,  quaggas,  and 
other  striped  Egutda,  and  the  larger  species  of 
Antilopida.  From  the  nature  of  their  food, 
which  consists  of  seeds  and  vegetables,  although 
seldom  or  never  in  want  of  drink  it  is  evident 
that  they  must  often  approach  more  productive 
regions,  which,  by  means  of  the  great  rapidity  of 
motion  they  possess,  is  easily  accomplished ;  and 
they  are  consequently  known  to  be  very  destruc- 
tive to  cultivated  fields.  As  the  organ  of  taste 
is  very  obtuse  in  these  birds,  they  swallow  with 
Utile  or  no  discrimination  all  kinds  of  substances, 
and  among  others  stones;  it  is  also  proba'ule  that, 
like  poultry,  they  devour  lizards,  snakes,  and  the 
young  of  birds  that  fall  in  their  way. 


Oieifnite  {l^t^tu  tariatm). 

t  otUerwiBe,  The  bones  he  cracks  by 
taking  them  to  a  sreat  height  and  letting  them 
fall  u|ion  a  stone,  lliis  is  probably  the  bird  that 
dropped  a  tortoise  on  the  bald  head  of  poor  old 
^schylus.  Not,  however,  that  he  restricts  him- 
lelf,  or  the  huge  black  infant  that  he  and  his 
mate  are  bringing  up  in  one  of  the  many  holes 
with  which  the  limestone  precipice  abounds,  to 
marrow,  turtle,  bones,  and  similar  delicacies; 
neither  lamb,  hare,  nor  kid  comes  amiss  to  him, 
though,  his  power  of  claw  and  beak  being  feeble 
for  so  large  a  bird,  he  cannot  tear  his  meat  like 
ether  eagles.  To  make  amends  for  this,  his  pow- 
ers of  deglutition  are  enormous."  (SchalT,  Bib. 
Did.)  N.  H.  Simpson. 

It  is  diffused  throughout  the  mountains  of 
northern  Europe,  Asia,  and  northern  Africa.  It 
breeds  on  inaccessible  cliffs.  The  female  lays  one 
egg,  which  is  hatched  in  February.  (See  Vul- 
ture.) 

OSTBIOH  («s'trlch),  (Heb.  1?;,  yavi-OMe',  also 
■^V",  no-tsaw'  Hying,  Job  xxxix:i3). 

The  ostrich  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
Bible  in  terms  of  great  beauty  and  precision; 
which  commentators,  perhaps  more  conversant 
with  the  exploded  misstatements  of  the  ancients 
than  with  the  true  physiological  history  of  the 
bird  in  question,  have  not  been  happy  in  explain- 
ing, sometimes  referring  it  to  wrong  species,  such 
as  the  peacock,  or  mistaking  it  for  the  stork,  the 
eagle,  or  the  bustard  (Lev.  xiiig;  Deut.  xiv: 
is;  Job  xxx:29;  xxxix:i3;  Is.  xiii:2l;  XXXJv: 
13;  xliii:ao;  Jer.  l:3g;  Lam.  iv:3;  Micah  i:8). 
In  several  of  these  passages  'owls'  has  been  used 
in  our  version  for  ^aw-ane",  now  generally  ad- 
mitted to  mean  'ostriches.' 

(1>  Two  Varieties.  There  are  two  varieties,  it 
not  two  species,  of  the  ostrich ;  one  never  attain- 
ing seven  feet  in  height,  and  covered  chiefly  with 
rray  and  dingy  feathers;   the  other 


Ollrlch. 

(3)  The  Ne«t.  It  is  not  yet  finally  decided 
whether  the  two  species  are  polygamous,  though 
concurrent  testimony  seems  to  leave  no  doubt  of 
the  fact ;  there  is,  however,  no  uncertainty  re- 
specting the  nest,  which  is  merely  a  circular  basin 
scraped  out  of  the  soil,  with  a  slight  elevation 
at  the  border,  and  sufficiently  large  to  contain  a 
great  number  of  eggs ;  for  from  twelve  to  about 
sixty  have  been  found  in  them,  exclusive  of  a  cer- 
tain number,  always  observed  to  be  outlying,  or 
placed  beyond  the  raised  border  of  the  nest,  and 
amounting  apparently  to  nearly  one-third  of  the 


OTHNI 


1268 


OVEN 


whole.  These  are  supposed  to  feed  the  young 
brood  when  first  hatched,  either  in  their  fresh 
state,  or  in  a  corrupted  form,  when  the  substance 
in  them  has  produced  worms.  These  eggs  are 
of  different  periods  of  laying,  like  those  within, 
and  the  birds  hatched  form  only  a  part  of  the 
contents  of  a  nest,  until  the  breeding  season 
closes.  The  eggs  are  of  different  sizes,  some 
attaining  to  seven  inches  in  their  longer  diameter, 
and  others  less,  having  a  dirty  white  shell,  finely 
speckled  with  rust  color;  and  their  weight  borders 
on  three  pounds.  Within  the  tropics  they  are 
.  kept  sufficiently  warm  not  to  require  incubation, 
but  in  colder  climates  one  or  more  females  sit 
constantly,  and  the  male  bird  takes  that  duty 
himself  after  the  sun  is  set.  It  is  then  that  the 
short  roar  may  be  heard  during  darkness;  and 
at  other  times  different  sounds  are  uttered,  likened 
to  the  cooing  of  pigeons,  the  cry  of  a  hoarse 
child,  and  the  hissing  of  a  goose;  no  doubt  ex- 
pressive of  different  emotions. 

(4)  Uses.  Though  at  first  sight  useless,  ex- 
cept for  their  beautiful  plumes,  we  may  be  as- 
sured that  Providence  has  not  appointed  their 
abode  in  the  desert  in  vain;  and  they  still  con- 
tinue to  exist,  not  only  in  Africa,  but  in  the 
region  of  Arabia,  east  and  south  of  Palestine 
beyond  the  Euphrates;  but  it  may  be  a  question 
whether  they  extend  so  far  to  the  eastward  as 
Goa,  although  that  limit  is  assigned  them  by  late 
French  ornithologists. 

The  flesh  of  a  :^oung  ostrich  is  said  to  be  not 
unpalatable;  but  its  being  declared  unclean  in 
Mosaic  legislation  may  be  ascribed  to  a  two- 
fold cause.  The  first  is  sufficiently  obvious  from 
its  indiscriminate  voracity  already  mentioned,  and 
the  other  may  have  been  an  intention  to  lay  a 
restriction  upon  the  Israelites  in  order  to  wean 
them  from  the  love  of  a  nomad  life,  which 
hunting  in  the  desert  would  have  fostered;  for 
ostriches  must  be  sought  on  the  barren  plains, 
where  they  are  not  accessible  on  foot,  except  by 
stratagem.  When  pursued,  they  cast  stones  and 
gravel  behind  them  with  great  force ;  and  though 
it  requires  long  endurance  and  skill,  their  natural 
mode  of  fleeing  in  a  circular  form  enables  well 
mounted  Arabs  to  overtake  and  slay  them. 

C.  XI.  S. 

Figurative,  (i)  The  Arabs  sometimes  dis- 
cover whole  nests  of  ostrich  eggs  undisturbed: 
some  of  them  are  sweet  and  good,  others  are 
addled  and  corrupted ;  others  again  contain  young 
ones  of  different  growth,  according  to  the  time,  it 
may  be  presumed,  they  have  been  forsaken  by  the 
dam.  The  Arabs  often  find  little  ostriches  no 
bigger  than  well-grown  pullets,  half-starved, 
straggling  about  and  moaning  like  so  many  dis- 
tressed orphans  for  their  mother.  In  this  man- 
ner the  ostrich  may  be  said  to  be  hardened  against 
her  young  ones  as  though  they  were  not  hers. 
This  want  of  affection  is  recorded  in  Lam.  iv:3: 
*the  daughter  of  my  people  is  become  cruel,  like 
ostriches  in  the  wilderness;*  that  is,  by  deserting 
their  own,  and  receiving  others  instead.  (2)  As 
to  companionship  the  ostrich  (Job  xxx  :29,  marg.) 
is  a  figure  of  extreme  desolation ;  taken  from  the 
isolated  life  of  that  bird  in  the  desert. 

OTHNI  (6th 'nl),  (Heb.  ''y™  oth-nee\  for- 
cible), the  first  of  the  six  sons  of  Shemaiah,  and  a- 
porter  in  the  tabernacle  (i  Chron.  xxvi:7).  B.C. 
about  10 1 3. 

OTHNIEL  (6th'ni-el),   (Heb.  ^T?}^,  oth-nee- 

ale\  lion  of  God),  first  judge  of  Israel,  son  of 
Xenaz,  the  younger  brother  of  Caleb,  whose  daugh- 
ter Achsah  he  obtained  in  marriage  by  his  daring 


valor  at  the  siege  of  Debir  (Josh.  xv:i7;  Judg.  i:i3; 
I  Chron.  iv:i3). 

Rendered  famous  among  his  countrymen  by 
this  exploit,  and  connected  by  a  twofold  tie  with 
one  of  the  only  two  Israelites  of  the  former  gen- 
eration who  had  not  died  in  the  desert,  we  are 
prepared  for  the  fact  that  on  him  devolved  the 
mission  to  deliver  Israel  from  the  Mesopotamian 
oppression  under  which,  in  punishment  for  their 
sins,  they  fell  after  the  death  of  Joshua  and 
of  the  elders  who  outlived  him  (Judg.  iii  ig) . 
This  victory  secured  to  Israel  a  peace  of  forty 
years.  For  the  chronology,  etc.,  of  this  period 
see  Judges. 

0T7CHES  (ouch'es).  {Yi€ty,V^^t^ ,mish'bets-aw\ 

twisting),  sockets  for  fastening  the  precious  stones 
in  the  shoulder-piece  of  the  high-priest's  ephod. 

These  ouches,  with  their  stones,  served  for 
buttons  to  fasten  the  golden  chains  whereby  the 
breastplate  was  hung  (Exod.  xxviii:ii,  25).  (See 
Priest,  Hebrew  Priesthood.) 

OUTCASTS  (out'kasts),  (Heb.  ^^\  daw-khaw'). 

Figurative,  (i)  The  "outcasts'"  of  Israel 
and  Judah  needed  shelter  and  pity  in  the  land  of 
Moab,  when  they  were  driven  out  of  their  country 
by  the  Assyrian  ravages  (Is.  xvi:3,  4).  (2)  The 
"outcasts"  of  the  Persians  wandered  far  and  wide, 
when  they  were  carried  or  driven  from  their 
country  by  the  Chaldaeans  (Jer.  xlix:36).  (3) 
God  " gather eth  the  outcasts  of  Israel;"  he  gath- 
ered the  Jews  after  Sennacherib  and  Esarhaddon 
had  scattered  them;  he  brought  them  back  from 
their  Chaldean  captivity ;  he  will  bring  them  from 
their  present  dispersion;  he  gathers  the  "outcast" 
Gentiles,  and  joins  them  unto  his  church,  with 
all  the  true  Israel  of  God  (Is.  lvi:8,  11,  12). 
(Brown,  Bib.  Diet.) 

0X7TG0INGS  (out'gO-Ings),  the  utmost  borders, 
Josh,  xviiig,  18. 

Figurative,  God  makes  the  outgoings  of 
the  morning  and  evening  to  rejoice,  when  he  be- 
stows and  renders  agreeable  the  earliest  and  latest 
parts  of  the  day;  or  when  he  gives  heart-cheer- 
ing blessings  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  remotest 
eastern  and  western  nations  (Ps.  Ixv.S). 

OUTLANDISH  (out-lind'rsh),  (Heb.  ''??5,  nok- 

ree\  Neh.  xiii:26),  foreign,  pertaining  to  another 
country  or  nation,  as  the  women  of  other  nations 
who  caused  Solomon  to  sin. 

OUTMOST  (out'most),  (Heb.  ^?p,  kay'tseh, 
Deut.  xxx:4),  uttermost. 

OUTRAGEOUS  (out-ra'jiis).  (Heb.  H^?,  shaw- 

taf,  to  gush  out,  Prov.  xxvii:4),  hence  the  meta- 
phorical saying:  "Anger  is  an  outpouring." 

OVEN  (iiv'*n),  (Heb.  "''^^P,  tan-noor' ,  fire  pot; 
Greek  /cXi/3awj,  klib'an-oSt  earthen  pot). 

The  Bedouin  Arabs  use  three  or  four  different 
ovens,  the  description  of  which  may  throw  some 
light  upon  the  oven  of  the  Bible. 

(1)  Sand  Oven.  This  is  nothing  more  than 
the  sand  of  the  earth,  upon  which  a  fire  is  made 
until  it  is  supposed  to  be  sufficiently  heated.  The 
fuel  and  fire  are  then  cleared  away,  and  the  dough 
is  laid  on  the  hot  sand  in  flat  pieces  about  the 
thickness  of  a  plate  (Is.  xliv:i5,  19).  These  are 
the  "ash-cakes  (Gen.  xviii:6;  i  Kings  xvii:i3; 
xix:6).     (See  Bread.) 

(2)  Earth  Oven.  The  earth  oven  is  a  round 
hole  in  the  earth.  Stones  are  first  put  into  this, 
and  a  fire  is  kindled  upon  them.  When  the 
stones  have  become  thoroughly  hot,  the  fire  is 
removed  and  the  dough  spread  in  thin  flakes 
upon  the  heated  stones,  and  turned  as  often  as 


OVERCHARGED  12 

may  be  necessai?.  The  ovens  used  in  Persia  are 
about  two  and  a  half  feet  wide  and  not  less  than 
five  or  six  feet  deep.  They  resemble  pils  or  wells, 
and  sheep  are  hung  lengthwise  in  them  and 
cooked  whole.  These  may  he  what  are  rendered 
in  our  version  "ranges  for  pots"  (Lev.  xi:35). 


tion  of  Christians,  and  is  identical  with  presbyter 
or  elder  (comp.  verse  17).  The  same  Greek  word 
is  elsewhere  translated  "bishop."  (See  BisHOP; 
Episcopacv.) 

OWL  (oul),  (Heb.""!'"),/«-/«/^',andD'iD,Aa;f). 

Two  other  Hebrew  names  have  been  likewise 
assigned  in  our  versions  to  presumed  species 
of  owls;  namely, Tv-,  yan-skofe'  {itt/iUg-A/},  which, 
although  it  must  be  confessed  that  in  common 
Hebrew  it  indicates  the  uwl,  we  have  endeavored 
to  show  is  applied  more  particularly  to  the  night- 
heron,  Ardea  nicticorax  (see  Ibis);  and  '*|?- 
kip-pose',  either  the  same  or  confounded,  as  it 
appears,  with  kippod,  which  has  ted  to  much 
controversy,  and  caused  one  or  the  other  to  be 
referred  to  six  or  seven  animals,  all  widely  dif- 
ferent, for  ihev  include  o\  ' 
hog  t 


(8)  Portable  Oven.  This  is  an  earthen  vessel 
without  a  bottom,  about  three  feet  high,  smeared 
outside  and  inside  with  clay  and  placed  upon  a 
frame  or  support.  Fire  is  made  within  it  or  be- 
low it.  When  the  sides  are  sufficiently  heated 
thin  patches  of  dough  are  spread  on  the  inside, 
and  the  top  is  covered  without  removing  the  fire, 
as  in  the  other  cases,  and  the  bread  is  quickly 
baked.  To  this  we  may  refer  the  phrase  "baken 
in  the  oven"  (Lev.  ii:4)-    Convex  plates  of  iron, 

Sans  or  plates,  flat  stones,  etc.,  are  often  used 
jr  baking.  (See  Bread;  Fuhnace.)  (Sehaff, 
Bib.  Did.) 

Figurative.  (1)  God  makes  his  enemies 
a  "tiery  oven,"  and  his  judgments  "burn  as  oh 
oven"  (Ps.  xxi:9;  Mai.  iv:i).  (2)  Hosea 
compares  adulterers  and  unclean  persons  to  a 
heated  oven  (chapter  vii:4.  6,  7)-  <3)  "Ten 
women  shall  bake  your  bread  in  one  oven"  (Lev. 
xxvi:26)  is  a  figurative  expression  for  scarcity; 
for  in  ordinary  limes  each  woman  would  have 
enough  baking  for  an  oven  of  her  own.  (4) 
"Our  ikin  was  black  tike  an  oven"  (Lam.  v: 
lO).  As  an  oven  is  scorched  and  blackened  with 
fire,  .10  hunger  dries,  shrivels  the  skin  until  it 
becomes  as  if  scorched  hy  the  sun. 

OVUSCHARaED  (o-ver-charjd'),  (Greek,  ^p- 
im,  bar-oo'no,  Luke   xxi:34;  2  Cor.  11:5),  overbur- 

Thus,  excessive  sorrow,  immoderate  eating  and 
drinking,  or  worldly  care,  overload  men's  souls, 
that  they  cannot  desire  or  attain  heavenly  things 
(Luke  xii:34;  2  Cor.  ii:5). 

OVEBLrTE  (a-ver-llv'),  (Heb.  X^.  aw-rak\ 
Josh.  xxiv:3i),  to  outlive,  survive. 

OVERPASS  (6-ver-pis'),  (Heb.  "'3?,  a'W-bar', 
Jer.  v:28),  to  pass  over,  neglect. 

Professors  of  the  true  religion  "overpass  the 
deeds  of  Ike  wicked,"  when  they  do  worse  than 
unbelievers.  Judges  do  it,  when  they  allow  them- 
selves to  be  worse  than  (he  criminals  they  con- 
demn at  the  bar  (Jer.  v:28). 

OVEBFLUS  (3'ver-pliis),  (Heb.  ^3?,  aw-daf. 
surplus!,  the  difference  of  value  between  things 
exchanged  (Lev.  xxv:27).  "Our  overplus  of  ship- 
ping we  wilt  bum."— Shakespeare. 

OVKORTTN  (5'ver-riin),  (Heb.  ^3?,  aw-Mr', 
2  Sam,  xviii:23),  to  outrun. 

OVEBSEEBS  (5-ver-se'ers),  (Gr.  trlsKtwrn.  ep- 
is'kofi-os.  Acts  xx:z8). 

This  term  denotes  the  pastor  of  a  congrega- 


Eagle  Owl  (BKia  M 


™«). 


There  are  noticed  in  Egypt  and  Syria  three 
well-known  species  of  the  genus  Sirix,  or  owl: 
— Slrix  bubo,  'the  great-eared  owl' ;  Strix  Ham- 
meo,  the  common  barn  owl ;  and  Strix  passe  rina, 
the  little  owl.  In  (his  list  Slrix  olus,  the  long- 
eared  owl,  Slrix  brackyotus  or  utula,  the  short- 
eared  owl,  known  nearly  over  the  whole  earth, 
and  Strix  orienlalis  of  Hasselquist,  are  not  in- 
cluded, and  several  other  species  of  these  wan- 
dering birds,  both  of  Africa  and  Asiatic  regions, 
occur  in  Palesiine.  The  barn  owl  is  still  sacred 
in  Northern  Asia.  The  eagle-owl,  or  great-eared 
owl,  Strix  bubo,  we  do  not  find  in  ornithological 
works  as  an  inhabitant  of  Syria,  though  no  doubt 
it  is  an  occasional  winter  visitant:  nor  the  smaller 
species,  Bubo  Atheniensis  of  Gmelin.  which  may 
be  a  rare  hut  permanent  resident,  probably  also 
visiting  Egypt^  It  is  not,  however,  we  helieve, 
that  species,  but  the  Olus  ascalaphus  of  Cuvier, 
which  is  common  in  Egypt,  and  which  in  all 
probability  is  the  type  of  the  innumerable  rep- 
resentations of  an  eared  owl  in  hieroglyphical 
inscriptions. 

Next  we  have  Slrix  ulula,  Slrix  brackyotus, 
or  short-eared  owl.  likewise  found  in  Egypt  and 
Arabia,  as  well  as  to  the  north  of  Syria,  a  bold 
pugnacious   bird,   residing    in    ruined    buildings, 


mistaken  by  commentators  for  the  screech-owl, 
Strix  stridula,  and  most  probably  the  teelelh,  or 
screech  owl,  of  the  Bible  (Is.  xxxiv:i4).  The 
sp«trai  species,  again,  confounded  with  the  goat- 


0  OZNITES 

lo  be  of  at  least  two  forms,  both  with  short  horns 
and  both  used  to  the  plow,  one  being  tall  and 
lanky,  the  other  more  compact ;  and  we  possess 
pictures  of  the  present  Egyptian  cattle  with  long 
horns  bent  down  and  forwards.  From  Egyptian 
pictures  it  is  to  be  inferred  that  large  droves  of 
fine  cattle  were  imported  from  Abyssinia,  and 
that  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  they  « 


Atltinr  Mtriditaatii. 

sucker,  is,  we  believe,  Strix  coroMouda  (see 
Night  Hawk,  and  the  same  as  Sirix  orientalis 
of  Hasselquist.  C.  H.  S. 

OX  (61),  iHeb.  Iltf,  s^re,  in  a  collective  sense, 
ia/iie).  The  rendering  of  Heb.  "I!?,  daw-iaiar' , 
which  is  also  generic  for  bovines;  bak-aio-ra-ai' 
with  the  feminine  ending,  signifies  the  cow. 

Having  already  noticed  the  domestic  beeva  un- 
der Bull  (10  which  article  we  refer),  the  few 
words  added  here  will  apply  to  the  breeds  of 
Western  Asia  and  the  manner  of  treating  them. 

(1)  Early  Taea.  The  earliest  pastoral  tribes 
appear  to  have  had  domesticated  cattle  in  the 
herd;  and  judging  from  the  manners  of  South 
Africa,  where  we  find  nations  still  retaining  in 
many  respects  primeval  usages,  it  is  likely  that 
the  patriarchal  families,  or  at  least  their  mov- 
ables, were  transported  on  the  backs  of  oxen  in 
the  manner  which  the  Kaffirs  still  practice,  as 
also  the  Gwallahs  and  grain -merchants  in  India, 
who  come  down  from  the  interior  with  whole 
droves  bearing  burdens. 

(2)  Varlotia  Breeds.  The  breeds  of  Egypt  were 
various,  differing  in  the  length  and  flexures  of  the 
horns.  There  were  some  with  long  horns,  others 
with  ghort,  and  even  with  none,  while  a  hunched 
race  of  Nubia  reveals  an  Indian  origin,  and  indi- 
cates that  at  least  one  of  the  nations  on  the  Up- 
per Nile  hadcome  from  the  valleys  of  the  Ganges; 
for  it  is  to  the  east  of  the  Indus  alone  that  that 
species  is  to  be  found  whose  original  stock  ap- 
pears to  be  the  mountain  yak  {Bos  grunniens). 

The  domestic  buffalo  was  unknown  to  West- 
ern Asia  and  Egypt  till  after  the  Arabian  con- 
quest :  it  is  now  common  in  the  last-mentioned 
region  and  far  to  the  south,  but  not  beyond  the 
equator;  and  from  strtielural  differences  it  may 
be  surmised  that  there  was  in  early  ages  a  domes- 
ticated distinct  species  of  this  animal  in  Africa. 
In  Syria  and  Egypt  the  present  races  of  do- 
mestic cattle  are  somewhat  smaller  than  the  large 
breeds  of  Europe,  and  those  of  Palestine  appear 


law  provided  with  care  for  the  kind 
ment  of  cattle ;  for  in  treading  out  com — the 
Oriental  mode  of  separating  the  grain  from  the 
straw — it  was  enjoined  that  the  ox  should  not 
be  mu7zled  (Deut.  xxv;4),  and  old  ct-.ile  that  had 
long  served  Jn  tillage  were  often  suffered  to 
wander  at  large  till  their  death — a  practice  still 
in  vogue,  though  from  a  different  motive,  in 
India.  But  the  Hebrews  and  other  nations  of 
Syria  grazed  their  domestic  stock,  particularly 
those  tribes  which,  residing  to  the  east  of  the 
Jordan,  had  fertile  districts  for  that  purpose. 
Here,  of  course,  the  droves  became  shy  and  wild; 
and  though  we  are  inclined  to  apply  the  passage 
in  Ps.  xxii:i2,  to  wild  species,  yet  old  bulls, 
roaming  at  large  in  a  land  where  the  lion  still 
abounded,  no  doubt  became  fierce ;  and  as  they 
would  obtain  cows  from  the  pastures,  there  must 
have  been  feral  breeds  in  the  woods,  as  fierce  and 
resolute  as  real  wild  Uri— which  ancient  name 
may  be  a  mere  modification  of  Reem.  (See 
Rraw)  C.  H.  S. 

Most  of  the  cattle  of  the  Holy  Land  at  present 
are  of  inferior  breeds.  Probably  this  is  but  a 
part  of  the  degeneracy  of  the  country.  The  best 
races  of  animals  would  thrive  there,  and  even 
now  one  sometimes  sees  fine  specimens  of  horned 
cattle.     (See  Beasts;   Bull.) 

Figurative,  (i)  To  "send  forth  the  feet 
of  the  ox  and  the  ass"  (Is.  xxxii:2o)  to  let 
the  feet  of  the  ox  and  the  ass  go  to  and  fro 
in  freedom,  is  a  figure  of  great  plenteousness, 
inasmuch  as  the  cattle  would  not  have  to  be 
watched  lest  they  should  stray  into  the  fields  ot 
grain.  (2)  Where  no  oxen  are,  the  crib  is  clean; 
i.  e.  there  is  food  for  neither  man  nor  beasts. 
But  the  words,  the  crib,  etc.,  mig.it  be  rendered, 
there  is  no  it-hrat  or  corn  on  the  Ihrashing- 
noor  (Prov.  xiv:4).  (3)  In  Cor.  ix  :9,  to,  the 
oxen  not  muzzled  in  treading  out  the  corn  is 
figurative  of  a  minister's  right  to  support.  (4) 
A  rash  youth  is  like  an  ox  led  to  the  slaughter; 
he  is  thoughtlessly  and  easily  decoyed,  and 
teimpted  lo  that  which  ruins  him  (Prov.  vii  -.22)  ; 
or  it  may  signify  the  saints  under  persecution 
(Jer.  xi:it)).  (5)  A  sloUed  and  fatted  ox  is 
used  to  express  the  most  sumptuous  and  delicate 
provision  (Prov,  xv:i7).  (6)  "As  the  ox  licketh 
up  the  grass"  (Num.  xxii:4)  is  a  figure  of  easy  vic- 
tory. (7)  For  an  "ox  to  low  over  his  fodder" 
(Job  vi:s)  is  to  complain  without  cause. 

OZOOAS  (flx'god).    See  Goad, 

OZBK  (8'iem),  (Heb.  D?!*.  o'/seM,  strength). 

1.  Son  of  Jesse  ([  Chron.  :i;i5). 

2.  The  son  of  Jerahmeel  (i  Chron.  11:25). 
OZIAS  (o-rl'as),  (Or,  '0^,  od-gee'as),  a  GreeS 

form  of  UzzUH  (Matt.  i:8,g). 

OZNI  (fa'nl),  (Heb.  '^?,  «-««',  eared,  i  e.,  at- 
tentive), the  fourth  son  of  Gad.  and  founder  of  a 
tribal  family  (Num.  xxvi.]6).  He  is  called  Ezbon 
(Gen  \lvi:i6). 

OSmtES  (oz'niies),  iHeb.  "???,  oz-»ee'),  mem- 
bers of  the  family  founded  by  Ouni  (Num.  xxri; 
■6). 


PAARAI 


1271 


PAKYOTH 


P 


FAABAI  (pa'a-rai).  (Heb.  ""^fS,  poAar-aA'ee, 

yawning),  an  "  Arbite,"  and  one  of  David's  mighty 
warriors  (2  Sam.  xxiii:35)»  more  correctly  called 
Naarai  (i  Chron.  xUy/), 

PACATIAVA  (pSUc'a-ti'an-a),  (Gr.  woKariapi/i, 
Pak-at-ee-dn-ay'),  subscription  to  i  Tim. 

In  the  fourth  century  before  Christ  Phrygia 
was  divided  into  Phrygia  SaluUris  and  Phrygia 
Pacatiana  (later  Capatiana)  ;  Laodicea  was  the 
metropolis  of  the  latter.     (Barnes'  Bih,  Diet.) 

PAOB  (pas),   (Heb.  "*?S,  tsah*ad,  a  step),  an 

approximate  measure  of  length,  a  stride  (2  Sam. 
vi:i3).    (See  Weights  and  measures). 

PADAN  (pa'dan),  (Heb.  W,  pad  dawn,  field),  a 
form  of  Padan-aram  (Gen.  xlviii:7).    (See  Aram). 

PADAN-ABAM(pa'dan-a'ram),(Heb.Qv^:  Iv^. 

pad-dawn'  ar-awm\  the  table-land  of  Aram),  the 
n^me  given  to  the  country  from  which  Isaac 
obtained  Rebekah  (Gen.  xxv:20).  (See  Aram). 
Gen.  XXV  :2o;  xxviii:2,  5,  7,  from  whence  Jacob 
secured  his  wives,  and  where  Laban  lived;  Gen. 
xxxi:i8;  xxxiii:i8;  xxxviQ,  26;  xlvi:i5. 

Padan-aram  has  usually  been  identified  with 
Mesopotamia,  the  region  between  the  two  great 
rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  is  believed  more 
particularly  to  designate  the  plain,  in  distinction 
from  the  mountainous  district,  in  the  north  of 
Mesopotamia.  Another  theory  in  respect  to  the 
location  of  Padan-aram  has  been  advocated  at  va- 
rious periods,  to  which  attention  has  been  di- 
rected of  late  hy  Dr.  Merrill  and  Prof.  Paine. 
They  suggest  that  Milton  places  Haran  (and  of 
course  Padan-aram)  south  or  west  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, and  Dr.Beke  (1845)  wrote  a  learned  work 
to  prove  that  Padan-aram  was  in  the  vicinity  of 
Damascus.  This  view,  however,  is  opposed  by 
the  GH'^t  majority  of  the  most  eminent  scholars, 
and  has  too  few  facts  in  its  favor  to  give  it 
much  importance.  (SchaflF,  Bib,  Diet)  (See 
Aram;  Mesopotamia  and  Syria.) 

PADBLB  (pad'd'l),  (Heb.  I?!,  yaw-thade',  peg, 

a  tentpin,  Judg.  iv  :2i ;  a  small  spade,  Deut.  xxiii : 
13). 

PADON  (pa'don),  (Heb.  1^"»?,  paw-done ,  deliv- 
erance). 

The  founder  of  a  family  of  Ncthinim  who  re- 
turned from  the  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii:44;  Neh.  vii:47).    (B.  C.  before  520.) 

PAOISL  (pa'gi-cl),  (Heb.  ^8"^???,  pag-ee-aW, 
Ck>d  meets). 

Son  of  Ocran  and  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Asher 
in  the  wilderness  (Num.  i:i3;  ii:27;  vii:72,  'JT, 
x:26).    (B.  C.  1658.) 

PAHATH-MOAB  (pa'hath-mO'ab),  (Heb.  ^^^^ 

^S,  pakh'atk  mo-awb\  pit  or  governor  of  Moab). 

The  founder  of  a  family  which  returned  from 
the  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii:6;  viii: 
4;  Neh.  vii:ii).  (B.  C.  410.)  Some  of  them 
had  married  foreign  wives,  whom  they  divorced 
(Ezra  x:3o).  The  family  was  represented  in  the 
sealing  of  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah,  and 
Hashub,  one  of  the  family,  helped  to  rebuild  the 
wal  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  x:i4;  iii:ii,  23). 


PAI  (pa'I),  (Heb.  ^V^^paw-ee',  bleating,  i  Chron. 
i;5o).    (See  Pau). 

PAIN.  PAINED  (pan,  pand),  (Gr.  Ba^aW^w, 
bas-an-id' 20,  Rev.  xii:2),  suffering  in  labor,  pain  or 
sorrow. 

Pain,  or  pang,  denotes  the  uneasiness  arising 
to  body  or  mind  from  what  hurts  it.  When  it  is 
very  violent,  it  is  called  torment  (Job  xxxiii: 
19;  Ps.  XXV :  18;  lv:4;  Jer.  xxii:23;  Ezek.  xxx: 
4 ;  Matt,  iv  124) .  Figuratively,  to  "travel  in  pain'* 
all  one's  day,  is  to  live  in  sore  trouble,  inward  dis- 
quiet, and  terror  of  mind  (Job  xv:2o). 

PAINFULNBSS  (pan'ful  -  nfis),  (Gr.  Mx^oi, 
mokh'phost  2  Cor.  xi:27),  difficult  labor,  hardship, 
toilsomeness,  distress.     In  Job    xvi:2   the    Heb. 

'9?,  aw-mawt,  is  connected  with  comforters.    In 

I  Thess.  ii  :9 ;  2  Thess.  iii  :8  it  is  rendered  'travail,' 
and  that  is  accordingly  the  rendering  of  R.  V. 
here  also. 

PAINT  (pant),  (Heb.  1]1B,  pook,  dye),  (Jer.  xxiK: 
14),  a  mixture  of  antimony,  zinc  and  oil  for  making 
a  black  ring  around  the  eyelids. 

The  Jews  seem  to  have  looked  upon  the  custom 
as  unbecoming  a  woman  of  high  reputation  (2 
Kings  ix:3o;  Jer.  iv:30;  Ezek.  xxiii  140).  (Sec 
Eye.) 

Painting  as  a  decoration  was  much  practiced. 
In  the  f\ouses  the  walls  and  beams  were  colored 
(Jer.  X2.ii:i4)  ;  also  idols,  either  in  the  form  of 
sculptures  or  in  the  form  of  drawings  on  the  walls 
of  temples,  were  colored  (Wisd.  xiii:i4;  Ezek. 
xxiii:  14).  But  pictures,  in  the  modem  sense  of 
the  word,  as  prcnlucts  of  free  art,  were  unknown 
to  the  ancient  Jews,  and  would  perhaps  have  been 
regarded  as  violations  of  the  second  command- 
ment. The  drawings  upon  mummy  cases  were, 
however,  doubtless  familiar  to  them. 

PAKYOTH  (pak'y-«th),  (Heb.  •"'?p,  pak-koo- 
aw'). 

It  is  related  in  2  Kings  iv  .38-40,  that  Elisha 
having  come  again  to  Gilgal,  when  there  was  a 
famine  in  the  land,  and  many  sons  of  the  prophets 
were  assembled  there,  he  ordered  his  servant  to 
prepare  for  them  a  dish  of  vegetables :  'One  went 
out  into  the  field  to  gather  herbs  (oroth),  and 
found  a  wild  vine,  and  gathered  thereof  wild 
gourds  (pakyoth  sadeh)  his  lap  full,  and  came 
and  shred  them  into  the  pot  of  pottage,  for  they 
knew  them  not.*  *So  they  poured  out  for  the 
men  to  eat;  but  as  they  were  eating  of  the  pot- 
tage, they  cried  out,  O  thou  man  of  Crod,  there  is 
death  in  the  pot ;  and  they  could  not  eat  thereof.' 
From  this  it  appears  that  the  servant  mistook  the 
fruit  of  one  plant,  pakyoth,  for  something  else, 
called  oroth,  and  that  the  former  was  vine-like, 
that  is,  with  long,  weak,  slender  stems,  and  that 
the  fruit  had  some  remarkable  taste,  by  which 
the  mistake  was  discovered  whenever  the  pottage 
was  tasted.  Though  a  few  other  plants  have  been 
indicated,  the  pakyoth  has  almost  universally  been 
supposed  to  be  one  of  the  family  of  the  gourd  or 
cucumber-like  plants,  several  of  which  are  con- 
spicuous for  their  bitterness,  and  a  few  poisonous, 
while  others,  it  is  well  known,  are  edible.  The 
name  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  paka,  'to 
crush,'  or  'to  burst ;'  and  this  is  the  characteristic 
of  the  species  called  the  wild  cucumber  b>'  the  an- 
cients. 


PALACE 


1272 


PALESTINE 


The  bitterness  which  was  probably  perceived 
on  eating  of  the  pottage,  and  which  disappeared 
on  the  addition  of  meal,  is  found  in  many  of  the 
cucumber  tribe,  and  conspicuously  in  the  species 
which  have  been  usually  selected  as  the  pakyoth, 
that  is,  the  Colocynth  (Cucumis  Colocynthis), 
In  the  Arabic  version,  hunsal  (which  is  the 
Colocynth)  is  used  as  the  synonym  for  pakyoth 
in  2  Kings  iv:39).  The  Glofce  cucumber  derives 
its  specific  name  (Cucumis  prophetarum)  from 
the  notion  that  it  afforded  the  gourd  which  "the 
sons  of  the  prophets"  shred  by  mistake  into  their 
pottage,  and  which  made  them  declare,  when  they 
came  to  taste  it,  that  there  was  "death  in  the 
pot."  This  plant  is  smaller  in  every  part  than  the 
common  melon,  and  has  a  nauseous  odor,  while 
its  fruit  is  to  the  full  as  bitter  as  the  Cohquintida. 
The  fruit  has  a  rather  singular  appearance,  from 
the  manner  in  which  its  surface  is  armed  with 
prickles,  which  are,  however,  soft  and  harmless 
(Pictorial  Palestine;  Physical  Geog.  p.  cclxxxix.) 
But  this  plant,  though  it  is  nauseous  and  bitter 
as  the  Colocynth,  yet  the  fruit  not  being  bigger 
than  a  cherry,  does  not  appear  likely  to  have 
been  that  which  was  shred  into  the  pot.  Celsius, 
however,  was  of  opinion  that  the  Cucumis  agrestis 
of  the  Ancients,  and  which  was  found  by  Belon 
in  descending  from  Mount  Sinai,  was  the  plant. 
This,  he  says,  is  the  Olera  asini  of  the  Hebrews, 
the  Chate  al  hemar  of  the  Arabs,  and  the  Cucumis 
asininus  of  the  druggists  of  his  day.  This  plant 
is  now  called  Momordica  elaterium,  or  Squirting 
Cucumber,  and  is  a  well  known  drastic  purgative, 
violent  enough  in  its  action  to  be  considered  even 
a  poison.  Its  fruit  is  ovate,  obtuse,  and  scabrous. 
But  it  is  not  easy  to  say  whether  this  or  the 
Colocynth  is  most  likely  to  have  been  the  plant 
mistaken  for  oroth;  but  the  fruit  of  this  species 
might  certainly  be  mistaken  for  young  gherkins. 
Both  are  bitter  and  poisonous.  (See  Cucumber; 
Gourd;  Pottage.)  J.  F.  R. 

PALACE  (pSl'is),  (Heb.  Pll<,  ar-mone^  to  be 

elevated),  a  citadel;  (Heb.  '"^T^*  bee-raw*,  a  forti- 
fied palace,  fortress). 

In  Scripture,  it  denotes  what  is  contained  within 
the  outer  enclosure  of  the  royal  residence,  includ- 
ing all  the  buildings,  courts,  and  gardens  (2  Chron. 
xxxvi.'iQ;  comp.  Ps.  xlviii:3;  cxxii:7;  Prov.  ix: 
3;  XXX 128;  Is.  xxiii:i3;  xxv:2;  Jer.  xvii:27; 
Amos  i:4»  7»  12;  Nah.  ii:6).  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment the  term  palace  (olUMi)  is  applied  to  the  resi- 
dence of  a  man  of  rank  (Matt,  xxvi  13 ;  Mark  xiv : 
66;  Luke  xi:2i;  John  xviii:i5).  The  specific  allu- 
sions are  to  the  palace  built  by  Herod,  which  was 
afterwards  occupied  by  the  Roman  governors,  and 
was  the  praetorium,  or  hall,  which  formed  the 
abode  of  Pilate  when  Christ  was  brought  before 
him  (Mark  xv:i6):  the  other  passages  above 
cited,  except  Luke  xi  :2i,  refer  to  the  residence  of 
the  high-priest. 

The  particulars  which  have  been  given  under 
the  article  House  (which  see)  require  only  to 
be  aggrandized  to  convey  a  suitable  idea  of  a 
palace;  for  the  general  arrangements  and  dis- 
tribution of  parts  are  the  same  in  the  palace  as 
in  the  house,  save  that  the  courts  are  more  nu- 
merous, and  with  more  distinct  appropriations, 
the  buildings  more  extensive,  and  the  materials 
more  costly.  The  palace  of  the  kings  of  Judah 
in  Jerusalem  was  that  built  by  Solomon,  called 
*the  house  of  the  forest  of  Lebanon/  of  which 
some  particulars  are  given  in  i  Kings  vii:i-i2; 
and  if  read  along  with  the  description  which  Jo- 
sephus  gives  of  the  same  pile  (Antiq.  v,  5),  a 
famt  idea  may  be  formed  of  it,  as  a  magnificent 


collection  of  buildings  in  adjoining  courts,  con- 
nected with  and  surrounded  by  galleries  and  col- 
onnades. 

Figurative,  (i)  The  children  of  the  righteous 
are  compared  to  a  palace  (Ps.cxliv:i2).  (2)  Heaven 
is  *' the  palace''  of  God  and  Christ;  how  glorious  its 
structure!  how  rich  its  furniture!  and  there  God, 
angels,  and  redeemed  men  forever  reside  (Ps. 
xlv:i5). 

PATiATi  (pa'lal),  (Heb.  ^)?,/aa/-/a«//'.a  judge), 

a  son  of  Uzar,  who  rebuilt  a  part  of  the  wall  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii:25),  B.  C.  440. 

PAXESTINA  (pil'es-U'na), (Exod. xv:i4;  Is. xiv; 
29, 31).    See  Palestine. 

PALESTINE  (p^'es-ane).  This  name,  usually 
applied  to  the  country  formerly  inhabited  by  the 
Israelites,  occurs  only  once  (Joel  iii:4)  in  the  Old 
Testament.    It  is,  however,  derived  from  Philistia 

(Heb.  ^???,  pel-aW'Sheth),  or  the  country  of  the 

Philistines,  which  comprised  the  southern  part 
of  the  coast  plain  of  Canaan  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

The  word  Philistia  occurs  in  Exod.  xiii:i7;  Ps. 
lx:8;  lxxxiii:7;  lxxxvii:4;  cviiiig;  Is.  xiv:29,  31. 
From  this  arose  the  name  Palestine  (IIoXowT/inj), 
which  was  applied  by  most  ancient  writers,  and 
even  by  Josephus  (Antiq.  i,  6,  2;  ii,  15,  2;  viii,  10, 
3),  to  the  whole  land  of  the  Israelites  (see  Re- 
land's  Palcpstina,  p.  38,  sq.). 

!•  l^ames*  The  other  names  of  the  country 
may  be  given  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence  in 
Scripture. 

(1)  Canaan.  From  Canaan,  the  fourth  son 
of  Ham,  from  whom  the  first  inhabitants  wert 
descended.  It  is  the  most  ancient  name  of  the 
country,  and  is  first  found  as  such  in  Gen.  xi: 
31.  This  denomination  was  confined  to  the  coun- 
try between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Jordan; 
for  Exod.  xvi:35  (comp.  Josh.  v:ii,  12)  shows 
that  the  Jordan  was  the  eastern  boundary  of  Ca- 
naan. This  is  also  seen  in  Num.  xxxiii:5i ;  xxxiv: 
II,  12;  (comp.  Exod.  xv:i5).  When  the  name 
Canaan  was  thus  used  with  reference  to  the  coun- 
try west  of  the  Jordan,  the  region  east  of  that 
river  was  called  the  Land  of  Gilead (Deut.  xxxiv: 
2;  Josh.  xxii:9,  11).  In  later  times  the  term  Ca- 
naan was  understood  to  include  Phoenicia  (Is. 
xxiii:ii;  Matt.  xv:2i-22),  and  also  the  land  of 
the  Philistines. 

(2)  Land  of  Israel.  This  name  was  given  to 
the  whole  country  as  distributed  among  and  oc- 
cupied by  the  tribes  of  Israel.  The  designation, 
Land  of  Israel,  was  never  applied  but  to  the  ag- 
gregate possessions  of  the  tribes  as  defined  by 
the  limits  laid  down  when  the  distribution  was 
made  in  the  time  of  Joshua  ( Judg.  xix  129 ;  i  Sam. 
xiii:i9;  Ezek.  vii:2;  Matt.  ii:20,  21;  yrj  'Iffpai/jX), 
land  of  Israel.  In  Ezek.  xxvii:i7,  and  other 
places,  the  land  of  Israel  is  considered  as  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  ten  tribes,  forming  the  separate  king- 
dom of  Israel,  as  distinct  from  that  of  Judah. 
(See  Israel.) 

(3)  Land  of  Promise.  So  called  as  the  land 
which  God  promised  to  the  patriarchal  fathers  to 
bestow  on  their  descendants  (Gen.  xv:i8;  1:24; 
Num.  xxxii  :i ;  comp.  Heb.  xi  :9). 

(4)  Land  of  Jenovah.  So  called  as  being  in 
a  special  and  peculiar  sense  the  property  of  Je- 
hovah, who,  as  the  sovereign  proprietor  of  the 
soil,  granted  it  to  the  Hebrews  (Lev.  xxv:23;  Ps. 
lxxxv:i  •  Is.  viii:8). 

(5)  The  Holy  Land.  This  name  occurs  only 
in  Zech.  ii:i2.  The  land  is  here  called  'Holy,'  as 
being  the  Lord's  property,  and  sanctified  by  his 


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1273 


PALESTINE 


temple  and  worship:  but  Christians,  in  applying 
to  it  the  same  title,  probably  regard  it  more  as 
the  scene  of  the  life,  the  travels,  and  the  suffer- 
ings of  Christ. 

(6)  Judah,  Judasa.  This  name  belonged  at 
first  to  the  territory  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  alone. 
After  the  separation  of  the  two  kingdoms,  one  of 
them  took  the  name  of  Judah,  which  contained 
the  territories  both  of  that  tribe  and  of  Benjamin. 
After  the  Captivity,  down  to  and  after  the  time 
of  Christ,  Judaea  was  used  in  a  loosfe  way  as  a 
general  name  for  the  whole  country  of  Palestine; 
but  in  more  precise  language,  and  with  reference  to 
internal  distribution,  it  denoted  nearly  all  the  ter- 
ritories of  the  ancient  kingdom,  as  distinguished 
from  Samaria  and  Galilee  on  the  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan, and  Peraea  on  the  east.    (See  Judah.) 

2.  Divisions.  The  divisions  of  Palestine  were 
different  in  different  ages. 

(1)  In  Patriarchal  Times.  In  the  time  of 
the  patriarchs  the  country  was  divided  among 
the  tribes  or  nations  descended  from  the  sons  of 
Canaan.  The  precise  locality  of  each  nation  is 
not,  in  every  case,  distinctly  known ;  but  our  map 
exhibits  the  most  probable  arrangement. 

(2)  In  the  Time  of  Moses.  When  the  Israel- 
ites were  preparing  to  enter  Canaan,  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  nations  on  the  west  of  the  Jordan 
had  undergone  very  little  change;  but,  on  the 
east  of  that  river,  we  find  the  three  principal  ter- 
ritories to  have  been  Bashan,  in  the  north — that 
is  to  say,  east  and  northeast  of  the  lake  Gennes- 
areth;  Gilead,  in  the  middle;  and,  in  the  south, 
on  the  east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  the  Land  of  Moab. 
(See  MoABiTES.) 

(8)  After  the  Conquest  the  land  was  distrib- 
uted by  lot  among  the  tribes.  The  particulars 
of  this  distribution  will  be  best  seen  by  reference 
to  the  map. 

(4)  After  the  Captivity.  After  the  Captiv- 
ity we  hear  very  little  of  the  territories  of  the 
tribes,  for  ten  of  them  never  returned  to  occupy 
their  ancient  domains. 

(5)  In  the  Time  of  Christ.  In  the  time  of 
Christ  the  country  on  the  west  of  the  Jordan  was 
divided  into  the  provinces  of  Galilee,  Samaria, 
and  Judaea.  Galilee  is  a  name  which  occurs  re- 
peatedly in  the  book  of  Joshua  (xxi  132 )  ;  and  very 
often  in  the  later  history.  It  was  applied  to  that 
part  of  Palestine  north  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon 
or  Jezreel.  This  province  was  divided  into 
Lower  or  Southern,  and  Upper  or  Northern  Gali- 
lee. The  latter  section  was  also  denominated 
Galilee  of  the  Gentiles  (Matt.  iv:i5).  Samaria 
occupied  nearly  the  middle  of  Palestine;  but,  al- 
though it  extended  across  the  country,  it  did  not 
come  down  to  the  seashore.  Judaea,  as  a  prov- 
ince, corresponded  to  the  northern  and  western 
parts  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  that  name;  but 
the  southeastern  portion  formed  the  territory  of 
Idumaea.  On  the  other  side  of  the  Jordan  the  di- 
visions were,  at  this  time,  more  numerous  and 
less  distinct. 

J.  PersMtm  The  whole  country,  generally,  was 
called  Peraea,  and  was  divided  into  eight  districts 
or  cantons,  namely:  (i)  Peraa,  in  the  more 
limited  sense,  which  was  the  southernmost  can- 
ton, extending  from  the  river  Arnon  to  the  river 
Jabbok.  (2)  Gilead,  north  of  the  Jabbok,  and 
highly  populous.  (3)  Decapolis,  or  the  district 
of  ten  cities,  which  were  Scythopolis  or  Bethshan 
(on  the  west  side  of  the  Jordan),  Hippos,  Ga- 
dara,  Pella,  Philadelphia  (formerly  Rabbath), 
Dium,  Canatha,  Gerasa,  Raphana,  and,  perhaps, 
Damascus:  but  there  is  not  much  certainty  with 


regard  to  the  ten  cities  from  which  the  region 
had  its  name.  (4)  Gaulonitis,  extending  to  the 
northeast  of  the  Upper  Jordan  and  of  the  lake 
of  Gennesareth.  (5)  Batantpa,  the  ancient  Ba- 
shan, but  less  extensive,  east  of  the  lake  of  Gen- 
nesareth. (6)  Auranitis,  also  called  Ituraa,  and 
known  to  this  day  by  the  old  name  of  Hauran 
(Ezek.  xlvii:i6-i8),  to  the  north  of  Batanaea  and 
the  east  of  Gaulonitis.  (7)  Trachonitis,  extend- 
ing to  the  north  of  Gaulonitis,  and  east  from 
Paneas  ((Taesarea  Philippi)  and  the  sources  of  the 
Jordan,  where  it  was  separated  from  Galilee 
(Luke  iii:i).  (8)  Abilene,  in  the  extreme  north, 
among  the  mountains  of  Anti-Libanus,  between 
Baalbec  and  Damascus.  The  more  important  of 
these  names  have  been  noticed  under  their  several 
heads. 

4»  Situation  and  Boundaries,  Palestine  is 
the  southwestern  part  of  Syria,  extending  from 
the   mountains   of   Lebanon   to   the   borders   of 

(!)  Location.  It  lies  about  midway  between 
the  equator  and  the  polar  circle,  to  which  happy 
position  it  owes  the  fine  medium  climate  which  it 
possesses.  Its  length  is  embraced  between  30" 
40^  and  33°  32'  of  north  latitude,  and  between 
33**  45'  9^  east  longitude  in  the  southwest,  and 
35'  48'  in  the  northeast.  The  breadth  may  be 
taken  at  an  average  of  sixty-five  miles,  the  ex- 
treme width  being  about  100  miles.  The  length, 
from  Mount  Hermon  in  the  north,  to  which  the 
territory  of  Manasseh  beyond  the  Jordan  ex- 
tended (Josh.  xiii:ii),  to  Kadesh-barnea  in  the 
south,  to  which  the  territory  of  Judah  reached, 
was  180  miles. 

Palestine  may  be  regarded  as  embracing  an 
area  of  almost  11,000  square  miles,  which  is  some- 
what more  than  is  usually  given  to  it.  But  the 
real  surface  is  much  greater  than  this  estimate 
and  these  comparisons  would  imply;  for  Pales- 
tine being  essentially  a  hilly  country,  the  sides  of 
the  mountains  and  the  slopes  of  the  hills  enlarge 
the  available  surface  to  an  extent  which  does  not 
admit  of  calculation  (Physical  Geog.,  p.  xxviii: 
in  Kitto's  Pictorial  Hist,  of  Palestine).  The 
clearest  description  of  its  boundary  lines  is  that 
contained  in  Num.  xxxiv. 

(2)  The  Southern  Boundary.  The  text  (Num. 
xxxiv :3,  5)  we  read  thus:  'Your  south  border 
shall  be  at  the  wilderness  of  Zin  adjoining  to 
Edom,  and  your  south  border  shall  be  at  the  ut- 
most point  of  the  great  sea  southward.'  There 
is  here  a  general  description  of  the  line,  namely, 
that  it  extends  from  the  desert  of  Zin  (Wady 
Arabah),  at  a  point  not  stated,  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, at  a  point  also  not  stated.  Then  in  the 
following  verses  the  writer  returns  to  state  the 
particulars  of  this  same  boundary  line:  *Your 
south  border  shall  wind  by  the  ascent  of  Akrab- 
bim  (at  the  end  of  the  Dead  Sea),  and  pass  on 
(down  the  Arabah)  to  Zin;  and  thence  extend- 
ing (still  southward  down  the  Arabah),  to  the 
south  of  Kadesh-barnea,  it  shall  go  on  to  Hazar- 
addar,  and  pass  on  to  Azmon.  And  from  Azmon 
the  boundary  shall  wind  about  to  the  river  of 
Egypt,  and  its  termination  shall  be  at  the  sea.* 
What  is  here  said  respecting  Hazar-addar  and 
Azmon  we  do  not  understand,  as  the  sites  have 
not  been  determined;  but  without  this,  it  is  clear 
that  the  writer,  after  prolonging  the  eastern 
boundary  line  from  the  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  down 
the  edge  of  the  Arabah,  to  a  point  somewhere 
south  of  Kadesh-barnea,  then  turns  off  westward 
to  form  the  southern  line,  which  he  extends  to 
the  Mediterranean,  at  a  point  where  'the  river  of 
Egypt'  falls  into  the  sea.    This  river  of  Egypt 


PALESTINE 


1274 


PALESTINE 


is  usually,  and  on  very  adequate  grounds,  sup- 
pqsed  to  be  the  stream  which  falls  into  the  sea 
near  El-Arish. 

(3)  The  Western  Border.  In  the  sixth  verse 
of  the  same  chapter  (Num.  xxxiv)  the  western 
border  is  stated  as  defined  by  the  Mediterranean 
coast.  This  was  the  boundary  of  Palestine;  but 
the  Hebrews  never  possessed  the  whole  of  it. 
The  northern  part  of  the  coast  from  Sidon  to 
Akko  (Acre)  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Phoenicians, 
and  the  southern  part,  from  Azotus  to  Gaza, 
was  retained  by  the  Philistines,  except  at  inter- 
vals, in  and  after  the  time  of  David,  when  they 
were  subject  to  the  Hebrew  scepter  (see  Phil- 
istines) ;  and  a  central  portion,  about  one-third 
of  the  whole,  from  Mount  Carmel  to  Jabneh 
(Jamnia)  was  alone  permanently  open  to  the  Is- 
raelites. 

(4)  The  Northern  Border  is  as  difficult  to 
define  as  the  southern.  The  verses  in  which  it  is 
described  we  read  thus:  This  shall  be  your 
north  boundary ;  from  the  great  sea  ye  shall  draw 
a  line  to  the  great  mountain  (Lebanon)  ;  from 
the  great  mountain  ye  shall  draw  your  border  to 
the  entering  in  of  Hamath;  and  the  boundary 
shall  pass  on  to  Zedad,  and  the  boundary  shall 
go  on  to  Ziphron,  and  its  termination  shall  be  at 
Hazarenan'  (Num.  xxxiv 7-9).  This  only  re- 
fers to  the  northern  boundary  of  the  western  ter- 
ritory, or  Canaan  Proper,  and  we  may  therefore 
extend  it  in  the  same  direction  to  Mount  Her- 
mon,  for  the  purpose  of  completing  the  northern 
boundary.  The  Authorized  Version  of  this  text 
has  created  some  confusion  by  translating  inmn, 
kor  ha-hor  by  'Mount  Hor;*  but  the  phrase  which 
literally  means  'mountain  of  the  mountain*  that 
is,  'the  great  mountain,'  obviously  denotes 
Lebanon.  We  think  that  we  cannot  be  mistaken 
in  understanding  that  the  line  commenced  at  the 
sea  somewhere  not  far  to  the  south  of  Sidon, 
whence  it  was  extended  to  Lebanon,  and  cross- 
ing the  narrow  valley  (here  called  'the  entering 
in  of  Hamath'),  which  leads  into  the  great  plain 
enclosed  between  Libanus  and  Anti-Libanus,  ter- 
minated at  Mount  Hermon,  in  the  latter  range. 
This  arrangement  of  the  northern  line  of  bound- 
.ry  seems  to  us  to  meet  all  the  difficulties  aris- 
ing from  deficient  knowledge,  which  have  hung 
like  a  dense  mist  over  the  northern  boundary  of 
Palestine. 

(5)  The  Eastern  Boundary,  as  respects  Ca- 
naan Proper,  was  defined  by  the  Jordan  and  its 
lakes;  but  as  respects  the  whole  country,  includ- 
ing the  portion  beyond  the  Jordan,  it  is  not  so 
easily  determined;  yet  it  may  be  made  out  with 
close  attention.  Salchah  was  a  town  on  the  east- 
ern limits  of  Bashan,  and  also,  therefore,  of  the 
Hebrew  territory  (Deut.  iii:io;  Josh.  xii:s). 
From  this  point,  however,  the  line  must  have  in- 
clined somewhat  sharply  to  the  southwest,  and 
it  would  be  best  to  bring  it  to  the  point  where 
the  Wady-ed  Deir  enters  the  Zerka,  and  thence 
extend  it  almost  due  south  to  the  Arnon,  which 
was  the  southern  limit  of  the  eastern  territory. 

5.  Mineraiogp,  (1)  Chalk.  The  mountains 
on  the  west  of  the  Jordan  consist  chiefly 
of  chalk,  on  which  basalt  begins  to  occur 
beyond  Cana  (northward),  as  is  manifestly  ex- 
hibited in  the  heights  of  Hattin,  and  in  the 
western  descent  to  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  in 
such  large  quantity  and  great  extent  as  I  h  i 
never  before  observed.  That  the  so-called  ^»  .te 
limestone,  which  is  met  with  around  Jerusalem 
and  thence  to  Jericho,  which  covers  the  summit 
and  forms  the  declivities  of  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
and  which  is  also  found  at  Mount  Tabor  and 


around  Nazareth,  is  a  kind  of  chalk,  is  obvious 
to  any  one  but  slightly  acquainted  with  miner- 
alogy. Layers  and  detached  masses  of  'flint,' 
Schubert  continues,  *are  very  commonly  seen  in 
it;  and  these  mountains  preserve  the  character 
of  their  formation,  as  well  in  their  more  solid 
condition,  resembling  Alpine  limestone  and 
Schnurl-limestone,  as  in  their  softer  organization, 
which  has  a  likeness  to  chalk-marl.  Besides  this 
indurated  chalk,  a  stone  is  found  in  the  inmie- 
diate  vicinity  of  Jerusalem,  chiefly  towards  the 
north,  as  well  as  towards  Safet,  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  country,  which,  together  with  the 
dolomite  formation  occasionally  met  with,  I  could 
aot  but  consider  to  be  of  what  in  Germany  is 
called  the  Jura  formation.' 

(2)  Salt.  Palestine  may  be  most  emphatically 
called  the  country  of  salt,  which  is  produced  in 
vast  abundance,  chiefly,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  which  deserves  to  be  regarded  as  one 
of    the  great  natural    salt-works  of  the  world. 

Under  this  head  it  may  be  noted  that  the  fine 
impalpable  desert-sand,  which  proves  so  menac- 
ing to  travelers,  and  even  to  inhabitants,  is 
scarcely  found  in  Palestine  Proper;  but  it  oc- 
curs beyond  Lebanon,  near  Beirut,  and  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Damascus. 

(8)  Caverns.  Palestine  is  eminently  a  country 
of  caverns,  to  which  there  is  frequent  allusion 
in  Scripture  (see  Caves),  and  which  are  hardly 
so  numerous  in  any  country  of  the  same  extent. 
Many  of  them  were  enlarged  by  the  inhabitants, 
and  even  artificial  grottoes  were  formed  by  man- 
ual labor.  In  these  the  inhabitants  still  like  to 
reside ;  as  in  summer  they  afford  protection  from 
the  heat,  and  in  winter  from  cold  and  rain. 
Even  now,  in  many  places,  houses  are  observed 
built  so  near  to  rocks,  that  their  cavities  may  be 
used  for  rooms  or  sheds  suited  to  the  condition 
of  the  seasons.  Though  the  country  is  not  unfre- 
quently  visited  by  jearthquakes,  they  leave  behind 
no  such  frightful  traces  as  those  of  Asia  Minor; 
as  the  vaults  of  limestone  offer  more  effectual  re- 
sistance than  the  sandstone  of  the  latter  country. 

(4)  Fertility.  The  ridge  of  chalk  mountains, 
chiefly  those  containing  marl,  is  in  most  places  so 
irrigated  by  water,  and  so  acted  upon  by  the  sun, 
as  to  be  remarkable  for  the  luxuriant  growth  of 
the  g^'eat  variety  of  plants  with  which  they  are 
adorned.  The  basalt  mountains  give  birth  to  nu- 
merous springs.  No  soil  could  be  naturally  more 
fruitful  and  fit  for  cultivation  than  that  of  Pales- 
tine, if  man  had  not  destroyed  the  source  of  fer- 
tility by  annihilating  the  former  green  covering 
of  the  hills  and  slopes,  and  thereby  destroying 
the  regular  circulation  of  sweet  water,  which 
ascends  as  vapor  from  the  sea  to  be  cooled  in 
the  higher  regions,  and  then  descends  to  form 
the  springs  and  rivers,  for  it  is  well  known  that 
the  vegetable  kingdom  performs  in  this  circula- 
tion the  function  of  capillary  tubes.  But  al- 
though the  natives,  from  exasperation  against 
their  foreign  conquerors  and  rulers  (Pliny,  Hist. 
Nat.  xii,  54),  and  the  invaders  who  have  so  often 
overruled  this  scene  of  ancient  blessings,  have 
greatly  reduced  its  prosperity,  still  I  cannot  com- 
prehend how  not  only  scoffers  like  Voltaire,  but 
early  travelers,  who  doubtless  intended  to  declare 
the  truth,  represent  Palestine  as  a  natural  desert, 
whose  soil  never  could  have  been  fit  for  profitable 
cultivation.  Whoever  saw  the  exhaustless  abun- 
dance of  plants  on  Carmel  and  the  border  of  the 
desert,  the  grassy  carpet  of  Esdraelon.  the  lawns 
adjoining  the  Jordan,  and  the  rich  foliage  of  the 
forests  of  Mount  Tabor;  whoever  saw  the  bor- 
ders of  the  lakes  of    Merom  and  Gennesareth, 


PALESTINE 


1275 


PALESTINE 


wanting  only  the  cultivator  to  entrust  to  the  soil 
his  seed  and  plants,  may  state  what  other  country 
on  earth,  devastated  by  two  thousand  years  of 
warfare  and  spoliation,  could  be  more  fit  for  be- 
ing again  taken  into  cultivation.  The  bountiful 
hand  of  the  Most  High,  which  formerly  showered 
abundance  upon  this  renowned  land,  continues  to 
be  still  open  to  those  desirous  of  his  blessings. 

There  are  some  very  excellent  remarks  on  this 
subject  in  Dr.  Olin's  Travels  (ii,  235-240),  to 
which  we  must  be  content  to  refer  the  reader, 
being  prevented  by  want  of  room  from  introduc- 
ing them  in  this  place. 

6*  LfeVeh.  Annexed  to  the  additions  to  his 
Pa/asttna,  which  Rauraer  published,  under  the 
title  of  Beitriige  zur  Biblisctien  Geographies  1843, 
there  is  aa  engraved  scale  of  levels  in  Palestine. 
We  copy  the  results  in  the  subjoined  table,  and 
then  offer  some  remarks  upon  them. 

Altitude.  The  measurements  are  in  Paris  feet, 
above  and  below  the  level  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Above. 

Great  Hermon lo/xx) 

Mount  St.  Catherine  (in  Sinai) 8,063 

Iebel  Mousa  (in  Sinai) 7i033 
ebel  et-Tyh  (in  Sinai) 4»3oo 
cbel  er-Ramah 3»ooo 
Canneytra 2,850 

Hebron 2,700 

Mount  of  Olives 2,536 

Sinjil 2,520 

Saf  et 2,500 

Mount  Gerizim 2,400 

Semua 2,225 

Damascus 2,180 

Kidron  (brook) 2,140 

Nabulus 1,751 

Mount  Tabor 1,748 

Pass  of  Zephath 1,437 

Desert  of  et-Tyh 1,400 

Nazareth 821 

Zerm 515 

Plain  of  Esdraelon 459 

Be'ow. 

Lake  of  Tiberias,  English  feet 84 

The  Arabah  at  Kadesh 91 

Dead  Sea.  English  feet 1,337 

Some  of  these  results  are  so  extraordinary,  that 
one  might  occupy  whole  pages  in  discussing  them. 
The  most  important  of  them  will  be  considered 
under  their  proper  heads;  and  it  is  here  only 
necessary  to  indicate  a  few  of  the  more  marked 
results.  First,  here  is  the  remarkable  fact,  that 
the  Mount  of  Olives  and  the  Kidron,  and  conse- 
quently Jerusalem,  stand  700  feet  higher  than 
the  top  of  Mount  Tabor,  and  about  2,500  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean.  More  to 
the  south,  Hebron  stands  on  still  higher  ground; 
and  while  it  is  2,700  feet  above  the  sea  on  the 
one  hand,  the  Asphaltic  Lake  lies  4,000  feet  below 
it  on  the  other.  This  fact  has  no  known  parallel 
in  any  other  region,  and  within  so  short  a  dis- 
tance of  the  sea:  and  the  extraordinary  depres- 
sion of  the  lake  (1,337  feet  below  the  sea  level) 
adequately  accounts  for  the  very  peculiar  climate 
which  its  remarkable  basin  exhibits.  The  points 
at  Tiberias  to  the  north,  and  Kadesh  to  the  south 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  are  both,  and  nearly  equally,  be- 
low the  Mediterranean  level,  and,  taken  together, 
they  show  the  great  slope  both  from  the  north 
and  from  the  south  towards  the  Dead  Sea,  con- 
firming the  discovery  of  Dr.  Robinson,  that  the 
water-shed  to  the  south  of  the  Asphaltic  Lake  is 
towards  its  basin,  and  that,  therefore,  the  Jordan 
could  not  at  any  time,  as  the  country  is  at  pres- 


ent constituted,  have  flowed  on  southward  to  the 
Elanitic  Gulf,  as  was  formerly  supposed. 

7.  Mountains,  As  all  the  principal  mountains 
of  Palestine  are  noticed  in  this  work  under  their 
respective  names,  a  few  general  observations  are 
all  that  here  seem  necessary.  Schubert's  remarks, 
given  in  this  article  under  the  heads  Mineralogy 
and  Levels,  still  further  limit  the  scope  of  the  ob- 
servations to  be  offered,  which  will  consist  of  a 
bird's-eye  view  over  the  country  from  north  to 
south. 

To  Lebanon,  which  forms  the  northern  boun- 
dary of  the  land  (see  Lebanon),  succeeds  the 
high  table-land  of  Galilee,  which  extends  to  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  the  general  height  of 
which  above  the  sea  may,  by  a  comparison  of  lev- 
els, be  estimated  at  between  900  and  1,000  feet. 
The  elevated  situation  of  this  region  is  evinced  bv 
the  grradual  declivity  which  it  exhibits  on  al! 
sides  but  the  north — sloping  on  the  east  towards 
the  Jordan  and  its  upper  lakes,  on  the  west  to 
the  plain  of  the  Acre,  and  on  the  south  to  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon.  Travelers  express  surprise 
at  the  deep  descent  from  the  comparatively  level 
plains  of  Galilee  to  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  which, 
as  we  have  seen,  is  905  Paris  feet  below  the  level 
of  Nazareth.  This  table-land  is  not  without  its 
eminences.  The  chief  of  these  is  Jebel  Safet, 
which  stands  isolated  and  is  plainly  seen  from 
every  point  except  the  north.  This  is  one  of 
the  highest  summits  in  Palestine  (2,500  Paris 
feet).  Although  being  merely  a  peak  of  the  high 
table-land  from  which  it  rises,  it  does  not  seem 
to  exceed  elevations  rising  from  lower  levels, 
which  are  scarcely  inferior.  Still  it  is  very  high, 
even  in  apparent  altitude.  The  summit  of  this 
lofty  and  steep  mountain  is  crowned  by  a  castle, 
and  a  little  below  the  summit  there  is  a  city.  This 
city  is  supposed  to  be  that  which  our  Savior 
had  in  view,  as  *a  city  set  on  a  hill,*  in  his  Ser- 
mon on  the  Mount  (Matt.  v:4)  ;  but  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  any  city  existed  there  so  early,  although 
modem  ecclesiastical  tradition  has  been  disposed 
to  regard  this  as  the  Bethulia  of  Judith.*  (See 
Bethulia.)  The  mountain  itself  is  not  named  in 
Scripture,  unless,  as  is  probable,  it  be  the  'moun- 
tain of  Naphtali,'  mentioned  in  Josh.  xx:9. 
Among  the  swells  of  this  table-land  are  the  Khu- 
run  Hattin  (Horns  of  Hattin).  This  is  a  ridge 
about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  thirty  or 
forty  feet  high,  terminating  at  each  end  in  an  ele- 
vated peak,  which  gives  the  ridge  the  shape  of  a 
saddle.  This  is  alleged  to  have  been  the  place 
from  which  our  Lord  delivered  his  famous  Ser- 
mon on  the  Mount  to  the  multitude  standing  in 
the  adjacent  plain.  The  authority  for  this  is 
very  doubtful;  and  in  the  neighborhood,  towards 
Tiberias,  there  are  at  least  a  dozen  other  emi- 
nences which  would  just  as  well  answer  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  history.  One  of  these,  nearly 
three  miles  southeast  of  this,  is  by  similarly  un- 
certain tradition  alleged  to  be  the  spot  where  the 
five  thousand  were  fed  with  five  loaves,  although 
that  miracle  probably  took  place  on  the  east  side 
of  the  lake  of  Tiberias  (Matt,  xiv:  13-21). 

If  we  consider  the  difference  of  elevation  be- 
tween the  highland  of  Galilee  and  the  low  plain 
of  Esdraelon,  we  shall  see  reason  to  regard  the 
mountains  and  ridges  of  the  border  between 
them,  and  which  form  as  it  were  the  boundaries 
of  the  low  plain,  as  merely  detached  or  connected 
recesses,  or  peaks  of  the  highland.  The  moun- 
tains of  Gilboa  and  Hermon,  which  bound  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon  on  the  east,  are  certainly  no 
other  than  portions  of  this  high  land,  though  they 
become  mountains  from  the  lower  level  of  the 


PALESTINE 


1276 


PALESTINE 


Great  Plain.  Tabor  itself  seems  but  as  one  ad- 
vanced peak  or  promontory  of  the  high  lands  of 
Galilee.  (See  Tabor.)  On  the  west  the  Great 
Plain  is  bounded  by  Carmel,  which  may  be  either 
regarded  as  a  detached  ridge,  or  as  connected 
with  the  mountains  of  Samaria,  which  rise  be- 
yond the  plain  on  the  south.     (See  Carmel.) 

Southward  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  through- 
out to  the  borders  of  the  southern  desert,  is  an 
almost  unbroken  mountainous  country,  or  ridge 
of  mountains,  extending  north  and  south.  It  of- 
fers few  conspicuous  points,  but  its  general  ele- 
vation in  the  center  may  be  determined  by  that  of 
Gerizim  in  the  north  (2,400  Paris  feet),  of  Olivet 
in  the  center  (2,536  Paris  feet),  and  of  Hebron 
in  the  south  (2,700  Paris  feet).  The  ascent  to 
the  higher  and  central  region  from  the  plain  of 
the  coast  on  the  west  is  gradual,  by  a  succession 
of  natural  terraces;  but  eastward,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Jordan  and  Dead  Sea,  the  descents 
are  comparatively  abrupt  and  precipitous. 

There  is  no  distinct  natural  boundary  between 
the  mountains  of  Samaria  and  Judsea.  The  hills 
of  Samaria  exhibit  scenery  very  different  from 
those  of  Galilee.  They  "are  often  beautifully 
wooded,  and  the  region  is  more  populous  and 
better  cultivated  than  any  other  part  of  Palestine. 
Among  numerous  venerable  olive  woods  towns 
and  villages  are  scattered  in  every  direction,  and 
some  of  the  views  rival  those  of  Switzerland. 
The  principal  mountains  of  Samaria  are  those  of 
Ebal  and  (jerizim,  which  have  been  described  un- 
der the  proijer  heads  (Morison,  ii.  10;  Bucking- 
ham, Palestine,  ch.  xcii;  Elliot,  ii.  380;  Olin.  li. 

354). 

The  mountains  of  Judaea,  although  of  greater 
historical  celebrity,  are  now  less  attractive  than 
those  of  Samaria,  but  apparently  for  no  other  rea- 
son than  that  their  cultivation  has  been  more 
neglected.  The  hills  are  generally  separated  from 
each  other  by  valleys  and  torrents,  and  are  for 
the  most  part  of  moderate  height,  uneven,  and 
seldom  of  any  regular  figure.  The  rock  of  which 
they  are  composed  is  easily  converted  into  mold, 
which,  being  arrested  by  terraces  when  washed 
down  by  the  rains,  renders  the  hills  cultivable,  in 
a  series  of  long,  narrow  gardens,  formed  by  these 
terraces,  from  the  base  upwards.  Thus  the  hills 
were  clad  in  former  time  most  abundantly,  and 
enriched  and  beautified  with  the  fig-tree,  the  olive, 
and  the  vine;  and  it  is  in  this  way  that  the  lim- 
ited cultivation  which  survives  is  still  carried  on. 
But  when  the  inhabitants  were  thinned  out,  and 
cultivation  abandoned,  the  terraces  fell  to  decay, 
and  the  soil  which  had  collected  on  them  was 
washed  down  into  the  valleys,  leaving  only  the 
arid  rock,  bare  and  desolate.  This  is  the  general 
character  of  the  hills  of  Judaea ;  but  in  some  parts 
they  are  beautifully  wooded,  and  in  others  the 
application  of  the  ancient  mode  of  culture  sug- 
gests to  the  traveler  how  productive  the  countnr 
once  was,  and  how  fair  the  aspect  which  it  of- 
fered (Kitto's  Palestine,  Phys.  Geog.  p.  39; 
comp.  Mariti,  ii.  362;  Elliot,  ii.  407,  408;  Olin, 
li.;  Kaumer,  Paidstina,  p.  47,  s^,). 

The  characteristics  of  desolation  which  have 
been  indicated  apply  with  peculiar  force  to  the 
northern  part  of  Judaea,  forming  the  ancient  ter- 
ritory of  Benjamin.  Its  most  favorably  situated 
mountains  are  wholly  uncultivated;  and  perhaps 
in  no  other  country  is  such  a  mass  of  rock  exhib- 
ited without  an  atom  of  soil.  In  the  east,  to- 
wards the  plain  of  Jericho,  it  takes  a  naturally 
stern  and  grand  character,  such  as  no  other  part 
of  Palestine  offers.  It  is  through  this  wild  and 
melancholy  region  that  the  roads  from  Jerusalem 


to  Jericho,  and  (by  way  of  Wady  Saba)  to  the 
Dead  Sea  lie.  It  has  hence,  by  the  former  route, 
often  been  passed  by  travelers  in  their  pilgrimages 
to  the  Jordan;  and  they  unite  in  depicting  it  in  the 
most  gloomy  hues.  The  road,*  says  Dr.  Olin, 
'runs  along  the  edge  of  steep  precipices  and  yawn- 
ing gulfs,  and  in  a  few  places  is  overhung  with 
the  crags  of  the  mountain.  The  aspect  of  the 
whole  region  is  peculiarly  savage  and  dreary,  vy- 
ing in  these  respects,  though  not  in  overpowering 
grandeur,  with  the  wilds  of  Sinai.  The  moun- 
tains seem  to  have  been  loosened  from  their  foun- 
dations, and  rent  in  pieces  by  some  terrible  con- 
vulsion, and  there  left  to  be  scathed  by  the  burn- 
ing rays  of  the  sun,  which  scorches  the  land  with 
consuming  heat*  (Travels,  ii.  197).  These  char- 
acteristics became  more  manifest  on  approach- 
ing the  Jordan;  and  the  wild  region  extending 
north  of  the  road  is  believed,  with  sufficient  prob- 
ability, to  form  *the  wilderness*  where,  after  his 
baptism,  Jesus  'was  led  up  of  the  Spirit,  to  be 
tempted  of  the  devil,*  and  where  *he  fasted  forty 
days  and  forty  nights'  (Matt.  iv:i,  2).  The  lofty 
ridge  which  extends  north  of  the  road,  and  fronts 
the  plain  of  Jericho,  is  called  Quarantana,  with  ref- 
erence to  this  event,  and  the  particular  summit 
from  which  Satan  is  supposed  to  have  displayed 
to  the  Savior  *the  kingdoms  of  the  world  and  the 
glory  of  them*  is  crowned  by  a  chapel,  still  oc- 
casionally resorted  to  by  the  devouter  pilgrims, 
while  the  eastern  face  which  overhangs  the  plain 
is  much  occupied  with  grots  and  cells,  once  the 
favorite  abode  of  pious  anchorites.  The  Quar- 
antana forms  apparently  the  highest  summit  of 
the  whole  immense  pile,  and  is  distinguished  for 
its  sere  and  desolate  aspect,  even  in  this  gloomy 
region  of  savage  and  dreary  sights.  It  has  not, 
that  we  know,  been  measured,  but  Dr.  Olin  com- 
putes its  height  at  nearly  2,000  feet  in  perpendic- 
ular height  (Travels,  ii,  119;  Kitto's  Palest,; 
Phys,  Geog.  p.  39;  Robinson,  ii.  289;  Hassel- 
quist,  p.  i&;  Maundrell,  p.  79;  Morison,  p.  523; 
Nau,  p.  403). 

In  'he  southern  region,  usually  called  in  Scrip- 
ture 'the  hill  country  of  Judah*  (Matt.  iii:i), 
there  are  few  mountains  of  a  marked  character* 
the  peaks  of  the  general  ridge  being  of  little  ap- 
parent elevation,  although  actually  much  elevated 
above  the  sea-level.  The  most  remarkable  of  the 
whole  of  this  wild  region  seems  to  have  been  dis- 
tinguished as  *the  wilderness  of  Judah'  (Luke 
i:39»  65),  while  *the  mountains  of  Judah,*  or  *the 
hill  country  of  Judaea,'  applies  to  the  mountain- 
ous region  south  of  Jerusalem  towards  Hebron 
(Josh.  xi:2i;  2  Chron.  xxvii:4,  etc.).  To  this 
district  belongs  the  wilderness  of  Tekoa  (2  Chron. 
xx:2o),  and  beyond  it  eastward,  *the  wilderness 
of  Engeddi*  (i  Sam.  xxiv:2),  Maon  (i  Sam. 
xxiii:24,  25),  and  Ziph  (i  Sam.  xxiii:i4,  15), 
names  made  familiar  to  us  by  the  history  of  Da- 
vid. Here  also  is  the  Frank  Mountain  near 
Tekoa,  which  has  already  been  described  (see 
Bethulia),  as  well  as  the  Carmel  mentioned 
in  the  history  of  Nabal  (Josh.  xv:55;  i  Sam. 
XXV.).  It  would  seem  that  the  hills  of  southern- 
most Judaea  were,  before  the  conquest  of  the 
country  by  the  Hebrews,  called  *the  mountains  of 
the  Amorites'  (Deut.  i  7,  19,  20,  43,  44).  This 
tract  has  only  of  late  been  explored  by  travelers 
on  the  new  route  from  Petra  to  Hebron,  except 
by  Seetzen,  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  cen- 
tury. To  obtain  a  clear  notion  of  it,  we  should 
view  it  from  the  great  Arabah,  beyond  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea,  whence  it  was 
surveyed  by  the  Israelites,  when  they  contem- 
plated entering  the    Promised    Land  from    the 


PALESTINE 


1277 


PALESTINE 


southeast.  The  two  terraces  which  towards  the 
south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  on  the  east  side  form 
the  descent  to  its  deep  basin  from  the  high  lands 
of  Judaea,  stretch  off  to  the  southwest,  and  the 
ascents  from  the  plain  to  the  first,  and  from  tfie 
plateau  of  the  first  to  the  top  of  the  second,  which 
forms  the  general  level  of  Judaea,  present  to  him 
who  approaches  from  the  lower  region  of  the 
Arabah,  high  mountain  barriers,  which  he  has  to 
ascend  by  gorges  or  passes  of  more  or  less  diffi- 
cult ascent.  After  ascending  from  the  great  val- 
ley the  traveler  passes  over  a  wild  district  cov- 
ered with  rocky  hills,  till  he  comes  to  the  frontier 
wall  of  the  first  terrace  or  step,  and  which  was 
probably  pre-eminently  'the  mountain  of  the 
Amorites.'  There  are  in  this  three  principal 
passes;  the  southernmost  being  that  of  Nubeh-es- 
Sufah,  the  Zephath  of  Scripture,  called  also  Hor- 
mah,  which  we  know  to  have  been  the  pass  by 
which  the  Israelites  attempted  to  enter  Palestine 
from  Kadesh,  when  they  were  driven  back  (Deut. 
i  144;  Num.  xiv:45;  Judg.  i:i7).  The  top  of  this 
pass  is  given  in  the  table  of  Levels,  on  the  author- 
ity of  Schubert,  as  1,434  ^eet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  A  particular  description  of  this  'vast  in- 
clined plane  of  rock'  may  be  seen  in  Robinson's 
Researches  (ii.  590).  On  reaching  the  top  a 
journey  of  three  hours  among  hills  of  chalky 
limestone  brings  the  traveler  to  the  second  great 
ascent  to  the  general  level  of  the  hill  country  of 
eastern  Judaea.  This  second  ascent  is  similar  to 
the  first,  but  not  more  than  half  as  high.  This 
statement  will  convey  some  idea  of  that  difficulty 
of  military  access  to  the  country  !n  this  direction 
which  eventually  induced  the  invading  Hebrews 
to  take  another  and  more  circuitous  route. 

In  the  direct  south  of  Judah  the  approach  is 
marked  by  an  ascent  more  gradual,  over  a  succes- 
sion of  less  elevated  plateaus,  from  the  desert  re- 
gions of  sand  and  rock  to  the  hills  of  Judah.  Re- 
cent discoveries  in  that  quarter,  chiefly  those  of 
Dr.  Robinson,  have  shown  that  much  of  the  south 
border  country,  which  was  formerly  regarded  as 
desert,  is  in  fact  a  variegated  region  affording 
good  pastures,  into  which  the  sheepmasters  of 
Judah  doubtless  sent  their  flocks  of  old.  Concern- 
ing the  mountains  of  Palestine  generally,  see 
Raumcr's  Paldstinat  pp.  29-84 ;  Winer's  Real-wdr- 
terb.,  art.  'Gebirge* ;  Kitto's  Palest.,  Phys.  Geog., 
ch.  ii. 

S,  Plains  and  Vatteps.  The  most  important 
are  those  of  Lebanon,  of  the  Jordan,  of  Jericho, 
of  Esdraelon,  and  of  the  coast. 

(1)  The  Plain  of  Lebanon  may  be  described 
as  the  valley  which  is  enclosed  between  the  paral- 
lel mountain  ranges  of  Libanus  and  Anti-Libanus. 
Although  the  greater  part  of  it  must  have  been 
within  Solomon's  dominion,  it  can  scarcely  be 
deemed  to  belong  to  Palestine  proper;  but  its 
geographical  and  historical  connection  with  that 
country  requires  its  introduction.  This  enclosed 
plain  is  the  Coele-Syria  of  the  ancients,  and  now 
bears  the  name  of  El-Bekka  (the  valley.)  It  i^ 
about  ninety  miles  in  length  from  north  to  south 
by  eleven  miles  in  breadth,  nearly  equal  through- 
out, except  that  it  widens  at  the  northern  end  and 
narrows  at  the  southern.  This  plain  is,  perhaps, 
the  most  rich  and  beautiful  part  of  Syria.  (See 
Lebanon.  )  The  soil  is  good,  and  the  water 
abundant  from  the  numerous  mountain  springs 
on  each  side,  but  the  concentration  of  the  sun's 
rays  renders  the  summer  heat  excessive.  These 
are  the  sources  of  that  fertility  for  which  the 
valley  has,  in  all  ages,  been  renowned;  but  only 
a  small  portion  is  now  cultivated,  the  rest  being 
left  in  pasture  to  the  Arab  tribes.     (La  Roquc, 


i.  1 15-120;  Volney,  i.  271;  Burckhardt,  pp.  4-i8» 
31 ;  Addison,  ii.  48-50;  Modern  Syrians,  p.  124). 

(2)  The  Plain  of  the  Jordan.  By  this  name 
we  understand  the  margin  of  the  lakes,  as  well  as 
the  valley  watered  by  the  river.  Here  the  heat 
is  still  greater  than  in  the  valley  of  Lebanon,  and, 
in  consequence,  palm-trees  and  the  fruits  of  more 
southern  climes  than  Palestine,  will  grow  freely 
wherever  there  are  soil  and  water.  But  the  lat- 
ter is  usually  wanting,  and,  therefore,  except  on 
the  immediate  borders  of  the  river,  of  the  lake  of 
Gennesareth,  and  of  the  lesser  streams,  the  whole 
plain  is  barren  and  desolate.     (See  Jordan.) 

(3)  The  Plain  of  Jericho  is  but  an  opening 
or  expansion  in  the  plain  of  the  Jordan,  towards 
the  Dead  Sea.  The  whole  expansion  takes  in  the 
plains  of  Moab  on  the  east  side  of  the  river,  and 
the  plains  of  Jericho  on  the  west,  the  breadth 
across  being  from  ten  to  twelve  miles.  In  fact, 
the  plain  of  the  Jordan  is  in  no  other  part  so 
wide.  The  large  plain  of  Jericho  is  partly  desert, 
but,  from  the  abundance  of  water  and  the  heat  of 
the  climate,  it  might  be  rendered  highly  produc- 
tive; indeed,  the  fertility  of  this  plain  has  been 
celebrated  in  every  age.  Josephus  describes  it 
.as  the  most  fertile  tract  of  Judaea,  and  calls  it  a 
*divine  region.*  He  speaks  also  of  its  beautiful 
gardens,  and  its  groves  of  palm-trees;  and  his 
description  is  borne  out  by  Scripture,  in  which 
Jericho  is  described  as  *Thc  city  of  palm-trees* 
(Deut.  xxxiv:3;  Judg.  i:i6).  This  region  also 
produced  honey,  opobalsam,  the  cypress-tree  (or 
el  henna),  and  myrobalanum,  as  well  as  the  com- 
mon fruits  of  the  earth  in  prolific  abundance.  The 
Scripture  adds  the  sycamore  tree  to  the  number 
of  its  products  (Luke  xix:4).  Of  all  these  pro- 
ductions which  so  distinguished  the  climate  of 
Jericho,  and  the  greater  part  of  which  it  enjoyed 
in  common  with  Egypt,  very  few  now  remain. 
(See  Jericho.) 

(4)  The  Plain  of  Esdraelon  is  often  men- 
tioned in  sacred  history  (Judg.  iv:i3,  15,  16;  v: 
19;  2  Kings  xxiii:29;  Zech.  xiirii;  Judith  i:8), 
as  the  great  battle-field  of  the  Jewish  and  other 
nations,  under  the  names  of  the  Valley  of  Me- 
giddo  and  the  Valley  of  Jezreel;  and  by  Josephus 
as  the  Great  Plain.  This  extensive  plain,  ex- 
clusive of  three  gtt?X  arms  which  stretch  east- 
ward towards  the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  may  be 
said  to  be  in  the  form  of  an  acute  triangle,  hav- 
ing the  measure  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  miles  on 
the  north,  about  eighteen  on  the  east,  and  above 
twenty  on  the  southwest.  In  the  western  portion 
it  seems  perfectly  level,  with  a  general  declivity 
towards  the  Mediterranean;  but  in  the  east  it  is 
somewhat  undulated  by  slight  spurs  and  swells 
from  the  roots  of  the  mountains:  from  the  east- 
em  side  three  great  valleys  go  off  to  the  valley  of 
the  Jordan.  These  valleys  are  separated  by  the 
ridges  of  Gilboa  and  Little  Hermon,  and  the 
space  which  lies  between  these  two  ridges,  is  the 
proper  valley  of  Jezreel,  which  name  seems  to  be 
sometimes  given  to  the  whole  plain  of  Esdraelon. 
The  valley  of  Jezreel  is  a  deep  plain,  and  about 
three  miles  across.  Before  the  verdure  of  spring 
and  early  summer  has  been  parched  up  by  the 
heat  and  drought  of  the  late  summer  and  autumn, 
the  view  of  the  Great  Plain  is,  from  its  fertility 
and  beauty,  very  delightful.  In  June,  yellow 
fields  of  grain,  with  green  patches  of  millet  and 
cotton  interspersed,  checker  the  landscape  like  a 
carpet.  The  plain  itself  is  almost  without  vil- 
lages, but  there  are  several  on  the  slopes  of  the 
enclosing  hills,  especially  on  the  side  of  Mount 
Gtrmel.     (Robinson,  ii.   160-162;   Olin,  ii.  376; 


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Schubert,  iii.  i6^;  Clarke,  iv.  356-360;  Jowett,  ii. 
192;  Stephens,  ii.  307;  Elliot,  ii.  360.) 

(5)  The  Plain  of  the  Coast  is  that  tract  of 
land  which  extends  along  the  coast,  between  the 
sea  and  the  mountains.  In  some  places,  where 
the  mountains  approach  the  sea,  this  tract  is  in' 
terrupted  by  promontories  and  rising  grounds; 
but,  taken  generally,  the  whole  coast  of  Palestine 
may  be  described  as  an  extensive  plain  of  various 
breadth.  Sometimes  it  expands  into  broad  plains, 
at  others  it  is  contracted  into  narrow  valleys. 
With  the  exception  of  some  sandy  tracts  the  soil 
is  throughout  rich,  and  exceedingly  productive. 
The  climate  is  everywhere  very  warm,  and  is  con- 
sidered rather  insalubrious  as  compared  with  the 
upland^  country.  It  is  not  mentioned  by  any  one 
collective  name  in  Scripture.  The  part  fronting 
Samaria,  and  between  Mount  Carmel  and  Jaffa, 
near  a  rich  pasture  ground,  was  called  the  VaUey 
of  Sharon;  and  the  continuation  southward,  be- 
tween Jaffa  and  Gaza,  was  called  The  Plain,  as 
distinguished  from  the  hill-country  of  Judah.  A 
minute  description  of  this  plain  throughout  its 
extent  is  given  in  Kitto*s  Palestine,  Phys.  Geog, 
p.  100-105. 

9.  RWers.  The  Jordan  is  the  only  river  of 
any  note  in  Palestine,  and  besides  it  there  are 
only  two  or  three  perennial  streams.  The  greater 
number  of  the  streams  which  figure  in  the  his- 
tory, and  find  a  place  in  the  maps,  are  merely  tor- 
rents or  water-courses. 

(1)  The  Jordan.  We  should  like  to  consider 
this  river  simply  as  the  stream  issuing  from  the 
reservoir  of  the  lake  Huleh,  but  custom  requires 
its  source  to  be  traced  to  some  one  or  more  of 
the  streams  which  form  that  reservoir.  The 
two  largest  streams,  which  enter  the  lake  on  the 
north,  are  each  formed  by  the  junction  of  two 
others.  It  is  usual  to  refer  the  origin  of  a  river 
to  its  remotest  sources;  but  in  this  case  the  larg- 
est and  longest,  being  the  most  easterly  of  the 
two  streams,  does  not  appear  to  have  been  at  any 
time  identified  with  the  Jordan — that  honor  hav- 
ing for  ages  been  ascribed  to  the  western  stream ; 
thts  river  has  distinct  sources,  at  Banias  and  at 
Tel-el-Kadi.  At  Banias  (anciently  Paneas,  from 
the  worship  of  Pan)  a  stream  issues  from  a 
spacious  cavern,  under  a  wall  of  rock,  at  the  base 
of  the  Heish  mountains.  Directly  over  the  cavern, 
and  in  other  parts,  in  the  face  of  the  perpendicu- 
lar rock,  niches  have  been  cut  to  receive  statues. 
Here  Herod  built  a  temple  in  honor  of  Augustus ; 
and  there  was  a  town  somewhat  below,  traces  of 
which  still  remain.  This  is,  undoubtedly,  that 
place  and  cavern,  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain,  which 
Josephus  describes  as  the  main  source  of  the  Jor- 
dan (Joseph.  Aniiq,  xv.  10.  3;  De  Bell,  Jud.  i. 

21.  3). 

The  true  Jordan — the  stream  that  quits  this  lake 
— passes  rapidly  along  the  narrow  valley,  and  be- 
tween well-shaded  banks,  to  the  lake  of  Gen- 
nesareth :  the  distance  is  about  nine  miles.  Nearly 
two  miles  below  the  lake  is  a  bridge,  called  Ja- 
cob's bridge;  and  here  the  river  is  about  eighty 
feet  wide,  and  four  feet  deep. 

On  leaving  the  lake  of  Gennesareth  the  river 
enters  a  very  broad  valley,  or  Ghor,  by  which 
name  the  natives  designate  a  depressed  tract  or 
plain  between  mountains.  This  name  is  applied 
to  the  plain  of  the  Jordan,  not  only  between  the 
lake  of  Gennesareth  and  the  Dead  Sea,  but  quite 
across  the  Dead  Sea,  and  to  some  distance  beyond. 
The  valley  varies  in  width  from  five  to  ten  miles 
between  the  mountains  on  each  side.  The  river 
does  not  make  its  way  straight  through  the  midst 
of  the  Ghor;  it  flows  first  near  the  western  hillt. 


then  near  the  eastern,  but  advances  to  the  Dead 
Sea  through  the  middle  of  the  valley.  Within 
this  valley  there  is  a  lower  one,  and  within  that, 
in  some  parts,  another  still  lower,  through  which 
the  river  flows;  the  inner  valley  is  about  half  a 
mile  wide,  and  is  generally  green  and  beautiful, 
covered  with  trees  and  bushes^  whereas  the  upper 
or  large  valley  is,  for  the  most  part,  sandy  or 
barren.  The  distance  between  the  two  lakes,  in  a 
direct  line,  is  about  sixty  miles.  In  the  first  part 
of  its  course  the  stream  is  clear,  but  it  becomes 
turbid  as  it  advances  to  the  Dead  Sea,  probably 
from  passing  over  beds  of  sandy  clay.  The  water 
is  very  wholesome,  always  cool,  and  nearly  taste- 
less. The  breadth  and  depth  of  the  river  varies 
much  in  different  places  and  at  different  times 
of  the  year.  Dr.  Shaw  calculates  the  average 
breadth  at  thirty  yards,  and  the  depth  at  nine 
feet.  In  the  season  of  flood,  in  April  and  early 
in  May,  the  river  is  full,  and  sometimes  over- 
flows its  lower  banks,  to  which  fact  there  are 
several  allusions  in  Scripture  (Josh,  iii:  15;  i 
Chron.  xii:i5;  Jer.  xii:5;  xlixiig;  1:44;  Ecclus. 
xxiv:26).  (Nau,  p.  272;  Shaw,  ii.156;  Paxton, 
p.  158;  Stephens,  ii.  361-363;  Burckhardt,  pp. 
39-43;  3M»  345»  514;  Irby  and  Mangles,  pp.  283- 
290;  304,  326;  Buckingham,  Arab  Tribes,  pp.  401- 
406;  Palestine,  i.  90,  93;  Robinson,  ii.  255-267; 
iii.  309-312;  347,  355;  Olin,  ii.  229-334;  Schubert, 
iii.  80-84  J  Pocock.  ii.  71 ;  Richardson,  ii.  425,  445, 
446;  Lindsay,  ii.  65,  91;  Elliot,  i.  74-77.)  (See 
Jordan.) 

(2)  The  Klshon,  that  'ancient  river/  by  whose 
wide  and  rapid  stream  the  hosts  of  Sisera  were 
swept  away  (Judg.  iv:i3;  v:2i),  has  been  no- 
ticed under  the  proper  head.     (See  Kishon.) 

(8)  The  Belus,  now  called  Nahr  Kardanus,  en- 
ters the  bay  of  Acre  higher  up  than  the  Kishon. 
It  is  a  small  stream,  fordable  even  at  its  mouth 
in  summer.  It  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and 
is  chiefly  celebrated  for  the  tradition,  that  the 
accidental  vitrefaction  of  its  sands  taught  man 
the  art  of  making  glass. 

(4)  Other  Streams.  The  other  streams  of  note 
enter  the  Jordan  from  the  east ;  these  are  the  Jar- 
muth,  the  Jabbok,  and  the  Amon,  of  which  the 
last  two  have  been  noticed  under  their  proper 
heads.  The  Jarmuth,  called  also  Sheriat-el-Mand- 
hour,  anciently  Hieromax,  joins  the  Jordan  five 
miles  below  the  lake  of  (Gennesareth.  Its  source 
is  ascribed  to  a  small  lake,  almost  a  mile  in  cir- 
cumference, at  Mezareib,  which  is  thirty  miles 
east  of  the  Jordan.  It  is  a  beautiful  stream,  and 
yields  a  considerable  body  of  water  to  the  Jordan. 
(See  Arnon;  Jabbok.) 

10.  Lakes  and  Seas,  The  river  Jordan 
in  its  course  forms  three  remarkable  lakes,  in  the 
last  of  which,  called  the  Dead  Sea,  it  is  lost : 

(1)  The  Lake  Merom  (Joseph.  Antiq,  xi:s,  7). 
or  Samochonitis  {Antiq,  v.  5.  i),  now  called 
Huleh,  the  first  of  these,  serves  as  a  kind  of 
reservoir  to  collect  the  waters  which  form  the 
Jordan,  and  again  to  send  them  forth  in  a  single 
stream.  In  the  spring,  when  the  waters  are  high- 
est, the  lake  is  seven  miles  long  and  three  and  a 
half  broad;  but  in  summer  it  becomes  a  mere 
marsh.  In  some  parts  it  is  sown  with  rice,  and 
its  reeds  and  rushes  afford  shelter  to  wild  hogs. 
(Pocock  ii.  71;  Burckhardt.  p.  316;  Irby  and 
Mangles,  p.  290;  Buckingham,  Arab  Tribes,  p. 
309;  Richardson,  ii.  450,  451;  Robinson,  ii.  339- 
342.) 

(2)  The  Lake  of  Gennesareth,  called  also  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  and  the  Lake  of  Tiberias.  After 
quitting  the  lake  Merom,  the  river  Jordan  pro- 
ceeds for  about  thirteen  miles  southward,  and 


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1279 


PALESTINE 


then  enters  the  great  lake  of  Gennesareth.  This 
laJce  lies  very  deep,  among  fruitful  hills  and  moun- 
tains, from  which,  in  the  rainy  season,  many 
rivulets  descend;  its  shape  will  be  seen  from  the 
map.  Its  extent  has  been  greatly  over-rated: 
Professor  Robinson  considers  that  its  length,  in 
a  straight  line,  does  not  exceed  eleven  or  twelve 
geographical  miles,  and  that  its  breadth  is  from 
five  to  six  miles.  From  numerous  indications, 
it  is  judged  that  the  bed  of  this  lake  was  formed 
by  some  ancient  volcanic  eruption,  which  history 
has  not  recorded.  Its  waters  are  very  clear  and 
sweet,  and  contain  various  kinds  of  excellent  fish 
in  great  abundance.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
several  of  the  Apostles  were  fishermen  of  this  lake, 
and  that  it  was  also  the  scene  of  several  transac- 
tions in  the  life  of  Christ:  it  is  thus  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  but  very  rarely 
in  the  Old,  where  it  is  called  the  Sea  of  Cin- 
nereth,  of  which  Gennesareth  is  a  corruption. 
The  borders  of  the  lake  were  in  the  time  of 
Christ  well  peopled,  being  covered  with  numerous 
towns  and  villages;  but  now  they  are  almost 
desolate,  and  the  fish  and  water-fowl  are  but  little 
disturbed.  (Robinson,  iii.  253,  264,  312,  314; 
Schubert,  iii.  235-243;  Olin,  ii.  406-408;  D'Ar- 
vieux,  ii.  176,  177;  Clarke,  iv.  119-225;  Burck- 
hardt,  p.  332 ;  Buckingham,  Palest  ch.  xxv. ;  Irby 
and  Mangles,  p.  295;  Jowett,  pp.  172-176;  Hardy, 
pp.  237-241 ;  Elliot,  ii.  342-350.) 

(3)  The  Dead  Sea,  called  also  the  Salt  Sea,  the 
Sea  of  Sodom,  and  the  Asphaltic  Lake  (Lacus 
AspMiltites) ,  is  from  its  size  the  most  important, 
and  from  its  history  and  qualities  the  most  re- 
markable, of  all  the  lakes  of  Palestine.  It  was 
long  assumed  that  this  lake  did  not  exist  before 
the  destruction  of  Sodom  and  the  other  'cities 
of  the  plain*  (Gen.  xix)  ;  and  that  before  that 
time  the  present  bed  ot  the  lake  was  a  fertile 
plain,  in  which  these  cities  stood.  It  was  also  con- 
cluded that  the  river  Jordan  then  flowed  through 
this  plain,  and  afterwards  pursued  its  course, 
through  the  great  valley  of  Arabah,  to  the  east-  , 
em  arm  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  careful  observa- 
tions of  Professor  Robinson  have  now,  however, 
rendered  it  more  probable  that  a  lake  which,  as 
now,  received  the  river  Jordan,  existed  here  be- 
fore Sodom  was  destroyed ;  but  that  an  encroach- 
ment of  the  waters,  southward,  then  took  place, 
overwhelming  a  beautiful  and  well-watered  plain 
which  lay  on  the  southern  border  of  the  lake, 
and  on  which  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  Zeboim, 
and  Zoar  were  situated. 

The  Dead  Sea  is  about  thirty-nine  or  forty 
geog^'aphical  miles  long  from  north  to  south,  and 
nine  or  ten  miles  wide  from  east  to  west;  and 
it  lies  embedded  very  deep  between  lofty  cliflFs 
on  the  western  side,  which  are  about  1,500  feet 
high,  and  mountains  on  the  eastern  shore,  the 
highest  ridges  of  which  are  reckoned  to  be  from 
2,000  to  2,500  feet  above  the  water.  The  water 
of  the  lake  is  much  Salter  than  that  of  the  sea. 
From  the  quantity  of  salt  which  the  water  holds 
in  solution  it  is  thick  and  heavy,  and  no  fish  can 
live,  or  marine  plants  grow  in  it.  The  old  stories 
about  the  pestiferous  qualities  of  the  Dead  Sea 
and  its  waters  are  mere  fables  or  delusions ;  and 
actual  appearances  are  the  natural  and  obvious 
effects  of  the  confined  and  deep  situation,  the  in- 
tense heat,  and  the  uncommon  saltness  of  the 
waters.  Lying  in  its  deep  caldron,  surrounded 
by  lofty  cliffs  of  naked  limestone  rock,  exposed 
for  seven  or  eight  months  in  the  year  to  the  un- 
clouded beams  of  a  burning  sun,  nothing  but 
sterility  and  solitude  can  be  looked  for  upon  its 
fhores;  and  nothing  else  is  actually  found,  ex- 


cept in  those  parts  where  there  are  fountains  or 
streams  of  fresh  water;  in  all  which  places  there 
is  a  fertile  soil  and  abundant  vegetation.  Birds 
also  abound,  and  they  are  observed  to  fly  over 
and  across  the  sea  without  being,  as  old  stories 
teil,  injured  or  killed  by  its  exhalations. 

On  the  borders  of  this  lake  is  found  much 
sulphur,  in  pieces  as  large  as  walnuts,  and  even 
larger.  There  is  also  a  black  shining  stone,  which 
will  partly  burn  in  the  fire,  and  which  then  emits 
a  bituminous  smell:  this  is  the  'stink-stone'  of 
Burckhardt.  At  Jerusalem  it  is  made  into  rosaries 
and  toys,  of  which  great  quantities  are  sold  to 
the  pilgrims  who  visit  the  sacred  places.  An- 
other remarkable  production  found  here,  from 
which,  indeed,  the  lake  takes  one  of  its  names, 
is  asphaltum,  or  bitumen.  Josephus  says,  that  'the 
sea  in  many  places  sends  up  black  masses  of 
asphaltum,  which  float  upon  the  surface,  having 
the  size  and  shape  of  headless  oxen'  (De  Bell. 
Jud,  iv.  8,  4).  From  recent  information  it  ap- 
pears that  large  masses  are  rarely  found,  and  then 
generally  after  earthquakes.  The  substance  is 
doubtless  produced  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea, 
in  which  it  coagulates,  and  rises  to  the  surface; 
or  possibly  the  coagulation  may  have  been  ancient, 
and  the  substance  adheres  to  the  bottom  until 
detached  by  earthquakes  and  other  convulsions, 
when  its  buoyancy  brings  it  to  the  surface.  We 
know  that  'the  vale  of  Siddim*  (Gen.  xiv:io) 
was  anciently  'full  of  slime  pits*  or  sources  of 
bitumen;  and  these,  now  under  the  water,  proba- 
bly supply  the  asphaltum  which  is  found  on  such 
occasions.  It  has  just  been  stated  (June,  1901) 
that  a  marked  rise  in  the  level  of  the  Dead  Sea 
has  been  noted.  A  broad  lagoon  has  been  formed 
On  the  north  side  of  the  Jordan  delta.  The  water 
does  not  sink  as  usual  and  it  is  surmised  that  the 
whole  bottom  of  the  sea  has  been  raised  by  vol- 
canic action  (Nau,  pp.  577,  578;  Morison,  ch.  xxx: 
Shaw,  ii.  157,  158;  Hasselquist,  pp.  130,  131,  284; 
Irby  and  Manrfes,  pp.  351-356;  346-359;  Hardy, 
pp.  201,  204;  Monro,  i.  145-148;  Elliot,  ii.  479- 
486;  Wilde,  ii. ;  Lindsay,  ii.  64-66;  Stephens,  ii. 
ch.  IS ;  Paxton,  pp.  159-163 ;  Robinson,  ii.  204-239, 
601-608;  661-677;  Schubert,  iii.  84-92;  Olin,  ii. 
234-245).     (See  Dead  Sea,  The.) 

11.  Ciimate  and  Seasons.  The  varia- 
tions of  sunshine  and  rain,  which  with  us  ex- 
tend throughout  the  year,  are  in  Palestine  con- 
fined chiefly  to  the  latter  part  of  autumn  and  the 
winter.  During  all  the  rest  of  the  year  the  sky 
is  almost  uninterruptedly  cloudless,  and  rain  very 
rarely  falls. 

The  autumnal  rains  usually  commence  at  the 
latter  end  of  October,  or  beginning  of  November, 
not  suddenly,  but  by  degrees ;  which  gives  oppor- 
tunity to  the  husbandman  to  sow  his  wheat  and 
barley.  The  rains  come  mostly  from  the  west 
(Luke  xii:54)  and  southwest,  and  continue  for 
two  or  three  days  at  a  time,  falling  chiefly  in  the 
night ;  the  wind  then  changes  to  the  north  or  east, 
and  several  days  of  fine  weather  succeed.  During 
the  months  of  November  and  December  the  rains 
continue  to  fall  heavily;  afterwards  they  return 
at  longer  intervals,  and  are  not  so  heavy;  but 
at  no  period  during  the  winter  do  they  entirely 
cease  to  occur.  Rain  continues  to  fall  more  or 
less  during  the  month  of  March,  but  is  afterwards 
very  rare.  Morning  mists  occur  as  late  as  May, 
but  rain  almost  never.  Rain  in  the  time  of  har- 
vest was  as  incomprehensible  to  an  ancient  Jew 
as  snow  in  summer  (Prov.  xxvi:i;  i  Sam.  xii: 
17 ;  Amos  iv  7) .  The  'early'  and  the  latter'  rains, 
for  which  the  Jewish  husbandmen  waited  with 
longing  (Prov.  xvi:i5;  James  v:7),  seem  to  have 


PALESTINE 


1280 


PALESTINE 


been  the  first  showers  of  autumn,  which  revived 
the  parched  and  thirsty  soil,  and  prepared  it  for 
the  seed;  and  the  later  showers  of  spring,  which 
continued  to  refresh  and  forward  the  ripening 
crops  and  the  vernal  products  of  the  fields. 

The  cold  of  winter  is  not  severe,  and  the  ground 
is  never  frozen.  Snow  falls  more  or  less.  In  the 
low-lying  plains  but  little  falls,  and  it  disappears 
early  in  the  day ;  in  the  higher  lands,  as  at  Jeru- 
salem, it  often  falls,  chiefly  in  January  and  Feb- 
ruary, to  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  more;  but  even 
there  it  does  not  lie  long  on  the  ground.  Thunder 
and  lightning  are  frequent  in  the  winter. 

In  the  plains  and  valleys  the  heat  of  summer 
is  oppressive,  but  not  in  the  more  elevated  tracts, 
as  at  Jerusalem,  except  when  the  south  wind, 
sirocco,  blows  (Luke  xii:55).  In  such  high 
GH'ounds  the  nights  are  cool,  often  with  heavy 
dew.  The  total  absence  of  rain  in  summer  soon 
destroys  the  verdure  of  the  fields,  and  gives  to 
the  general  landscape,  even  in  the  high  country, 
an  aspect  of  drought  and  barrenness.  No  gretn 
thing  remains  but  the  foliage  of  the  scattered 
fruit-trees,  and  occasional  vineyards  and  fields  of 
millet.  In  autumn  the  whole  land  becomes  dry 
and  parched;  the  cisterns  are  nearly  empty,  and 
all  nature,  animate  and  inanimate,  looks  forward 
with  longing  for  the  return  of  the  rainy  season. 

In  the  hill  country  the  season  of  harvest  is 
later  than  in  the  plains  of  the  Jordan  and  of 
the  seacoast.  The  barley  harvest  is  about  a  fort- 
night earlier  than  that  of  wheat.  In  the  plain  of 
the  Jordan  the  wheat  harvest  is  early  in  May; 
in  the  plains  of  the  coast  and  of  Esdraelon  it 
is  towards  the  latter  end  of  that  month;  and  in 
the  hills,  not  until  June.  The  general  vintage  is 
in  September,  but  the  first  grapes  ripen  in  July, 
and  from  that  time  the  towns  are  well  supplied 
with  this  fruit. 

In  the  Biblical  narrative  only  two  seasons  of 
the  year,  summer  and  winter,  are  directly  men- 
tioned. Among  many  Oriental  nations,  as  the 
Hindus  and  Arabians,  the  year  has  six  seasons. 
The  Talmud  (Bava  Mezia,  p.  io6.  2)  exhibits  a 
similar  arrangement,  which  in  this  case  appears 
to  have  been  founded  on  Gen.  viii  :22,  'While  the 
earth  remaineth,  seedtime  and  harvest,  and  cold 
and  heat,  and  summer  and  winter,  shall  not  cease.' 
This  is  the  only  passage  of  Scripture  which  can 
be  construed  to  have  reference  to  any  such  di- 
vision of  the  seasons,  and  in  this  it  is  not  very 
clear.  But  if  such  a  distribution  of  the  seasons 
ever  existed,  the  following  would  seem  to  have 
been  its  arrangement : 

(1)  Seedtime;  15th  October  to  15th  December. 

(2)  Winter;  15th  December  to  15th  February. 

(3)  Cold;  icth  February  to  15th  April. 

(4)  Harvest;  15th  April  to  15th  June. 
(6)  Heat;  15th  June  to  15th  August. 

(6)  Suxnnier;  15th  August  to  15th  October. 

The  climate  of  Palestine  has  always  been  con- 
sidered healthy,  and  the  inhabitants  have  for  the 
most  part  lived  to  a  good  old  age  (Tacit.  Hist, 
V.  6).  Jerusalem,  in  particular,  from  its  great 
elevation,  clear  sky  and  invigorating  atmosphere, 
should  be  a  healthy  place,  and  so  it  is  generally 
esteemed;  but  the  plague  frequently  appears 
among  its  ill-fed  and  uncleanly  population;  and 
bilious  fevers,  the  result  of  great  and  sudden 
vicissitudes  of  temperature,  are  more  common 
than  might  be  expected  in  such  a  situation.  (Schu- 
bert, Morgenland,  iii.  106 ;  Olin,  ii.  333 ;  Robinson, 
ii.  96-100;  KalthoflF,  Hebr,  Alterthum,  pp.  42-46; 
Bibliotheca  Sacra,  Feb.  1844,  pp.  221-224.) 

12.  Inhabitants.  Under  this  head  we  pre- 
sent the  reader  with  the  following  observations 


of  Dr.  Olin  (Travels,  ii,  438,  439)  :  "The  inhab- 
itants of  Palestine  are  Arabs;  that  is,  they 
speak  the  Arabic,  though,  with  slight  exceptions, 
they  are  probably  all  descendants  of  the  old  in- 
habitants of  Syria.  They  are  a  fine,  spirited  race 
of  men,  and  have  given  Mohammed  Ali  much 
trouble  in  subduing  them,  and  still  more  in  retain- 
ing them  in  subjection.  They  are  said  to  be  in- 
dustrious for  Orientals,  and  to  have  the  right  ele- 
ments for  becoming,  under  better  auspices,  a 
civilized,  intellectual  nation.  I  believe,  however, 
it  will  be  found  impracticable  to  raise  any  people 
to  a  respectable  social  and  moral  state  under  a 
Turkish  or  Egyptian,  or  any  other  Mohammedan 
government.  The  inherent  vices  of  the  religiotts 
system  enter,  and,  from  their  unavoidable  con- 
nections must  enter,  so  deeply  into  the  political 
administration  that  any  reform  in  government 
or  improvement  in  the  people,  beyond  temporary 
alleviations  of  evils  too  pressing  to  be  endured, 
cannot  reasonably  be  expected.  The  Turks  and 
Syrians  are  about  the  maximum  of  the  civiliza- 
tion possible  to  Mohammedans  of  the  present 
time.  The  mercantile  class  is  said  to  be  little  re- 
spected, and  generally  to  lack  integrity.  Veracity 
is  held  very  lightly  by  all  classes.  The  people 
are  commonly  temperate  and  frugal,  which  may 
be  denominated  Oriental  virtues.  Their  situation, 
with  regard  to  the  physical  means  of  comfort 
and  subsistence,  is,  in  many  respects,  favorable, 
and  under  a  tolerable  government  would  be  al- 
most unequaled.  As  it  is,  the  Syrian  peasant  and 
his  family  fare  much  better  than  the  laboring 
classes  of  Europe.  The  mildness  of  the  climate, 
the  abundance  of  land  and  its  fertility,  with  the 
free  and  luxuriant  pasturage  that  covers  the 
mountains  and  the  plains,  render  it  nearly  im- 
possible that  the  peasant  should  not  be  well  sup- 
plied with  bread,  fruit,  meat,  and  milk.  The  peo- 
ple almost  always  appear  well  clothed.  Their 
houses,  too,  though  often  of  a  slight  construction 
and  mean  appearance,  must  be  pronounced  com- 
modious when  compared  with  the  dark,  crowded 
apartments  usually  occupied  by  the  corresponding 
Classes  in   Europe.     Agricultural  wages  vary  a 

food  deal  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  but 
had  reason  to  conclude  that  the  average  was 
not  less  than  fourteen  to  eighteen  cents  per  day." 
With  all  these  advantages  population  is  on  the  de- 
cline, arising  from  polygamy,  military  conscrip- 
tion, unequal  and  o^ressive  taxation,  forced  la- 
bor, general  insecurity  of  property,  the  discour- 
agement of  industry,  and  the  plague. 

13.  Botanp.  (1)  The  Olive.  The  olive  cer- 
tainly was,  and  still  continues  to  be,  the  chief  of 
all  the  trees  of  Palestine,  which  seems  to  be  its 
natural  home.  'Never,'  says  Schubert,  'have  I  any- 
where beheld  such  ancient  olive  trees  as  here.  But 
the  plantations  might  be  more  extensive,  and  the 
produce  more  profitable,  were  they  tended  by  such 
careful  and  diligent  hands  as  those  of  Provence. 
Excellent  oil  is  obtained  from  the  fruit/ 

(2)  Figfl.  But  although  the  pre-eminence 
among  the  trees  of  Palestine  must  be  assigned 
to  the  olive,  fig  trees  also  occur  in  great  num- 
bers, and  the  plantations  sometimes  cover  large 
tracts  which  the  eye  can  scarcely  embrace.  This 
sight  is  most  common  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Jabrut,  in  the  hills  between  Bir  and  Sinjil.  The 
fruit  has  a  peculiarly  pleasant  flavor,  and  an 
aromatic  sweetness,  but  is  generally  smaller  than 
that  of  Smyrna. 

(8)  Grapes.  As  t<^  the  vine,  which  is  now 
only  found  in  some  districts  of  Palestine,  it  is  not 
surpassed  by  any  on  earth  for  the  strength  of  its 


PALESTINE 


1281 


PALESTINE 


juice,  and — ^at  least  in  the  southern  mountains — 
for  the  size  and  abundance  of  the  grapes. 

(4)  Other  Fruits.  The  first  tree  whose  blossoms 
appear  prior  to  the  period  of  the  latter  rains,  and 
open  in  the  very  deep  valleys  before  the  cold 
days  of  February  set  in,  as  the  Lus  or  almond 
tree.  In  March  the  fruit  trees  are  in  blossom, 
among  which  are  the  apricot,  the  apple,  and  the 
pear. 

(6)  Flowers.  In  April  the  purple  of  the  pome- 
granate flowers  combines  with  the  white  of  the 
myrtle  blossoms ;  and  at  the  same  period  the  roses 
of  the  country,  and  the  variegated  ladanes  (Cis- 
tus),  the  zukkim  tree  (Elaagnus  angustifolius), 
the  storax  tree,  whose  flowers  resemble  those  of 
the  German  jasmine  {Philadelphus  coronarius), 
emit  their  fragrant  odors. 

(6)  Trees.  The  palm-tree,  the  symbol  of  vic- 
tory, has  been  removed  from  its  place ;  and  of  the 
famous  palm  groves  of  Jericho  very  few  traces 
now  remain. 

The  tall  cypress  exists  in  Palestine  only  as 
cultivated  by  man,  in  gardens,  in  cemeteries, 
and  other  open  places  of  towns.  But  as  the 
spontaneous  growth  of  the  country,  we  find  upon 
the  heights  and  swelling  hills  the  azarole 
{Crat(egus  asarolus),  the  walnut  tree,  the  arbutus, 
or  strawberry  tree,  the  laurel  tree,  the  laures- 
linus,  species  of  the  pistachio  and  terebinth  trees, 
of  evergreen  oaks,  and  of  the  rhamnus  of  the 
size  of  trees  and  shrubs,  the  cedrine  juniper  tree, 
and  some  sorts  of  thymelaeus;  while  on  the  for- 
merly wooded  heights  various  kinds  of  pine  trees, 
large  and  small,  still  maintain  their  ground.  The 
sycamore,  the  carob  trees,  and  the  opuntia  fig 
trees,  are  only  found  as  objects  of  cultivation  in 
or  near  towns ;  and  orchards  of  orange  and  lemon 
trees  occur  chiefly  in  the  neighborhood  of  Na- 
bulus.     (See  Shechem.)  . 

(7)  Grains.  The  various  kinds  of  grain  grow 
spontaneously  in  great  plenty  in  many  districts, 
chiefly  in  the  plains  of  Jezreel  and  the  heights  of 
Galilee,  being  the  wild  progeny  of  formerly  cul- 
tivated fields,  and  bearing  testimony  by  their 
presence  to  the  fitness  of  the  soil  for  the  pro- 
duction of  grain.  In  addition  to  wheat  and  bar- 
ley, among  this  wild  growth,  the  common  rye 
was  often  seen.  The  present  course  of  agriculture, 
which  is  but  carelessly  practiced,  comprises  nearly 
the  same  kinds  of  grain  which  are  grown  in 
Egypt.  Fields  are  seen  covered  with  summer 
dhurah  (dhurah  gaydi),  the  common  dhurah 
(dhurah  say f eh),  and  the  autumnal  dhurah 
(dhurah  dimiri),  all  of  which  are  varieties  of  the 
Holcus  sorghum.  Maize  (kumh),  spelt,  and  bar- 
ley (schayir)f  thrive  everywhere;  and  rice  (arus) 
is  produced  on  the  Upper  Jordan  and  the  marshy 
borders  of  the  lake  Merom.  Upon  the  Jordan, 
near  Jacob's  bridge,  may  be  seen  fine  tall  speci- 
mens of  the  papyrus  reed. 

(8)  Vegetables.  Of  pulse  the  inhabitants  grow 
the  hommos  or  chick  pea  (Cicer  arietanum),  the 
fool  or  Egyptian  bean  (KiWo  faba),  the  gishrun- 
gayga  (Phaseolus  Mungo),  the  gilban  (Lathyrus 
sativus),  together  with  the  ads  or  lentil,  and  the 
bisilleh  or  peas  (Pisum  arvense).  Of  esculent 
vegetables,  the  produce  of  the  various  species  of 
hibiscus  are  much  liked  and  cultivated,  particu- 
larly the  bamia  towileh  (Hibiscus  esculentus), 
the  bamia  beledi,  or  wayka  (Hibiscus  pracox). 
In  some  places  the  Christian  inhabitants  or  Franks 
are  endeavoring  to  introduce  the  potato,  which 
the  natives  call  kolkas  Franschi.  In  the  garden 
of  the  monasteries  the  kharschuf  or  artichoke  is 
very  common,  as  is  also  the  khus  or  salad ;  in  most 

81 


districts,  as  about  Nabulus  (Shechem),  the  wa- 
termelon (batikh)  and  cucumber  (khiar)  are 
conunon. 

(9)  Textiles.  Hemp  (bust)  is  more  commonly 
grown  in  Palestine  than  flax  (kettan)  ;  and  in 
favorable  localities  cotton  (kotn)  is  cultivated, 
and  also  madder  (fuah,  Rubia  tinctorum)  for 
dyeing. 

14.  Zoology*  Herds  of  black  cattle  are  now 
but  rarely  seen  in  Palestine. 

(1)  The  Ox.  The  ox  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Jerusalem  is  small  and  unsightly,  and  beef  or 
veal  is  but  rarely  eaten.  But  on  the  Upper  Jor- 
dan, and  in  the  vicinity  of  Tabor  and  Nazareth, 
and  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan  on  the  way  from 
Jacob's  bridge  to  Damascus,  the  ox  thrives  better 
and  is  more  frequently  seen.  The  buffalo  thrives 
upon  the  coast,  and  is  there  equal  in  size  and 
strength  to  the  buffalo  of  Egypt. 

(2)  Sheep  and  Goats.  Sheep  and  goats  are 
still  seen  in  great  numbers  in  all  parts  of  the 
country:  their  flesh  and  milk  serve  for  daily 
food,  and  their  wool  and  hair  for  clothing.  The 
common  sort  of  sheep  in  Palestine  manifest  the 
tendency  to  form  a  fat  and  large  tail.  The  long- 
eared  Syrian  goat  is  furnished  with  hair  of  con- 
siderable fineness,  but  seemingly  not  so  fine  as 
that  of  the  same  species  of  goat  in  Asia  Minor. 

(3)  Fallow  Deer.  Of  animals  of  the  deer 
kind,  Schubert  saw  only  the  female  of  the  fal- 
low deer,  and  this  was  in  the  same  district  in 
which  Hasselquist  also  met  with  fallow  deer, 
namely,  on  Mount  Tabor. 

(4)  Antelope.  On  another  occasion  Schubert 
thought  that  he  discovered  deer  upon  the  moun- 
tain top;  but,  on  a  closer  view,  deemed  it  more 
probable  that  they  were  the  native  brown  antelope 
(A.  hinnuleus) ;  for  of  the  antelopes  several  spe- 
cies are  met  with  in  the  country.  Camels  are  not 
reared  to  any  extent  worth  mentioning. 

(5)  Horses  and  Mules.  Palestine  cannot  boast 
of  its  native  breed  of  horses,  although  fine  ani- 
mals of  beautiful  shape,  and  apparently  of  high 
Arabian  race,  are  not  un frequently  seen.  The 
ass  of  the  country  scarcely  takes  higher  relative 
rank  than  the  horse;  asses  and  mules  are  still, 
however,  much  used  for  riding,  as  they  afford 
a  means  of  locomotion  well  suited  to  the  diffi- 
cult mountain  paths  of  the  country. 

(6)  Other  Animals.  Boars  (khansie)  are 
very  often  observed  upon  Mount  Tabor  and  the 
Lesser  Hermon,  as  well  as  on  the  woody  slopes 
of  Mount  Carmel.  Among  indigenous  animals  of 
the  genus  felts,  we  may  however  name  the  com- 
mon panther  (nimr)  which  is  found  among  the 
mountains  of  central  Palestine ;  and  in  the  genus 
canis  there  is  the  small  Abul  Hhosseyn,  or  Canis 
famelicus,  and  a  kind  of  large  fox  (Canis 
Syriacus),  which  our  traveler  did  not  himself 
see,  but  supposed  to  be  denoted  by  the  word 
taleb.  In  addition  to  these  is  the  jackal  (dibb), 
which  is  very  injurious  to  the  flocks.  The  hyena 
(sabue)  is  found  chiefly  in  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan,  and  in  the  mountains  around  the  lake 
of  Tiberias,  but  is  also  occasionally  seen  in  other 
districts  of  Palestine. 

Bears  have  been  killed  in  the  Anti-Libanus,  not 
far  from  Damascus.  The  hides  had  more  re- 
semblance to  that  of  the  common  brown  bear 
than  to  that  of  the  bear  described  by  Ehrenberg 
under  the  name  of  Ursus  Syriacus.  A  hedgehog 
was  procured  near  Bethlehem,  which  was  found 
to  resemble  the  common  European  animal,  and 
not  to  be  the  long-eared  Egyptian  species.    The 


PALLU  1! 

native  ameb  or  hare  is  the  same  as  the  Arabian. 
The  porcupine  is  frequently  found  in  ihe  clefts 
of  the  rocks. 

(7)  Birds.  Among  the  larger  birds  of  prey 
Schubert  often  saw  the  common  cathartes  or  vul- 
ture (C  percnopterus),  and  ihe  kedy  or  kite. 
The  native  wild  dove,  called  ktmri,  differs  not 
perceptibly  from  our  own  species,  which  is  also 
the  case  with  the  shrikes,  crows,  rollers,  and 
other  species  found  in  Palestine. 

(8)  Serpents.  Serpents  are  rare,  and  none  of 
those  which  have  been  observed  are  poisonous. 

(9)  Insects.  Among  the  insects  the  bee  is  the 
most  conspicuous.  Mosquitoes  arc  somewhat 
troublesome,  but  not  at  ihe  time  of  the  year  in 
which  Schubert  traveled.  Beetles  are  abundant, 
and  of  various  species,  which  our  traveler  does 
not  enumerate,  but  which  are  illustrated  and  de- 
scribed  in   Ehrenberg's  Symbola  Physica. 

IS.  Literatara,  From  the  almost  innumer- 
able works  on  Palestine  a  few  of  the  more  prom- 
inent are  herewith  subjoined;  Travels  in  Syria 
and  the  Holy  Land,  by  Burckhardt  (1822) ;  llgypt. 
Nubia,  Syria,  and  Asia  Minor,  by  Irby  and  Man- 
gles (1822);  Biblical  Researches,  by  Robinson 
(1838-1841,  and  1856)  ;  Lands  of  the  Bible  Vi^Ud 
and  Described,  by  John  Wilson  (1847)  ;  Physical 
Geography  of  Palestine,  by  Robinson  (1865}  ;  Ex- 
pedition to  the  Dead  Sea  and  Jordan,  by  Lynch 
(1849)  ;  Sinai  and  Palestine,  by  Stanley  (1857)  ; 
The  Land  and  the  Book,  by  Thomson  ( 1859, 
and  new  edition,  1880)  ;  Narrative  of  a  Jour- 
ney through  Syria  and  Palestine,  by  Van 
de  Velde  (1858  and  1865);  Rob  Roy  on  the 
Jordan,  by  Macgregor  ( 1870)  ;  Land  of  Israel, 
by  Tristram  (1865);  Natural  History  of  the 
Bible,  by  Tristram  { 1867)  ;  Land  of  Moab. 
by  Tristram  (187.3);  Geography  of  Palestine. 
Ritter,  translated  by  Gage  (1866);  Damascus 
and  Giant  Cities  of  Bashan,  bv  Porter  (1855- 
1865)  ;  Handbook  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  by  Mur- 
ray (1875);  Bible  Educator,  by  Plumptre  (1873- 
187s)  ;  Handbook  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  by 
Baedeker  (1876)  ;  Bible  Lands,  their  Modern  Cus- 
toms, etc.,  by  Van  Lennep  (1875);  Quarterlies 
Palestine  Exploration  Fund  (organized,  1865- 
1880)  ;  American  Palestine  Exploration  Society's 
Statements  (1871-1877):  Our  Work  in  Palestine 
(1875) ;  Through  Bible  Lands,  by  Schaff  (1878)  ; 
Tent-work  in  Palestine,  by  Conder  (1878)  ;  From 
Egypt  to  Palestine,  by  Bartletl  (1879);  Hand- 
book to  Ihe  Bible,  by  F.  R,  and  C.  R.  Conder 
(1879) ;  Sheet  Maps  and  Memoirs  of  the  Pales- 
tine Expioralion  Fund  (1880);  Kiiio's  Pictorial 
History  and  Physical  Geography  of  Palestine 
(_i84l_)  -^  Schwari,  A  Descriptive  Geag.  of  Pales- 


K  PALSY 

FAI.KER-WOBH  (pam'er-wfirm'),  (Heb.  0,'l, 
gaw-zawm' ,    palmer-worm,    caterpillar,  creeping 

locust  J. 

Probably  a  kind  of  locust  which  devoured  vines, 
fig  trees,  and  green  things  generally.  The  He- 
brew word  as  above  is  gaw-zatvm'  (Joel  1:4;  ii: 
25;  Amos  ivig).  Its  root  signifies  to  cut  off. 
It  has  not  been  identified.    (See  Locust.) 

FALH  TREE  (pam'  Ire'),  (Heb.  ''^,  ia^ 
mawr',  ercci;  Gr.  ^*ii,  foy' nixY  For  botanical 
treatment  see  article  Tamar. 

figurative.  (l)  As  "fia/m  trees"  were 
accounted  symbols  of  victory,  branches  of  palm 
were  carried  before  conquerors  in  Iheir  triumphs ; 
and,  in  allusion  hereto,  the  saints  are  said  to  have 
"palms  in  their  hands"  to  denote  iheir  victory 
over  sin,  Satan,  the  world,  the  persecutions  of 
Antichrist,  etc.  (Rev.  vii:9).  (2)  To  mark  their 
constant  perseverance,  heavenly  and  upright  dis- 
position, their  necessity  of  fellowship  with  Christ, 
their  spiritual  beauty,  and  fruitfulness  in  good 
works,  and  their  certain  victory  over  all  enemies, 
they  are  compared  to  "palm  trees"  (Ps.  xcii;l2; 
Cant.  vii:7).  {3)  To  represent  them  in  their 
connections  with  angels  and  ministers,  there  were 
figures  of  "palm  trees,"  and  cherubims  alternately 
mingled  in  Solomon's  temple,  and  in  E^ekiel's 
visionary  one  (l  Kings  vi:29;  Ezek.  xl:l6).  (4) 
Idols  were  upright  as  the  "palm  tree";  ihey  could 
make  no  motion ;  but  merely  stand,  like  so  many 
erect  logs  of  wood  (Jer.  x:5).  (5)  The  primitive 
Church  used  the  palm  to  express  the  triumph  of 
the  Christian  over  death  through  the  resurrection; 
and  on  the  tombs  the  palm  is  generalljr  accom- 
panied by  the  monogram  of  Christ,  signifying 
that  every  victory  of  the  Christian  is  due  to  this 
Divine  name  and  sign.  The  palm  is  especially 
the  sign  of  martyrdom,  as  this  was  considered 
in  Ihe  light  of  victory. 


PAUCiTJ  (pai'lu),  (Heb.  "''^E,  pal-loo\  distin- 
guished, wonderful),  second  son  of  Reuben,  and 
head  of  a  family  (Gen.  xlviig;  Ex.  vl:i4;  Num. 
xxviis,  8;  I  Chron.  ¥:3),  B.  C.  about  870. 

PALLUITES  (pai'lu-ites),  (Heb.  "^Vf?,  ha-Pal- 
loo-ee',  the  Pallui),  descendants  of  Pallu,  of  the 
tribe  of  Reuben  (Num.  xxvi:;). 

PALU  (pam),  (Heb.  IS.  kaf,  hollow  or  curved; 
Gr.  piruriia,  hrap'is-mak,  a  blow  with  the  falm), 
a  general  term  for  the  hand,  both  literally  and  fig- 
uratively (Ezek.  xxi:i6;  Is.  xlix:i6),  as  well  as 
for  the  palms  only  (Lev.  xlv:26;  Dan.  x:io).  It 
is  used  also  in  the  accounts  of  our  Lord's  trial 
before  the  high-priest  (Matt,  xxvi:67;  Mark  xiv; 
65;  John  xviii:22). 


PAXST  (pal'zj),  (Gr.  rr^oKiofa.i.  par-a-loo'om- 
at,  to  be  paralytic,  paralyied). 

A  disease,  or  raihcr  a  series  of  morbid  symp- 
toms, distinguished  by  partial  or  total  loss  of 
sensibility,  motion,  or  both,  in  one  or  more  parti 


PALTI 


1283 


PARABLE 


of  the  body  (Mark  ii:3,  9-12;  Acts  ix:33-35). 
It  is  produced  by  disease  of  the  brain,  the  spinal 
cord,  or  particular  nerves.    (See  Plague.) 

PALTI  (pai'ti),  (Hcb.  ^^)i,  pal'Ue\  Jah  de- 
livers). 

1*  Son  of  Raphu,  and  a  spy  representing  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin  in  the  investigation  of  the 
Promised  Land  (Num.  xiii:9).    (B.  C.  1657.) 

2.  A  man  to  whom  Saul  gave  Michal,  David's 
wife.  She  was  later  restored  to  David  (i  Sam. 
XXV  .'44;  2  Sam.  iii:i5). 

PALTTBL  (pil'ti-el),  (Heb.  ^^^^^l ,  pal-Ue-ale', 
God  delivers). 

A  son  of  Azzan,  and  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Is- 
sachar.  He  was  one  of  those  appointed  to  ap- 
portion the  Promised  Land  among  the  tribes 
(Num.  xxxiv:26).    B.  C.  1618.    (See  Phaltiel.) 

PALTTTE  (p&l'tlte),  (Heb.  ^^)\X^,  ha-pal'Ue\ 
the  Palti). 

The  appellation  of  Helez,  one  of  David's  war- 
riors (2  Sam.  xxiii:26).  He  is  called  the  "Pelo- 
nite"  (i  Chron.  xi:27),  which  is  probably  the  cor- 
rect reading. 

PAMPHYLIA  (p&m-phj^ri-i),  (Gr.  Tia.ii4^vM9., 
Pam-fool-ee' aht  of  every  race),  a  province  in  the 
southern  part  of  Asia  Minor,  havmg  the  Medi- 
terranean on  the  south,  Cilicia  on  the  east,  Pisidia 
on  the  north  and  Lycia  on  the  west. 

It  was  nearly  opposite  the  island  of  Csrprus; 
and  the  sea  between  the  coast  and  the  island  is 
called  in  Acts  the  sea  of  Pamphylia.  The  chief 
cities  of  this  province  were  Perga  and  Attalia. 
Christianity  was  probably  first  preached  in  this 
country  by  some  of  the  Jewish  proselytes  who 
were  converted  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts 
ii:io;  xv:38).  It  was  afterwards  visited  by  Paul 
and  Barnabas  (Acts  xiii:i3). 

PAN  (p^).  Several  words  in  the  original  are 
translated  pan. 

1.  Kee-yore*  (Heb.  ^  *9  or  ^^9),  a  basin  of  metal 

used  for  boiling  or  stewing  (i  Sam.  ii:i4),  trans- 
lated laver  (Exod.  xxx:i8).  It  was  also  used  as  a 
brazier  for  carrying  fire  (^ech.  xii:6,  A.  V.  hearth). 

%.  Makh-ab-ath*  (Heb.   f^3n;».)  a    frying  pan, 

(Lev.  ii:5,  vi:2i;  viiiQ;  i  Cliron.  3dxiii:29),  prob- 
ably a  shallow  pan^  gn'iddle  or  plate  such  as  are 
used  by  the  Bedouins  and  Syrians  for  baking  or 
dressing  rapidly  their  meal  cakes. 

8.  Mas-rayth'  (Heb.  f^.*?^?,  scooped  or  hollowed 

out),  a  frying  or  saucepan  (2  Sam.  xiii:9),  (etymol- 
ogy uncertain). 

4.  Seer  (Heb.  ^"*P),  a  large  pot,  (2  Kings  iv:38; 

comp.  Exod.  xxvii:3).    See  Food. 

PANKAG    (pin'nij),    (Heb.    ^i%    pan-nag*), 

occurs  only  once  in  Scripture,  but  so  much  uncer- 
tainty exists  respecting  the  meaning  of  the  word, 
that  in  many  translations,  as,  for  mstance,  in  the 
Authorized  English  Version,  the  original  is  re- 
tained. 

Thus  in  the  account  of  the  commerce  of  Tyre, 
it  is  stated  in  Ezek.  xxvii:i7,  'Judah  and  the  land 
of  Israel,  they  were  thy  merchants;  they  traded 
in  thy  markets  wlieat  of  Minnith,  and  Pannag, 
and  oil,  and  honey,  and  balm'  (tzeri,  translated 
also  rosin  in  the  margin  of  the  English  Bible). 
From  the  context  it  is  evident  tha^  wheat,  oil, 
and  honey,  that  is,  the  products  of  their  country 
as  an  agn'icultural  territory,  were  conveyed  by  Ju- 
dah  and  Israel  as  articles  of  traffic  to  the  mer- 
chants and  manufacturers  of  Tyre,  who,  it  is  cer- 


tain, must,  from  their  insular  positicn,  have  ob- 
tained their  chief  articles  of  diet  from  the  neigh- 
boring land  of  Syria.  It  is  probable,  therefore, 
that  pannag  and  tzeri,  whatever  they  may  have 
been,  were  the  produce  of  Palestine,  or  at  least 
of  Syria.  Some  have  considered  pannag  to  in- 
dicate balsam,  others  cassia,  and  some  again  sweet- 
meats, or  confections.  The  Syrian  version,  how- 
ever, translates  pannag  by  the  word  dokhon,  which 
signifies  'millet.'  From  the  conflicting  character 
of  these  opinions  it  seems  that  pannag  must  still 
be  considered  undetermined.  J.  F.  R. 

PAP  (pip).  (Heb.  ^t,  shad,  bulging,  swelling 

out;  Gr.  /uurr^t,  mas-tos'),  the  breast,  especially  of 
a  woman  (Etek.  xxiii:2i ;  Luke  xi:27,  xxiii:29 ; 
Rev.  i:i3). 

(pa'per),  (Gr.  x^^h  khar'tace).    Sec 


Writing. 

PAPEB  REED  ((pa'per  red),  (Heb.  ^H^,  aw- 

raw\  naked),  an  erroneous  rendering  in  the  A.  V. 
of  ^ardh,  nakedness,  probably  referring  to  the 
open  spaces  or  grrassy  tracts  where  reeds  grrow 
(Is.  xix:7).  The  Papyrus  is  doubtless  what  is 
intended. 


(pa'phos),  (Gr.  Ild^of,  paph'os),  a  city 
of  Cyprus,  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  island, 
and  the  seat  of  the  Roman  governor. 

That  officer,  when  Paul  visited  the  place,  was 
named  Sergius  Paulus,  who  was  converted 
through  the  preaching  of  the  Apostle  and  the 
miracle  performed  on  Elymas  (Acts  xiii:6-i3). 
Paphos  was  celebrated  for  a  temple  of  Venus, 
whose  infamous  rites  were  still  practiced  here 
400  years  afterwards,  notwithstanding  the  suc- 
cess of  Paul.  Barnabas,  and  others  in  preaching 
the  gospel.  Paphos  is  now  a  poor  and  inconsid- 
erable place,  but  gives  its  name  to  a  Greek  bishop- 
ric. (Howson,  Life  and  Letters  of  St.  Paul; 
Smith,  Classical  Diet.;  Harper's  Classical  Diet,) 


(p4-pi'riis),    (Heb.    •'^9^  go'meh), 

probably  includes  the  faPyrus,  bulrushes,  club 
rushes,  and  twig  rush,  i.  e.,  plants  of  the  orders 
Juncacea  and  Cyperace<B.    (See  Writing.) 

PABABLE  (par'a-b'l).  The  word  parable  is 
derived  from  irapa/5oXiJ,  par-ab-oh-lay' ,  a  compari- 
son which  comes  from  iropa/SciXXeir,  to  compare,  to 
collate, 

i.  Definition  and  Distinctions,    In  the  New 

Testament  it  is  employed  by  our  translators  as 
the.  rendering  of  rapa^Xi^ ;  in  the  Old  it  answers 

to  ^??,  maw-shawr,    (See  Proverb.) 

(1)  Enigmatical  Saying.  It  denotes  an  ob- 
scure or  enigmatical  saying,  e.  g.,  Ps.  xlix  :4. 

(2)  Fictitious  Narrative.  It  denotes  a  ficti- 
tious narrative,  invented  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
veying truth  in  a  less  offensive  or  more  engaging 
form  than  that  of  direct  assertion.  Of  this  sort 
is  the  parable  by  which  Nathan  reproved  David 
(2  Sam.  xii:2,  3),  that  in  which  Jotham  exposed 
the  folly  of  the  Shechemites  (Judg.  1x7-15), 
and  that  addressed  by  Jehoash  to  Amaziah  (2 
Kings  xiv:9,  10).  To  this  class  also  belong  the 
parables  of  CHirist. 

(3)  Figurative  Discourse.  Any  discourse  ex- 
pressed in  figurative,  poetical,  or  highly  orna- 
mented diction  is  called  a  parable.  Thus  it  is 
said,  'Balaam  took  up  his  parable*  (Num.  xxiii: 
7)  ;  and,  'Job  continued  his  parable*  (Job  xxvii : 
i).  In  the  New  Testament  the  word  seems  to 
have  a  more  restricted  signification,  being  gen- 
erally employed  in  the  second  sense  mentioned 


PARABLE 


1284 


PARADISE 


*  • 


above,  viz.,  to  denote  a  fictitious  narrative,  under 
which  is  veiled  some  important  truth. 

(4)  Essentially  True  Narratives.  It  has  been 

supposed,  indeed,  that  some  of  the  parables  ut- 
tered by  our  Savior  narrate  real  and  not  fic- 
titious events;  but  whether  this  was  the  case  or 
not  is  a  point  of  no  consequence.  Each  of  his 
parables  was  essentially  true;  it  was  true  to  hu- 
man nature,  and  nothing  more  was  necessary. 
Another  meaning  which  the  word  occasionally 
bears  in  the  New  Testament  is  that  of  a  t^pe  or 
emd/em,  as  in  Heb.  ix:g,  where  wapapoXi^  is  ren- 
dered in  our  version  Jij^re, 

(5)  Excellence  of  the  Parable.  The  excel- 
lence of  a  parable  depends  on  the  propriety  and 
force  of  the  comparison  on  which  it  is  founded; 
on  the  general  fitness  and  harmony  of  its  parts; 
on  the  obviousness  of  its  main  scope  or  design; 
on  the  beauty  and  conciseness  of  the  style  in 
which  it  is  expressed;  and  on  its  adaptation  to 
the  circumstances  and  capacities  of  the  hearers. 
If  the  illustration  is  drawn  from  an  object  obscure 
or  little  known,  it  will  throw  no  light  on  the  point 
to  be  illustrated.  If  the  resemblance  is  forced 
and  inobvious,  the  mind  is  perplexed  and  disap- 
pointed in  seeking  for  it.  We  must  be  careful, 
however,  not  to  insist  on  too  minute  a  corre- 
spondence of  the  objects  compared.  It  is  not  to 
be  expected  that  the  resemblance  will  hold  good 
in  every  particular;  non  enim  res  tota  rei  toti 
nccesse  est  similis  sit,  says  Cicero ;  but  it  is  suffi- 
cient if  the  agreement  exists  in  those  points  on 
which  the  main  scope  of  the  parable  depends. 
If  we  test  the  parables  of  the  Old  Testament 
by  the  rules  above  laid  down,  we  shall  not  find 
them  wanting  in  any  excellence  belonging  to  this 
species  of  composition.  What  can  be  more  forci- 
ble, more  persuasive,  and  more  beautiful  than 
the  parables  of  Jotham  (Judg.  ix:7-i5),  of 
Nathan  (2  Sam.  xii:i-i4),  of  Isaiah  (v:i-5),  and 
of  Ezekiel  (xix:i-9)? 

2,  Parables  of  Christ.  But  the  para- 
bles uttered  by  our  Savior  claim  preeminence 
over  all  others  on  account  of  their  number,  variety, 
appositeness,  and  beauty.  Indeed  it  is  impossible 
to  conceive  of  a  mode  of  instruction  better  fitted 
to  engage  the  attention,  interest  the  feelings,  and 
impress  the  conscience,  than  that  which  our  Lord 
adopted.  Among  its  advantages  may  be  men- 
tioned the  following: 

(/)  Secured  Attention,  It  secured  the  atten- 
tion of  multitudes  who  would  not  have  listened 
to  truth  conveyed  in  the  form  of  abstract  propo- 
sitions. 

(2)  Familiar  Method,  This  mode  of  teaching 
was  one  with  which  the  Jews  were  familiar,  and 
for  which  they  entertained  a  preference. 

(j)  Tactful,  Some  truths  which,  if  openly 
stated,  would  have  been  opposed  by  a  barrier  of 
prejudice,  were  in  this  way  insinuated,  as  it  were, 
into  men's  minds,  and  secured  their  assent  un- 
awares. 

(4)  Hidden  Truth,  The  parabolic  style  was 
well  adapted  to  conceal  Christ's  meaning  from 
those  who,  through  obstinacy  and  perverseness, 
were  indisposed  to  receive  it.  This  is  the  mean- 
ing of  Isaiah  in  the  passage  quoted  in  Matt,  xiii : 
13.  Not  that  the  truth  was  ever  hidden  from 
those  who  sincerely  sought  to  know  it ;  but  it  was 
wrapped  in  just  enough  of  obscurity  to  veil  it 
from  those  who  *had  pleasure  in  unrighteous- 
ness,* and  who  would  'not  come  to  the  light  lest 
their  deeds  should  be  reproved.'  In  accordance 
with  strict  justice,  such  were  'given  up  to  strong 
delusions,  that  they  might  believe  a  lie.*  'IVith 
the  upright  man  thou  Hnlt  show  thyself  upright; 


with  the  frozvard  thou  wilt  show  thyself  fro- 

ward* 

(1)  Scope  of  Christ's  Parables.    The  scope  or 

design  of  Christ's  parables  is  sometimes  to  be 
gathered  from  his  own  express  declaration,  as  in 
Luke  xii:  16-20;  xiv:ii;  xviig.  In  other  cases  it 
must  be  sought  by  considering  the  context,  the 
circumstances  in  which  it  was  spoken,  and  the 
features  of  the  narrative  itself,  i.  e,  the  literal 
sense.  For  the  right  understanding  of  this,  an 
acquaintance  with  the  customs  of  the  people,  with 
the  productions  of  their  country,  and  with  the 
events  of  their  history,  is  often  desirable.  Most 
of  our  Lord's  parables,  however,  admit  of  no 
doubt  as  to  their  main  scope,  and  are  so  simple 
and  perspicuous  that  'he  who  runs  may  read,'  'if 
there  be  first  a  willing  mind.'  To  those  more 
difficult  of  comprehension  more  thought  and  study 
should  be  given,  agreeably  to  the  admonition  pre- 
fixed to  some  of  them  by  our  Lord  himself, 
'Whoso  heareth,  let  him  understand.* 

(2)  The  Number  of  Parables  in  the  gospels 
differs  according  to  the  range  given  to  the  appli- 
cation of  the  term.  Greswell  reckons  27 ;  Trench, 
30;  Plumtre,  31 ;  others  50. 

Matthew  and  Luke  give  us  most  of  the  para- 
bles. Mark  dwells  more  on  the  acts  than  the 
discourses  of  Christ.  John  has  no  parables 
proper.  He  took  them  for  granted  from  the  earlier 
gospels,  and  gives  us  instead  those  higher  dis- 
courses of  our  Lord  respecting  his  relation  to 
the  Father.  For  Parables  or  Jesus  Christ,  see 
Appendix,  p.  55. 

The  following  are  among  the  principal  works  on 
the  parables:  Gray,  Delineation  of  the  Parables, 
1777;  Bulkley,  Discourses  on  the  Parables,  1771 ; 
Collyer,  Discourses  on  the  Parables,  1815; 
Kromm,  Homilien  aber  die  Parabeln  Jesu,  1823; 
Unger,  De  Parabolis  Jesu,  1828;  Bailey,  Exposi- 
tion of  the  Parables,  1829 ;  Schultze,  De  Parabolis 
Jesu  Christi,  1827;  Lisco,  Die  Parabeln  Jesu, 
1832;  Stevens,  Parables,  1855;  Kirk,  Lectures, 
1856;  Oxenden,  Parables,  1866;  Machlachan, 
Notes,  1870;  De  Teissier,  Parables,  1870. 

See  also  Greswell,  Trench,  Arndt,  Arnot,  Stier. 
Our  Lord  has  himself  explained  the  parable  of 
the  Sower  and  the  parable  of  the  Wheat  and  the 
Tares.  His  explanation  must  be  the  standard  by 
which  our  interpretations  are  to  be  regulated  and 
measured.  L.  P.  H. 

PABACLETE  (par'a-klete),  (Or.  wapdKXjros^par- 
ak'/ay-tos,  summoned,  called  to  one's  side),  one 
who  pleads  another's  cause  before  a  judge,  an  ad- 
vocate, as  in  I  John  ii:i,  where  it  is  applied  tx> 
Christ. 

In  the  A.  V.  the  word  is  translated  'Comforter* 
in  the  Gospel,  and  'Advocate'  in  the  Epistle,  with- 
out any  marginal  alternative.  In  the  R.  V.  these 
translations  are  retained,  but  at  each  occurrence 
in  the  Gospel  there  is  found  the  marg.  note 
'Or  Advocate,  or  Helper,  Gr.  Paraclete*;  and  in 
John  ii:i,  the  note  'Or  Comforter,  or  Helper,  Gr. 
Paraclete.*  These  translations  reflect  the  history 
of  the  interpretation  of  the  word  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. In  its  reference  to  Christ  the  meaning  of 
'Advocate*  has  been  generally  acquiesced  in ;  but, 
in  its  references  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  it  has  all  along 
been  disputed  whether  the  meaning  is  Advocate 
(taken  by  most  in  the  largest  sense,  not  only 
Pleader  or  Defender,  but  Helper)  or  Comforter 
(in  the  sense  of  Consoler).  (J.  Hastings'  Bib, 
Diet.)     (See  Holy  Ghost.) 

PABADISE  (p2Lr'a-dis),  (Gr.  wapddeurot,  fiar-atf- 

si'sos  :  from  Heb.  ^y)!^ ^Par-dace' ,  rendered  "forest,** 

Neh.  ii:8;  also  "orchard,**  Eccles.  ii:s;  Cant,  iv: 


PARADISE 


1285 


PARADISE 


13),  the  term  which  by  long  and  extensive  use 
has  been  employed  to  designate  the  Garden  of 
Eden,  the  first  dwelling  place  of  human  beings. 

(1)  Early  Use  of  Term.  Of  this  word 
paradeisos,  the  earliest  instance  that  we  have 
is  in  the  Cyrop<Bdia  and  other  writings  of  Xeno- 
phon,  nearly  400  years  before  Christ;  but  his 
use  of  it  has  that  appearance  of  ease  and  famil- 
iarity which  leads  us  to  suppose  that  it  was 
current  among  his  countrymen.  We  find  it  also 
used  by  Plutarch,  who  lived  in  the  first  and  sec- 
ond century  of  our  era.  It  was  by  those  authors 
evidently  employed  to  signify  an  extensive  plot 
of  gn'ound,  enclosed  with  a  strong  fence  or  wall, 
abounding  in  trees,  shrubs,  plants,  and  garden 
culture,  and  in  which  choice  animals  were  kept  in 
different  ways  of  restraint  or  freedom,  according 
as  they  were  ferocious  or  peaceable ;  thus  answer- 
ing very  closely  to  our  English  word  park,  with 
the  addition  of  gardens,  a  menagerie,  and  an 
avusry. 

From  its  original  meaning  the  term  came  to  be 
used  as  a  metaphor  for  the  abstract  idea  of  ex- 
quisite delight,  was  transferred  still  higher  to  de- 
note the  happiness  of  the  righteous  in  the  future 
state.  The  origin  of  this  application  must  be  as- 
signed to  the  Jews  of  the  middle  period  between 
the  Old  and  the  New  Testament.  In  the  Chal- 
dee  Targums,  'the  Garden  of  Eden'  is  but  as  the 
exposition  of  heavenly  blessedness  (Ps.  xc.  17, 
and  other  places).  The  Talmudical  writings, 
cited  by  the  elder  Buxtorf  {Lex.  Chald,  et  Talm., 
p.  1802),  and  John  James  Wetstein  (New  Testa- 
ment Greek,  vol.  i,  p.  819),  contain  frequent  ref- 
erences to  Paradise  as  the  immortal  heaven,  to 
which  the  spirits  of  the  just  are  admitted  immedi- 
ately upon  the  liberation  from  the  body.  The 
book  Sohar  speaks  of  an  earthly  and  a  heavenly 
Paradise,  of  which  the  latter  excels  the  former  *as 
much  as  darkness  does  light.'  (Schoetgen.  Hor. 
Hehr,  vol.  i.  p.  1096.) 

Hence  we  see  that  it  was  in  the  acceptation  of 
the  current  Jewish  phraseology  that  the  expres- 
sion was  used  by  our  Lord  and  the  Apostles: 
To-day  thou  shalt  be  with  me  in  Paradise;*  'He 
was  caught  up  into  Paradise;'  'The  tree  of  life, 
which  is  in  the  Paradise  of  my  God*  (Luke  xxiii : 
43;  2  Cor.  xii:4;  Rev.  ii.7). 

(2)  Eden  is  the  most  ancient  and  venerable 
name  in  geography,  the  name  of  the  first  district 
of  the  earth's  surface  of  which  human  beings 
could  have  any  knowledge.  All  that  is  related 
about  it  goes  to  show  that  Eden  was  a  tract  of 
country;  and  that  in  the  most  eligible  part  of  it 
was  the  Paradise,  the  garden  of  all  delights,  in 
which  the  Creator  was  pleased  to  place  his  new 
and  pre-eminent  creature  with  the  inferior  beings 
for  his  sustenance  and  solace. 

(3)  Conjectures    Concerning    Location    of 

Eden,  (a)  Upon  the  question  of  its  exact  geo- 
graphical position  dissertations  innumerable  have 
been  written.  Many  authors  have  given  descrip- 
tive lists  of  them,  with  arguments  for  and  against 
each.  The  most  convenient  presentation  of  their 
respective  outlines  has  been  reduced  to  a  tabu- 
lated form,  with  ample  illustrations,  by  the  Rev. 
N.  Morren,  annexed  to  his  Translation  of  the 
younger  Rosenmtiller's  Biblical  Geography  of 
Central  Asia,  pp.  91-98;  Edinb,  1836.  He  reduces 
them  to  nine  principal  theories.  But  the  fact  is 
that  not  one  of  them  answers  to  all  the  condi- 
tions of  the  problem.  We  more  than  doubt  the 
possibility  of  finding  any  locality  that  will  do  so. 
(b)  That  Phrat  is  the  Euphrates,  and  Hiddeke, 
the  Tigris,  isagn^eed,  with  scarcely  an  exception ;  but 
in  determining  the  two  other  rivers,  great  diversity 


of  opinion  exists ;  and,  to  our  apprehension,  satis- 
faction is  and  must  remain  unattainable,  from  the 
impossibility  of  making  the  evidence  to  cohere  in 
all  its  parts.  It  has  been  remarked  that  this  difficulty 
might  have  been  expected,  and  is  obviously  prob- 
able, from  the  geological  changes  that  may  have 
taken  place,  and  especially  in  connection  with  the 
Deluge.  This  remark  would  not  be  applicable  to 
the  extent  that  is  necessary  for  the  argument, 
except  upon  the  supposition  before  mentioned, 
that  the  earlier  parts  of  the  book  of  Genesis  con- 
sist of  primeval  documents,  even  antediluvian, 
and  that  this  is  one  of  them.  There  is  reason  to 
think  that  since  the  Deluge  the  face  of  the  coun- 
try cannot  have  undergone  any  change  approach- 
ing to  what  the  hypothesis  of  a  postdiluvian  com- 
position would  require.  But  we  think  it  highly 
probable  that  the  principal  of  the  immediate 
causes  of  the  Deluge,  the  'breaking  up  of  the  foun- 
tains of  the  great  deep,'  was  a  subsidence  of  a 
large  part  or  parts  of  the  land  between  the  in- 
habited tract  (which  we  humbly  venture  to  place 
in  east  longtitude  from  Greenwich,  30**  to  90** 
and  north  latitude  25°  to  40**)  and  the  sea  which 
lay  to  the  south;  or  an  elevation  of  the  bed  of 
that  sea.    (See  Deluge.) 

(c)  Either  of  these  occurrences,  produced  by 
volcanic  causes,  or  both  of  them  conjointly  or 
successively,  would  be  adequate  to  the  production 
of  the  awful  Deluge,  and  the  return  of  the  waters 
would  be  effected  by  an  elevation  of  some  part 
of  the  district  which  had  been  submerged;  and 
that  part  could  scarcely  fail  to  be  charged  with 
animal  remains.  The  geological  researches  of  Dr. 
Falconer  and  Captain  Cautley  have  brought  to 
light  bones,  more  or  less  mineralized,  of  the  gi- 
raffe (camelopardalis),  in  the  Sewalik  range  ol 
hills,  which  seems  to  be  a  branch  of  the  Himalayas, 
westward  of  the  river  Jumna.  But  the  giraflFe  is 
not  an  animal  that  can  live  in  a  mountainous  regioH, 
or  even  on  the  skirts  of  such  a  region ;  its  subsist- 
ence and  its  safety  require  'an  open  country  and 
broad  plains  to  roam  over.'  (Falconer  and  (]aut« 
ley,  in  Proceed.  GeoL  Soc,  Nov.  15,  1843).  The 
present  position,  therefore,  of  these  fossil  remains 
— *of  almost  every  large  pachydermatous  genus, 
such  as  the  elephant,  mastodon,  rhinoceros,  hip- 
popotamus, sus  (swine),  horse,  etc.,'  also  deer 
and  oxen — ^lodged  in  ravines  and  vales  among 
the  peaks,  at  vast  elevations,  leads  to  the  suppo* 
sition  of  a  late  elevation  of  extensive  plains. 

(d)  Thus  we  seem  to  have  a  middle  course 
pointed  out  between  the  two  extremes;  the  one, 
that  by  the  Deluge  the  ocean  and  the  land  were 
made  to  exchange  places  for  permanency;  the 
other,  that  very  little  alteration  was  produced  in 
the  configuration  of  the  earth's  surface.  Indeed, 
such  alteration  might  not  be  considerable  in 
places  very  distant  from  the  focus  of  elevation; 
but  near  that  central  district  it  could  not  but  be 
very  great.  An  alteration  of  level,  five  hundred 
times  less  than  that  effected  by  the  upthrow  of 
the  Himalayas,  would  change  the  beds  of  many 
rivers,  and  quite  obliterate  others. 

(e)  From  all  that  can  be  ascertained  it  seems 
to  have  been  a  tract  of  country,  the  finest  im- 
aginable, lying  probably  between  the  33d  and  the 
37th  degree  of  north  latitude,  of  such  moderate 
elevation,  and  so  adjusted,  with  respect  to  moun- 
tain ranges  and  water-sheds  and  forests,  as  to 
preserve  the  most  agreeable  and  salubrious  condi- 
tions of  temperature  and  all  atmospheric  changes. 
Its  surface  must  therefore  have  been  constantly 
diversified  by  hill  and  plain.  From  its  hill-sides, 
between  the  croppings  out  of  their  strata,  springs 
trickled  out,  whose  streamlets,  joining  in  their 


PARADISE.  RIVERS  OF 


1286 


PARAN 


courses,  formed  at  the  bottom  small  rivers,  which 
again  receiving  other  streams  (which  had  in  the 
same  way  flowed  down  from  the  higher  grounds), 
became,  in  the  bottom  of  every  valley,  a  more  con- 
siderable river.  These  valleys  joined  together,  as 
must  consequently  the  streams  contained  in  them ; 
wider  valleys  or  larger  plains  appeared ;  the  river 
of  each  united  itself  with  that  of  its  next  neighbor ; 
others  contributed  their  waters  as  the  augmenting 
stream  proceeded;  and  finally  it  quitted  the  land 
of  Eden,  to  continue  its  course  to  some  sea,  or  to 
lose  its  waters  by  the  evaporation  of  the  atmos- 
phere or  the  absorption  of  the  sandy  desert.  In 
the  finest  part  of  this  land  of  Eden  the  Creator 
had  formed  an  enclosure,  probably  by  rocks  and 
forests  and  rivers,  and  had  filled  it  with  every 
product  of  nature  conducive  to  use  and  happi- 
ness. Due  moisture,  of  both  the  ground  and  the 
air,  was  preserved  by  the  streamlets  from  the 
nearest  hills,  and  the  rivulets  from  the  more  dis- 
tant; and  such  streamlets  and  rivulets,  collected 
according  to  the  levels  of  the  surrounding  coun- 
try (it  proceeded  from  Eden')  flowed  off  after- 
wards in  four  larger  streams,  each  of  which 
thus  became  the  source  of  a  great  river. 

After  the  explication  given,  it  may  seem  the 
most  suitable  to  look  for  the  object  of  our  ex- 
ploration, the  site  of  Paradise,  in  the  south  of  Ar- 
menia. ^  J.  P.  S. 

For  a  learned  and  ingenious  work  on  the  sub- 
ject see  Paradise  at  the  North  Pole,  by  Pres. 
Warren,  Boston  Univ.  (See  Eden;  Paradisb, 
Rivers  of.) 

PABADISE,  BIVEBS  OF  (p^'i-dis.  rfv'ers 
fiv). 

The  old  question,  "Where  was  the  garden  oi 
Eden  ?"  is  a  fascinating  one,  but  it  is  one  of  those 
which  the  monuments  have  not  yet  elucidated,  al- 
though they  do  provide  some  illustrative  material 
concerning  it.  Where  it  was  must  be  settled 
from  the  description  of  the  four  rivers,  although 
after  the  rivers  are  settled  or  conjectured,  it  re- 
mains to  decide  whether  their  head  waters  or 
their  mouths  are  to  be  regarded  as  making  the 
"four  heads"  spoken  of  as  the  locality  of  the  gar- 
den. We  may  dismiss  the  conjectures  which  put 
Paradise  in  America  or  at  the  north  pole,  aiid 
consider  the  theories  which  suppose  the  four  riv- 
ers to  be  somewhere  about  Southern  Babylonia. 

Of  these,  the  one  which  has  of  late  had  the 
most  currency  is  one  which  has  been  developed 
at  length  by  the  younger  Delitzsch  in  his  work 
*  entitled  "Wo  lag  das  ParadiesT  He  begins  with 
the  certainty  alK>ut  the  two  rivers  Euphrates  and 
Tigris  (Hiddekel)  and  makes  the  other  two  to  be 
the  two  great  canals  of  Southern  Babylonia  the 
volume  of  whose  water  was  nearly  as  great  as 
that  of  the  two  main  rivers — ^the  Pallakopas  Ca- 
nal, which  runs  along  under  the  Arabian  hills 
west  of  the  Euphrates,  being  the  Pison,  and  the 
Sha!t-eu-Nil  which  runs,  or  ran,  between  and 
parallel  to  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  being  the 
Gihon.  But  it  is  not  easy  to  show  that  the  Pal- 
lakopas "compasseth  the  whole  land  of  Havilah" 
which  ought  to  be  Arabia  where  are  found  gold, 
onyx,  and  the  bdellium. 

Neither  can  the  Shatt-eu-Nil  be  supposed  to 
"compass  the  whole  land  of  Ethiopia." 

The  latest  considerable  discussion  of  the  four 
rivers  is  that  by  Professor  Haupt  in  a  paper  read 
before  the  American  Oriental  Society.  Of  course 
the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates  are  perfectly  clear, 
and  he  supposes  that  the  author  meant  to  describe 
the  imaginary  upper  course  of  the  Nile  in  the 
Asiatic  region  as  the  Gihon.  The  river  Pison  is 
in  the  extreme  east,  most  distant  from  the  writer 


and  so  named  first  and  most  fully  described.  It 
flows  around  Havilah  (Arabia)  whose  products 
are  pure  gold,  the  gum  bdellium,  and  the  shoham 
stone — translated  onyx  in  the  English  version, 
but  really  the  pearl,  literally,  the  "grray  gem,"  as 
its  Assyrian  name  indicates. 

This  can  be  nothing  but  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
the  Red  Sea,  conceived  of  as  one  river  flowing 
around  Arabia,  but  originating  from  the  same 
source  as  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  The  Pales- 
tinian writer  would  have  conceived  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  and  the  Red  Sea  as  much  narrower 
than  they  now  are.  We  must  remember  that  the 
Assyrians  called  the  Persian  Gulf  naru  marratu 
—the  bitter  or  salt  river.  There  is  no  sharp  dis- 
tinction between  river  and  sea  in  Semitic  lan- 
guages, and  it  is  quite  a  modem  thought  to  dis- 
tinguish different  bodies  of  water,  such  as  a  river, 
bay,  sea,  and  ocean. 

So  far  as  the  Pison  is  concerned,  this  identifi- 
cation is  very  much  like  that  of  Dr.  Taylor  Lewis 
in  his  translation  of  Lange's  "Commentary  on 
Genesis/'  published  as  long  ago  as  1868.  He 
placed  Eden  at  the  confluence  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates  in  Lower  Babylonia;  and  then  taking 
this  same  idea  of  the  ocean  as  a  river,  which  is 
familiar  to  every  reader  of  Homer,  Pindar,  or 
Strabo,  he  supposed  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  surrounding  Arabia  to  be  the  Gihon, 
while  the  Indian  Gulf  and  the  Indian  Ocean 
washing  the  shores  to  the  end  as  far  as  India, 
along  which  he  places  Havilah,  he  supposed  to  be 
the  Pison.  It  will  be  seen  that  he  makes  both 
rivers  to  be  ocean  streams,  one  tending  eastwardly 
and  the  other  westwardly,  from  Eden. 

It  will  seem  strange  to  many  to  think  of  the 
broad  ocean  as  we  know  it  as  only  a  river.  But 
we  must  get  out  of  our  modem  conceptions,  to  be 
in  a  condition  to  understand  ancient  ways  of  con- 
ceiving of  the  earth  and  the  ocean. 

In  the  Old  Testament  the  word  nahar,  river,  is 
applied  to  floods,  which  lift  their  waves  or  voices. 
In  Ps.  Ixvi  :6  it  is  applied  to  the  Red  Sea.  Jonah 
says  (ii:4),  "The  river  (translated  flood)  went 
round  me,"  referring  to  the  Mediterranean. 
Equally  rivers  like  the  Nile  are  called  "sea."  So 
Homer  frequently  speaks  of  the  ocean  as  a  river, 
and  the  Greek  geographer,  Strabo,  also  speaks  of 
the  four  great  bays,  or  sinuses — ^the  Caspian  and 
the  Pontus  on  the  north,  and  the  Persian  and  the 
Arabian  seas  on  the  south — ^as  inlets  from  the 
ocean  streams.  The  question  of  the  location  of 
the  Garden  of  Eden  is  one  which  we  can  hardly 
answer  satisfactorily,  and  it  is  only  in  minor 
points  that  anything  can  yet  be  added  to  guide  a 
conclusion  as  to  the  site  of  Eden  or  the  identity 
of  the  two  disputed  rivers,  Pison  and  Gihon. 
(Rivers  of  Paradise,  by  William  Hayes  Ward, 
D.  D.,  Hom.  Rev.,  Dec  1894.) 

PABAH  (pa'reh),  (Heb.  ^^^I.  paw-raw',  the 
neifer). 

A  city  of  Benjamin  (Josh.  xviii:23).  Identi- 
fied with  the  ruins  of  Fdrah,  about  five  miles, 
northeast  of  Jerusalem.  (Buckingham,  Travels,  p. 
312.) 

PABALYTIC  (par'i-lIt'Kk).    See  Palsy. 
PARAMOTJB  (par'i-moor).  (Heb.  ^S^"*?,  pee- 

Ich'ghesh),  in  Ezek.  xxiii:20  applied  to  the  male 
lover,  but  elsewhere  translated  concubine,  (See 
Concubinage.) 

PABAN  (pa'ran).  (Heb.  yy^^.paw-rawn* ;  Sept. 
4>ap4L9,  pha-ran'). 

A  name  which  seems  to  be  applied  in  Scripture 
to  the  whole  of  the  desert  region  extending  from 


PARAN,  MOUNT  OF 


1287 


PARENT 


the  frontiers  of  Judah  to  the  borders  of  Sinai. 
At  least,  as  we  find  it  in  the  south  of  this  region, 
bordering  Sinai  (Num.  x:i2;  xii:i6),  and  in  the 
north  bordering  on  Kadesh  (Num.  xiii:3,  26; 
XX  :i),  it  seems  easier  to  suppose  that  Paran  was 
the  name  of  the  whole  region  marked  by  these 
limits  than  that  there  were  two  opposite  districts 
bearing  the  same  name. 

The  name  is  still  preserved  in  that  of  Wady 
Feiran,  a  valley  of  the  lower  Sinai,  through  which 
lay  the  road  which  appears  to  have  been  taken 
by  the  Israelites  in  their  march  to  the  upper  re- 
gion. In  this  valley  there  are  ruins  of  a  town, 
ana  indeed  of  more  than  one,  with  towers,  aque- 
ducts, and  sepulchral  excavations;  and  here  KOp- 
pel  found  the  remains  of  a  church,  which  he  as- 
signs to  the  fifth  century  (Reise  in  Nubien,  p. 
263;  Burckhardt,  Syria,  p.  616).  This  was  the 
Pharan  or  Faran  which  had  a  Christian  popula- 
tion«  and  was  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  so  early  as 
A.  D.  400  (Oriens  Christ.,  col.  735;  Reland, 
Pal<Bst.  pp.  219,  220,  228). 

Paran  is  first  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
conquest  of  the  confederate  kings,  when  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  home  of  the  Ho- 
rites  (Gen.  xiv:6).  Hagar  and  Ishmael,  after 
being  driven  away  by  Abraham,  went  into  the 
wilderness  of  Paran  (Gen.  xxi:2i);  the  Israel- 
ites entered  it  soon  after  leaving  Sinai  (Num. 
x:i2.  33;  xi:3,  34,  35;  xii:i6);  the  spies  were 
sent  up  to  Canaan  and  returned  from  this  region; 
and  eighteen  stations  of  the  Israelites*  Journey 
are  noted  in  this  wilderness  (Num.  xiii:3,  26; 
xxxiii:i7-36;  comp.  Deut.  i:i).  Probably,  during 
their  thirty-eight  years  of  sojourn  in  the  wilder- 
ness, the  people  were  scattered  over  a  wide  ex- 
tent of  territory,  like  the  modem  Bedouin  tribes. 
David  found  refuge  in  this  wilderness  (i  Sam. 
XXV :i),  and  Hadad  passed  through  it  when  es- 
caping to  Egypt  (i  Kings  xi:i8). 

PABAN^  MOUNT  OF  (pa'ran  mount  dv),  oc- 
curs only  m  two  passages,  denoting  the  place 
where  the  Lord  is  said  to  have  shined  forth  (Deut. 
xxxiii:2;  Hab.  iii:3). 

It  was  probably  the  most  southern  portion  of 
the  mountain-plateau  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
the  wilderness  of  Paran,  now  Jehel  Magra'h,  In 
this  region  is  situated  *Ain  Gadis,  which  some 
identify  with  Kadesh,  and  the  one  encampment  in 
the  wilderness  of  Kadesh.  Jebel  Magra'h  would 
always  be  the  most  conspicuous  object,  and  would 
completely  shut  out  from  view  the  more  fertile 
mountains  beyond. 

PABBAB  (par'bar).  (Heb.  *»31S,  par-bawr* , 
suburb). 

A  precinct  or  colonnade  on  the  west  side  of  the 
temple  inclosure  (i  Chron.  xxvi:i8).  It  con- 
tained rooms  occupied  by  officials  and  divisions 
for  stock  (2  Kings  xxiii:ii). 

PABOEL  (par'sSl).  (Heb.  ^V),^,  khel^kaw',  Gen. 

xxxiii:i9;  Josh.  xxiv:32),  portion,  lot,  piece. 

Still  employed  as  a  law  term  for  a  piece  or 
parcel  of  ground.  Lord  Bacon  uses  the  expres- 
sion "no  parcel"  (i.  e.  no  portion)  "of  the  world." 

PABCHED  COBN  (p^rcht  k6rn),  (Heb.  ^%. 
kaw-Mt  roasted). 

Grain  roasted  on  the  stalk  over  a  blaze,  which 
burned  off  the  chaff  and  left  the  kernels  cooked 
ready  for  eating  (Lev.  xxiii:i4;  Ruth  ii:i4;  i 
Sam.  xvii:i7). 

'^Harvest  is  the  time  for  parched  corn — not 
what  we  lads  in  Ohio  meant  by  the  words.  It  is 
made  thus:  a  quantity  of  the  best  heads,  not  too 
ripe,  are  plucked  with  the  stalks  attached.  These 


are  tied  into  small  parcels,  a  blazing  fire  is  kin- 
dled with  dry  grass  and  thorn  bushes,  and  the 
grain-heads  are  held  in  it  until  the  chaff  is  mostly 
burned  off.  The  ^^rain  is  thus  sufficiently  roasted 
to  be  eaten,  and  it  is  a  favorite  article  all  over 
the  country.  When  traveling  in  harvest  time,  my 
muleteers  have  very  often  thus  prepared  parched 
corn  in  the  evenings  after  the  tent  has  been 
pitched.  Nor  is  the  gathering  of  this  green  grain 
for  parching  ever  regarded  as  stealing.  After  it 
has  been  roasted,  it  is  rubbed  out  in  the  hand  and 
eaten  as  there  is  occasion."  (Thomson,  Land 
and  Book,  vol.  ii.  510.) 

PABCHED  GBOTJND  {pSscht  ground),  (Heb 

3^^,  shaw-rawb\  to  glare). 

The  Hebrew  word  thus  rendered  (Is.  xxxv: 
7),  denotes  that  optical  delusion  known  by  the 
name  of  "mirage,  and  frequently  occurring  in 
the  African  and  Asiatic  deserts.  On  account  of 
the  different  refraction  of  the  solar  rays  in  the 
various  layers  of  the  atmosphere,  the  white,  bar- 
ren sand- waste  suddenly  assumes  the  aspect  of  a 
beautiful  lake  surrounded  by  trees  and  a  most 
luxuriant  vegetation.  Schaff. 

Figurative.  The  Gentile  world,  and  unregen- 
erate  men,  are  likened  to  ^'parched  ground";  how 
destitute  of  the  sap  of  divme  truth,  and  gracious 
habits  and  influences ;  how  barren  of  good  works ; 
how  scorched  with  the  power  of  temptation,  with 
corrupt  inclinations  and  customs  (Is.  xxxv:7). 
Brown. 

PABCHED   PIiACES   (p&rcht  plas'Ss),  (Heb. 

"^."^P,  khaw'rare\  arid,  Jer.  xvii:6).    Here  parched 

is  employed  in  the  usual  sense  of  dry,  arid. 

Figurative.  To  inhabit  "parched  places*'  is 
to  be  in  a  most  wretched  and  destitute  condition 
(Jer.  xvii:6). 

PABCHMENT  (p&rch'm^t),  (Gr.  /u/ifipdm, 
pum-brak'naht  a  thin  skin  of  parchment].  Parch- 
ment was  used  for  the  manuscripts  of  tne  Penta- 
teuch in  the  time  of  Josephus,  ana  the  /u/ifipdpcu  of 
2  Tim.  iv:i3,  were  skms  of  parchment.  (See 
Writing.) 

PABDOH   (par'd'n),  (Heb.  "^5?.   kaw-far*,  to 

cover,  to  hide,  to  purge,  Ps.  xxviii). 

The  Scriptural  import  of  this  term  is  very  im- 
perfectly indicated  by  the  common  acceptation- 
of  it  among  men.  In  the  dispensation  01  grace 
pardon  is  inseparably  connected  with  justification. 
Hence  it  is  spoken  of  as  the  covering  of  sin  (Ps. 
lxxxv:2);  the  non-imputation  of  it  (Ps.  xxxii: 
2)  ;  a  blotting  out  (Ps.  li:i,  9;  Is.  xliii:25) ;  for- 
getting it  (Heb.  viii:i2)  ;  passing  by  it  or  remov- 
ing it  to  an  immeasurable  distance  from  us  (Ps. 
ciii:i2;  Mic.  vii:i9). 

It  is  evident  that  God  only  has  power  to  bestow 
pardon  (Mark  ii:7,  10-12),  and  that  it  proceeds 
from  free  sovereign  grace  (Eph.  i:6,  7),  through 
the  mediation  and  atonement  of  Jestis  Christ 
(Heb.  ix  19-28;  I  John  i:7). 

Men  are  commissioned  to  preach  pardon  and 
salvation  through  the  blood  of  Christ.  (See  For- 
giveness; Justification.) 

<<PABE  HEB  HAILS."  See  Nail  of  the 
Finger. 

PABENT  (p4r'«it),  (Gr.  ^ovdn,  gon-yooce',  be- 
getter), a  name  properly  given  to  a  father  or  a 
mother,  but  extended  also  to  relations  by  blood, 
especially  in  a  direct  line,  upward. 

Scripture  commands  children  to  honor  their 
parents  (Exod.  xx:i2)  i.  e.  to  obey  them,  to  suc- 
cor them,  to  respect  them,  to  give  them  all  as- 
sistance that  nature,  and  their  and  our  circum- 
stances   require.    Christ    (Matt.  xv:S,  6)    con- 


demns  that  corrupt  explication  which  the  doctors 
of  the  law  gave  of  this  precept ;  by  teaching  that 
a  child  was  disen^^ed  from  the  obligation  of 
supporting  and  assisting  his  parents.    (See  Fau- 


1.  Kkek'der  (Heb.  "IIO,  an  enclosed  place,  an 
apartment),  the  inner  rooms  of  the  temple  porch 
and  Holy  Place  (i  Chron.  xxviii:ii);  generally 
"chamber." 

a.  Lisk-kav;-  (Heb.  '1???),  a  comer  cell  or 
"chamber,"  as  generally  rendered,  in  a  courtyard 
(iSam.  ix:22). 

8.  Al-tt-yaw'  {Heb.  ^J??,  lofly),  an  upper  room 
oftoolnen,  or  chamber,  as  the  words  imply  (Judg. 

ili:20-28). 

This  was  a  room  upon  the  flat  roof  of  a  house, 
which  was  open  to  currents  of  air,  and  so  offered 
a  cool  place,  such  as  are  still  met  with  in  the 
East.     (McC.  4  Str.  Cyc.) 

Kitto  thinks  it  was  a  chamber  or  apartment  de- 
tached from  the  main  rooms  of  the  house.  (See 
House.) 

PAIUfASHTA  (par-mSsh'Ut),  (Heb.  HR??"!?. 
Air-wiwA-tow'),  the  seventh  son  of  Haman,  slaii. 
by  the  Jews  at  Shushan  (Esth,  vt-f^),  B.  C.  473. 

PASSENAS  (par'me-nas),  (Gr.  nap/unii,  par- 
men-as',  probably,  constant). 

One  of  the  first  seven  deacons  of  the  church 
formed  al  Jerusalem  (Acts  vi;s).  Nothing  more 
is  known  of  him ;  but  the  Roman  martyrologies 
allege  that  he  suffered  martyrdom  under  Trajan. 
(A.  D.  29.) 

PABNAOH  (par'nak).  (Heb.  ^1?.  fiar-naf. 
perhaps  jnij^,  a  Zebulunite,  father  of  Eliiaphan 
(Num.  xxxiv:35),  B.  C.  before  1618. 

PABOSE  (pi'nSah),  (Heb.  'S^'IS,  par-oshe\  a 
flea). 

The  founder  of  a  family,  2,172  of  whose  mem- 
bers returned  from  the  captivity  with  Zerubba- 
bel  (Ezra  11:3;  Neh.  vii:8),  and  150  males 
with  Ezra  (Ezra  viiiij).  Seven  of  the  family 
married  Gentile  wives  (Ezra  x:25).  They  helped 
in  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  and  were 
represented  in  signing  the  covenant  with  Nehe- 
miah  (Neh.  iii:25;  x:i4).    (B.  C.  before  535-44S) 

PABflHANPATHA  (par-sb^'da-tbii),  (Heb. 
"CiT^f,  par-shan-daiti-thaiii' ,  perhaps,  given  to 
Persia),  the  eldest  son  of  Haman,  put  to  death 
with  his  father  (Esth.  ix:?),  B.  C,  437. 


Acts  ii:9,  as  being  with  their  neighbors,  the  Medes 
and  Elamiteg,  present  at  Jerusalem  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost. 

The  persons  referred  lo  were  Jews  from 
Panhia,  and  the  passage  is  a  strong  evidence 
showing  how  widely  spread  were  members  of  the 
Hebrew  family  in  the  first  century  of  our  era. 
The  term  originally  referred  to  a  small  moun- 
tainous district  lying  lo  the  northeast  of  Media. 
Afterwards  it  came  to  be  applied  to  the  great 
Parthian  kingdom,  into  which  this  province  ex- 
panded. Parthia  proper,  or  ancient  Parthia,  ly- 
ing between  Aria  and  Hyrcania,  the  residence  of 
a  rude  and  poor  tribe,  and  traversed  by  bare 
mountains,  woods,  and  sandy  steppes,  formed  a 
part  of  (he  great  Persian  monarchy,  being  a  de- 

Sendency   on   the  satrapy  of   Hyrcania.    Its   in- 
abitants  were  of  Scythian  origin.    They  formed 


»  PARTICULAR,  PARTICULARLY 

a  part  of  the  army  of  Xerxes,  and  were  found  in 
that  of  the  last  Darius.  In  the  breaking  up  of 
the  kingdom  of  Alexander  the  Parthians  took 
sides  with  Eumenes,  and  became  subject  to  An- 
tigonus  and  the  Seleucidx. 

But  Arsaces  arose  against  the  Syro- Macedonian 
power,  and  commenced  a  new  dynasty  in  his  own 
person,  designated  by  the  title  of  Arsacidx.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  the  great  Parthian  empire, 
which  extended  itself  in  the  early  days  of  Chris- 
tian i^  over  all  the  provinces  of  what  had  been 
the  Persian  kingdom,  having  the  Euphrates  for 
its  western  boundary,  by  which  it  was  separated 
from  the  dominions  of  Rome.  It  was  divided 
into  eighteen  provinces.  Now  at  peace,  now  in 
bitter  hostilities  with  Rome,  now  the  victor  and 
now  the  vanquished,  the  Parthians  were  never 
subjugated    by  the  Romans.     At  length    Arta- 


xerxes  defeated  the  Parthians  in  a  great  battle, 

succeeded  to  all  the  dominions  of  the  Parthian 
kings,  and  founded  the  new  Persian  empire,  lo 
the  rulers  of  which  is  commonly  given  the  name 
of  the  Sassanida:.  The  government  of  Parthia 
was  monarchical ;  but  as  there  was  no  settled  and 
recognized  line  of  succession,  rival  aspirants  were 
constantly  presenting  themselves,  which  weak- 
ened the  country  with  internal  broils,  especially 
as  the  Romans  saw  it  to  be  to  their  interest  to 
foster  dissensions  and  encourage  rivalries,  and 
this  led  eventually  to  the  overthrow  of  the  dy- 
nasty by  the  successful  aspirant,  Artaxerxes. 
During  the  Syro-Macedonian  period  the  Parthian 
and  Jewish  history  kept  apart  in  separate  spheres, 
but  under  the  Romans  the  Parthians  defended 
the  parly  of  Amigonus  against  Hyrcanus,  and 
even  took  and  plundered  Jerusalem  (Joseph. 
Aniiq.  xiv.  13,  3;  De  Bell.  lud.  i.  13).  The  geog- 
raphy of  Parthia  may  be  studied,  besides  in  the 
ancient  authorities,  in  Cellar.  Nolit.  it.  700;  Man- 

PABTIALITY  (par'shr-aiT-ty). 

1.  Pros'klis-is  (Gr.  rpieKXurn,  i  Tim,  v:2I)  is 
an  inclination  of  mind.  The  exhortation  of  the 
apostle  is  that  nothing  should  be  done  under  an 
undue  tendency  towards  one  or  another  party. 

8.  Ad-ee-ak'-ree-ios  (Gr.  iaidnpiToi,  James  iii:i7) 
means  -without  uncertainty  or  ambiguity ;  uni  so 
Divine  wisdom  is  reliable,  not  being  uncertain  or 
variable  in  its  operations. 

PABTICXnLAB,  PABTICUIiAKLT  (par-Ilk' - 
II  ler,  par-ltk'll-ler-I?),  one  by  one.  St.  Paul  could 
not  in  an  epistle  enlarge  "particularly,"  in  ex- 
plaining the  significatton  oF  every  individual  uten- 
sil of  the  temple  (Heb.  ix:s).  In  i  Cor,  xii:27, 
he  says:  'Ye  are  the  body  of  Christ,  and  members 
in  particular'  (jJXij  it  lUpevt,  R,  V.  'severally  mem- 
bers thereof,'  R,  V,  marg,  'members  each  in  his 
part');  Eph.  ¥133  "Let  every  one  of  you  in  particu- 
lar so  love  his  wife  even  as  himself  (nt  it^h  ft 


PARTITION,  MIDDLE  WALL  OF  1! 

mC  f ra,  Ixaaroi  ri)!  iaitroO  fvnuiia  ofrui  i7B»driii  in 
Uirrir;  R.  V.  'Do  ye  also  severally  love-  each  one 
his  own  wiie  even  as  himself). 

PARTITION,  MIDDIJS  WALL  OP  (par- 
llsh'iin,  mid'd'l  wal  6v),  (Gr.  iita&rmxo*  toB  ^payiuSi), 
the  expression  (Eph.  ii:i4)  employed  by  St.  Paul 
to  designate  the  Mosaic  law  as  ttie  dividing  line 
between  the  Jews  and  Gentiles.    (See  Temple.) 

PABTKIDGE  (par'trij).  (Heb.  '*^l'.  ko-my',  a 
caller,  irom  its  cry). 

<1)  The  word  occurs  but  twice  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament (I  Sam.  xxviizo;  Jer.  xvii:n;  Sept.  r^pS.J, 
pare'diks,  Vulg.  perdix.  Ecclus.  xi:3i).  Late 
commeniators  state  that  there  are  four  species 
of  the  Tetrao  (grouse)  of  Linnaeus  abundant 
in  Palestine;  the  fratieolin  (T.  francoliniu'),  the 
katla  (T.  akhala),  the  red-legged  or  Barbary 
partridge  (7".  pelrosus),  and  the  Greek  partridge 
(T.  saxatilis).  In  this  now  obsolete  classification 
there  are  included  not  less  than  three  genera,  ac- 
cording to  the  more  correct  systems  of  recent 
writers,  and  not  otie  strictly  a  grouse  occurs  in 
the  number,  though  the  real  T,  Urogallui^  or  cock 
of  the  woods,  is  reported  to  frequent  Asia  Minor 
in  winter,  and  in  that  case  is  probably  no  stranger 
in  Libanus.  There  is,  however,  the  genus  Pter- 
octet,  of  which  the  P.  aUhala  is  the  katta,  gan^a, 
cata,  and  pin-tailed  grouse  of  authors,  a  species 
very  common  in  Palestine,  and  innumerable  in 
Arabia;  but  it  is  not  the  only  one,  for  the  sand- 
grouse  of  Latham  {P.  arenarius)  occurs  in 
France,  Spain,  Barbary,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Mediterranean,  or  all  round 
Palestine.  These  are  distinguished  from  other 
genera  of  Tetraonida  by  their  long  and  powerful 
wings,  enabling  them  to  reach  water,  which  they 
delight  to  drink  in  abundance;  and  by  this  pro- 
pensity they  often  indicate  to  the  thirsty  caravan 
in  what  direction  to  find  relief.  They  feed  more 
on  insects,  larvfe.  and  worms  than  on  seeds,  and 
none  of  the  species  having  a  perfect  hind  toe  that 
reaches  the  ground,  they  run  fast :  these  char- 
acteristics are  of  some  importance  in  determining 
whether  they  were  held  to  be  really  clean  birds, 
and  consequently  could  be  the  seXav  of  the  Israel- 
ites, which  our  versions  have  rendered  'quail.' 
(See  Quail;  UNCt.EAN  Birds.) 

(2)  The  Francotin  forms  a  second  genus, 
whereof  F.  vulgaris,  or  the  common  tree  par- 
tridge, is  the  Syrian  species  best  known,  though 


most  likely  not  the  only  one  of  that  country.  It 
is  larger  than  the  ganga ;  the  male  is  always  pro- 
vided with  one  pair  of  spurs  (though  others  of 
the  genus  have  two),  and  has  the  tail  longer  than 
true  partridges.    This  species  is  valued  for  the 


(3)  The  partridge  is  a  third  genus,  reckoning 
in  Syria  the  two  species  before  named,  both  red- 
legged  and  furnished  with  orange  and  black  cres- 
cents on  the  sides;  but  the  other  markings  differ, 


and  the  Barbary  species  is  smaller  than  the  Greek. 
They  are  inferior  in  delicacy  to  the  common 
partridge,  and  it  is  probable  that  Perdix  rufa,  and 
the  Caspian  partridge,  both  resembling  the  former 
in  many  particulars,  are  no  strangers  in  Syria. 

(4)  The  expostulation  of  David  with  Saul, 
where  he  says,  'The  king  of  Israel  is  come  out  to 
seek  a  flea,  as  when  one  doth  hunt  a  partridge  on 
the  mountains,'  is  perfectly  natural ;  for  the  red' 
legged  partridges  are  partial'  to  upland  brush- 
wood, which  is  not  an  uncommon  character  of  the 
hillsandmountainsof  Palestine;  and  the  partridge 
silling  on  her  eggs  and  not  hatching  them  (Jer. 
)tvii;li)  we  take  to  allude  to  the  liability  of  the 
nest  being  trodden  under  foot,  or  robbed  by  car- 
nivorous animals,  notwithstanding  all  the  care 
and  interesting  manceuvers  of  the  parent  birds  to 
save  it  or  the  brood ;  for  this  genus  Is  monoga- 
mous, nestles  on  the  ground,  and  both  male  and 
female  sit,  and  anxiously  watch  over  the  safety  of 
their  young,  C.  H.  S. 

blossoming). 

The  father  of  Solomon's  purveyor,  Jehosha- 
phat,  in  Issachar  (t  Kings  iv:i7),     (B.  C  about 

1012.) 

PABVAIU  (par-va'Ira),  Heb.  ^:1%  par-vah- 
yitit,  eastern). 

A  region  producing  the  fines!  gold  (2  Chron, 
iii:6).  There  is  very  strong  reason  to  conclude, 
with  Bochart,  that  it  is  the  same  with  Ophir, 
Casiell,  however,  identifies  it  with  Barbatia  on 
the  Tigris,  which  is  named  by  Pliny  (//ij(,  iVa(. 
vi.  32);  and  Gesenius,  seeking  the  root  of  the 
name  in  the  Sanskrit  fUrva,  'before,"  i.  e,  'east- 
ern,' concludes  it  to  be  a  general  term,  corre- 
sponding to  our  Levant,  meaning  east  country; 
so  that  'gold  of  Parvaim'  means  Eastern  gold. 

PASACH  (pa'sak),  (Heb.  "^^ .  paiv-sak' ,  to  di- 
vide), the  first  of  the  three  sons  of  Japhlet,  of  Asher 
(I  Chron.  vii;33),  B.  C.  about  1618, 

PA8-I)AlODlff(pls-dam'miiii).(Heb.0''?3  °l- 
pas'dam-metm' ,  the  border  of  blood),  a  place  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  (i  Chron.  xi:i3)  called  £phes-dam- 


n(,S., 


il:l). 


PASEAH  (pa-s«'ah),  (Heb.  05|,  paw-iay'akH, 


PASHUR 


1290 


PASSOVER 


!•  A  son  of  Eshton,  descendant  of  Judah,  and 
one  of  the  "men  of  Rechah"  (i  Chron.  iv:i2). 
(B.  C.  after  1618.) 

2.  The  head  of  a  family  of  Nethinim  who  re- 
turned from  the  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra 
ii:49).  The  name  is  Phaseah  (Neh.  vii:5i).  Je- 
hoida,  a  "son/'  assisted  in  rebuilding  the  old  gate 
of  Jerusalem   (Neh.  iii:6).     (B.  C.  before  446.) 

PASHUB  (pftsb'ur),  (Heb.  '^^11^.  pash'.kkoor. 
liberation).    (See  Phassur.) 

1.  The  son  of  Immer,  a  priest,  and  chief  over- 
seer of  the  temple,  who  smote  Jeremiah  and  put 
him  in  the  stocks  for  his  prophecies  of  captivity 
and  ruin;  on  which  the  prophet  was  commis- 
sioned to  declare  that  he  should  be  one  of  those 
to  go  into  exile,  and  that  he  and  all  his  friends 
should  die  in  Babylon,  and  be  buried  there  (Jer. 
xx:i-6).    (B.  C.  607.) 

2.  The  son  of  Melchiah,  a  high  officer  of  king 
Zedekiah,  and  one  of  those  at  whose  instance 
Jeremiah  was  cast  into  prison  (Jer.  xxi:i; 
xxxviii:i-6).  A  descendant  of  his  is  mentioned 
among  the  new  colonists  of  Jerusalem  after  the 
captivity  (Neh.  xi:i2).     (B.  C.  589.) 

3.  The  father  of  the  Gedaliah  who  assisted 
Pashur  in  accusing  and  imprisoning  Jeremiah 
(Jer.  xxxviiiri).     (B.  C.  589.) 

4.  The  founder  of  a  family  who  returned  from 
the  captivity  (Ezra  ii:38;  Neh.  vii:4i).  Some  of 
the  family  married  Gentile  wives  (Ezra  x:22), 
whom  they  divorced. 

PASS  (pis),  (Or.  ^ep/5dXX«,  hoop-er-bario,  Eph. 
111:19;  Phil.  iv:7),  to  exceed,  go  beyond,  surpass. 

PASSAGE  (pas'sij),  (from  Heb.  *^5?.  aw-bar' , 
to  cross). 

A  passage  of  a  river  is  a  ford  or  bridge  (Judg. 
xii:6).  In  a  country  a  "passage"  often  signifies 
a  narrow  way  between  mountains,  lakes,  etc.,  such 
as  the  "passages"  of  Michmash  and  Abarim,  that 
were  rendered  narrow  by  the  hills  or- rocks  on 
each  side  (i  Sam.  xiii:23;  Jer.  xxii:2o). 

PASSENGER  (p2ls's«n-jer),  (Prov.  ix:i5^  Ezek. 
xxxix:ii,  14,  15)  is  used  in  tne  A.  V.  in  the  sense 
of  a  passer-by,  not,  as  now,  one  "ticketed  for  a 
journey." 

PASSIOH  (pftsh'-iin),  (Or.  vd^x^fpas'-kho). 
This  word  has  several  very  different  signifi- 
cations. 1.  It  signifies  the  passion  or  suffeting 
of  Christ:  "To  whom  also  he  showed  himself 
alive  after  his  passion"  (Acts  1:3).  For  the  chief 
points  of  the  history  of  the  event,  see  Jesus 
Christ.  2.  It  signifies  feeling,  emotion,  or  wicked 
desires  (Rom.  i:26),  to  which  those  are  given  up 
whom  God  abandons  to  their  own  impulses  (Rom. 
vii:5;  i  Thess.  iv:s). 

PASSIONS,  LIKE  (p^h'iinslik),(Gr.dMotoira^f, 
horn'Oy-aP-ath-iue'),  used  in  the  expressions  **  men 
of  like  passions  with  you"  (Acts  xiv:i5)  and  "a 
man  subject  to  like  passions  as  we  are "  (James 
v:i7)  having  the  sense  (i)of  suffering  the  like  with 
another,  (2)  having  like  feelings  or  affections. 

PASSOVER  (pas'S-ver),  (Heb.  "??.,  peh'sakh\ 

Gr.  irdtf-xa,  pas'-khah),  a,  passing  over,  sparing  or 
protection. 

(1)  Twofold  Reference.  The  Passover,  like 
the  Sabbath  and  other  institutions,  had  a  twofold 
reference — historical  and  typical.  As  a  commem- 
orative institution  it  was  designed  to  preserve 
amongst  the  Hebrews  a  gfrateful  sense  of  their  re- 
demption from  Egyptian  bondage,  and  of  the  pro- 
tection gn'anted  to  their  firstborn  on  the  night 
when  all  the  firstborn  of  the  Egyptians  were  de- 


stroyed (Exod.  xii  127)  ;  as  a  typical  institute  its 
object  was  to  shadow  forth  the  great  facts  and 
consequences  of  the  Christian  Sacrifice  (i  Cor. 
V  :7). 

(2)  Three  Acceptations.  The  word  Passover 
has  three  general  acceptations  in  Scripture,  (i) 
It  denotes  the  yearly  solemnity  celebrated  on  the 
14th  day  of  Nisan  or  Abib,  which  was  strictly  the 
Passover  of  the  Lamb,  for  on  that  day  the  Israel- 
ites were  commanded  to  roast  the  lamb  and  eat 
it  in  their  own  houses.  (2)  It  signifies  that  yearly 
festivity,  celebrated  on  the  15th  of  Nisan,  which 
may  be  called  the  Feast  of  the  Passover  (Deut. 
xvi:2;  Num.  xxviii:i6,  17.  (3)  It  denotes  the 
whole  solemnity,  commencing  oh  the  14th,  and 
ending  on  the  21st  day  of  Nisan  (Luke  xxii:i), 
though,  in  strictness  of  speech,  the  Passover  and 
the  feast  of  unfermented  things,  are  distinct  in- 
stitutions. The  paschal  lamb,  in  the  age  follow- 
ing the  first  institution  of  the  Passover  in  Egypt, 
and  after  the  settlement  of  the  Hebrews  in  Pal- 
estine, could  only  be  killed  by  the  priests  in  the 
court  of  the  temple  (Deut.  xvi:5-7;  2  Chron. 
xxxv:i-ii;  Lev.  xvii:3-6),  whence  tfle  owner  of 
the  lamb  received  it  from  the  priests  and  'brought 
it  to  his  house  in  Jerusalem,  and  roasted  it,  and 
ate  it  in  the  evening*  (Maimonides,  Corban 
Pesach,  c.  i.  sec.  6)  ;  and  it  was  thus  that  Christ 
kept  the  Passover,  eating  it  in  a  chamber  within 
Jerusalem  (Luke  xxii:7-ii);  but  the  feast  of 
unfermented  things  (Exod.  xii:  15)  the  Jews 
thought  themselves  bound  to  keep  in  every  place 
in  which  they  might  dwell,  if  they  could  not  visit 
Jerusalem;  'the  eating  of  it,'  says  Maimonides, 
'depended  not  upon  the  Passover,  for  it  was  a 
commandment  by  itself  {Chometz  Vematzah,  sec. 
6).  As,  however,  from  the  evening  of  the  14th 
to  the  2 1  St  day  of  Abib  or  Nisan  (April),  all  fer- 
ment was  banished  from  the  habitations  of  the 
Hebrews,  both  institutions  thus  received  a  com- 
mon name  (i  Cor.  v:5,  7,  8,  13). 

(3)  How  and  When  Prepared.  On  the  loth 
of  the  month  Abib,  the  master  of  a  family  sepa- 
rated a  ram  or  a  goat  of  a  year  old,  without  blem- 
ish (Exod.  xii:i-6;  i  Pet.  i:i9),  which  was  slain 
on  the  14th  day,  between  the  two  evenings,  before 
the  altar  (Deut.  xvi).  The  Jewish  day  had 
twelve  hours  (John  xirg),  counting  from  sunrise, 
about  six  of  the  clock  of  our  time.  The  ninth 
hour  (or  three  in  the  afternoon)  was  the  hour 
of  prayer,  when  they  went  into  the  temple,  at  the 
daily  evening  sacrifice  (Acts  iii:i).  This  was  the 
ordinary  time  for  the  Passover,  as  appears  from 
the  Babylonian  Talmud.  'The  daily  evening  sac- 
rifice was  killed  at  the  eighth  hour  and  a  half, 
and  it  was  offered  up  at  the  ninth  hour  and  a  half. 
In  the  evening  of  the  Passover  it  was  killed  at 
the  seventh  hour  and  a  half,  and  offered  at  the 
eighth  hour  and  a  half  (Pesachim,  c.  5).  The 
reason  of  this  obviously  is,  because  the  priests 
had  first  to  kill  the  daily  sacrifice,  and  then  to 
slay  the  Passover  and  eat  it ;  and  also  to  rest  on 
the  evening  prior  to  the  Sabbath.  Thus  in  the 
evening  of  time  (Heb.  i:2;  i  Pet.  i:ip-2o),  or 
last  days,  about  the  same  hour  of  the  day  when 
the  paschal  lamb  was  offered  in  the  temple,  did 
Christ  die  on  Calvary,  so  that  the  substance  and 
the  shadow  corresponded  (Mark  xv:25-33). 

(4)  How  Observed.  Ori^rinally  the  blood  was 
sprinkled  on  the  posts  of  the  door  (Exod.  xii:7), 
but  afterwards  the  priests  sprinkled  the  blood 
upon  the  bottom  of  the  altar  (comp.  Deut.  vi: 
9;  I  Pet.  i:2;  Heb.  viiitio;  ix:i3,  14). 

(5)  Animal  Boasted  with  Fire.  The  ram 
or  kid  was  roasted  in  an  oven  whole,  with  two 
spits  made  of  pomegranate  wood  thrust  through 


PASTORS  OR  SHEPHERDS 


1291 


PASTURAGE 


it,  the  one  lengthwise,  the  other  transversely 
(crossing  the  longitudinal  one  near  the  fore- 
legs), thus  forming  a  cross  (Pesachim,  ch.  3). 
Thus  roasted  with  fire,  as  an  emblem  of  purifica- 
tion, it  was  served  up  with  a  bitter  salad  (Me- 
rorim)  unpickled,  indicative  of  the  bitterness  of 
their  bondage  in  Egypt,  and  with  the  flesh  of  the 
other  sacrifices  (Deut.  xvi:2-6).  What  of  the 
flesh  remained  uneaten  was  to  be  consumed  with 
fire,  lest  it  should  see  corruption  (comp.  Exod. 
xii:io;  Ps.  xviiio;  Acts  ii:27).  Not  fewer  than 
ten,  nor  more  than  twenty  persons,  were  admitted 
to  this  sacred  solemnity.  At  its  first  observance 
the  Hebrews  ate  the  Passover  with  loins  girt 
about,  sandals  on  their  feet,  staves  in  their  hands, 
and  in  haste,  like  travelers  equipped  and  prepared 
for  immediate  departure  (Exod.  xiirii)  ;  but  sub- 
sequently the  usual  mode  of  reclining  was 
adopted,  in  token  of  rest  and  security  (John  xiii : 
23).  Several  of  these  rites  are  therefore  omitted 
1^  Moses  in  repeating  the  laws  of  the  Passover 
(Lev.  xxiii  :s-8;  Num.  ix:2-ii;  xxviii:i6,  17; 
Deut  xvi). 

(6)  Particulars  by  Babbins.  The  Rabbins 
enumerate  the  following  particulars  as  peculiar  to 
its  original  observance:  (i)The  eating  of  it  in 
their  houses  dispersed  in  Egypt;  (2)  the  taking 
up  of  the  paschal  lamb  from  the.  tenth  day ;  (3) 
the  charge  to  strike  the  blood  on  the  doorposts; 
(4)  the  eating  of  it  in  haste  (Bab.  Talmud, 
Pesachim,  ch.  9;  Maim.  Corban  Pesach,  ch.  10, 
sec.  15).  But  the  command  not  to  break  a  bone 
of  the  offering  was  always  observed  (John  xix: 
36).  F.  R.  L. 

PASTOBS  or  SHEPHERDS  (pis'ters  6r  sbSp'- 

erds),  (Heb.  •^?"^,  rO'eh\  shepherd),  were  men  who 

watched  over  flocks  of  sheep  or  cattle,  directing 
them  to  their  right  pasture,  affording  them  water, 
gathering  them,  when  proper,  to  their  fold,  and 
protecting  them  from  hurt. 

It  seems  that  their  flocks  often  followed  them 
(John  x:i-27).  As  of  old  great  men's  wealth 
consisted  chiefly  in  their  flocks  and  herds,  the 
office  of  feeding  them  was  accounted  very  honor- 
able. Abel,  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Moses,  David, 
nay,  the  young  ladies,  as  the  daughters  of  Laban 
and  Jethro,  employed  themselves  in  feeding  flocks. 
(See  Shepherd.) 

Figurative,  (i)  God  is  compared  to  a  Shep- 
herd; with  what  tender  care  did  he  lead,  pro- 
«^ide  for,  protect,  and  govern  the  Hebrews  in 
the  desert,  and  in  Canaan!  With  what  tender 
care  he  gathers,  governs,  protects,  heals,  and  pro- 
vides for  the  welfare  of  his  church  and  people! 
(Gen.  xlix:24;  Ps.  xxiii  :i;  lxxx:i;  Is.  xl:ii). 
(2)  Christ  is  Grod's  Shepherd,  because  his  Fa- 
ther hath  given  him  his  flock  of  chosen  men,  and 
appointed  him  to  die  for,  call,  and  feed  them 
(Zech.  xiii  .7).  (3)  He  is  called  the  One  Shep- 
herd; because  he  alone  owns  the  sheep,  and  can 
in  every  respect  answer  and  supply  all  their  wants 
(Ezek.  xxxiv:23;  John  x:i6).  (4)  He  is  called 
the  ^reat  and  chief  Shepherd;  he  is  infinitely  great 
in  himself ;  he  is  highly  exalted  as  our  Mediator ; 
he  has  the  supreme  management  of  the  church  in 
his  hand;  and  ministers  and  magistrates  are  but 
instruments  subject  to  him  (Heb.  xiii:2o;  i  Pet. 
v:4.  (5)  He  is  the  Good  Shepherd;  in  infinite 
kindness  he  redeemed  his  sheep  from  ruin,  by  the 
price  of  his  blood;  kindly  he  sympathizes  with 
them,  and  gives  them  his  own  flesh  and  blood  for 
their  provision;  and  nothing  good  will  he  with- 
hold from  them  (John  x:i4).  (6)  He  is  the 
Shebherd  and  Bishop  of  souls;  it  is  men's  souls 
he  leads,  restores,  and  satisfies;  and  their  spirit- 


eternal  interests  are  the  great  objects  oi 
(i  Pet.  ii:2S;  Ps.  xxiii  :2,  3;  Jer.  xxxi: 

Tt-  _       «. -r.^i 9      9      -J _^       r /»» 


ual  and 
his  care 

10).  (7)  The  **shepherd  and  stone  of  Israel 
si^ifies  God,  the  source  of  all  blessings  (Gen. 
xlix:24).  (8)  Political  rulers  in  the  state,  and 
captains  in  the  army,  are  called  "Pastors  and  shep- 
herds:*' their  oflSce  requires  them  to  gather,  lead, 
protect,  and  provide  for  the  welfare  of  their  sub- 
jects and  armies,  which  are  their  flocks  ;  although 
they  often  act  the  contrary  (Is.  xiiv.'28;  lxiii:ii; 
Jer.  xii:io;  xxiii;  xxv:34;  Ezek.  xxxiv;  Nah. 
iii:i8).  (g)  The  Chaldean  princes  and  their  ar- 
mies were  the  "shef  herds  and  Hocks"  that  ruined 
Judah  (Jer.  vi  13 ;  xii  :io). 

PASTOBS,  CHRISTIAN  (p^'ters.  krTs'chan). 

Ministers  are  "shepherds;"  it  is  their  work  to 
gather,  lead,  watch  over,  feed  with  sound  doc- 
trine, and  in  every  way  endeavor  to  promote  the 
spiritual  life,  safety,  growth,  health,  and  comfort 
of  their  people  (Jer.  xvii:i6;  Eph.  iv:ii;  i  Pet. 
v:i-4).  The  pastoral  or  ministerial  office  and 
work  is  described  in  Scripture  as  inexpressibly 
important  and  solemn  (John  xiv:i6,  17,  26;  xv: 
26,  27;  xvi:  13,  14,  15;  xx:22;  i  Cor.  ii:io-i6; 
2  Cor.  iv:i4;  v:i7;  Gal.  i:i5,  16;  Phil.  iii:3,  7-14; 
I  John  i  :3).  They  must  have  a  real  call  and  mis- 
sion from  Jesus  Christ  to  their  work,  otherwise 
they  cannot  expect  to  have  any  true  success 
therein  (Is.  vi:8,  9;  xlix:i,  2;  Jer.  i;  xxiii  :2i, 
22,  32;  Ezek.  ii,  u'u  xxxiii;  Matt,  x;  Luke  x; 
John  x;  Acts  i;  xxvi:i7,  18;  Rom.  x:i5;  Heb. 
v:4).  Their  ends  ought  to  be  single  and  disin- 
terested, not  seeking  great  things  for  themselves, 
coveting  no  man's  silver,  gold,  or  apparel,  but 
seeking  to  gain  men  to  Christ,  and  salvation 
through  him ;  not  looking  or  aiming  at  their  own 
ease,  profit,  or  honor,  but  at  the  things  of  (3hnst 
and  his  people ;  not  seeking  glory  of  men,  but  the 
honor  of  Christ,  and  his  Father,  in  the  eternal 
salvation  of  souls  ( i  Sam.  xii  13 ;  Jer.  xlv  :$ ;  John 
vii:i8;  Acts  xx:33:  i  Cor.  ix:i2,  16;  2  Cor.  vi: 
4-10;  vii:2;  xiig;  xii:i3,  14;  Phil.  ii:2i;  i  Thess. 
ii  :4-9)  • 

PASTXJBAGE  (pis'ttir-Aj),  (Heb.  "^§.  kar,  fat 
pasture). 

In  the  first  period  of  their  history  the  Hebrews 
led  an  unsettled  pastoral  life,  such  as  we  still 
find  among  many  Oriental  tribes.  One  great  ob- 
ject of  the  Mosaical  polity  was  to  turn  them  from 
this  condition  into  that  of  fixed  cultivators  of  the 
soil.  Pasturage  was,  however,  only  discouraged 
as  a  condition  of  life  unfriendly  to  settled  habits 
and  institutions,  and  not  as  a  pursuit  connected 
with  agriculture.  Hence,  although  in  later  times 
the  principal  attention  of  the  Hebrews  was  given 
to  agriculture,  the  tending  of  sheep  and  cattle  was 
not  at  any  time  neglected. 

(1)  Nomads.  The  shepherds  who  move  about 
with  their  flocks  from  one  pasture-gfround  to  an- 
other, according  to  the  demands  of  the  season, 
the  state  of  the  herbage,  and  the  supply  of  water, 
are  called  nomads — that  is,  not  merely  shepherds, 
but  wandering  shepherds.  They  feed  their  flocks 
on  the  'commons,*  or  the  deserts  and  wildernesses, 
which  no  settled  or  cultivating  people  have  ap- 
propriated. At  first,  no  pastoral  tribe  can  have 
any  particular  property  in  such  tracts  of  ground 
in  preference  to  another  tribe;  but,  in  the  end,  a 
particular  tract  becomes  appropriated  to  some  one 
tribe,  or  section  of  a  tribe,  either  from  long  occu- 
pation, or  from  digging  wells  therein. 

(2)  Bights  Acquired.  According  to  the  ideas 
of  the  East,  the  digging  of  a  well  is  so  meritorious 
an  act,  that  he  who  performs  it  acquires  a  prop- 
erty in  the  waste-lands  arqund.  In  the  time  of 
the  patriarchs,  Palestine  was  but  thinly  peopled 


PASTURE 


1292 


PATHROS 


by  the  Canaanites,  and  offered  many  such  tracts 
of  unappropriated  grounds  fit  for  pasturage.  In 
these  they  fed  their  flocks,  without  establishing 
any  exclusive  claims  to  the  soil,  until  they  pro- 
ceeded to  dig  wells,  which,  being  considered  as  an 
act  of  appropriation,  was  opposed  by  some  of  the 
inhabitants  (Gen.  xxi:25,  26).  After  the  con- 
quest of  Canaan,  those  Israelites  who  possessed 
large  flocks  and  herds  sent  them  out,  under  the 
care  of  shepherds,  into  the  'wildernesses,'  or  com- 
mons, of  the  east  and  south,  where  there  are  rich 
and  juicy  pasturages  during  the  moist  seasons  of 
the  year  (i  Sam.  xvii:28;  xxv:4-i5;  i  Chron. 
xxvii:29-3i ;  Is.  Ixvrio;  Jer.  1:39). 

(3)  Succession  of  Occupancy.  The  nomads 
occupy,  successively,  the  same  stations  in  the  des- 
erts every  year.  In  summer,  when  the  plains  are 
parched  with  drought,  and  every  green  herb  is 
dried  up,  they  proceed  northwards,  or  into  the 
mountains,  or  to  the  banks  of  rivers ;  and  in  win- 
ter and  spring,  when  the  rains  have  re-clothed 
the  plains  with  verdure,  and  filled  the  water- 
courses, they  return.  When  these  pastors  remove, 
they  strike  their  tents,  pack  them  up,  and  convev 
them  on  camels  to  the  next  station.  Nearly  all 
the  pastoral  usages  were  the  same,  anciently,  as 
now.  ^  The  sheep  were  constantly  kept  in  the 
open  air,  and  guarded  by  hired  servants,  and  by 
the  sons  and  daughters  of  the  owners.  Even  the 
daughters  of  emirs,  or  chiefs,  did  not  disdain  to 
tend  the  sheep  (Gen.  xxiv:i7-2o;  xxix:9;  Exod. 
ii:i6). 

(4)  Duty  of  Shepherds.  The  principal  shep- 
herd was  responsible  for  the  sheep  intrusted  to 
his  care,  and  if  any  were  lost  he  had  to  make 
them  good,  except  in  certain  cases  (Gen.  xxxi: 
39;  Exod.  xxii:i2;  Amos  iii:i2).  Their  serv- 
ices were  often  paid  by  a  certain  proportion  of 
the  young  of  the  flock  (Gen.  xxx:3o).  On  the 
more  dangerous  stations,  towers  were  erected, 
from  which  the  approach  of  enemies  might  be 
discovered.  These  were  called  the  Towers  of  the 
Flock  (Gen.  xxxv:2i;  2  Chron.  xxvi:io;  Micah 
iv:8).     (See  Pastors  or  Shepherds.) 

PASTXntE  (pis'ttir).    See  Pastors  or  Shep- 
herds. 
PATABA  (pat'a-ri).  (Gr.  ndropa.  pafar-ah). 

A  port  of  Lycia  in  Asia  Minor,  where  Paul, 
on  his  voyage  to  Jerusalem,  changed  his  ship  for 
one  bound  to  Phoenicia  (Acts  xxi:i,  2).  Patara 
was  about  sixty  stadia  southeast  from  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Xanthos,  at  the  modem  village  Gele- 
mish. 

The  name  of  Patara  in  ancient  times  was  closely 
connected  with  the  cultus  and  the  oracle  of 
Apollo;  and  its  later  coins  show  Apolline  types, 
though  on  its  earlier  coinage  Athena  and  Hermes 
(Greek  ideals  of  art  and  trade)  are  the  promi- 
nent figures.  The  Roman  poets,  and  the  later 
Greeks  like  Lykophron,  associate  the  epithet  Pat- 
arean  with  Apollo,  just  as  they  call  the  god  Del- 
phian. The  oracle  spoke  only  during  part  of  the 
year,  viz.,  the  six  winter  months.  (Strabo,  xiv, 
665;  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  v,  28;  Mela,  i,  15;  Herod, 
i,  182.) 

Patara  is  now  in  ruins,  but  retains  its  ancient 
name.  The  remains  prove  it  to  have  been  a  city 
of  considerable  importance.  Among  them  are  a 
theater,  some  massive  walls  and  arches,  a  gate 
of  the  city  with  three  arches  nearly  perfect,  and 
numerous  sarcophagi.  Near  the  theater  is  a  deep 
circular  pit,  and  a  square  pillar  rising  above  it, 
which  Lewin  thinks  was  the  seat  of  the  oracle 
of  Patareus  Apollo.    The  port  is  completely  filled 


with  sand,  and  is  a  malarious  swamp;  all  com- 
munication with  the  sea  is  cut  off  by  a  sand- 
beach,  and  the  sand  is  also  gradually  encroaching 
upon  the  ruins.     (SchafT,  Bib.  Diet.) 

In  the  history  of  Christianity  Patara  was  of 
small  consequence.  Lycia,  like  Pamphylia,  seems 
to  have  been  slow  in  adopting  the  new  religion. 
Patara  was  a  bishopric,  and  is  mentioned  as  such 
in  all  the  Notitia.  There  are  still  considerable 
ruins  of  the  city,  on  which  see  Beaufort,  Texier, 
Fellows,  Spratt,  and  Forbes,  and,  above  all,  the 
splendid  work  of  Benndorf-Niemann  on  Lykia. 
(W.  M.  Ramsay,  Hastings'  Bib.  Diet.) 

PATE  (pat),  (Heb.  Tli?,  kod'kocU\  crown  of 

the  head),  formed  by  loss  of  /  from  "  plate,"  which 
came  to  be  applied  to  the  crown  of  the  head,  espe- 
cially the  bald  crown,  from  its  appearance:  comp. 
Germ.  Platte,  *a  plate,'  'bald  head,'  and  vulgarly 
*the  head'  occurs  once  in  the  A.  V.  (Ps.  vii:i6, 
'His  mischief  shall  return  upon  his  own  head,  and 
his  violent  dealing  shall  come  down  upon  his  own 
pate').    (Hastings'  Bid.  Did.) 

PATH  (pith),  (Heb.  ""3^  ,  o'rakh). 

Figurative,  (i)  God's  "/aMj"  are  his  works 
of  creation  (Job  xhig),  the  dispensations 
of  his  providence,  wherein  he  walks  towards 
his  creatures  (Ps.  xxv.io;  Is.  lv:8,  9),  or  the 
clouds  which  distil  his  rain  (Ps.  Ixv.ii)  ;  or  his 
truths  and  precepts,  in  which  he  requires  men  to 
walk  (Ps.  xvii:4).  (2)  The  paths  of  the  right- 
eous are  "paths  of  judgment"  of  uprightness,  and 
of  life;  his  religious  course  is  judiciously  chosen, 
he  is  candid  and  upright  in  following  it  out;  in 
his  present  walk  he  has  life  spiritual  here,  and 
shall  attain  life  eternal  hereafter  (Is.  xl:i4;  Prov. 
ii:i3;  v:6).  (3)  (k»d  makes  a  "straight  way"  or 
"path"  when  he  removes  every  thing  tending  to 
the  hindrance  of  his  glory  and  gospel  (Is.  xlii: 
16 ;  xl  :3,  4)  ;  and  of  his  people's  happiness  (Jer. 
xxxi  :9).  (4)  Christ's  "paths"  are  made  straight, 
when  things  are  prepared  for  his  public  appear- 
ances on  earth  (Matt.  iii:3).  (5)  Men  make 
"straight  paths'*  for  their  feet,  lest  that  which  is 
lame  be  turned  out  of  the  way,  when  they  take 
care  of  adding  to,  or  taking  from,  the  rules  of 
God's  word,  and  study  to  walk  exactly  according 
to  it,  lest  some  should  stumble  at  religion  on 
their  account  (Heb.  xii:i3).  (6)  Men  do  not 
"find  their  taths"  when  they  cannot  get  their  pur- 
poses fulfilled  (Hos.  ii:6). 

PATHBOS  (path'ros),  (Heb.  ^inns^  path'roce, 
region  of  the  south). 

A  district  of  Egypt  near  Thebes;  named,  as 
some  suppose,  from  a  town  called  Ha-hathor,  or 
"the  abode  of  Hathor,"  the  Egyptian  Venus. 
Originally  it  was  ruled  by  its  own  kings,  inde- 
pendent of  Egypt.  It  was  probably  the  Thebaid 
of  the  Greeks  and  the  Said  of  the  Arabs.  The 
country  is  mentioned  in  the  Prophets,  and  nearly 
always  in  connection  with  Egypt  (Is.  xi  :ii ;  Ezek. 
XXX :  14;  Jer.  xliv:i-is).  Its  inhabitants  were 
known  as  the  Pathrusim,  the  descendants  of  Ham 
through  Mizraim  (Gen.  x:i4;  i  Chron.  i:i2). 

After  Egypt  had  been  desolate  for  forty 
years  and  its  inhabitants  exiled,  Ezekiel  said 
(chap.  xxix:i4),  *I  will  bring  back  the  captivity 
of  Egypt,  and  will  cause  them  to  return  into 
(LXX,  'will  cause  them  to  dwell  in,*  perhaps  bet- 
ter) the  land  of  Pathros,  into  the  land  of  their 
birth,  and  they  shall  be  there  a  base  kingdom.' 
It  is  very  remarkable  to  find  in  Ezekiel  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  correct  Egyptian  tradition  concern- 
ing the  priority  of  the  southern  country  over  the 
north.    The  earliest  known  dynasties  of  kings  re- 


PATHRUSIM  12 

sided  in  Memphis  on  the  border  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Egypt,  but  the  first  historical  kin^,  Menes, 
came  from  This  (Thinis)  near  Abydos  m  Upper 
Egypt.  Therefore  the  inscriptions  always  place 
the  south  as  the  aboriginal  country  before  the 
north.  The  issue  of  that  prophecy  is  not  quite 
clear.     (W.  Max  Muller,  Hastings'  Bib.  Did.) 

PATHBTI8IH  (path-ru'sim).  (Heb.  B'P^^B. 
PtUA-rac-s^fM-). 

The  fifth  in  order  of  the  tribes  descended  from 
Mizraim,  who  settled  Egypt  (Gen.  x:i4;  I  Giron. 
i:i2). 

PATIENCE  (pi'sh^s),  (Gr.  imxpoSutJa,  tnak- 
reth-oo-mte' ah),  constancy,  endurance,  forbear- 
ance, long-suffering,  resignation. 

1-  Patience  and  resignaiion  are  thus  discrim- 
inated :  Patience  applies  to  any  troubles  or  pains 
whatever,  small  or  great;  resignation  is  employed 


J  PATMOS 

arc  opposed  and  which  we  are  called  to  main- 
tain and  suffer  for  (Rev.  iii:io). 

PATIENCE  or  OOD  (p^'sh^ns  flv  g6d).  God'a 
"patience"  is  his  bearing  long  with  oEfenders 
without  punishing  them  |MatI.  x\i\x:26-iq;  Rom. 
ii:4).  The  "God  ol  patience"  (^o*""!,  hu-pom-ott- 
that  God  is  the  author  of  patience  in. 


his 


(Roi 


v:S). 


PATUOS  (pat'mos),  (Gr.  Uir lui.  pat mos). 

A  rocky  and  bare  island  of  the  ^gean  Sea, 
about  fifteen  miles  in  circumference,  and  reckoned 
as  one  of  the  Sporades  (Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  iv,  23; 
Strabo,  x,  480).  On  account  of  its  stern  and  deso- 
late character,  the  island  was  tised,  under  the 
Roman  empire,  as  a  place. of  banishment,  which 
accounts  for  the  exile  of  John  thither  'for  the 
testimony  of  Jesus'  (Rev.  iig).  (See  John,  3.) 
He  was  here  favored  with  those  visions  which 
are  contained  in  the  Apocalypse,  and  to  which 
the  place  owes  its  Scriptural  mterest. 


only  for  those  of  great  moment,  in  which  our 
dearest  interests  are  concerned :  patience,  when 
compared  with  resignation,  is  somewhat  nega- 
tive ;  it  consists  in  the  abstaining  from  all 
complaint  or  indication  of  what  one  suffers;  but 
resignation  consists  in  a  positive  sentiment  of  con- 
formity to  the  existing  circumstances,  be  they 
what  they  may.  There  are  perpetual  occurrences 
which  are  apt  to  harass  the  temper,  unless  one 
regards  them  with  patience;  the  misfortunes  of 
some  men  are  of  so  calamitous  a  nature,  that  if 
they  have  not  acquired  the  resignation  of  Chris- 
tians, they  must  inevitably  sink  under  them. 
Patience  applies  only  to  the  evils  that  actually 
hang  over  us ;  but  there  is  a  resignation  connected 
with  a  firm  trust  in  Providence  which  extends 
its  views  to  futurity,  and  prepares  us  for  the 
worst  that  may  happen.     (Crabbe's  Synonyms.) 

2.  The  "patience"  of  the  saints  is  that  ^race 
whereby  they  meekly  endure  injuries  and  with  a 
continued  calmness  of  temper,  and  submission 
of  spirit  to  the  will  of  God,  bear  afflictions,  and 
humbly  wait  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  prom- 
ises (Roin.v:^;  viii:35).  It  is  called  t)\t  "patxenc^' 
of  IttHS  ChnsI,  as  he  exemplifies  it  and  bestows 
it:  it  is  exercised  in  the  way  of  waiting,  and 
honorinjt  him.  and  in  a  patient  waiting  tor  his 
coming  in  the  power  of  his  Spirit,  and  to  judge 
the  world  {a  Thess.  1:4;  Rev.  i:9);  and  the 
'^vord  of  his  patience,"  are  tbOK  trutht  which 


On  approaching  the  island  the  coast  is  found 
to  be  high,  and  to  consist  of  a  succession  of  capes, 
which  form  so  many  ports,  some  of  which  are 
excellent.  The  only  one  in  use  is,  however.a  deep 
bay,  sheltered  by  high  mountains  on  every  side 
but  one,  where  it  is  protected  by  a  projecting 
cape.  The  town  attached  to  this  port  is  situated 
upon  a  high  rocky  mountain,  rising  immediately 
from  the  sea;  and  this,  with  the  Scala  below 
upon  the  shore,  consisting  of  some  shops  and 
houses,  forms  the  only  inhabited  site  of  the  is- 

Patmos  is  deficient  tn  trees,  hut  abounds 
in  flowering  plants  and  shrubs.  Walnuts  and 
other  fruit  trees  are  grown  in  the  orchards;  and 
the  wine  of  Palmos  is  the  strongest  and  best 
flavored  of  an>[  in  the  Greek  islands.  Maize  and 
barley  are  cultivated,  but  not  in  a  quantity  suffi- 
cient for  the  use  of  the  inhabitants,  and  for  the 
supply  of  their  own  vessels  and  others  which 
often  put  in  at  the  great  harbor  for  provisions. 
The  island  now  bears  the  names  of  Patino  and 
Palmosa,  and  the  inhabitants  do  not  exceed  4,000 
or  S.ooOi  many  of  whom  are  emigrants  from  the 
neighboring  continent.  Kitto. 

The  monastery  of  St.  John's  contains  a  poor 
remnant  of  the  valuable  fibraiy  which  was  Once 
there.  Mai,  in  his  Nova  Bibtiotheea.  VI,  ii,  p. 
537.  has  published  from  a  Vatican  MS.  a  list  of 
the  books  preserved  there  in  the  13th  century.    It 


PATRIARCH 


1294 


PAUL 


was  here  that  the  English  traveler,  E.  D.  Qark, 
purchased  of  the  monks,  in  October,  1814,  the 
great  9th  century  codex  of  Plato  now  in  the  Bod- 
leian. It  remains  to  add  that,  according  to  an  un- 
certain tradition  preserved  in  Irenaus,  v,  30, 
Eusebius,  HE  iii.  18,  Hieronymus,  de  Scr.  III. 
ch.  9,  and  others,  St.  John  was  exiled  to  Patmos 
in  the  14th  year  of  the  emperor  Domitian,  and 
returned  thence  to  Ephesus  A.  D.  96  under  Nerva. 
A  modern  traveler,  Mr.  Theodore  Bent,  has  sug- 
gested that  the  natural  scenery  of  the  island  de- 
termined some  features  of  the  imagery  of  the 
Apocalypse:  a  suggestion  which  Dean  Stanley  in 
his  Sermons  in  the  East  had  already  made.  (Hast- 
ings' Bib,  Diet,) 

PATBIABOH  (pa'tr¥-ark),  (Gr.  Tarpidpxvt,  pat- 
ree-arkh* ace),  a  progenitor,  the  founder  of  a  tribe 
(Acts  ii:29). 

!•  In  the  early  history  of  the  Jews  we  find  the 
ancestor  or  father  of  a  family  retaining  authprity 
over  his  children  and  his  children's  children  so 
long  as  he  lived,  whatever  new  connections  they 
might  form.  When  the  father  died  the  branch- 
families  did  not  break  off  and  form  new  com- 
munities, but  usually  united  under  another  com- 
mon head.  The  eldest  son  was  generally  invested 
with  this  dignity.  His  authority  was  paternal. 
He  was  honored  as  the  central  point  of  connec- 
tion, and  as  the  representative  of  the  whole 
kindred.  Thus  each  great  family  had  its  patriarch 
or  head,  and  each  tribe  its  prince  selected  from 
the  several  heads  of  the  families  it  embraced.  These 
princes  were  called  "elders  of  Israel."  (Sec 
Elders.) 

2.  The  word  "patriarch"  is  also  applied  to  the 
founder  of  a  family  or  to  any  illustrious  ancestor 
(Acts  ii:29). 

3.  In  later  ages  of  the  Church  the  same  title 
is  found,  but  is  applied  to  ecclesiastical  dignitaries, 
and  denotes  the  supposed  paternal  character  of 
their  authority. 

4.  The  sons  of  Jacob,  as  the  progenitors  of  the 
Jewish  nation,  are  called,  by  way  of  distinction, 
"the  twelve  patriarchs"  (Acts  vii:8).  (SchaflF,  Bih. 
Diet.) 

VATBJXO^nr  (pat'rr-m6-ny),  (Heb.  ^^9?   ^5^. 

tf/,  of  or  from;  haw'aw'hoth'y  the  fathers),  the  pro- 
duce of  the  property  which  a  Levite  possessed 
according  to  his  family  descent  (Deut.  xviii:8). 

PATBOBAS  (pat'ro-bas),  (Gr.  Harp^f,  pat- 
rob' as^  life  of  his  father). 

A  Christian  in  Rome  to  whom  St.  Paul  sent 
greetings  (Rom.  xvi:i4).  (A.  D.  55.)  Accord- 
ing to  an  uncertain  tradition  he  was  one  of  the 
seventy  disciples. 

PATTERN  (p&t'tem). 

1.  Tab-neeth'  (Heb.  ^^Vi^,  figure,  form),  literally 

a  structure,  then  a  figure  of  anything,  a  copv  or 
representation  (Exod.  xxviq,  40;  Josh.  xxii:28;  i 
Chron.  xxviii:ii.  12.  18,  19). 

2.  Tok-neeth'  (Heb.  ^^i??,  Ezck.  xliiiiio.  only), 
an  arrangement. 

8.  Mar-eh'  (Heb.  '"^15,  an  appearance,  Num. 

viii:4.  only),  a  pattern,  a  view. 

4.  Hoop-od' ipte-mah{Gx,  {nr69eiyfjui,  Heb.  ix:2j), 
signifies  properly  a  sketch,  a  model,  as  of  the  tab- 
ernacle, an  exemplar. 

5.  Hoop-ot-oop' O'Sts  (Gr.  ^or^JruMrts,  outline, 
sketch),  an  example  or  pattern  (i  Tim.  i:i6). 

6.  Too'Pos  {Gr,  r&irot,  the  mark  of  a  stroke, 
print).  In  Tit.  11:7  it  means  exampU  to  be  copied; 
while  it  hat  the  meaning  (Heb.  viii:5)  of  iypt, pat- 


PAir  (pa'u).  (Heb.  ^^,  pawee',  bleating),  the 

capital  city  of  Hadar.  king  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi: 
39);  called  Pai  (1  Chron.  i:5o).  Site  is  not  known. 

PAUL    (paul),  (Gr.  IlaOXof.  Paulus,  originally 

Saul,  (Heb.  ^''^^.  shaw-oor,  asked,  ZavXof,  Saulos, 
asked  for). 
1.     pjame    and    Personal   History.      He 

was  a  native  of  Tarsus,  a  city  of  Cilicia  (Acts 
xxii:3,  etc.),  and  was  of  Jewish  descent,  of  the 
tribe  of  Beniamin  (Phil.  iii:5).  From  his  father 
he  inherited  the  rights  of  Roman  citizenship, 
which  had  probably  been  earned  by  some  of  his 
ancestry  through  services  rendered  to  the  Roman 
state  (Lardner,  Works,  i,  228,  ed.  1788,  8vo; 
Grotius.  ad  Act,  xxii:28).  The  supposition  that 
he  enjoyed  them  in  virtue  of  being  a  native  of 
Tarsus  is  not  well  founded. 

At  that  time  Tarsus  was  the  rival  of  Athens 
and  Alexandria  as  a  place  of  learning  and  philo- 
sophical research  (Strabo,  xiv,  5)  ;  but  to  what  ex- 
tent the  future  *  Apostle  of  the  (jentiles'  enjoyed 
the  advantage  of  its  schools  we  have  no  means 
of  accurately  determining.  It  must  be  allowed, 
however,  that  the  mere  circumstance  of  having 
spent  his  early  years  in  such  a  city  as  Tarsus 
could  not  but  exert  a  very  powerful  influence  on 
the  mind  of  such  a  man  as  Paul,  in  the  way  of 
sharpening  his  faculties,  refining  his  tastes,  and 
enlarging  the  circle  of  his  sympathies  and  affec- 
tions.   (See  Tarsus.) 

(1)  Early  Life.  But  whatever  uncertainty  may 
hang  over  the  early  studies  of  the  Apostle  m  the 
department  of  Greek  learning,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that,  being  the  son  of  a  Pharisee,  and 
destined,  in  all  probability,  from  his  infancy  to 
the  pursuits  of  a  doctor  of  Jewish  law,  he  would 
be  carefully  instructed  from  his  earliest  years  in 
the  elements  of  Rabbinical  lore.  It  is  probable 
also  that  at  this  time  he  acquired  his  skill  in  that 
handicraft  trade  by  which  in  later  years  he  fre- 
quently supported  himself  (Acts  xviii:3;  i  Cor. 
iv:i2,  etc.)  ;  for  it  was  a  maxim  among  the  Jews. 
that  'he  who  does  not  teach  his  son  a  trade,  teaches 
him  to  steal.' 

At  the  proper  age  (supposed  to  be  after  he  was 
fourteen  years  old),  the  Apostle  proceeded  to 
Jerusalem,  to  prosecute  his  studies  in  the  learn- 
ing of  the  Jews.  Here  he  became  a  student  under 
Gamaliel,  a  distinguished  teacher  of  the  law,  and 
who  is  supposed  to  be  the  person  of  that  name 
who  is  celebrated  in  the  writings  of  the  Talmud- 
ists  as  one  of  the  seven  teachers  to  whom  the  title 
'Rabban'  was  given  (Lightfoot,  Horee  Hehr.  in 
Act.  V,  34 ;  Neander,  Apostol.  Zeitalter.  u.  s.  w.  s. 
62;  Otho,  Lex.  Rabbimco-Phil.  title  'Rabbi').  Be- 
sides acquaintance  with  the  Jewish  law,  and  a 
sincere  conviction  of  the  supreme  excellence  of 
Judaism,  Gamaliel  appears  to  have  possessed  a 
singularly  calm  and  judicious  mind,  and  to  have 
exercised  a  freedom  of  thought  as  well  as  pur- 
sued a  range  of  study  very  unlike  wHat  was  com- 
mon among  the  party  to  which  he  belonged  (Acts 
y '34-39  f  comp.  Neander,  loc.  cit.).  How  much 
the  instructions  and  the  example  of  such  a  teacher 
may  have  influenced  the  mind  of  Paul  in  a  di- 
rection favorable  to  the  course  he  was  subse- 
quently called  to  pursue,  it  is  easy  for  us  to 
imagine. 

.  We  now  approach  the  period  in  Paul's  history 
when  he  becomes  a  prominent  figure  on  the  page 
of  the  sacred  historian,  and  when,  consequently, 
the  facts  of  his  life  can  be  more  confidently  nar- 
rated. He  is  introduced  to  our  notice  by  the 
sacred  historian  for  the  first  time  in  connection 
with  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen,  in  which  tranBaC' 


PAUL 


1295 


PAUL 


tion  he  was,  if  not  an  assistant,  something  more 
than  a  mere  spectator. 

He  is  described  as  at  this  time  'a  young  man' 
[veavlas);  but  "this  term  was  employed  with 
so  much  latitude  by  the  Greeks  that  it  is  im- 
possible, from  the  mere  use  of  it,  to  determine 
whether  the  person  to  whom  it  was  appHed  was 
under  thirty  or  between  that  and  forty.  The 
probability  is  that  Paul  must  have  reached  the 
age  of  thirty  at  least;  for  otherwise  it  is  not 
i&ely  that  he  would  have  shared  the  counsels  of 
the  chief  priests,  or  been  intrusted  by  them  with 
the  entire  responsibility  of  executing  their  designs 
against  the  followers  of  Jesus,  as  we  know  was 
the  case  (Acts  xxvirio,  12).  For  such  a  task 
he  showed  a  painful  aptitude,  and  discharged  it 
with  a  zeal  which  spared  neither  age  nor  sex  (Acts 
viii:i-3;  xxvi;io,  11).  But  while  thus,  in  his 
ignorance  and  unbelief,  he  was  seeking  to  be  'in* 
jiuious'  to  the  cause  of  Christ,  the  great  Author 
of  Christianity  was  about  to  make  him  a  distin- 
guished trophy  of  its  power,  and  one  of  the  most 
devoted  and  successful  of  its  advocates. 

(2)  Conversion.  While  journeying  to  Damas- 
cus (see  Damascus),  with  a  commission  from 
the  high-priest,  to  arrest  and  bring  back  as  pris- 
oners to  Jerusalem  the  Christians  who  had  es- 
caped thither  from  the  fury  of  their  pnersecutors, 
and  when  he  had  almost  completed  his  journey, 
he  was  suddenly  arrested  by  a  miraculous  vision 
of  Christ,  who  addressing  him  from  heaven,  de- 
manded the  reason  of  his  furious  zeal,  in  the  re- 
markable words,  'Saul,  Saul,  why  persecutest  thou 
me?'  Struck  to  the  ground  by  the  suddenness 
and  overwhelming  splendor  of  the  vision,  and 
able  only  to  ask  by  whom  it  was  he  was  thus  ad- 
dressed, he  received  for  answer,  *I  am  Jesus  of 
Nazareth  whom  thou  persecutest;  but  arise,  and 
go  into  the  city,  and  it  shall  be  told  thee  what 
to  do.'  This  command  the  confounded  and  now 
humble  zealot  immediately  rose  to  obey,  but  as 
the  brilliancy  of  the  light  which  had  shone  around 
him  had  dazzled  him  to  blindness,  he  had  to  be 
led  into  the  city  by  his  attendants.  Here  he  re- 
mained for  three  dtys  and  nights  in  a  state  of 
deep  mental  conflict  and  dejection,  tasting  neither 
meat  nor  drink,  until  a  person  of  the  name  of 
Ananias  appeared  at  the  command  of  Clirist  to 
relieve  his  distress,  and  to  admit  him  into  the 
Christian  fraternity  by  baptizing  him  into  the 
name  of  the  Lord  (Acts  ix:i-i8;  comp.  i  Cor. 
XV  :8;  ix:i;  Gal.  i:i;  Neander,  A  postal.  Zeitalter. 
section  iii,  sq.;  Olshausen,  on  Acts  ix:i-i9; 
Lyttleton's  Observations  on  the  Conversion  and 
Apostlcship  of  St.  Paul). 

Immediately  on  his  conversion  to  Christianity 
Saul  seems  to  have  gone  into  Arabia  (see  Arabia), 
where  he  remained  three  years  (Gal.  i:ii-i7)  ; 
and  where  he,  in  all  probability,  was  chiefly  occu- 
pied, by  meditation  and  study,  in  preparing  him- 
self for  the  great  work  to  which  he  had  been 
called.  Here  also  we  may  venture  to  suppose  he 
received  that  gospel  which  afterwards  he  preached 
'by  revelation'  from  Christ  (Gal.  i:i2). 

Returning  from  Arabia  to  Damascus  the  Apostle 
commenced  his  public  efforts  in  the  service  of 
Christ,  by  boldly  advocating  in  the  synagogues 
of  the  Jews  the  claims  of  Jesus  to  be  venerated 
as  the  Son  of  God.  At  first  astonished,  the  Jews 
were  afterwards  furiously  incensed  at  this  change 
in  the  opinions  and  conduct  of  Saul,  and  in  con- 
sequence of  their  attempts  upon  his  liberty  and 
life,  he  was  obliged  to  make  his  escape  from 
Damascus.  This  he  effected  with  difficulty  by 
the  aid  of  the  Christians,  some  of  whom  let  him 
down  in  a  basket  from  the  window  of  a  dwell- 


ing erected  upon  the  outer  wall  of  the  city  (Acts 
ix:2i,  etc.;  2  Cor.  xi:32). 

(3)  First  Visit  to  Jerusalem.  After  his  con- 
version, where,  on  the  testimony  of  Barnabas, 
he  was  acknowledged  as  a  Christian  brother,  and 
admitted  by  the  Apostles  to  that  place  in  their 
fraternity  which  had  been  assigned  to  him  by 
Christ.  From  Jerusalem  he  was  soon  driven  by 
the  hostility  of  the  Jews;  when,  after  visiting 
Caesarea,  he  went  to  his  native  town  Tarsus, 
where  he  abode  several  years  (Acts  ix:26-30). 
From  this  retreat  he  was  summoned  by  Barnabas, 
who,  having  been  appointed  by  the  Apostles  at 
Jerusalem  to  visit  the  church  at  Antioch,  where 
accessions  had  been  made  to  the  number  of  the 
followers  of  Jesus  from  among  the  Gentiles  as 
well  as  the  Jews,  and  finding  the  need  of  counsel 
and  co-operation  in  his  work,  went  to  Tarsus 
to  procure  the  assistance  of  Saul  (Acts  xi:22-25). 

(4)  Second  Visit  to  Jerusalem.  After  resid- 
ing and  laboring  for  a  year  in  Antioch,  these 
two  distinguished  servants  of  Christ  were  sent 
up  to  Jerusalem  with  certain  contributions  which 
had  been  made  among  the  Christians  at  Antioch 
(see  Antioch),  on  behalf  of  their  brethren  in 
Judaea,  who  were  suffering  from  the  effects  of  a 
dearth  (Acts  xi:27-3o).  This,  as  commonly  re- 
ceived, was  the  Apostle's  second  visit  to  Jeru- 
salem  after   his   conversion. 

(6)  First  Missionary  Journey.  Having  dis- 
charged this  commission  they  returned  to  Antioch, 
accompanied  by  John  Mark,  the  nephew  of  Bar- 
nabas, and  were  shortly  afterwards  despatched  by 
that  church,  in  obedience  to  an  injunction  from 
heaven,  on  a  general  missionary  tour.  In  the 
course  of  this  tour,  during  the  earlier  part  only 
of  which  they  were  accompanied  by  Mark,  in 
consequence  of  his  shrinking  from  the  toils  and 
dangers  of  the  journey  and  returning  to. Jeru- 
salem, they  visited  Seleucia,  Cyprus,  Perga  in 
Pamphylia,  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  Iconium,  Lystra 
and  Derbe,  cities  of  Lycaonia  (in  the  former  of 
which  the  fickle  populace,  though  at  first  they  had 
with  difficulty  been  prevented  from  offering  them 
divine  honors,  were  almost  immediately  after- 
wards, at  the  instigation  of  the  Jews,  led  to  stone 
the  Apostle  until  he  was  left  for  dead) ;  and  then 
they  returned  by  way  of  Attalia,  a  city  of 
Pamphylia,  by  sea  to  Antioch,  where  they  re- 
hearsed to  the  church  all  that  God  had  done  by 
them  (Acts  xiii-xiv).  This  formed  the  Apostle's 
first  great  missionary  tour. 

In  the  narrative  of  this  journey,  given  by  Luke, 
the  historian,  without  assigning  any  reason  for  so 
doing,  drops  the  name  Saul  and  adopts  that  of 
Paul,  in  designating  the  Apostle.  It  is  proba- 
ble from  this,  that  it  was  dunng  this  journey  that 
the  Apostle's  change  of  name  actually  took  place. 
What  led  to  that  change  we  can  only  conjecture; 
and  of  conjectures  on  this  point  there  has  been 
no  lack.  The  most  probable  opinion  is  that  of 
Beza,  Grotius,  Doddridge,  Kuinoel,  etc.,  that  as 
the  Romans  and  Greeks  were  in  the  habit  of 
softening  the  Hebrew  names  in  pronunciation, 
and  accommodating  their  form  to  that  of  the 
latin  or  Greek  (comp.  Jason  for  Jesus,  Silvanus 
for  Silas,  Pollio  for  Hillel,  etc.),  they  substituted 
Paulus  for  ^y^t*  and  the  Apostle  henceforward 
adopted  the  substituted  name  as  his  usual  desig- 
nation. 

(6)  The  Council  at  Jerusalem.  Not  long 
after  Paul  and  Barnabas  had  returned  to  Antioch, 
they  were  deputed  by  the  church  there  again  to 
visit  Jerusalem,  to  consult  the  Apostles  and  eldew 
upon  the  question,  which  certain  members  of  the 
church  at  Jerusalem  had  raised  in  that  at  Antioch, 


PAUL 


1296 


PAUL 


whether  converts  from  heathenism  required  to  be 
circumcised,  and  so  become  Jews  before  they 
could  be  saved?  (See  Barnabas.)  The  Apostle 
on  this  occasion  visited  Jerusalem  for  the  third 
time  after  his  conversion ;  and  after  the  question 
had  been  settled  by  the  parties  in  that  city  with 
whom  the  power  to  do  so  lay,  he  and  his  com- 
panion returned  to  Antioch. 

(7)  Second  Missionary  Jouvney.  After  re- 
storing peace  to  the  church  there  Paul  proposed 
to  Barnabas  to  undertake  another  missionary  tour, 
to  which  the  latter  cordially  assented;  but,  un- 
happily, on  the  very  eve  of  their  departure,  a  con- 
tention arose  between  them,  in  consequence  of 
Barnabas  being  determined  to  take  with  them  his 
nephew  John  Mark,  and  Paul  being  equally  de- 
termined that  one,  who  had  on  a  former  occasion 
ingloriously  deserted  them,  should  not  again  be 
employed  in  the  work.  Unable  to  come  to  an 
agreement  on  this  point  they  separated,  and  Paul, 
accompanied  by  Silas,  commenced  his  second  mis- 
sionary journey,  in  the  course  of  which,  after 
passing  through  Syria  and  Cilicia,  he  revisited 
Lystra  and  Derbe.  At  the  former  of  these  places 
he  found  Timothy,  whom  he  associated  with  Silas, 
as  the  companion  of  his  further  travels,  after 
he  had  been  ordained  by  the  Apostle  and  the 
presbytery  of  the  church  of  which  he  was  a 
member  (i  Tim.  iv:i4).  Paul  then  passed  through 
the  regions  of  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  and,  avoiding 
Asia  strictly  so-called,  and  Bithynia,  he  came 
with  his  companions  by  way  of  Mysia  to  Troas. 
on  the  borders  of  the  Hellespont.  Hence  they 
crossed  to  Samothracia,  and  thence  to  Neapolis, 
and  so  to  Philippi,  whither  he  had  been  sum- 
moned in  a  vision  by  a  man  of  Macedonia  saying, 
*Come  over  and  help  us.'  After  some  time  spent 
in  this  city  they  passed  through  Amphipolis  and 
Apollonia,  cities  of  Macedonia  (see  Macedonia), 
and  came  to  Thessalonica,  where,  though  they 
abode  only  a  short  time,  they  preached  the  gospel 
with  no  small  success.  Driven  from  that  city 
by  the  malice  of  the  Jews,  they  came  by  night  to 
Berea,  another  city  of  Macedonia,  where  at  first 
they  were  favorably  received  by  the  Jews,  until 
a  party  from  Thessalonica,  which  had  followed 
them,  incited  the  Bereans  against  them.  Paul, 
as  especially  obnoxious  to  the  Jews,  deemed  it 
prudent  to  leave  the  place,  and  accordingly  re- 
tired to  Athens,  where  he  determined  to  await 
the  arrival  of  Silas  and  Timothy.  Whilst  resid- 
ing in  this  city,  and  observing  the  manners  and 
religious  customs  of  its  inhabitants,  his  spirit  was 
stirred  within  him,  when  he  saw  how  entirely 
they  were  immersed  in  idolatry ;  and  unable  to 
refrain,  he  commenced  in  the  synagogues  of  the 
Jews,  and  in  the  market-place,  to  hold  discussions 
with  all  whom  he  encountered.  This  led  to  his 
being  taken  to  the  Areopagus,  where,  surrounded 
by  perhaps  the  shrewdest,  most  polished,  most 
acute,  most  witty,  and  most  scornful  assemblage 
that  ever  surrounded  a  preacher  of  Christianity, 
he,  with  exquisite  tact  and  ability,  exposed  the 
folly  of  their  superstitions,  and  unfolded  the  char- 
acter and  claims  of  the  living  and  true  God.  For 
the  purpose  of  more  effectually  arresting  the  at- 
tention of  his  audience,  he  commenced  by  refer- 
ring to  an  altar  in  their  city,  on  which  he  had 
read  the  inscription  iXwdartfi  $«$,  to  an  un» 
known  God;  and,  applying  this  to  Jehovah,  he 
proposed  to  declare  to  them  that  Deity,  whom 
thus,  without  knowing  him  (dXi»ooOrrct),  they 
were  worshiping. 

On  being  rejoined  by  Timothy  (i  Thess.  iii: 
i),  and  perhaps  also  by  Silas  (comp.  GresweH's 
Dissertations,  ii,  pp.  31,   32),  the  Apostle  sent 


them  both  back  to  Macedonia,  and  went  alone  to 
visit  Corinth,  whither  they  soon  after  followed 
him  (Acts  xviiiis).  Here  he  abode  for  a  year 
and  a  half  preaching  the  gospel,  and  supporting 
himself  by  his  trade  as  a  tent-maker,  in  which 
he  was  joined  by  a  converted  Jew  of  the  name 
of  Aquila,  who,  with  his  wife  Priscilla,  had  been 
expelled  from  Rome  by  an  edict  of  the  emperor, 
forbidding  Jews  to  remain  in  that  city.  Driven 
from  Corinth  by  the  enmity  of  the  Jews,  he,  along 
with  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  betook  himself  to 
Ephesus,  whence,  after  a  residence  of  only  a  few 
days,  he  went  up  to  Jerusalem,  being  commanded 
by  Ciod  to  visit  that  city,  at  the  time  of  the  ap- 
proaching passover.  His  visit  on  this  occasion — 
the  fourth  since  his  conversion — was  very  brief; 
and  at  the  close  of  it  he  went  down  to  Antioch. 
thereby  completing  his  second  great  apostolic 
tour. 

(8)  Third  Missionary  Journey.  At  Antioch 
he  abode  for  some  time,  and  then,  accompanied, 
as  is  supposed,  by  Titus,  he  commenced  another 
extensive  tour,  in  the  course  of  which,  after  pass- 
ing through  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  he  visited 
Ephesus.  The  importance  of  this  city,  in  relation 
to  the  region  of  Hither  Asia,  determined  him  to 
remain  in  it  for  a  considerable  time;  and  he  ac- 
cordingly continued  preaching  the  gospel  there 
for  three  years,  with  occasional  brief  periods  of 
absence,  for  the  purpose  of  visiting  places  in  the 
vicinity.  With  such  success  were  his  efforts 
crowned,  that  the  gains  of  those  who  were  in- 
terested in  supporting  the  worship  of  Diana,  the 
tutelar  goddess  of  the  city,  began  to  be  seriously 
affected;  and  at  the  instigation  of  one  of  these, 
by  name  Demetrius,  a  silversmith,  who  had  en- 
joyed a  lucrative  traffic  by  the  manufacture  of 
what  appear  to  have  been  miniature  representa- 
tions of  the  famous  temple  of  Diana  {poo^s  dpyv 
poOs  *ApT4fu9os,  comp.  Kuinoel,  in  Act.  xix,24; 
Neander,  A  post.  Zeit,  §  350),  a  popular  tumult 
was  excited  against  the  Apostle,  from  the  fury  of 
which  he  was  with  difficulty  rescued  by  the 
sagacity  and  tact  of  the  town-clerk,  aided  by  oth- 
ers of  the  chief  men  of  the  place,  who  appear 
to  have  been  friendly  towards  Paul.  By  this 
occurrence  the  Apostle's  removal  from  Ephesus, 
on  which,  however,  he  had  already  determined 
(Acts  xix:2i),  was  in  all  probability  expedited; 
and,  accordingly,  he  very  soon  after  the  tumult 
went  by  way  of  Troas  to  Philippi,  where  he 
appears  to  have  resided  some  time,  and  from 
which,  as  his  headquarters,  he  made  extensive 
excursions  into  the  surrounding  districts,  pene- 
trating even  to  Illyricum,  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  Adriatic  (Rom.  xv.ig).  From  Philippi  he 
went  to  Corinth,  where  he  resided  three  months, 
and  then  returned  to  Philippi,  having  been  frus- 
trated in  his  design  of  proceeding  through  Syria 
to  Jerusalem  by  the  malice  of  the  Jews.  Sailing 
from  Philippi,  he  came  to  Troas,  where  he  abode 
seven  days;  thence  he  journeyed  on  foot  toAssos; 
thence  he  proceeded  by  sea  to  Miletus,  where  he 
had  an  affecting  interview  with  the  elders  of  the 
church  at  Ephesus  (Acts  xx:i7,  sq.)  \  thence  he 
sailed  for  Syria,  and,  after  visiting  several  inter- 
mediate ports,  landed  at  Tyre;  and  thence,  after 
a  residence  of  seven  days,  he  traveled  by  way  of 
Ptolemais  and  Caesarea  to  Jerusalem.  This  con- 
stituted his  fifth  visit  to  that  city  after  his  con- 
version. 

(9)  Arrest  at  Jerusalem.  On  his  arrival  at 
Jerusalem  he  had  the  mortification  to  find  that, 
whilst  the  malice  of  his  enemies  the  Jews  was 
unabated,  the  minds  of  many  of  his  brother  Chris- 
tians were  alienated  from  him  on  account  of  what 


PAUL 


1297 


PAUL 


they  deemed  his  too  lax  and  liberal  notions  of 
the  obligations  of  the  Mosaic  ritual.  To  obviate 
these  feelings  on  their  part,  he,  at  the  suggestion 
of  the  Apostle  James,  joined  himself  to  four 
persons  who  had  taken  on  them  the  vows  of  a 
Nazarite,  and  engaged  to  pay  the  cost  of  the  sacri- 
fices by  which  the  Mosaic  ritual  required  that 
such  should  be  absolved  from  their  vows.  With 
what  success  this  somewhat  questionable  act  of 
the  Apostle  was  attended,  as  respects  the  minds  of 
his  brethren,  we  are  not  informed,  but  it  had  no 
eflfect  whatever  in  securing  for  him  any  mitiga- 
tion of  the  hatred  with  which  he  was  regarded  by 
the  unconverted  Jews;  on  the  contrary,  his  ap- 
pearance in  the  temple  so  much  exasperated  them, 
that,  before  his  vow  was  accomplished,  thev  seized 
him,  and  would  have  put  him  to  death  had  not 
Lysias,  the  commander  of  the  Roman  cohort  in 
the  adjoining  citadel  brought  soldiers  to  his  res- 
cue. Under  the  protection  of  Lysias,  the  Apostle 
addressed  the  angry  mob,  setting  forth  the  main 
circumstances  of  his  life,  and  especially  his  con- 
version to  Christianity,  and  his  appointment  to 
preach  the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles.  Up  to  this 
point  they  heard  him  patiently;  but  no  sooner 
had  he  insinuated  that  the  Gentiles  were  viewed 
by  him  as  placed  on  a  par  with  the  Jews,  than 
all  their  feelings  of  national  bigotry  burst  forth 
in  a  tempest  of  execration  and  fury  against  the 
Apostle.  Lysias,  ignorant  of  what  Paul  had  been 
saying,  from  his  having  addressed  the  people  in 
Hebrew,  and  suspecting  from  these  vehement 
demonstrations  of  the  detestation  in  which  he  was 
held  by  the  Jews  that  something  flagrantly  vicious 
must  have  been  committed  by  him,  gave  orders 
that  he  should  be  examined,  and  forced  by  scourg- 
ing to  confess  his  crime.  From  this  indignity 
Paul  delivered  himself  by  asserting  his  privileges 
as  a  Roman  citizen,  whom  it  was  not  lawful  to 
bind  or  scourge. 

Next  day,  in  the  presence  of  the  Sanhedrim,  he 
entered  into  a  defense  of  his  conduct,  in  the 
course  of  which,  having  avowed  himself  a  be- 
liever in  the  doctrine  of  a  bodily  resurrection,  he 
awakened  so  fierce  a  controversy  on  this  point  be- 
tween the  Pharisees  and  the  Sadducees  in  tjie  coun- 
cil that  Lysias,  fearing  he  might  be  torn  to  pieces 
among  them,  gave  orders  to  remove  him  into  the 
fort.  From  a  conspiracy  into  which  above  forty 
of  the  Jews  had  entered  to  assassinate  him  he 
was  delivered  by  the  timely  interposition  of  his 
nephew,  who,  having  acquired  intelligence  of  the 
plot,  intimated  it  first  to  Paul,  and  then  to  Lysias. 
Alarmed  at  the  serious  appearance  which  the  mat- 
ter was  assuming,  Lysias  determined  to  send 
Paul  to  Caesarea,  where  Felix  the  procurator  was 
residing,  and  to  leave  the  affair  to  his  decision. 
At  Caesarea  Paul  and  his  accusers  were  heard  by 
Felix;  but  though  the  Apostle's  defense  was  un- 
answerable, the  procurator,  fearful  of  giving  the 
Jews  offense,  declined  pronouncinjf  any  decision, 
and  still  retained  Paul  in  bonds.  Some  time  after 
he  was  again  summoned  to  appear  before  Felix, 
who,  along  with  his  wife  Drusilla,  expressed  a 
desire  to  hear  him 'concerning  the  faith  in  Christ;' 
and  on  this  occasion  the  faithful  and  fearless 
Apostle  discoursed  so  pointedly  on  certain 
branches  of  good  morals,  in  which  the  parties  he 
was  addressing  were  notoriously  deficient,  that 
Felix  trembled,  and  hastily  sent  him  from  his 
presence. 

Shortly  after  this  Felix  was  succeeded  in  his 
government  by  Porcius  Festus,  before  whom  the 
Jews  again  brought  their  charges  against  Paul; 
and  who,  when  the  cause  came  to  be  heard, 
showed  so  much  of  a  disposition  to  favor  the 

83 


Jews  that  the  Apostle  felt  himself  constrained 
to  appeal  to  Caesar.  To  gratify  King  Agrippa 
and  his  wife  Bernice,  who  had  come  to  Caesarea 
to  visit  Festus,  and  whose  curiosity  was  excited 
by  what  they  had  heard  of  Paul,  he  was  again 
called  before  the  governor  and  'permitted  to  speak 
for  himself.'  On  this  occasion  he  recapitulated 
the  leading  points  of  his  history,  and  gave  such 
an  account  of  his  views  and  designs  that  a  deep 
impression  was  made  on  the  mind  of  Agrippa 
favorable  to  Christianity  and  to  the  Apostle;  so 
much  so  that,  but  for  his  having  appealed  to 
Caesar,  it  is  probable  he  would  have  been  set  at 
liberty. 

(10)  Voyage  to  Borne.  His  cause,  however, 
having  by  that  appeal  been  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  emperor,  it  was  necessary  that  he  should  go  to 
Rome,  and  thither  accordingly  Festus  sent  him. 
His  voyage  was  long  and  disastrous.  Leaving 
Caesarea  when  the  season  was  already  consider- 
ably advanced,  they  coasted  along  Syria  as  far 
as  Sidon,  and  then  crossed  to  Myra,  a  port  of 
Lycia;  thence  they  sailed  slowly  to  Cnidus;  and 
thence,  in  consequence  of  unfavorable  winds,  they 
struck  across  to  Crete,  and  with  difficulty  reached 
a  port  on  the  southern  part  of  that  island  called 
The  Fair  Haven,*  near  the  town  of  Lasea. 

There  Paul  urged  the  centurion,  under  whose 
charge  he  and  his  fellow-prisoners  had  been 
placed,  to  winter;  but  the  place  not  being  very 
suitable  for  this  purpose,  and  the  weather  prom- 
ising favorably,  this  advice  was  not  followed,  and 
they  again  set  sail,  intending  to  reach  Phoenice,  a 
port  in  the  same  island,  and  there  to  winter. 
Scarcely  had  they  set  sail,  however,  when  a 
tempest  arose,  at  the  mercy  of  which  they  were 
driven  for  fourteen  days  in  a  westerly  direction, 
until  they  were  cast  upon  the  coast  of  Malta, 
where  they  suffered  shipwreck,  but  without  any 
loss  of  life.  Hospitably  received  by  the  natives, 
they  abode  there  three  months,  during  which 
time  Paul  had  a  favorable  opportunity  of  preach- 
ing the  gospel,  and  of  showing  the  power  with 
which  he  was  endued  for  the  authentication  of 
his  message  by  performing  many  miracles  for  the 
advantage  of  the  people. 

On  the  approach  of  spring  they  availed  them- 
selves of  a  ship  of  Alexandria  which  had  win- 
tered in  the  island,  and  set  sail  for  Syracuse, 
where  they  remained  three  days;  thence  they 
crossed  to  Rhegium,  in  Italy;  and  thence  to 
Puteoli,  from  which  place  Paul  and  his  com- 
panions journeyed  to  Rome. 

(11)  At  Borne.  Here  he  was  delivered  by  the 
centurion  to  the  captain  of  the  guard,  who  per- 
mitted him  to  dwell  in  his  own  hired  house  un- 
der the  surveillance  of  a  soldier.  And  thus  he 
continued  for  two  years,  'receiving  all  that  came 
to  him,  preaching  the  kingdom  of  (}od,  and  teach- 
ing those  things  which  concern  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  with  all  confidence,  no  man  forbidding 
him*  (Acts  xxi:i7;  xxviii:3i). 

(12)  Hartyrdom.  At  this  point  the  evangelist 
abruptly  closes  his  narrative,  leaving  us  to  glean 
our  mformation  regarding  the  subsequent  history 
of  the  Apostle  from  less  certain  sources.  Tradi- 
tion steadfastly  affirms  that  he  suffered  martyrdom 
at  Rome,  and  that  the  manner  of  his  death  was 
by  beheading  (Tillemont,  Mimoires,  i,  p.  324)  ; 
but  whether  this  took  place  at  the  close  of  the 
imprisonment  mentioned  by  Luke,  or  after  a  sec- 
ond imprisonment  incurred  subsequent  to  an  in- 
tervening period  of  freedom  and  active  exertion 
in  the  cause  of  Christianity,  has  been  much  dis- 
cussed by  modern  writers.  If,  on  the  evidence  fur- 
nished by  the  allusions  in  the  Second  Epistle  to 


PAUL  13 

Timothy,  we  adopt  the  supposition  above  stated, 
it  will  follow  that  Paul,  during  the  interval  be- 
tween his  first  and  second  imprisonments,  under- 
took an  extensive  apostolic  tour,  in  the  course  of 
which  he  visited  his  former  scenes  of  labor  in 
Asia  and  Greece,  and  perhaps  also  fulfilled  his 
purpose  of  going  into  Spain  (Rom.  xv:24-28^. 
He  probably  also  visited  Crete  and  Dalmatia 
(comp.  Greswell,  vol.  ii,  pp.  ?8-ioo). 

(13)  LlteratOTB  Concemkip  PanL  On  the 
writings  of  the  apostle  Paul,  see  the  articles  in 
this  work  under  the  titles  of  his  different  epistles : 

Pearson,  Annates  Paulini,  4to  Lond.  1688, 
translated  by  J.  M.  Williams,  i2mo.  Cambridge, 
1826;  J.  Lange,  Comment.  Hist.  Hermeneut.  de 
Vita  et  Ejistolis  Ap.  Pauli,  4I0  Halat,  1718;  Mac- 
knight,  TranshtioH  of  the  Apostolical  Epistles, 
vol.  vi,  8vo,  vol.  iv,  4I0;  Lardner,  Works,  vol, 
vi,  Svo,  vol.  iii,  4to;  More,  Essay  on  St.  Paul, 
a  vols.;  Tate,  Continuous  History  of  St.  Paul 
(prefixed  to  a  new  edition  of  Paley's  Horte  Paul- 
iwir),  Svo,  Lond.,  1840;  Schrader,  Der  Ap. 
Paulus,  3  th.  Svo.  Leip.  1830;  Hemsen,  Der  Ap. 
paulus,  Svo.  Gott.  1830;  Tholuck,  Vermischte 
Schriften,  bd.  ii.  (translated  in  the  Edinburgh 
Biblical  Cabinet,  vol.  xxviii. ;  Binney,  Lectures  oh 
St.  Paul,  1866;  Howson,  Metaphors  of  St.  Paul, 
1868;  Companions  of  St.  Paul,  1871;  Smith,  yoy- 
age  of  St.  Paul;  Lewin,  Life  and  Letters  of  St. 
FmI,  1874;  Conybeare  and  Howson.  Life  of  Si. 
Paul.  W.  L.  A. 


SLhallltaaaRomu  TtbletafabaDttbeFaanbCentiirT). 

2.  CrtilbmtgefHUWritlngs,  Insomedirec- 
!  there  has  arisen  a  tendency  to   discredit 


that  in  order  to  learn  precisely  what 
teachings  of  the  apostles  in  reference  to  the 
Christ  we  must  confine  ourselves  to  the  first  three 
gospels ;  that  the  book  of  the  Acts  does  not  give 
an  account  of  thing;  as  they  actually  occurred; 
and  that  no  doctrine  of  the  New  Testament  should 
be  emphasized  unless  it  is  clearly  taught  in  the 
books  of  Matthew,  Mark,  or  Luke.  We  are  asked 
to  reject,  or  consider  of  doubtful  authority,  those 
special  themes  which  seem  to  have  appealed  very 
Strongly  to  the  minds  of  Peter,  Paul  and  John. 
<11  A  Badlcal  Change.    Whether  or  not  meA 


»  PAUL 

reject  the  account  of  his  conversion,  there  is  no 
avoiding  the  conclusion  that  during  his  early 
manhood  he  met  with  a  radical  change,  not  only 
of  opinion  but  also  of  character.  Certain  it  is  that 
his  whole  mental  attitude  toward  the  Christ  was 
changed.  It  appears  that  he  himself  abandone' 
the  title  of  Saul  and  chose  the  name  of  Paul. 
which  means  "the  little  one;"  whether  or  not 
this  name  was  taken  on  account  of  his  bodily 
size,  which  is  said  to  have  been  small,  it  was  cer- 
tainly illustrative  of  the  change  which  had  passed 
over  the  man.  who  now  called  himself  "the  least 
of  the  apostles." 

Here  was  a  man  of  education  and  ability,  whose 
convictions  became  so  strong  that  he  willingly 
— nay  gladly— forfeited  the  good  will  of  all  his 
old  friends,  forfeited  his  social  position  and  all 
of  his  worldly  prospects,  by  espousing  the  cause 
and  the  name  of  the  Christ.  This  converted  Jew 
Hung  the  banner  of  the  cross  in  the  faces  of  the 
very  men  with  whom  he  had  been  associated  in 
the  work  of  persecution.  No  wonder  he  could 
assert  that  "/  have  been  cruciHed  with  Christ  yet 
i  live;  and  yet  no  longer  I,  but  Christ  liveth  in 
me;  and  the  life  -which  I  now  live  in  the  Sesh,  I 
live  in  faith,  the  faith  which  is  in  the  Son  of 
God  who  loved  me  and  gave  himself  up  for  me" 
(Gal.  ii:20,  R.  V.)  Having  perceived  the  full 
power  of  the  cross  as  a  means  of  redemption  from 
the  power  of  the  law,  he  testified  that :  "Christ  re- 
deemed us  from  the  curse  of  the  law,  having  be- 
come a  curse  for  us"  (Gal,  iii:ll-i3)-  There  is 
much  similar  testimony  in  this  single  Epistle,  and 
the  Galatians  accepted  the  doctrine.  They  knew 
it  must  be  true,  for  the  man  who  preached  it 
wrote  to  them  out  of  his  own  experience,  and  they 
knew  that  be  had  given  up  a  Hie  of  ease  for  one 
of  hardship,  loss,  and  su^ering,  for  the  sake  of 
the  truth  which  he  advocated. 

His  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  no  less  emphatic. 
In  the  very  first  chapter  he  affirms  that  Jesus  is 
the  Son  of  God;  "Promised  afore  by  his  prophets 
in  the  Holy  Scriptures  concerning  his  Son  v)ha 
was  born  of  the  seed  of  David  according  to  the 
Aesh,  who  was  declared  to  be  the  Son  of  God 
with  power,  according  to  the  spirit  of  holiness  by 
the  resurrection  from  the  dead"  (Rom.  1:2-4). 

Paul's  message  pertains  to  life  and  death,  and 
the  resurrection  from  the  dead,  and  this  is  the 
gospel  which  he  advocates,  not  as  his  own  but  as 
"the  gospel  of  his  Son."  This  gospel  "is  the 
power  of  God  unto  salvation  to  every  one  that 
believeth ;  to  the  Jew  first  and  also  to  the  Greek, 
This  gospel  is  for  all :  "For  all  have  sinned  and 
come  short  of  the  glory  of  God,'  being  justified 
freely  by  his  grace  through  the  redemption  that 
is  in  Christ  Jesus:  whom  God  set  forth  to  be  a 
propitiation  through  faith  in  his  blood,  to  declare 
his  righteousness  for  the  remission  of  sins  that 
are  past  through  the  forbearance  of  God"  (Roni. 
iii  122-24).  The  same  thought  is  repeatedly  ex- 
pressed, for  he  preached  the  justification  by  faith, 
as  a  means  of  "peace  with  God  through  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,"  "while  we  were  yet  sinners,  Christ 
died  for  US,"  "While  we  were  enemies  we  were 
reconciled  to  God  through  the  death  of  his  Son 
.  .  .  .  and  not  only  so,  but  we  rejoice  in 
God  through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  through 
whom  we  have  received  the  reeondlialion  (Rom. 
v:8-II,  R.  V.) 

(2)  Apostle  to  the  Oentilea.  Although  "a 
Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews"  Paul  became  in  a  pe- 
culiar sense  "the  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles."  He 
taught  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  that  men  are  justi- 
fied by  faith  and  not  by  obedience  to  the  law,  and 
that  tbe  circumcision  which  God  required  under 


PAUL 


1299 


PEACE 


the  new  covenant  was  the  circumcision  of  the 
heart  and  not  of  the  flesh. 

He  freely  taught  that  all  men  are  sinners;  that 
they  cannot  be  justified  before  God  by  an  obedi- 
ence rendered  in  their  own  strength,  or  by  obedi- 
ence to  the  Jewish  law.  Freedom  from  con- 
denmation  must  come  through  faith  in  the  Christ, 
who  as  the  descendant  of  David,  and  as  the  Son 
of  God,  came  into  the  world  as  an  offering  for 
sin,  that  as  many  as  believe  in  b\m  may  have 
eternal  life. 

His  assertions  are  in  perfect  harmony  with 
Matthew,  who  says:  **This  is  the  blood  of  my 
covenant  which  is  shed  for  many  unto  remission 
of  sins'*  (Matt.  xxvi:28).  In  the  letters  to  the 
Corinthians  references  to  the  death  of  Christ  arc 
not  so  frequent,  but  they  are  no  less  emphatic. 
His  theme  was  still  "Christ  crucified." 

In  the  fifteenth  chapter,  in  which  the  resurrec- 
tion of  believers  is  taught  so  forcibly,  it  is  con- 
nected always  with  the  resurrection  of  him  who 
hath  broken  the  tomb,  and  illumined  the  sepulcher 
by  passing  through  its  portals. 

Paul's  testimony  concerning  the  death,  burial, 
resurrection  and  ascension  of  our  Lord  is  as  em- 
phatic as  that  of  Matthew,  Mark  and  Luke.  He 
believed  it  with  all  his  heart  and  taught  it  un- 
flinchingly in  the  face  of  imprisonment  and  pri- 
vation. In  heat  and  cold,  under  the  repeated 
stripes  of  cruel  scourging,  he  never  shrinks  in  the 
proclamation  of  that  gospel  whose  truth  was  so 
convincing  that  for  it  he  had  renounced  every- 
thing that  the  world  could  offer  him. 

(3)  Bequisites  of  a  Witness.  The  credibiK 
ity  of  a  witness  requires  that  he  should  be  con- 
scientious, and  all  of  Paul's  history  showr  him  to 
have  been  so;  whether  he  was  persecuting  the 
saints  or  flinging  the  banner  of  the  cross  in  the 
face  of  the  polished  Athenians  he  was  always 
sternly  uncompromising,  (a)  The  credibility  of 
a  witness  also  requires  that  he  shall  know  whereof 
he  affirms;  that  he  shall  be  personally  acquainted 
with  the  facts  in  regard  to  which  he  testifies ;  and 
this  was  eminently  true  of  the  great  Apostle  to 
the  Gentiles,  (b)  Also  that  he  shall  have  moral 
courage  enough  to  tell  the  truth  even  in  face 
of  opposition,  and  if  need  be  of  pcfrsecution  also. 
The  apostle  Paul  at  last  sealed  his  testimony  with 
his  blood,  (c)  Such  credibility  is  greatly  in- 
creased in  value  if  he  has  been  convinced  against 
his  will  and  in  the  face  of  preconceived  opinions. 
Not  only  is  this  true  of  Paul,  but  the  truth  to 
which  he  testifies  is  one  to  which  his  former  atti- 
tude was  of  uncompromising  hostility.  After  be- 
ing the  persecutor  he  accepted  of  persecution. 

"Are  they  ministers  of  Christ?  I  am  more;  in 
labors  more  abundant,  in  stripes  above  measure, 
in  prisons  frequent,  in  deaths  oft.  ...  In 
perils  by  waters,  in  perils  by  mine  own  countnj- 
men,  in  perils  by  the  heathen  ...  in  weari- 
ness and  painfulness,  in  watchings  often,  in  hun- 
ger and  thirst,  in  fastings  often"  (2  Cor.  xi:23-27). 
When  a  man  will  lead  a  life  like  this  for  the  sake 
of  the  truth  which  he  loves  shall  we  not  accept  his 
testimony?  (See  Art.  in  Bib.  Sacra,  by  Rev.  Ed- 
ward F.  Williams,  1899,  pp.  657,  sq.) 

3.  Epistles  of  Paul  The  Epistles  of  Paul 
are  thirteen,  or,  if  we  count  the  Hebrews  (as  the 

Eroduct  of  Paul's  mind,  though  probably  not  of 
is  pen),  fourteen,  in  number.  They  are  the 
most  remarkable  body  of  correspondence  in  the 
history  of  literature.  They  are  tracts  for  the 
times,  and  yet  tracts  for  all  times.  They  will  be 
found  separately  considered  under  their  titles. 
Here  some  general  remarks  only  are  given.  They 
may  be  arranged  differently. 


(a)  Chronologically. 
I  and  2  Thessalonians,  written  A.  D.  52,  53,  fro 

Corinth. 
Galatians,  written  A.  D.  56-57,  from  Ephesus. 

1  Corinthians,  written  A.  D.  57,  from  Ephesus. 

2  Corinthians,  written  A.  D.  57,  from  Macedonia. 
Romans,  written  A.  D.  58,  from  Corinth. 
Colossians,  Ephesians,  Philippians,  and  Philemon, 

written  A.  D.  61 -$3,  from  Rome. 
Hebrews,  written  A.  D.  64  (?),  from  Italy. 

1  Timothy  and  Titus,  written  A.  D.  65  or  57  (?), 
from  Macedonia. 

2  Timothy,  written    A.  D.  67  or  64  (?),  from 
Rome. 

The  time  of  the  composition  of  the  Pastoral 
Epistles  depends  upon  the  question  of  the  second 
Roman  captivity.  The  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy 
was  at  all  events  the  last,  whether  written  in  the 
first  or  second  captivity. 

(b)  Topically. 

Romans  and  Galatians:  doctrines  of  sin  andgn'^ce. 
I  and  2  Corinthians:  moral  and  practical  ques- 
tions. 

Colossians  and  Philippians:  person  of  Christ. 

Ephesians :  the  Church  of  Christ. 

I  and  2  Thessalonians :  the  second  advent. 

I  and  2  Timothy  and  Titus:  church  government 

and  pastoral  care. 
Philemon:  slavery. 

Hebrews:  the  eternal  priesthood  and  sacrifice  of 
Christ. 

(c)  As  to  Importance,  the  order  in  our  Bible  is 
pretty  correct.  The  epistles  are  all  important, 
but  were  not  equally  well  understood  in  all  ages 
of  the  church.  Thus  the  Galatians  and  Romans 
were  more  appreciated  in  the  time  of  the  Refor- 
mation than  in  any  preceding  century;  they  are 
the  stronghold  of  the  evangelical  doctrines  of  to- 
tal depravity  and  salvation  by  free  grace.  Paul's 
epistles  give  us  the  most  complete  exhibition  of 
the  various  doctrines  of  Christianity  and  of  the 
spiritual  life  of  the  apostolic  church,  and  are  ap- 
plicable to  all  ages  and  congregations.  (Schaff, 
Bib.  Diet.)  (See  Acts  of  the  Apostles;  Epis- 
tles ;  and  the  various  Epistles  specifically  treated.) 

PAT7LTJS  (pau'lus).    See  Sergius  Paulus. 
PAVEMENT  (pav'm^mt),  (Heb.  ^}^1,  rtfs-paw' , 

hot  stone;  once,  2  Kings  xvi:i7,  ^^Wl^,  mar-tseh'' 

feih).  Originally  a  stone  heated  for  baking  pur- 
poses, hence  a  tesselated  Pavement  (2  Chron.  vii:3; 
festh.  i:6;  Ezek.  xl:i7, 18). 

PAVILION  (pi-vn'ytin),  (Heb.  TID,  $oke\  See 
Tent. 

PAW  (pa),  (Heb.  ^\yawd,  hand). 

1.  Paw  of  a  lion,  or  of  a  bear  (i  Sam.  xvii  '.Zl)* 

2.  The  palm  or  hollow  hand,  as  the  Hebrew  is 
elsewhere  rendered  (Lev.  xi:27).  (Comp.  Job 
xxxix  :2i.) 

PEACE  (pes),  (Heb.  0*'^^,  shaw-lome,  safety, 

familiar;  Gr.  ei^i^,  i-ray'nay,  unity,  concord). 

Peace  is  that  state  of  mind  in  which  persons  are 
exposed  to  no  open  violence  to  interrupt  their  tran- 
quillity, (i)  Social  peace  is  mutral  agreement 
one  with  another,  whereby  we  forbear  injuring  one 
another  (Ps.  xxxiv:i4;  cxxii:6).  (2)  ncclesiasti- 
cat  peace  i^  freedom  from  contentions  and  rest 
from  persecutions  (Is.  xi:i3;  xxxii:i7;  Rev.  xii: 
14)-  (3)  Spiritual  peace  is  deliverance  from  sin, 
bv  which  we  were  at  enmity  with  God  (Rom.  v: 
I ) ;  the  result  of  which  is  peace  in  the  conscience: 
(Heb.  x:22).  This  peace  is  the  gift  of  Goct 
through  Jesus  Christ  (2  Thess.  iii:i6).  It  h  a. 
blessing  of  great  importance  (Ps.  cxix:i65).     It  is 


PEACEMAKERS 


1300 


PEDAIAH 


denominated  perfect  (Is.  xxvi:3),  inexpressible 
(Phil.  iv:7),  permanent  (Job  xxxiv:22;  John  xvi : 
22),  eternal  (Is.  lvii:2;  Heb.  ivrg;  Ps.  lv:20;  John 
xiv:27). 

PEAOEMAKEB43  (pes'mak'ers),  (Gr.  tlpiiworoi6s, 
i'Vay-nop-oy-os' t  worker  of  peace). 

The  term  includes  the  peace  lovers  and  the 
founders  of  peace.  They  who  heal  up  breaches 
and  restore  harmony  and  good  fellowsni]^  (comp. 
Matt,  v.'q;  Col.  i:2o;  Rom.  xvi:2o;  2  Cor.  xih: 
11;  also  Luke  ii:i4;  John  xvi  133;  Eph.  ii:i4). 

PEACE  OFFEBINO  (pes  df 'fer-Xng).  See  Of- 
fering. 

PEACOOE  (p5'k6k),  (Heb.  **??,  took-kee'). 

It  is  a  question  perhaps  more  of  geographical 
and  historical  than  of  Biblical  interest  to  decide 
whether  thakyim  (i  Kings  x:22),  and  thukyim 
(2  Chron.  ix:2i)  denote  peacocks  strictly  so 
called,  or  some  other  species  of  animal  or  bird. 
There  are  only  two  species  of  true  peacocks,  viz., 
that  under  consideration,  which  is  the  Pavo  cris- 
talus  of  Linn. ;  and  another,  Pavo  Muticus,  more 
recently  discovered,  which  differs  in  some  par- 
ticulars, and  originally  belongs  to  Japan  and 
China.  Peacocks  bear  the  cold  of  the  Himalayas : 
they  run  with  gresit  swiftness,  and  where  they 
are,  serpents  do  not  abound,  as  they  devour  the 
young  with  great  avidity,  and,  it  is  said,  attack 
with  spirit  even  the  Cobra  di  Capello  when  grown 
to  considerable  size,  arresting  its  progress  and 
confusing  it  by  the  rapidity  and  variety  of  their 
evolutions  around  it,  till  exhausted  with  fatigue 
it  is  struck  on  the  head  and  dispatched. 

This  singular  and  beautiful  bird  is  mentioned 
among  the  articles  imported  by  Solomon  from 
Tharshish,  the  modern  Ceylon  or  Malabar  coast 
of  India,  where  the  peacock  is  indigenous.  In 
Job  xxxix:i3  another  Hebrew  word  is  found, 
better  rendered  "ostriches,"  and  the  word  "os- 
trich" should  be  translated  (as  it  is  elsewhere) 
"stork."  The  wings  of  the  ostrich  cannot  raise 
it  from  the  ground ;  yet  in  running  it  catches  (or, 
as  the  word  rendered  "goodly"  imports,  "drinks 
in")  the  wind.  The  construction  of  the  ostrich 
and  that  of  the  stork  are  thus  contrasted,  as  are 
also  their  habits;  for  the  stork  is  as  proverbial 
for  her  tenderness  to  her  young  as  is  the  ostrich 
for  her  seeming  indifference  (Job  xxxix:i4-i6). 
(See  Ostrich  ;  Stork.) 

PEABLS  (perls).  (Heb.  ^?|,  gaw-beesh').    It  is 

doubtful  that  pearls  are  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament.  The  word  gabish^  rendered  'pearl*  in 
Job  xxviii:i8  appears  to  mean  crystal ;  and  the 

word  ^''?"*??,  pen-ee-neem^  which  our  version  trans- 
lates by  'rubies*  is  now  supposed  to  mean  coral 
(See  Coral).  But  in  the  New  Testament  the 
pearl  is  repeatedly  mentioned. 

In  Matt.  xiii:45,  46,  a  merchant  (traveling  jew- 
eler) seeking  goodly  pearls,  finds  one  pearl  of 
great  price,  and  to  be  able  to  purchase  it  sells 
all  that  he  has—all  the  jewels  he  had  previously 
secured.  In  i  Tim.  ii  .-9,  and  Rev.  xvii  :4,  pearls  are 
mentioned  as  the  ornaments  of  females;  in  Rev. 
xviii:i2-i6,  among  costly  merchandise;  and  Rev. 
xxi:2i,  the  twelve  gates  of  the  heavenly  Jerusa- 
lem are  'twelve  pearls.* 

These  intimations  seem  to  indicate  that  pearls 

were  in  more  common  use  among  the  Jews  after 

than  before  the  captivity,  while  they  evince  the 

.   -estimation  in  which  they  were  in  later  times  held 

t   •(Plin.  Hist.  Nat  ix,  54;  xii,  /^l;  i^lian,  Anim.  x, 

•..^3;  comp.  Ritter  Erdkunde,  i»,  164).    The  island 

of  Tylos  (Bahrein)  was  especially  renowned  for 


its  fishery  of  pearls  (Plin.  vi.  32;  comp.  Straba 
xvi.  p.  767 ;  Athen.  iii.  93)  ;  the  Indian  ocean  was 
also  known  to  produce  pearls  (Arrian,  Indica,  p. 
194;  Plin.  ix.  54;  xxxiv.  48;  Strabo,  xv.  p.  7^7) - 
Heeren  feels  assured  that  this  indication  must  be 
understood  to  refer  to  the  strait  between  Tapro- 
bana,  or  Ceylon,  and  the  southernmost  point  of 
the  mainland  of  India,  Cape  Comorin,  whence 
Europeans,  even  at  present,  derive  their  principal 
supplies  of  these  costly  natural  productions.  This 
writer  adds,  Tearls  have  at  all  times  been  es- 
teemed one  of  the  most  valuable  commodities  of 
the  East.  Their  modest  splendor  and  simple 
beauty  appear  to  have  captivated  the  Orientals, 
even  more  than  the  dazzling  brilliancy  of  the  dia- 
mond, and  have  made  them  at  all  times  the  favor- 
ite ornament  of  despotic  princes.  In  the  West, 
the  passion  for  this  elegant  luxury  was  at  its 
height  about  the  period  of  the  extinction  of  Ro- 
man freedom,  and  they  were  valued  in  Rome  and 
Alexandria  as  highly  as  precious  stones.  In  Asia 
this  taste  was  of  more  ancient  date,  and  may  be 
traced  to  a  period  anterior  to  the  Persian  dy- 
nasty ;  nor  has  it  ever  declined.  A  string  of  pearls 
of  the  largest  size  is  an  indispensable  part  of  the 
decorations  of  an  Eastern  monarch.  It  was  thus 
that  Tippoo  was  adorned  when  he  fell  before  the 
gates  of  his  capital ;  and  it  is  thus  that  the  present 
ruler  of  the  Persians  is  usually  decorated*  \ldeen, 
i.  2.  224). 

Figurative*  Pearl  is  used  to  signify  a  thing 
of  great  value  and  as  a  symbol  of  the  kingdom  of 
God  (Matt.  xiii:45,  46).  To  "cast  pearls  before 
swine"  is  to  preach  the  gospel  to  malicious  per- 
secutors; apply  the  promises  and  privileges  proper 
to  saints,  to  men  really  wicked;  to  dispense  sac- 
raments to  persons  notoriously  profane ;  or  to  ad- 
minister reproof  to  obstinate  scoffers  (Matt,  vif: 
6).     (Brown,  Bib.  Did.) 

PECTTLIAB  (p^-kal'yer),  (Heb.  ^^^^,  seg-ool- 

*  • 

law^  wealth),    (Gr.    ir€ptirolri<ns,  fer-ee-Poy' ay-sis), 
that  which  is  separated  to  one*s  special  use. 

God*s  people  are  called  "peculiar  ;**  they  are  sep- 
arated from  the  rest  of  the  world  to  his  honor 
and  service;  they  share  in  special  privileges,  and 
are  carefully  preserved  and  highly  regarded  by 
him  (Exod.  xix:5;  i  Pet.  ii:9). 

PBDAHEL  (pfid'a-hSl),  (Heb.  'S^?!!?,  ped-aA- 
aW,  God  delivers). 

Son  of  Ammihud,  and  chief  of  the  tribe  of 
Naphtali  in  the  wilderness.  Moses  designated 
him  as  the  representative  of  his  tribe  to  divide 
western  Palestine  (Num.  xxxiv  128).  (B.  C. 
1618.) 

PEDAHZT7B  (pe-dah'zur),  (Heb.  ""^^^"3?,  ped- 
aw'tsoor',  the  rock  delivers). 

The  head  of  a  family  in  the  tribe  of  Manas- 
seh,  and  father  of  Gamaliel,  who  assisted  Moses 
in  numbering  the  people  (Num.  i:io;  ii:20;  vii: 
54.  59;  x:23).     (B.  C.  about  1657.) 

PEDAIAH  (pe-da*iah,  y4),  (Heb.  •"'^"5?,  ped- 
aw-yah\  Jah  has  ransomed). 

1.  The  father  of  Joel,  who  was  prince  of  the 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh  in  the  time  of  David  (i 
Chron.  xxvii:2o).     (B.  C.  before  1013.) 

2.  Father  of  Josiah's  wife,  Zebudah,  and  a  citi- 
zen of  Rumah  (2  Kings  xxiii:36).  (B.  C.  before 
648.) 

3.  Father  of  Zerubbabel  (i  Chron.  iii:  18),  by 
the  widow  of  Salathiel,  his  brother.  (B.  C.  be- 
fore 536.) 

4.  A  descendant  of  Parosh,  who  aided  in  re- 
building the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii  125).  (B 
C.  446.) 


PEDIGREE 


1301 


PELICAN 


5.  A  son  of  Kolaiah,  a  Benjamite,  of  the  family 
of  Jeshaiah  (Neh.  xi:7). 

6.  A  Levite  who  was  treasurer,  or  disburser 
under  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xiii:i3),  and  no  doubt 
the  same  who  stood  at  the  left  of  Ezra  when  he 
expounded  the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii:4). 
(B.  C  445.) 

PEDIOBEE  (pgd-I-gre).  (Heb.  ^^,  yawlad,  to 
show  lineage). 

Early  in  the  second  year  after  leaving  Egypt 
Moses  mustered  all  the  tribes  except  Levi,  and 
had  the  people  enrolled  in  genealogical  registers 
by  the  heads  of  the  tribes.  According  to  these 
genealogical  divisions  they  marched,  pitched  their 
tents,  and  made  their  ofterings.  (See  Geneal- 
ogy.) 

PBBLBD  (peld),  (Heb.  ^y^^maw-raf.  Is.  xviii: 

2,7;  Ezek.  xxix:i8),  stripped  or  bereft  of  hair. 

PEEP  (pep),  (Heb.  1??,  tsaw-faf,  to  coo  or  chirp 

as  a  bird).  Noises  made  by  necromancers  who 
pretended  to  communicate  with  the  dead  (Is. 
vm:i9). 

PEOANON  (p«g'i-n6n),  (Gr.  rryavor,  pay-gah'- 
non).  The  word  rue  occurs  only  in  Luke  xi:42. 
'But  woe  unto  you,  Pharisees!  for  ye  tithe  mint 
and  rue  and  all  manner  of  herbs,  and  pass  over 
judgment,'  etc.  In  the  parallel  passage  (Matt. 
xxiii:23),  dill  {an'ay-thon),  translated  anise  in 
the  English  Version,  is  mentioned  instead  of  rue. 
Both  dill  and  rue  were  cultivated  in  the  gardens 
of  Eastern  countries  in  ancient  times  as  they  are 
at  the  present  day.  That  rue  was  employed  as 
an  ingredient  in  diet,  and  as  a  condiment,  is  abun- 
dantly evident  from  Apicius,  as  noticed  by  Cel- 
sius, and  is  not  more  extraordinary  than  was  the 
fondness  of  some  Eastern  nations  for  assafoe- 
tida  as  a  seasoning  to  food.  That  one  kind  was 
cultivated  by  the  Israelites  is  evident  from  its 
being  mentioned  as  one  of  the  articles  of  which 
the  Pharisees  paid  their  tithes,  though  they  fleg- 
lected  the  weightier  matters  of  the  law.  Rosen- 
mUller  states  that  in  the  Talmud  (Tract  Shebtith 
ch.  ix,  sec.  i)  the  rue  is  indeed  mentioned 
amongst  kitchen  herbs;  but  at  the  same  time  it 
is  there  expressly  stated  that  it  is  tithe  free,  it 
being  one  of  those  herbs  which  are  not  cultivated 
in  gardens,  according  to  the  general  rule  estab- 
lished in  the  Talmud.     (See  Rue.)        \,  F.  R. 


(pe'kah),  (Heb.  "p-?.,  peh'kakh,  open- 
eyed;  Sept.  ♦aWe,  phay'kee')t  the  officer  who  slew 
Pekahiah  and  mounted  the  throne  in  his  stead  (B. 
C.  724),  becoming  the  eighteenth  king  of  Israel. 
He  reigned  twenty  years. 

Towards  the  close  of  his  life  (but  not  before 
the  seventeenth  year  of  his  reign)  he  entered 
into  a  league  with  Rezin,  king  of  Damascene- 
Syria,  against  Judah;  and  the  success  which  at- 
tended their  operations  induced  Ahaz  to  tender 
to  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  his  homage 
and  tribute,  as  the  price  of  his  aid  and  protection. 
The  result  was  that  the  kings  of  Syria  and  Israel 
were  soon  obliged  to  abandon  their  designs  against 
Judah  in  order  to  attend  to  their  own  domin- 
ions, of  which  considerable  parts  were  seized 
and  retained  by  the  Assyrians.  Israel  lost  all 
the  territory  east  of  the  Jordan,  and  the  two  and 
a  half  tribes  which  inhabited  it  were  sent  into 
exile.  These  disasters  seem  to  have  created  such 
popular  discontent  as  to  give  the  sanction  of  pub- 
lic opinion  to  the  conspiracy  headed  by  Hoshea, 
in  which  the  king  lost  his  life  (2  Kings  xv:25, 
sq,;  xvi:5,  ^Qi  Is.  vii). 


PEKAHIAH  (pSk'a-hi'ah),  (Heb.  ^y^^,  pek- 

akh-yaw',  Jehovah  has  opened  his  eyes),  son  and 
successor  of  Menahem,  king  of  Israel,  who  began 
to  reign  B.  C.  760. 

He  patronized  and  supported  the  idolatry  of  the 
golden  calves ;  and  after  an  undistinguished  reign 
of  two  years,  Pekah,one  of  his  generals,  conspired 
against  him,  and  with  the  aid  of  Argob  and  Arish, 
and  fifty  Gileadites,  slew  him  in  the  harem  of  his 
own  palace  (2  Kings  xv:22-25). 

PEEOD  (pe'k6d),  (Heb.  "^'p?,  pek* ode,  visitation 

or  punishment),  a  locality  of  Babylonia  (Jer.  l:2i; 
Ezek.  xxiii:23). 

PELAIAH  (pSra-i'ah),  (Heb.''^T^?T'/^-/aw->'a«/', 
distinguished  by  Jehovah). 

!•  A  Levite  who  assisted  Ezra  in  instructing 
the  people  in  the  law,  and  who  joined  in  the  cove- 
nant with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  viii:7;  x:io).     (B.  C. 

445.) 

2.  Son  of  Eleoenai,  of  Judah  (i  Chron.  iii:24), 
(B.  C.  after  400). 

PBLALIAH  (pSl'a-lI'ah),  (Heb.  ^V?^.,  petal- 
yaw't  jah  judges). 

A  priest,  descendant  of  Malchijah,  and  father 
of  Jeroham  (Neh.  xi:i2).     (B.  C.  before  445.) 

PELATIAH  (pgl'a-ti'ah),  (Heb. '"^^^^F, /^/-o/- 
yaw\  '^•"'t?- ?,  pei-at-yaw' hoo,  Jah  delivers). 

1.  A  captain  of  the  Simeonites  in  their  suc- 
cessful war  with  the  Amalekites  of  Mt.  Seir  in 
the  time  of  Hezekiah  (i  Chron.  iv:42).  (B.  C. 
about  700.) 

2.  Son  of  Benaiah  and  a  prince  of  Israel. 
Ezekiel  prophesied  against  him,  and  the  prophecy 
was  realized  in  Pelatiah's  sudden  death  (Ezek. 
xi:i-i3).     (B.  C.  about  592.) 

3.  The  first  named  son  of  Hananiah,  and  a  de- 
scendant of  David  (i  Chron.  iii:2i).  (B.  C. 
after  536.) 

4.  (5ne  of  those  who  joined  in  the  covenant 
with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x:22).     (B.  C.  440.) 

PELEG  (pe'leg),  (Heb.  ^)^,peh'leg,  division),  son 

of  Eber,  and  fourth  in  descent  from  Shem. 

His  name  peh'-leg,  means  division  or  separation, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  given  him  'because  in  his 
days  the  earth  was  divided'  ((jen.  x:25;  xi:i6); 
concerning  which  see  Nations,  Dispersion  of. 

PELET  (pg'let),  (Heb.  ^^f ,  peh'let,  escape). 

1.  Fourth  son  of  Jahdai,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(i  Chron.  ii:47).     (B.  C.  after  1612.) 

2.  A  descendant  of  Azmaveth,  a  Benjamite,and 
one  of  those  who  came  to  David  at  Ziklag  (i 
Chron.  xii:3).     (B.  C.  about  10x5.) 

PELETH  (pe'leth).  (Heb.  f^)|,  peh'Uth,  flight, 
haste). 

1.  Father  of  On,  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben  (Num. 
xvi:i).    (B.  C.  before  1657.) 

2.  Son  of  Jonathan,  of  Judah,  of  the  family  of 
Hezron  (i  Chron.  ii:33).  He  was  a  descendant 
of  Jerahmeel  through  Onam.  (B.  C.  about  1618.) 

PELETHITES  (pe'leth-ites),  (Heb.  T.??, /^Z- 
ay-thee',  runner). 

The  Pelethites  and  the  Cherethites  were  fa- 
mous under  the  reign  of  David,  as  the  most 
valiant  men  of  his  army,  and  the  guards  of  his 
person  (2  Sam.  xv:  18-22;  xx:7).  Their  name  is 
supposed  to  indicate  their  duties,  or  it  is  per- 
haps a  (jentile  name.  (See  Cherethites  and 
Pelethites.) 

PELICAN  (p«n-kan),  (Heb.  f^SjJ.  kaw-aih'), 
Arabic  and  Talmuds,  kuk  and  kik. 


PELONITE 


1302 


PENTATEUCH 


The  name  kaw-ath  is  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  the  action  of  throwing  up  food,  which  the 
bird  really  effects  when  discharging  the  contents 
of  the  bag  beneath  its  bill.  But  it  may  be  sug- 
gested, as  not  unlikely,  that  all  the  above  names 
are  imitative  of  the  voice  of  the  pelican,  which, 
although  seldom  heard  in  captivity,  is  uttered 
frequently  at  the  periods  of  migration,  and  is 
compared  to  the  braying  of  an  ass.  It  may  be 
likewise  that  this  characteristic  has  influenced 
several  translators  of  the  Hebrew  text  in  substi- 
tuting on  some,  or  on  aH,  occasions  where  kaath 
occurs,  bittern  for  pelican,  but  we  think  without 
sufficient  reason.  (See  Kephod;  Bittern).  Kaath 
is  found  in  Lev.  xi  :i8;  Deut.  xiv  :i7;  Ps.  cii:6;  Is. 
xxxivrii;  Zeph.   ii:i4. 

Pelicans  are  chiefly  tropical  birds,  equal  or  su- 
perior in  bulk  to  the  common  swan:  they  have 
powerful  wings ;  fly  at  a  great  elevation ;  arc  par- 
tially gregarious;  and  though  some  always  re- 
main in  their  favorite  subsolar  regions,  most  of 
them  migrate  in  our  hemisphere  with  the  north- 
ern spring,  occupy  Syria,  the  lakes  and  rivers  of 
temperate  Asia,  and  extend  westward  into  Europe 
up  the  Danube  into  Hungary,  and  northward  to 
some  rivers  of  southern  Russia.  They  likewise 
frequent  salt-water  marshes,  and  the  shallows  of 
harbors,  but  seldom  alight  on  the  open  sea,  though 
they  are  said  to  dart  down  upon  fish  from  a  con- 
siderable height.  C.  H.  S. 

PELONITE  (pSro-nite),  (Heb.  "i^^?,  pel-o-nee', 
separate). 

The  appellation  of  Helez  and  Ahijah,  two  of 
David's  mighty  men  (i  Chron.  xi:27,  36;  xxvii: 
10).  No  place  or  person  is  mentioned  from 
which  this  adjective  could  be  derived,  and  it  is 
possibly  a  corruption. 

FEN  (p«n),  (Heb.  ^?,  ate,  pen). 

The  instruments  with  which  the  characters 
were  formed  in  the  writing  of  the  ancients  varied 
with  the  materials  upon  which  the  letters  were 
to  be  traced.  Upon  hard  substances,  such  as 
stone  or  metallic  plates,  a  graver  of  steel  was 
used,  the  same  which  Job  calls  "an  iron  pen"  (Job 
xix:24). 

Upon  tablets  of  wax  a  metallic  pen  or  stylus 
was  employed,  having  one  end  pointed  to  trace 
the  letters,  the  other  broad  and  flat  to  erase  any 
erroneous  marks  by  smoothing  the  wax. 

Upon  paper,  linen,  cotton,  skins,  and  parch- 
ments it  was  in  very  early  times  common  to  paint 
the  letters  with  a  hair-pencil  brought  to  a  fine 
point.  The  reed  pen  was  introduced  afterward, 
and  at  first  used  without  being  split  at  the  point. 
The  reed  pen  is  used  by  the  modern  Turks,  Sy- 
rians, Persians,  Abyssinians,  Arabs,  and  other 
Orientals,  as  their  languages  could  not  be  writ- 
ten without  difficulty  with  pens  made  from  quills. 
A  particular  kind  of  knife  is  used  to  split  the 
reed  (Jer.  xxxvi:23).     (See  Writing.) 

Figurative,  (i)  It  is  possible  that  an  instru- 
ment pointed  with  diamond,  such  as  glaziers  now 
use,  was  not  unknown,  as  "the  sin  of  Judah  is 
written  with  a  pen  of  iron,  and  with  the  point 
of  a  diamond ;  1/  is  graven  upon  the  table  of  their 
heart,  and  upon  the  horns  of  your  altars"  (Jer. 
xvii:i).  (2)  Isaiah  wrote  "with  a  man's  pen," 
in  characters  easy  to  be  read,  not  like  those  writ- 
ten by  the  angel  on  Belshazzar's  wall  (Is.  viiiii). 
(3)  The  saints'  tongues  are  like  "the  pen  of  a 
ready  writer,"  when  their  hearts  promptly  con- 
ceive and  their  mouths  in  an  agreeable  manner 
proclaim  the  praises  of  God  (Ps.  xlv:i). 


PENCE  (o«ns),  (Gr.  iripdpiop,  day-nar* ee-on. 
Matt.  xvii!:28;  xx:2,  9,  13;  xxiliip;  Mark  ^\\yj\ 
xii:i5;  xiv:5;  Luke  vii:4i;  x:35;  xx:24;  John  vi:7; 
xii:5;  Rev.  vi:6),  a  Roman  silver  coin,  in  the  time 
of  our  Savior  and  the  apostles. 

FENIEL  (pe-ni'el),  (Heb.  ^T^"^,, pen-i-aW,  face 

of  God),  Peniel  or  Penuel,  a  place  beyond  the 
Jordan,  where  Jacob  wrestled  with  the  angel,  and 
' called  the  name  of  the  place  Peniel;  for  I  have 
seen  God  face  to  face,  and  my  life  is  preserved ' 
(Gen.  xxxii:3i). 

There  was  in  after  times  a  fortified  town  in  this 
place,  the  inhabitants  of  which  exposed  them- 
selves to  the  resentment  of  Gideon,  for  refusing 
succor  to  his  troops  when  pursuing  the  Midian- 
ites  (Judg.  viii:8).  The  site  is  not  known;  but 
it  must  have  been  at  some  point  on  or  not  far 
from  the  north  bank  of  the  Jabbok.  Men  of  this 
name  occur  in  i  Chron.  iv:4;  viii:25.  (See  Pe- 
nuel.) 

PENINNAH  (pe-nln'nah),  (Heb.  •"»!??,  pen-in- 

naw,  coral),  one  of  the  two  wives  of  Elkanah,  the 
father  of  Samuel  (i  Sam.  1:2),  B.  C.  about  1125. 

(pgn'nif),  (Heb.  "^SP,  tah'ar,  Jer. 


xxxvi:23),  a  scrivener's  knife  for  sharpening  the 
point  of  the  writing-reed. 

PENNY (pSn'ny).  See  Drachma;  Denarius; 
Money;  Pence;  Weights  and  Measures. 

PENTATETJCH  (p£n't4-tak),  (Gr.  rerrdrevxot, 
pen-tat' yoo-khos,  fivefold  book,  in  the  first  five 
books).    The  title  given  to  the  five  books  of  Moses. 

The  Jews  usually  call  the  Pentateuch  •^^'^!?,  hat- 
to-raw',  the  law\  or,  more  fully,  the  law  of  Jehovah 

(Heb.  ^T^\  •"*1^'^,   Ps.  xix:8;    xxxvii:3i;  Is.  v:24; 
xxx:9). 

(1)  Authorship.  In  considering  the  Penta- 
teuch, the  first  question  which  arises  is — Who 
was  its  Author  ?  It  is  of  great  importance  to  hear 
first  what  the  book  itself  says  on  this  subject. 
The  Pentateuch  does  not  present  itself  as  an 
anonymous  production.  It  is  manifestly  intended 
and  destined  to  be  a  public  muniment  for  the 
whole  people,  and  it  does  not  veil  its  origin  in  a 
mysterious  obscurity;  on  the  contrary  the  book 
speaks  most  clearly  on  this  subject. 

(2)  Hoses  Commanded  by  CFod.  According 
to  Exod.  xvii:i4,  Moses  was  commanded  by  God 
to  write  the  victory  over  the  Amalekites  in  the 
book.  This  passage  shows  that  the  account  to  be 
inserted  was  intended  to  form  a  portion  of  a 
more  extensive  work,  with  which  the  reader  is 
supposed  to  be  acquainted.  It  also  proves  that 
Moses,  at  an  early  period  of  his  public  career,  was 
filled  with  the  idea  of  leaving  to  his  people  a 
written  memorial  of  the  divine  guidance,  and 
that  he  fully  understood  the  close  and  necessary 
connection  of  an  authorifative  law  with  a  written 
code,  or  piDT.  It  is,  therefore,  by  no  means 
surprising  that  the  observation  repeatedly  occurs 
that  Moses  wrote  down  the  account  of  certain 
events  (Exod.  xxiv:4,  7;  xxxiv:27,  28;  Num. 
xxxiii:2).  Especially  important  are  the  state- 
ments in  Deut.  i:s;  xxviii:58.  In  Deut.  xxxiig, 
24  (30)  the  whole  work  is  expressly  ascribed  to 
Moses  as  the  author,  including  the  poem  in  Deut. 
xxxii.  It  may  be  made  a  question  whether  the 
hand  of  a  later  writer,  who  finished  the  Penta- 
teuch, is  perceptible  from  ch.  xxxi:24  (comp. 
xxxiii:i,  and  xxxiv.),  or  whether  the  words  in 
xxxi  .-24-30  are  still  the  words  of  Moses.  In  the 
former  case  we  have  two  witnesses,  viz.  Moses 
himself  and  the  continuator  of  the  Pentateuch; 


PENTATEUCH 


1303 


PENTATEUCH 


in  the  latter  case»  which  seems  to  us  the  more 
likely,  we  have  the  testimony  of  Moses  alone. 

(3)  Objections.  Modern  criticism  has  raised 
many  objections  against  these  statements  of  the 
Pentateuch  relative  to  its  own  origin.  Many  crit- 
ics suppose  that  they  can  discover  in  the  Penta- 
teuch indications  that  the  author  intended  to 
make  himself  known  as  a  person  different  from 
Moses.  The  most  important  objection  is  the  fol- 
lowing: that  the  Pentateuch,  speaking  of  Moses, 
always  uses  the  third  person,  bestows  praise  upon 
him,  and  uses  concerning  him  expressions  of  re- 
spect. The  Pentateuch  even  exhibits  Moses  quite 
objectively  in  the  blessing  recorded  in  Deut. 
xxxiii:4,  5. 

To  this  objection  we  reply  that  the  use  of  the 
third  person  proves  nothing.  The  later  Hebrew 
writers  also  speak  of  themselves  in  the  third  per- 
son. We  might  adduce  similar  instances  from 
the  classical  authors,  as  Caesar,  Xenophon,  and 
others.  The  use  of  the  third  person,  instead  of 
the  first,  prevails  also  among  Oriental  authors.  In 
addition  to  this  we  should  observe  that  the  na- 
ture of  the  book  itself  demands  the  use  of  the 
third  person,  in  reference  to  Moses,  throughout 
the  Pentateuch.  This  usage  entirely  corresponds 
with  the  character  both  of  the  history  and  of  the 
law  contained  in  the  Pentateuch.  By  the  use  of 
the  word  I,  the  objective  character  of  this  history 
would  have  been  destroyed,  and  the  law  of  Je- 
hovah would  have  been  brought  down  to  the 
sphere  of  human  subjectivity  and  option.  If  we 
consider  that  the  Pentateuch  was  destined  to  be 
a  book  of  divine  revelation,  in  which  God  ex- 
hibited to  his  people  the  exemplification  of  his 
providential  guidance,  we  cannot  expect  that 
Moses,  by  whom  the  Lord  had  communicated  his 
latest  revelations,  should  be  spoken  of  otherwise 
than  in  the  third  person.  In  the  poetry  contained 
in  Deut.  xxxiii:4,  Moses  speaks  in  the  name  of 
the  people,  which  be  personifies  and  introduces 
as  speaking.  The  expressions  in  Exod.  xi  :3,  and 
Num.  xii:3  and  7,  belong  entirely  to  the  context 
of  history,  and  to  its  faithful  and  complete  rela- 
tion ;  consequently  it  is  by  no  means  vain  boasting 
that  is  there  expressed,  but  admiration  of  the 
divine  mercy  glorified  in  the  people  of  God.  In 
considering  these  passages  we  must  also  bear  in 
mind  the  far  greater  number  of  other  passages 
which  speak  of  the  feebleness  and  the  sins  of 
Moses. 

(4)  Author  Claims  to  be  Hoses.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch  asserts 
himself  to  be  Moses.  The  question  then  arises 
whether  it  is  possible  to  consider  this  assertion 
to  be  true — whether  Moses  can  be  admitted  to  be 
the  author.  In  this  question  is  contained  an- 
other, viz.  whether  the  Pentateuch  forms  such  a 
continuous  whole  that  it  is  possible  to  ascribe  it 
to  one  author?  This  question  has  been  princi- 
pally discussed  in  modem  criticism.  Various 
means  have  been  employed  to  destroy  the  unity  of 
the  Pentateuch,  and  to  resolve  its  constituent 
parts  into  a  number  of  documents  and  fragments 
(comp.  here  especially  the  article  Genesis).  Eich- 
hom  and  his  followers  assert  that  Genesis  is  com- 
posed of  several  ancient  documents  only.  This 
assertion  is  still  reconcilable  with  the  Mosaical 
origin  of  the  Pentateuch.  But  Vater  and  others 
allege  that  the  whole  Pentateuch  is  composed  of 
fragments ;  from  which  it  necessarily  follows  that 
Moses  was  not  the  author  of  the  whole.  Modern 
critics  are  by  no  means  unanimous  in  their  opin- 
ions. A  representative  writer  on  this  subject, 
Ewald,  in  his  history  of  the  people  of  Israel 
IGeschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,  vol.  i.  Gottingen, 


1843),  asserts  that  there  were  seven  different  au- 
thors concerned  in  the  Pentateuch.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  internal  unity  of  the  Pentateuch  has 
been  demonstrated  in  many  able  essays.  The  at- 
tempts at  division  are  especially  supported  by  an 
appeal  to  the  prevailing  use  of  the  different  names 
of  God  in  various  portions  of  the  work;  but  the 
arguments  derived  from  this  circumstance  have 
been  found  insufficient  to  prove  that  the  Penta- 
teuch was  written  by  different  authors  (comp. 
again  the  articles  Genesis,  Exodus^  Leviticus, 
Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy.) 

(5)  Unity  of  the  Work.  The  inquiiy  con- 
cerning the  unity  of  the  Pentateuch  is  intimately 
connected  with  its  historical  character.  If  there 
are  in  the  Pentateuch  decided  contradictions,  or 
different  contradictory  statements  of  one  and  the 
same  fact,  not  only  its  unity  but  also  its  historical 
truth  would  be  negatived.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  work  is  to  be  considered  as  written  by  Moses, 
the  whole  style  and  internal  veracity  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch must  correspond  with  the  character  of 
Moses.  Considerate  critics,  who  are  not  under 
the  sway  of  dogmatic  prejudices,  find  that  the 
passages  which  are  produced  in  order  to  prove 
that  the  Pentateuch  was  written  after  the  time  of 
Moses  by  no  means  support  such  a  conclusion, 
and  that  a  more  accurate  examination  of  the  con- 
tents of  the  separate  portions  discovers  many 
vestiges  demonstrating  that  tne  work  ori^nated 
in  the  age  of  Moses  (compare  here  again  the 
articles  on  the  separate  books). 

(6)  Quoted  by  Prophets,  Apostles,  and  Christ. 

It  is  certain  that  Joshua,  who  was  the  contempo- 
rary of  Moses,  believed  him  to  be  the  author  of 
"the  book  of  the  law"  (Josh.  i:7,  8;  viii:3i,  34; 
xxiii:6).    (See  also  2  CAron.  xxxiv:i5,  21.) 

In  the  book  of  Ezra  the  authorship  was  ascribed 
to  Moses  (Ezra  iii:2;  vi:i8;  vii:6).  Nehemiah 
says  that  Ezra  used  "the  hook  of  the  law  of 
Mos€^*  as  a  text  book  in -preaching  to  the  people 
(Neh.  viiiri,  5,  14;  xiii:i). 

During  the  captivity  Daniel  ascribed  "the  book 
of  the  law'*  to  Moses  (Dan.  ix:ii,  13).  • 

These  books  are  also  quoted  and  ascribed  to 
Moses  by  Christ  and  the  apostles  (Matt.  xix:8; 
Mark  x:3,  xii:26;  Luke  xvi:29,  xxiv:44;  John 
vii:i9,  viii:5;  Acts  xxviii:23;  i  Cor.  ix:o;  2  Cor. 
ni:is). 

(7)  Later  Testimony.  In  the  remote  times 
of  Jewish  and  Christian  antiquity,  we  find  no 
vestiges  of  doubt  as  to  the  genumeness  of  the  Mo- 
saical books,  even  the  enemies  of  the  Jews  ad- 
mitting their  authenticity.  (See  Josephus  against 
Apion,  Whiston's  Josephus,  p.  581.)  The  Gnos- 
tics, indeed,  opposed  the  Pentateuch,  but  attacked 
it  merely  on  account  of  their  dogmatical  opinions 
concerning  the  Law,  and  Judaism  in  general; 
consequently  they  did  not  impugn  the  authentic- 
ity, but  merely  the  divine  authority,  of  the  Law. 
Heathen  authors  alone,  as  Celsus  and  Julian,  rep- 
resented the  contents  of  the  Pentateuch  as  being 
mythological,  and  paralleled  them  with  Pagan 
mythology. 

(8)  First  Doubts  Belong  to  the  Middle  Ages. 

In  the  middle  ages,  but  not  earlier,  we  find  some 
very  concealed  critical  doubts  in  the  works  of 
some  Jews — ^as  Isaac  Ben  Jasos,  who  lived  in  the 
eleventh  century,  and  Aben  Ezra.  After  the  ref- 
ormation, it  was  sometimes  attempted  to  demon- 
strate the  later  origin  of  the  Pentateuch.  Such 
attempts  were  made  by  Spinoza,  Richard  Simon, 
Le  Clerc,  and  Van  Dale;  but  these  critics  were  not 
unanimous  in  their  results.  Against  them  wrote 
Heidegger   {Exercitationes  Biblica,  i,  246,  sq.). 


PENTATEUCH 


1304 


PENTATEUCHAL  OBJECTIONS 


Witsius  (Miscellafiea  Sacra,  i,  103,  sq.)  and  Carp^ 
zov  U^troductio,  i,  38,  sq.). 

In  the  period  of  English,  French,  and  German 
deism,  the  Pentateuch  was  attacked  rather  by 
jests  than  by  arguments.  Attacks  of  a  more  sci- 
entific nature  were  made  about  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  But  these  were  met  by  such 
critics  as  John  David  Michaelis  and  Eichhorn, 
who  energetically  and  effectually  defended  the 
genuineness  of  the  Pentateuch.  These  critics, 
however,  on  account  of  their  own  false  position, 
did  as  much  harm  as  good  to  the  cause  of  the 
Pentateuch. 

A  new  epoch  of  criticism  commences  about 
the  year  1805.  This  was  produced  by  Vater's 
Commentary  and  De  Wette^s  Beitrage  eur  Etn- 
leitung  in  das  alte  Testament,  Vater  embodied 
all  the  arguments  which  had  been  adduced  against 
the  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  applied  to 
the  criticism  of  the  sacred  books  the  principles 
which  Wolf  had  employed  with  reference  to  the 
Homeric  poems.  He  divided  the  Pentateuch  into 
fragments,  to  each  of  which  he  assigned  its  own 
period,  but  referred  the  whole  generally  to  the  age 
of  the  Assyrian  or  Babylonian  exile.  Since  the 
days  of  Vater,  a  series  of  the  most  different  hy- 
pothesis has  been  produced  by  German  and  other 
critics  about  the  age  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  that 
of  its  constituent  sections.  No  one  critic  seems 
fully  to  agn'ce  with  any  other;  and  frequently  it 
is  quite  evident  that  the  opinions  advanced  are 
destitute  of  any  sure  foundation.     (See  Moses.) 

H.  A.  C.  H. 
(0)  Literature.    The  critical  doubts  respecting 
the  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch  have  produced 
in  modern  times  several  works  in  defense  of  its 
genuineness;  such  as  Kanne's  Biblischer  Unter- 
suchungen,  2  vols.,  1820;  the  observations  byjahn, 
Rosenmttller,   and    Bleek;    Ranke's    Untersuch- 
ungen  aber  den  Pentateuch,  2  vols.;  Hengsten- 
berg's  Bextrdge  jsur  Einleitung,  vols.  2  and  3; 
Havemick's  Int,  to  Old  Testament;  Kerl,  Int,  to 
Old  Testament;  Drechsler,  Ueber  die  Einheit  und 
Authentie  der  Genesis;  Konig's  Alt-testamentliche 
Studien,    2d    number;    Sack's    Apolegetik,  etc; 
Ainsworth,  Annotations  on  the   Five    Books  of 
Moses,  1699;  Kidder,  Commentary  on  the  Five 
Books  of  Moses,  1713;  Parker,  Bibliotheca  Bib- 
lica,  1720,  1735;  Jamieson,  Critical  and  Practical 
Exposition  of  the  Pentateuch,  1748;  Robertson, 
Clavis  Pentateuchi,  1770;  Graves,  Lectures  on  the 
Pentateuch,    1815;    Macdonald,    Introd,    to    the 
Penta.,  1861 ;  Bartlett,  Character  and  Authorship 
of   the   Penta,    {Bibliotheca   Sacra.,   Apr.,  July, 
1863,  July,  Oct.  1864) ;  Smith,  Authorship  of  the 
Penta.,  1868;  Norton,  The  Penta.,  etc.,  1870;  J. 
W.  Colenso,  The  Pentateuch  and  Book  of  Joshua 
critically  examined,  7  parts,  London,  1862-1879; 
B.  W.  Bacon,  The  Genesis  of  Genesis,  Hartford, 
1892;  Bissell,  Genesis  Printed  in  Colors,  Hart- 
ford; The  Pentateuch,  Its  Origin  and  Structure, 
an  Examination  of  Recent  Theories,  New  York; 
Fripp,    The  Composition   of   the  Book  of  Gene- 
sis, with  English   Text  and  Analyses,  London, 
1892;     Kuenen,    An    Historico-critical    Inquiry 
into  the  Origin  of  the  Hexateuch,  translated  from 
the  Dutch  by  P.  H.  Wicksteed,  London,  1886; 
Addis,  The  Documents  of  the  Hexateuch,  pt.  i. 
London,  1892,  pt.  ii.  1898 ;  Wellhausen,  Die  ComP. 
d.  Hexateuchs  und  der  Historischen  Backer  des 
A.  T„  Berlin,  1880;  Baentsch,  Das  Bundesbuch, 
Halle,  1802;  Comilf,  Einleitung  in  das  A.  T.,  Frei- 
burg in  B.  1892;  Kautzsch  and  Socin,  Die  Gene- 
sis mit  dusserer    Unterscheidung  der    Quellen- 
schriften  ubersetztz,  Freiburg  in  B.  1891;  Kautzsch 
and   others.  Die  H.  Scknft  des  A.  T^  uber- 


setzt,  Freiburg  in  B.  1804;  Aug.  Dillmann.  Kurzes 
Exegetisches  Tiandbuch,  Gen.  vi,  1892,  Ex.,  Lev., 
1897,  Nu,  Dt./os.  1886.  A  systematic  statement  oi 
Dillmann's  views  is  given  in  the  Schlussabhand- 
lung  at  the  end  of  the  last  [Eng.  tr.  of  Genesis, 
T.  &  T.  Clark,  Edinburgh,  1897] ;  Budde,  Die  Bib- 
lische  Urgeschichte,  Giessen,  1883;  Holzinger, 
Einleitung  in  den  Hex.  mit  Tabellen  fiber  die 
Quellenscheidung,  Freiburg  in  B.  1893.  (Sec 
Pentateuchal  Objections.) 

FENTATETJCHAIi  OBJECTIONS  (pSn'ta- 
tuk-al  6b-j6k'shiins). 

It  has  been  claimed  that  all  the  Pentateuchal 
laws  could  not  have  been  given  through  Moses 
because  the  same  legislator  would  not  give  three 
different  codes  to  the  same  people  during  forty 
years  and  under  nearly  related  conditions. 

But  in  order  to  make  out  three  codes  the  ob- 
jector is  obliged  to  include  those  scattered  groups 
of  laws  which  are  chiefly  found  in  Lev.  xvi,  xxv, 
and  are  found  also  occasionally  in  Numbers  and 
sometimes  called  "The  Law  of  Holiness,"  although 
this  is  not  a  Biblical  term. 

It  may  be  shown,  however,  that  the  teaching 
(Torah)  of  the  wilderness  forms  one  progressive 
whole,  and  modern  critics  are  not  always  qualified 
to  fix  the  limits  within  which  its  progress  was 
possible. 

(1)  Early.  Even  before  the  covenant  at  Ho- 
reb,  there  was  an  early  stratum  of  "Judgments" 
or  precedents  which  Moses  was  commanded  to 
"set  before"  the  people  in  connection  with  the 
code  which  was  given  on  Sinai  or  Horeb.  These 
"judgments'*  are  found  in  Exod.  xxi.,  and  this 
older  and  pre-Mosaic  section  is  incorporated  into 
the  Sinaitic  laws  proper  at  or  about  Exodus  xxii : 
20.  Beginning  with  the  twenty-first  chapter  of 
Exodus  we  have  a  very  ancient  corpus  juris  which 
is  written  with  a  few  exceptions  in  the  third  per- 
son, whereas  from  verse  20  of  chap,  xxii  the  style 
changes  and  "thou"  or  "ye"  is  the  uniform  mode 
of  address.  The  older  method  has  a  spirit  of  its 
own,  besides  a  strong  local  color. 

The  "judgments"  here  given  are  evidently  legal 
decisions,  and  they  give  us  a  series  of  pictures 
which  illustrate  a  very  primitive  mode  of  life. 

Sir  Henry  Maine  says:  "Parities  of  circum- 
stances were  probably  commoner  in  the  simple 
mechanism  of  ancient  society  than  they  are  now, 
and  in  the  succession  of  similar  cases,  awards  are 
likely  to  follow  and  resemble  each  other.  Here 
we  have  the  germ  or  rudiment  of  a  custom,  a  con- 
ception posterior  to  that  of  BifuaTes  (themistes) 
or  judgments.  However  strongly  we,  with  our 
modern  associations,  may  be  inclined  to  lay  down 
a  priori  that  the  notion  of  a  custom  must  precede 
that  of  a  judicial  sentence,  and  that  a  judgment 
must  affirm  a  custom  or  punish  its  breach,  it 
seems  quite  certain  that  the  historical  order  of 
ideas  is  that  in  which  I  have  placed  them  .  .  . 
Law  has  scarcely  reached  the  footing  of  custom, 
it  is  rather  a  habit  .  .  .  The  only  authorita- 
tive statement  of  right  and  wrong  is  a  judicial 
sentence  after  the  facts,  not  one  supposing  a  law 
which  has  been  violated,  but  one  which  is  breathed 
for  the  first  time  by  a  higher  power  into  the 
judge's  mind  at  the  moment  of  adjudication." 
(Ancient  Law,  p.  8.) 

This  last  idea  is  forcibly  illustrated  by  the  use 
of  the  term  Elohim  for  Judges  as  in  Exodus  xxi : 
6,  also  xxii:8. 

Each  of  these  early  judgments  represents  a 
scene  in  pastoral  life,  while  agriculture  is  also 
shown  in  the  vineyard  and  harvest  field. 

Master  and  slave  are  alike  Hebrews :  "If  thou 
buy  a  Hebrew  servant,  six  years  he  shall  serve: 


PENTATEUCHAL  OBJECTIONS 


1305 


PENTATEUCHAL  OBJECTIONS 


and  in  the  seventh  he  shall  go  out  free  for  noth- 
ing'*  (Exod.  xxi:2). 

These  old  judgments  contain  also  constant  re- 
minders of  patriarchal  life ;  for  instance  in  Exod. 
xxii:  10-13  we  read:  "If  a  man  deliver  unto  his 
neighbor"  any  animal  "to  keep,  and  it  die  or  be 
hurt  .  .  .  If  it  be  stolen  from  him,  he  shall 
make  restitution  to  the  owner  .  .  .  .  If  it  be 
torn  in  pieces  let  him  bring  it  for  a  witness," 
etc 

This  reminds  one  forcibly  of  Jacob's  reproach 
to  Laban,  "That  which  was  torn  of  beasts  I 
brought  not  unto  thee;  I  bare  the  loss.  Of  my 
hand  didst  thou  require  it  ...  .  stolen  by 
day  or  by  night"  (Gen.  xxxi:39). 

There  is  a  glimpse  of  the  future  cities  of  refuge 
where  it  is  said  of  the  man  who  accidentally  kills 
another:  "Then  will  I  appoint  thee  a  place 
whither  he  shall  flee"  (Exod.  xxi:i3). 

There  is  nowhere  here  any  retrospect  to  a  state 
of  earlier  bondage,  but  a  little  later  we  find :  "Ye 
were  strangers  in  the  land  of  Egypt,"  and  then  fol- 
lows the  angel  guide  and  the  promise  of  "the 
place  which  I  have  prepared." 

All  of  these  conditions  exactly  suit  only  one 
stage  of  Israel's  history.  Nearly  all  of  them  are 
inconsistent  with  the  life  in  Canaan,  and  still  less 
are  they  appropriate  to  the  conditions  which  ob- 
tained in  the  wilderness.  The  one  stage  to  which 
they  do  apply  is  the  life  in  Goshen,  when  the  peo- 
ple were  "increasing  abundantly  and  multiplymg" 
in  that  region  until  "the  land  was  filled  with 
them"  (Gen.  xlvii:27;  Exod.  1:7), 

In  this  section  there  is  a  disparity  in  social  con- 
ditions as  compared  with  those  which  we  find  in 
E>euteronomy,  but  the  laws  of  the  earlier  section 
are  largely  incorporated  into  those  of  Deuter- 
onomy. (Compare  Exod.  xxii:20  and  xxiii:i9 
with  Deut.  xiv:2i.)  Therefore  the  difficulty  of 
codes  so  widely  diflFering  from  each  other  that 
forty  years  cannot  cover  them  ceases  to  exist. 
These  early  Cjoshen  "judgments"  precede  Moses 
probably  a  hundred  years,  and  they  were  appar- 
ently included  in  the  "Sinaitic  covenant  laws  in 
order  to  preserve  the  continuity  which  had  been 
stamped  upon  institutions,  but  the  more  especial 
motive  seems  to  be  that  pertaining  to  the  judica- 
ture." 

When  Moses  appoints  the  subordinate  judges, 
he  is  to  "teach  them  ordinances  and  laws,  and 
show  them  the  work  they  must  do."  And  with 
these  old  laws  many  of  them  would  be  familiar; 
not  only  this,  but  until  the  promulgation  from 
Sinai  these  "judgments"  were  the  only  legal  ma- 
terial available  for  this  purpose.  Hence  their 
preservation  among  the  traditions  of  the  race ;  for 
it  is  possible  that  some  of  them  may  have  been 
the  decisions  of  Joseph,  who  would  naturally  act 
as  the  chief  of  his  own  community,  and  by  con- 
trolling their  customs  prevent  amalgamation  with 
an  alien  race. 

(2)  The  Middle  Pentateuchal  Laws.  The 
legislation  concerning  the  sanctuary  and  its  fur- 
niture, together  with  the  priestly  duties  and 
privileges,  deals  with  a  limited  class,  therefore  its 
arrangement  is  more  orderly  than  that  of  much 
which  follows;  but  even  here  there  is  more  or 
less  mingling  of  moral  and  religious  with  civil 
ordinances.  According  to  Sir  Henry  Maine  these 
conditions  "show  that  the  severance  of  law  from 
morality,  and  of  religion  from  law,  belongs  very 
distinctly  to  the  later  stages  of  mental  progress." 
(Ancient  Law,  p.  16.) 

This  mixture  is  traceable  everywhere  in  Penta- 
teuchal law  except  in  the  precepts  pertaining  to 
the  ritual.    "The  Law  of  Holiness"  cannot  prop- 


erly be  called  a  code  although  it  contains  a  mass 
of  regulations  for  the  conduct  of  the  people.  To 
this  belong  many  texts  pertaining  to  the  toroth 
or  teaching  concerning  the  Sabbath. 

A  torah  is  properly  a  text  for  teaching,  and 
the  teachers  were  the  priests  or  Levites.  In  that 
early  day,  the  judges  who  aided  Moses  were  also 
teachers,  hence  he  may  have  issued  the  toroth  or 
teaching  texts  to  the  judge  and  to  the  Levite. 
The  teaching  concerning  the  keeping  of  the  Sab- 
bath is  a  good  illustration  of  the  repetition  which 
is  everywhere  employed  to  enforce  the  keeping 
of  the  law.  So  also  the  law  against  "eating  with 
the  blood." 

Again  in  Leviticus  xi:43,  we  have  a  law 
against  certain  heathen  defilements,  and  there  are 
many  others. 

In  Exodus,  Leviticus  and  Deuteronomy  there  is 
a  multitude  of  such  commands  as  follows :  "These 
are  the  commandments,  the  statutes  and  the  judg- 
ments which  the  Lord  your  God  commanded  to 
teach  you."  "Hear  O  Israel!  the  Lord  our  God 
is  one  God,"  "Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God," 
"Thou  shalt  not  take  His  name  in  vain";  and 
many  others. 

It  would  appear  that  the  great  host  of  Israel 
was  divided  up  into  many  congregations,  and 
that  the  Levites  or  teachers  were  probably  taught 
from  the  outlines  of  a  lesson  which  had  been 
inscribed  on  a  clay  tablet,  perhaps  at  first,  and 
later  on  a  skin  or  scroll.  In  many  of  the  houses 
of  the  priests  these  writings  would  be  preserved, 
and  in  a  multiplicity  of  them,  the  toroth  would 
probably  be  presented  in  every  stage  of  develop- 
ment; it  might  be  a  mere  "skeleton",  such  as  we 
have  in  Lev.  xix:3,  4,  11-19,  26,  ZZ^  and  other 
places,  or  with  the  thought  of  the  discourse  or 
lesson  more  fully  wrought  out. 

There  came  a  time  when  these  original  toroth 
in  whatever  form  they  existed  were  collected 
and  put  together.  They  were  doubtless  genuine 
but  they  were  compiled  without  any  regular  ar- 
rangement such  as  a  code  would  require.  It  is 
probable  that  only  a  small  percentage  of  them 
were  saved,  but  it  seems  likely  that  all  of  the 
Sinaitic  injunctions  became  teaching  toroth, 

(3)  Genesis  of  the  Mosaic  Law.  A  recognition 
of  these  facts  seem  to  explain  the  genesis  of  the 
Mosaic  law  and  especially  the  lack  of  systematic 
arrangement  which  obtains  in  this  department 
of  k. 

We  find  however  that  the  starting  point  are 
the  Goshen  "judgments"  and  these  stand  con- 
nected with  the  Sinaitic  laws  proper.  In  Deu- 
teronomy there  is  more  or  less  of  method,  but  the 
very  lack  of  orderly  completion  here  is  an  un- 
answerable argument  against  the  claim  that  this 
portion  was  formulated  at  a  comparatively  mod- 
ern period.  No  one  can  imagine  for  a  moment 
that  a  priestly  committee  in  Babylon,  with  all 
the  leisure  of  two  generations  or  more,  would 
have  left  this  department  of  the  law  in  such  a 
disconnected  condition  if  it  had  originated  with 
them. 

Neither  can  we  imagine  that  in  the  period  of 
the  decline  of  the  Asiatic  monarchy  when  the 
national  mind  had  for  hundreds  of  years  been 
hardened  in  opposite  views,  the  broad  basis  of 
this  law  could  have  been  formulated.  We  can- 
not suppose  this  class  of  men  as  organizing  a 
system  whose  judges  and  officers  were  chosen  by 
the  citizens  "in  all  thy  gates,"  a  system  whose  ad- 
ministration and  executive  reposed  everywhere  on 
the  support  of  spontaneous  patriotism. 

The  work  of  the  "Higher  Critics"  especially  in 
this  department  of  the  law  has  resulted  in  much 


PENTATEUCH,  THE.  ILLUSTRATED      1306 


PENTECOST 


confusion,  for  they  reduce  the  whole  of  Deuter- 
onomy to  anachronism  and  more  or  less  ab- 
surdity. 

(4)  The  Covenant.  In  the  covenant  "which 
the  Lord  commanded  Moses  to  make  with  the 
children  of  Israel  in  the  land  of  Moab,  besides 
the  covenant  which  He  made  with  them  in 
Horeb,"  there  is  no  new  doctrine  taught,  no  new 
moral  precept  enforced.  It  was  rather  a  renewal 
with  that  generation  of  the  covenant  which  had 
been  made  with  their  fathers — with  Abraham. 
Isaac  and  Jacob:  "Ye  stand  this  day  all  of  you 
before  the  Lord  your  God  ....  that  thou 
shouldst  enter  into  covenant  with  the  Lord  thy 
God  and  into  His  oath  ....  that  He  may 
establish  thee  to-day  for  a  people  unto  Himself, 
and  that  He  may  be  unto  thee  a  God,  as  He  hath 
said  unto  thee,  and  as  He  hath  sworn  unto  thy 
fathers,  to  Abraham,  to  Isaac,  and  to  Jacob." 

It  was  a  setting  forth  before  that  generation  of 
life  and  good,  of  death  and  evil  to  enforce  the 
gn'eat  duty  of  loyalty  upon  them. 

It  was  a  renewed  admonition  for  the  keeping 
of  the  old  "commandments  and  statutes  and  judg- 
ments." "In  that  I  command  thee  this  day,  to 
love  the  Lord  thy  God  and  to  walk  in  His  ways, 
and  to  keep  His  commandments,  and  His  statutes, 
and  His  judgments,  and  the  Lord  thy  God  shall 
bless  thee  in  the  land  whither  thou  goest  to  pos- 
sess it"  (Deut.  ch.  xxix-xxx). 

It  was  an  enforcement  of  the  whole  law,  and 
in  relation  to  the  Lawgiver  it  was  his  last  will 
and  testament — a  part  of  his  farewell  words.  He 
afterwards  blessed  his  people,  and  then  Moses 
went  up  unto  the  mountain  of  Nebo,  to  the  top 
of  Pisgah,  and  the  Lord  showed  him  the  land. 
There  he  lay  down  upon  his  armor  and  the  angels 
of  God  buried  him  in  the  land  of  Moab  "and 
no  man  knoweth  of  his  sepulcher  unto  this  day." 
(See  article  by  the  Rev.  Henry  Hayman,  D.  D.,on 
''The  Great  Pentateuchal  Difficulty  Met.**  Bib. 
Sacr.  Oct.  1896,  pp.  45,  sq.) 

PENTATETJCH,  THE,  ILLUSTRATED  BT 
EGYPTOLOGY. 

Very  little  of  the  papyrus  literature  of  Egypt 
has  survived,  and  that  pertains  mostly  to  their 
theology  and  was  preserved  in  their  tombs,  and 
yet  it  may  be  said  that  the  later  chapters  of 
Genesis  as  well  as  the  whole  of  the  book  of 
Exodus  have  an  Egyptian  background.  While 
we  cannot  expect  to  find  direct  records  concern- 
ing a  foreign  people,  we  must  examine  the  local 
coloring  to  see  if  it  accords  with  the  recited 
facts. 

While  many  others  are  equally  forcible  we  may 
suggest  the  history  of  Joseph  for  instance  as  the 
history  of  an  Egyptian  official,  and  if  it  be  true 
we  shall  find  it  correct  in  local  color.  The 
scholar  who  studies  the  history  of  Joseph  is 
forced  to  conclude  at  least  that  the  author  was 
well  acquainted  with  early  Egyptian  life.  For 
instance  the  "chiefs"  of  the  bakers  and  butlers 
are  mentioned  in  a  list  of  the  o'fficials  at  court; 
the  "seven  kine"  seen  in  the  dream  of  Pharaoh 
represent  the  seven  forms  of  the  cow-headed  god- 
dess Hathor  who  symbolized  the  Nile;  the  marks 
of  favor  which  were  shown  to  Joseph  were  those 
pertaining  to  his  time,  and  even  his  change  of 
name  was  in  strict  accordance  with  Egyptian 
usage.  Joseph's  action  in  obtaining  for  the  king 
the  real  estate  of  the  country  is  illustrated  by  the 
facts  shown  by  the  study  of  the  monuments. 

It  appears  that  Joseph  belonged  to  the  age  of 
the  Hyksos  kings,  and  before  that  time  the  land 
was  held  by  feudal  princes  and  other  private  own- 


ers, the  crown  lands  being  of  very  small  extent, 
while  during  the  i8th  and  the  following  dynasties 
the  land  is  divided  between  the  kings  and  the 
priests,  individual  ownership  having  become  a 
thing  of  the  past.  It  is  only  in  the  book  of  Gene- 
sis that  the  change  is  explained. 

Prof.  Sayce  says:  "The  plagues  which  pre- 
ceded the  Exodus  appear  to  have  been  an  ac- 
centuation of  natural  conditions;  for  instance  ev- 
ery year  the  Nile  becomes  the  color  of  blood 
and  the  water  is  foul  and  injurious.  This 
phenomena  takes  place  however  only  when  the 
river  begins  to  rise  and  not  in  the  early  spring. 
Every  summer  the  frogs  become  a  nuisance  and 
lice  cover  the  bodies  of  the  unclean  natives,  while 
fiies  are  abundant,  and  boils  are  a  common  trou- 
ble. The  cattle  often  die  of  murrain  and  the 
southwest  wind  brings  a  cloud  of  locusts  over  the 
country.  As  late  as  the  spring  of  1895  a  thunder- 
storm destroyed  the  crops  on  three  thousand  acres 
of  cultivated  land.  We  have,  it  is  true,  only  one 
record  of  'darkness  which  might  be  felt*  but  the 
dust  storms  which  accompany  the  spring  winds 
obscure  the  sunlight  and  fill  the  land  with  gloom." 
(See  "Fresh  Light  from  Monuments,"  etc.) 

No  records  of  the  extraordinary  phenomenon 
of  this  sort  would  be  kept,  for  the  Pharaohs  like 
the  Assyrian  kings  did  not  place  the  story  of 
their  defeats  upon  their  monuments.  But  bits  of 
local  color  show  the  truth  of  the  various  nar- 
ratives, and  we  have  occasional  admissions  even 
upon  the  monuments,  as  in  the  case  of  the  stone 
recording  the  destruction  of  the  firstborn  of  the 
Egyptians,  and  mentioning  the  name  of  Israel. 

PENTECOST  (p«n't6-k6st),  (Greek  IlemiwHrTi}, 
Pen-tay-kos'tay' ,  fiftieth,  /.  e.,  day),  the  name  given 
in  the  New  Testament  to  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  or  of 
Ingathering,  which  was  celebrated  on  ih^  fiftieth 
day  from  the  festival  of  unleavened  bread,  or  the 
Passover;  or  seven  weeks  from  the  i6th  day  of 
Nisan. 

It  was  a  festival  of  thanks  for  the  harvest, 
and  commenced  immediately  after  the  Passover. 
(See  Festivals.)  It  was  one  of  the  three  great 
yearly  festivals,  in  which  all  the  males  were  re- 
quired to  appear  before  Cjod  at  the  place  of  his 
sanctuary.  Josephus  states  that  in  his  time  great 
numbers  of  Jews  resorted  from  every  quarter  to 
Jerusalem  to  keep  this  festival  (/In/to.  xiv.  13, 
4;  xvii.  10,  2;  De  Bell.  Jud.  ii.  3,  i).  This  testi- 
mony affords  interesting  corroboration  of  Acts 
ii:i,  9-11;  xx:i6;  i  Cor.  xvi:8,  in  which  the 
same  fact  appears.  The  commencement  of  the 
Giristian  church  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  pre- 
ceded as  it  was  by  our  Lord's  ascension,  attached 
a  peculiar  interest  to  this  season,  and  eventually 
led  to  its  being  set  apart  for  the  commemora- 
tion of  these  great  events.  It  was  not,  however, 
established  as  one  of  the  great  festivals  until 
the  fourth  century.  The  combination  of  two 
events  (the  Ascension  and  the  descent  of  the 
Holy  Ghost)  in  one  festival  has  a  parallel  in 
the  original  Jewish  feast,  which  is  held  to  have 
included  the  feast  of  first-fruits,  and  of  the  de- 
livering of  the  law  (Exod.  xxiii:i6;  Lev.  xxiii: 
14-21;  Num.  xxviii:26).  Indeed,  this  festival  in 
some  respects  bears  a  close  analogy  to  the  Jewish 
one;  and  is  evidently  little  more  than  a  modifica- 
tion of  it.  The  converts  of  that  day,  on  which 
the  Holy  Ghost  descended,  were  the  ^st  fruits  of 
the  Spirit.  This  festival  became  one  of  the  three 
baptismal  seasons  (Tertull.  De  Baptis.  c.  19; 
Hicron.,mZac/i.xiv:8)  ;  and  it  derives  its  name  of 
Whitsunday,  or  white-Sunday,  from  so  many  be- 
ing clad  in  white  on  this  day  of  their  baptism. 


PENUEL 


1307 


PERFECTION.  PERFECT 


FENUEL  (pe-nO-el'),  (Heb.  'S'^?,  pen-oo-aW, 
face  of  God). 

1.  A  son  of  Hur,  the  son  of  Judah  (i  Chron. 
iv:4).  (B.  C.  after  1658.)  He  was  an  ancestor 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Gedor. 

2.  A  Benjamite  resident  at  Jerusalem,  and  the 
son  of  Shashak,  son  of  Beriah  (i  Chron.  viii: 
25).    (B.  C.  after  1612.)     (See  Peniel.) 

PEOPLE  (pe'p'l)  (Heb.  0? .  am,  a  host,  a  mul- 
titude), (Greek  Xtt6f,  iah-os',  races  or  tribes.  Rev. 
vii:9). 

The  word  denotes:  (i)  The  fathers  of  par- 
ticular nations  (Gen.  xxv:i3);  and  so  one  is 
made  a  "gn'cat  nation,"  when  his  seed  are  multi- 
plied into  one  (Exod.  xxxii:io).  (2)  The  per- 
sons that  compose  a  kingdom  or  nation,  whether 
poor  or  rich  (i  Sam.  xv:3o).  (3)  The  common 
populace  in  a  city  or  nation  (Matt,  xii  123;  Luke 
xxiii:4).  (4)  The  (jentiles  (Gen.  xlix:io;  Ps. 
cxvii:i).  (5)  Both  Jews  and  Gentiles  (Luke  ii: 
10).  (6)  The  ants  and  conies  are  called  people 
in  Prov.  xxx:2S,  26. 

PEOB  (pe'or),  (Heb.  ^^^f,  peh-ore\  opening, 
cleft). 

1.  A  mountain  in  the  land  of  Moab  (Num. 
xxiii:28). 

Eusebius  places  it  between  Livias  and  Esbus, 
over  against  Jericho ;  which  shows  that  it  was  not 
supposed  to  be  east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  as  usually 
stated  (Onomast  under  'Apafidte  Mtadfi),  It  has  not 
in  modem  times  been  recognized. 

d.  An  idol  (Num.  xxv:i8;  xxxi:i6;  Josh.xxii:i7). 
Called  Bael-peor  in  Num.  xxv:3. 

PEaADVENTUSE  (pSr'^-vgn'tAr),  (Heb.  II* 
Pane,  Gen.  xxxi:3i),  perhaps,  perchance. 

PEBAZnf ,  HOTJNT  (p^r'a-zlm,  mount),  (Heb. 
^*^T?»  Per-aW'iseem;  mount  of  breaches,  Is. 
xxviii:2i).    See  Baal-perazim. 

PEBDinON  (per-dTsh'iin),  (Gr  dir«iXeia,  ap^'- 
li-a),  a  perishing,  a  destruction). 

This  word  occurs  only  in  the  New  Testament, 
and  in  that  rarely.  In  the  Greek  it  means  a  perish- 
ing, destruction,  as  "let  thy  money  perish  with 
thee"  (Acts  viii:2o);  with  the  included  idea  of 
misery  (i  Tim.  viip).  In  particular  it  is  the  de- 
struction which  consists  in  the  loss  of  eternal 
life,  the  lot  of  those  excluded  from  the  kingdom 
of  God  (John  xvii:i2;  2  Thess.  ii:3;  Heb.  x: 
39;  2  Pet.  iii:7;  Rev.  xvii:8,  11).  (McC.  &  Str., 
Cyc,  Barnes,  Bib.  Diet.)  (See  Hell;  Punish- 
ments.) 

PEBDinON,  SON  OF  (per-dTsh'iin.  sdn  dv), 
(Gr.  hih%  r^  drcaXff/a). 

Applied  to  Judas  (John  xvii:i2).  Comment 
by  Peter  (Acts  i:2o).  "Man  of  sin"  is  also  thus 
called  (2  Thess.  ii:3). 

PEBES  (pS'res),  (Heb.  ^IS,  peh'res).    In  A.  V. 

'ossifrage'  (Lev.  xi:i3;  Deut.  xiv:i2). 

Although  Neser  is  unquestionably  the  Hebrew 
name  of  the  eagle,  a  genus  so  conspicuous,  and 
to  this  moment  so  common,  in  Palestine  probably 
possessed  more  than  one  designation  in  the  na- 
tional dialects  of  the  country,  and  under  the  term 
ossifrage  it  would  indicate  the  great  sea  eagle. 
But  Peres  is  by  other  translators  referred  to  a 
hawk,  which  they  denominate  Accipiter. 

Their  scientific  application,  however,  has  been 
referred  to  two  birds;  osprey  being  the  Pandion 
Haliaetus,  'the  fishing  hawk,'  and  ossifrage  the 
Aquila  Ossifraga  of  Brisson,  or  'great  sea  eagle' 
of  Pennant;  authors  having  even  pretended  that 
fragments  of  bones  have  been  found  in  the  stomach 
of  the  last  mentioned.    If  this  fact  were  proved, 


it  would  justify  the  denomination  of  ossifrage, 
or  'bone-breaker ;'  but  the  dispensation  of  faculties 
in  nature  always  indicates  a  purpose,  which  in 
the  case  of  the  Pandion,  living  as  it  does  ex- 
clusively upon  fish,  appears  inapplicable ;  for  theirs 
are  not  the  bones  understood  by  the  name,  and 
such  as  the  bird  accidentally  swallows  are  small 
and  without  nutriment.  When  we  place  together 
Peres,  a  name  derived  from  a  root  denoting  *to 
crush*  or  'break,'  and  find  that  by  the  Greek  name 
0ijfin9  {Phene)  the  Hellenic  nations  called  the 
Lammer  Geyer  of  the  Swiss,  which  Savigfny 
(Oiseaux  d'Egypte  et  de  Syrie)  has  proved  to 
be  the  ossifrage  of  the  Romans,  then  it  becomes 
an  immediate  question  why  such  a  denomination 
should  have  been  bestowed.  The  answer  is,  we 
think,  satisfactory ;  for  constituting  the  largest  fly- 
ing bird  of  the  old  continent,  and  being  a  tenant 
of  the  highest  ranges  of  mountains  in  Europe, 
western  Asia,  and  Africa,  though  sometimes  feed- 
ing on  carrion,  and  not  appearing  to  take  up  prey 
like  eagles  in  the  talons,  it  pursues  the  chamois, 
young  ibex,  mountain  deer,  or  marmot,  among 
precipices,  until  it  drives,  or  by  a  rush  of  its 
wings  forces,  the  game  over  the  brink,  to  be 
dashed  to  pieces  below.  It  thus  deservedly  ob- 
tained the  name  of  bone-breaker. 

The  species  in  Europe  is  little  if  at  all  inferior 
in  size  to  the  Condor  of  South  America,  measur- 
ing from  the  point  of  the  bill  to  the  end  of  the 
tail  four  feet  two  or  three  inches,  and  sometimes 
ten  feet  in  the  expanse  of  wing;  the  head  and 
neck  are  not,  like  those  of  vultures,  naked,  but 
covered  with  whitish  narrow  feathers;  and  there 
is  a  beard  of  bristly  hair  under  the  lower  mandi- 
ble: the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  nearly  black  and 
brown,  with  some  whitish  streaks  on  the  shoul- 
ders, and  an  abundance  of  pale  rust  color  on  the 
back  of  the  neck,  the  thighs,  vent,  and  legs;  the 
toes  are  short,  and  bluish,  and  the  claws  strong. 
In  the  young  the  head  and  neck  are  black,  and 
the  species  or  variety  of  Abyssinia  appears  to  be 
rusty  and  yellowish  on  the  neck  and  stomach. 
It  is  the  griffon  of  Cuvier,  Gypaitos  barbatus  of 
nomenclators.     (See  Ossifrage.)  C.  H.  S. 

PEBESH  (pg'resh),  (Heb.  ^^f .  pekresh,  sep- 

arate,  excrement),  one  of  the  two  sons  of  Machir 
of  Manasseh,  by  Maachah  (i  Chron.  vii:i6).  B  C 
about  1658. 

PEBEZ  (pS'rez),  (Heb.  V^f ,  peh'rets,  bursting 
through;  i  Chron.  xxvii:3).    See  Pharez. 

PEBEZ-X7ZZAH  or  PEBEZ-UZZA  (pS'rez.&z'- 

zah  6r  pg'rez-iiz'z4),  (Heb.  «l^   V^,  peh' reis-ooz- 

saw',  the  breach  o{Uzzah),a  plaoe  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Jerusalem  which  obtained  this  name  from 
the  judgment  inflicted  upon  Uzzah  for  rashly 
handling  the  ark  (2  Sam.  vi:8;  i  Chron.  xiii:ii). 

PEBFEOnON,  PEBFECT  (per  fgk'shtin,  per'- 
fSkt). 

The  fundamental  idea  of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
words  which  are  thus  rendered  is  completeness. 
If  the  Great  Captain  of  our  salvation  was  made 
"perfect  through  suffering"  (Heb.  ii:io;Lukexiii: 
22)  it  certainly  indicated  no  defect  in  his  char- 
acter, but  the  completion  of  his  sublime  attributes 
and  mission.  Absolute  completion  and  perfection 
is  the  attribute  of  (k>d  (Job  xxxvi:4;  xxxvii:i6; 
Matt.  v:48). 

Perfection  is  that  state  or  quality  of  a  thing 
in  which  it  is  free  from  defect  or  redundancy. 
According  to  some,  it  is  divided  into  physical 
or  natural,  whereby  a  thing  has  all  its  powers 
and  faculties;  moral,  or  an  eminent  degree  of 
goodness  and  piety;  and  metaphysical  or  tran^ 


PERFUME  13 

scendent  is  the  possession  of  all  the  essential  at- 

tribules  or  parts  necessary  to  the  integrity  of  a 
substance;  or  it  is  that  whereby  a  thing  has  or  is 
provided  of  everything  belonging  to  its  nature; 
such  is  the  perfection  of  God. 

The  term  perfection,  says  the  great  Witsius, 
is  not  always  used  in  the  same  sense  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, (i)  There  is  a  perfection  of  sincerity, 
whereby  a  man  serves  God  without  hypocrisy 
(Job  i:i;  Is.  xxxviiiij).  (a)  There  is  a  per- 
fection of  parts,  subjective  with  respect  to  the 
whole  man  (i  Thess.v:23),  and  objective  with  re- 
spect to  the  whole  law,  when  all  the  duties  pre- 
scribed by  God  are  observed  (Ps,  cxix:i28;  Luke 
i  ■6) .  (3)  There  is  a  comparative  perfection 
ascribed  to  those  who  are  advanced  in  knowledge, 
faith,  and  sanclification,  in  comparison  of  those 
who  are  still  infants  and  untaught  (i  John  ii: 
13;  1  Cor.  ii:6;  Phil.  iii:i5).  (4)  There  is  an 
evartgelical  perfection.  The  righteousness  of 
Christ  being  imputed  to  the  believer,  he  is  com- 


B  PERGA 

tore  formed  a  particular  profession.  The  rokechim 
of  Exod.  xxx:2S,  35;  Neh.  iii:8;  Eccles.  x:i, 
called  'Apothecary'  in  the  Aulh.  Vers.,  was  no 
other  than  a  maker  of  perfumes.  So  strong  were 
the  better  kinds  of  ointments,  and  so  perfectly 
were  the  different  component  substances  amal- 
gamated, that  [hey  have  been  known  to  retain 
their  scent  several  hundred  years.  One  of  Ihc 
alabaster  vases  in  the  museum  at  Alnwick  Castle 
contains  some  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  ointment, 
between  two  and  three  thousand  years  old,  and 
yet  its  odor  remains  (Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egyptians, 
ii.  314)- 

The  'holy  anointing  oil,'  employed  in  the  sacer- 
dotal unction,  was  composed  of  two  parts  'myrrh' 
(see  Moit),  two  parts  'cassia'  (see  Kiddah).  one 
part  'cinnamon'  (see  Kinnauon),  one  part 
■sweet  calamus'  (see  the  article  on  Kaneh),  com- 
pounded 'according  to  the  art  of  the  perfumer,' 
with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  purest  olive  oil 
to  give  it  the  proper  consistence    (Exod.  xxx: 


plete  in  him,  and  accepted  of  God  as  perfect 
through  Christ  (Col.  ii:io;  Eph.  v:27;  2  Cor. 
v:2i).  (s)  There  is  also  a  perfection  of  degrees, 
by  which  a  person  performs  all  the  commands 
of  God  with  the  full  exertion  of  all  his  powers 
without  the  least  defect.  This  is  what  the  law  of 
God  requires,  but  what  the  saints  cannot  attain 
to  in  this  life,  though  we  willingly  allow  them 
all  the  other  kinds  above  mentioned  (Rom.  vii; 
24;  Phil.  iii:i2;  i  John  i:8).  (See  Sanctifica- 
tion;  Sin.)     (Buck,  Theol.  Diet.) 

PEBFTTKB  (pSr'tQm),  (Heb,  ^"PJ!,  iei-n'retA, 
fumigation,  Exod.  ixxiss,  37;  Prov.  xxviiig;  '^'^^ 
rak-ioo'akh.  Is.  Ivil^g). 

The  ointments  and  oils  used  by  the  Israelites 
were  rarelysimple,butwerecompoundedof  various 
ingredients  (Job  xli:3i;  comp.  Plin.  Hist.  Nat. 
xxixiS).  Olive  oil,  the  valued  product  of  Pates- 
tine  (Deut.  xxviii:4o;  Mic.  vi;i5),  was  com- 
bined with  sundry  aromalics,  chiefly  foreign  (i 
Kings  x:io;  Eiek.  xxvii;22),  particularly  besem, 
myrrh  and  nard  (see  Myrrh  ;  Nerd).  Such  oint- 
ments were  for  the  most  part  costly  (Amos  vi; 
6),  and  formed  a  much-coveted  luxury.  The 
ingredients,  and  often  the  prepared  oils  and  resins 
in  a  state  fit  for  use,  were  obtained  chiefly  in 
traffic  from  I  he  Phcenicians,  who  imported  them 
in  small  alabaster  boxes  (Alabaster),  in  which 
the  delicious  aroma  was  best  preserved.  A 
description  of  the  more  costly  unguents  is 
given  by  Piiny  {Hist.  Nat.  xiiira).  The  prepara- 
tion of  these  required  peculiar  skill,  and  there- 


aj,  25).  It  was  strictly  forbidden  that  any  per- 
fume like  this,  that  is,  composed  of  the  same  in- 
gredients, should  be  used  for  common  purposes, 
or  indeed  made  at  all  (xxx  :32,  33).  (See  Anoint- 

The  prodigious  quantity  of  this  holy  ointment 
made  on  the  occasion  which  the  text  describes, 
being  no  less  than  750  ounces  of  solids  com- 
pounded with  five  quarts  of  oil,  may  give  some 
idea  of  the  profuse  use  of  perfumes  among  the 
Hebrews,  We  are,  indeed,  told  by  the  Psalmist 
(cxxxiiiia)  that  when  the  holy  anointing  oil 
was  poured  upon  the  head  of  Aaron  it  flowed 
down  over  his  beard  and  dress,  even  to  the  skirts 
of  his  garments. 

FEBaA  (per'gi),  {Gt.mpy,,  per^ay,  citadel), 
a  town  of  Pamphylia,  in  Asia  Minor,  situated  upon 
the  river  Cestrus,  sixty  stades  from  its  estuary. 

On  a  hill  near  the  town  stood  a  celebrated 
temple  of  Artemis,  at  which  the  inhabitants  of 
the  surrounding  country  held  a  yearly  festival  in 
honor  of  the  goddess.  Perga  was  originally  the 
capital  of  Pamphylia ;  but  when  that  province 
was  divided  into  two,  Side  became  the  chief 
town  of  the  first,  and  Perga  of  the  second 
Pamphylia.  (Strabo.  xiv.  p.  667 ;  Pliny.  Hist.  Nat. 
V.  26;  Pomp.  Mela,  i.  14;  Cic.  I/err.  i.  30).  The 
apostle  Paul  was  twice- at  this  place  (Acts  xiii; 
13;  xiv;25).  In  the  first  instance  he  seems  to 
have  landed  at  Perga,  and  the  Cestrus  was  then, 
in  fact,  navigable  to  the  town,  although  the  en- 
trance to  the  river  is  now  impassable,  having 
long  been  closed  by  a  bar.    The  site  has  been 


PERGAMOS 


1309 


PERSECUTION 


established  by  Col.  Leake  as  that  where  extensive 
remains  of  vaulted  and  ruined  buildings  were  ob- 
served by  General  Kohler  on  the  Cestrus,  west  of 
Stavros.    It  is  called  by  the  Turks  Eski-kalesi. 

PEBOAMOS  (per'ga-m6s),  (Gr.  U4pyafios,  per'' 
^am-os,  citadel,  burg),  or  PEBQAMTTM,  a  town 
of  the  Great  Mysia,  the  capital  of  a  kingdom  of 
the  same  name,  and  afterwards  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Asia  Propria. 

(1)  Location.  The  river  Caicus,  which  is 
formed  by  the  union  of  two  branches  meeting 
thirty  or  forty  miles  above  its  mouth,  waters 
an  extensive  valley  not  exceeded  in  natural  beauty 
and  fertility  by  any  in  the  world.  In  this  valley, 
in  N.  lat.  30*  4',  E.  long.  27°  12',  stood  Perga- 
mos,  at  the  distance  of  about  twenty  miles  from 
the  sea.  It  lay  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Caicus, 
at  the  base  and  on  the  declivity  of  two  high  and 
steep  mountains,  on  one  of  which  now  stands  a 
dilapidated  castle.  About  two  centuries  before 
the  Christian  era,  Pergamos  became  the  residence 
of  the  celebrated  kings  of  the  family  of  Attains, 
and  a  seat  of  literature  and  the  arts. 

(2)  Library.  King  Eumenes,  the  second  of 
the  name,  greatly  beautified  the  town,  and  in- 
creased the  library  of  Pergamos  so  considerably 
that  the  number  of  volumes  amounted  to  200,000. 
As  the  papyrus  shrub  had  not  yet  begun  to  be 
exported  from  Egypt,  sheep  and  goat  skins, 
cleaned  and  prepared  for  the  purpose,  were  used 
for  manuscripts;  and  as  the  art  of  preparing 
them  was  brought  to  perfection  at  Pergamos, 
they,  from  that  circumstance,  obtained  the  name 
of  pergamena,  or  parchment.  The  library  re- 
mained at  Pergamos  after  the  kingdom  of  the 
Atfali  had  lost  its  independence,  until  Antony 
removed  it  to  Egypt,  and  presented  it  to  Queen 
Cleopatra.  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat,  ill.  2;  Plutarch, 
Anton.)  The  valuable  tapestries,  called  in  Latin 
aulcea,  from  having  adorned  the  hall  of  King  At- 
tains, were  also  wrought  in  this  town.  The  last 
king  of  Pergamos  bequeathed  his  treasures  to 
the  Romans,  who  took  possession  of  the  kingdom 
also,  and  erected  it  into  a  province  under  the 
name  of  Asia  Propria  (Martial,  Epig.  ix:i7). 

(3)  Under  the  Eomans.  Pergamos  retained 
under  the  Romans  that  authority  over  the  cities 
of  Asia  which  it  had  acquired  under  the  suc- 
cessors of  Attains,  and  it  still  preserves  many 
vestiges  of  its  ancient  magnificence.  Remains  of 
the  Asclepium,  and  of  some  other  temples,  of  the 
theater,  stadium,  amphitheater,  and  several  other 
buildings,  are  still  to  be  seen.  Even  now  Perga- 
mos, under  the  name  of  Bergamo,  is  a  place  of 
considerable  importance,  containing  a  population 
estimated  at  14,000,  of  whom  about  3,000  are 
Greeks,  300  Armenians,  and  the  rest  Turks  (Mac- 
farlane's  Visit), 

(4)  Present  Condition.  The  town  consists  for 
the  most  part  of  small  and  mean  wooden  houses, 
among  which  appear  the  remains  of  early  Chris- 
tian churches,  showing  'like  vast  fortresses  amid 
vast  barracks  of  wood.*  None  of  these  churches 
have  any  Scriptural  or  Apocalyptic  interest  con- 
nected with  them,  having  been  erected  'several 
centuries  after  the  ministry  of  the  apostles,  and 
when  Christianity  was  not  a  humble  and  despised 
creed,  but  the  adopted  religion  of  a  vast  empire.' 
The  Pagan  temples  have  fared  worse  than  these 
Christian  churches. 

(5)  One  of  the  Seven  Churches.  In  Pergamos 
was  one  of  *the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia,'  to  which 
the  Apocalypse  is  addressed.  This  church  is  com- 
mended for  its  fidelity  and  firmness  in  the  midst 
of  persecutions,  and  in  a  city  so  eminently  ad- 
dicted to  idolatry.    *I  know,'  it  is  said,  *thy  works, 


and  where  thou  dwellest,  even  where  Satan* s  seat 
is*  (Rev.  ii:i3X.  .Now  there  was  at  Pergamos 
a  celebrated  and  much  frequented  temple  of 
iCsculapius,  who  probably  there,  as  in  other  places, 
was  worshiped  in  the  form  of  a  living  serpent, 
fed  in  the  temple,  and  considered  as  its  divinity. 
Hence  iCsculapius  was  called  the  god  of  Perga- 
mos, and  on  the  coins  struck  by  the  town,  iCscu- 
lapius  appears  with  a  rod  encircled  by  a  serpent 
(Berger,  Thesaur.,  i.  492).  As  the  sacred  writer 
mentions  (Rev.  xiiig)  the  great  dragon  and  the 
old  serpent,  there  is  reason  to  conclude  that  when 
he  says  in  the  above  passage  that  the  church  of 
Pergamos  dwelt  'where  Satan's  seat  is,'  he  alludes 
to  the  worship  of  the  serpent,  which  was  there 
practiced  (Rosenmiiller,  Bib.  Geog.  iii,  13-17; 
Macfarlane,  Visit  to  the  Seven  Apocalyptic 
Churches,  1832;  Arundell's  Asia  Minor,  ii.  302- 
7;  Leake's  Geog.  of  Asia  Minor,  pp.  265, 266;  Rich- 
ter,  Wallfahrten,  p.  488,  sq.;  Schubert,  Reise  ins 
Morgenland;  Missionary  Herald  for  1839,  pp.  228- 
30;  Smith,  Diet.  Class  Geog.) 

PEBIDA  (pe-ri'da),  (Neh.  vii:57).  See  Peruda. 

PERIZZITE  (pSr'iz-zite),    (Heb.  with  the  art. 

^^^^^,  hap'per-iz'zee'),  "the  Perizzite." 

A  tribe  inhabiting  the  mountainous  region 
which  they  eventually  yielded  to  Ephraim  and 
Judah  (Josh.  xi:3;  xvii:i5;  Judg.  i:4,  5).  They 
were  kindred  to  the  Canaanites  strictly  so  called 
(Exod.  xxiii:23;  Judg.  i:4,  5);  sometimes  Ca- 
naanites and  Perizzites  are  put  for  all  the  other 
tribes  of  Canaan  (Gen.  xiii:7;  xxxiv:3o);  while 
in  other  places  the  Perizzites  are  enumerated  with 
various  other  tribes  of  the  same  stock  (Gen. 
xv:2o;  Exod.  iii:8,  17;  Deut.  viiri,  etc.).  A 
residue  of  the  Perizzites  still  remained  in  the 
time  of  Solomon,  and  were  by  him  subjected  to 
bond-service  (i  Kings  ix:2o). 

PEBJUKT  (per'ja-ry),  swearing  falsely  or 
breaking  a  lawful  oath.    See  Oath. 

PEBSECTJTE  (per's6-kOt),(Heb.n'31.raw-^jii/), 
(Ps.  vii:i,  5;  lxxi:ii). 

To  pursue  with  hostile  intentions,  to  seek  after 
and  improve  all  occasions  of  doing  one  hurt, 
especially  on  account  of  his  steadfast  cleaving  to 
the  f'-uths  and  ways  of  God  (Job  xix:22;  Matt. 
v:ii  Ishmael  persecuted  Isaac,  by  mocking  and 
reproaching  him  ((jal.  iv:29).  God  persecutes 
men  when  he  pursues  them  with  his  judgments 
in  every  place  and  condition  they  are  in  (Lam. 
iii:66;  Ps.  xxxv:6).  Christ  is  persecuted  when 
his  people,  who  are  united  with  and  dear  to  him, 
are  for  his  cause  reproached,  harrassed,  and  mur- 
dered (Acts  ix:4).  Though  persecution  for  con- 
science's sake  is  contrary  to  the  genius  of  Chris- 
tianity, yet  pretenders  to  it  have  very  often,  for 
their  own  selfish  ends,  persecuted  their  fellow- 
professors. 

PBBSECTTTION  (p)er's^-ku'shtin),  (Gr.  «i«7/i6f, 
dee-opte-mos' t  a  pursuing),  the  active  opposition 
whicn  Christians  meet  from  their  enemies. 

(1)  Character  of  Persecution.  Persecution 
is  threefold,  (i)  Mental,  when  the  spirit  of  a 
man  rises  up  and  opposes  another.  (2)  Ver- 
bal, when  men  give  hard  words  and  deal  in  un- 
charitable censures.  (3)  Actual  or  open,  by  the 
hand,  such  as  the  dragging  of  innocent  persons 
before  the  tribunal  of  Justice  (Matt.  x:i8).  The 
unlawfulness  of  persecution  for  conscience's  sake 
must  appear  plain  to  every  one  that  possesses  the 
least  degree  of  thought  or  of  feeling.  "To  banish, 
imprison,  plunder,  starve,  hang,  and  burn  men  for 
religion,"  says  the  shrewd  Jortin,  "is  not  the 
gospel  of  Christ;  it  is  the  gospel  of  the  devil. 


PERSEVERANCE 


1310 


PERSIAN 


Christ  never  used  anything  that  looked  like  force 
or  violence,  except  once;  and  that  was  to  drive 
bad  men  out  of  the  temple,  and  not  to  drive  them 


m. 


We  know  the  origin  of  it  to  be  from  the  prince 
of  darkness,  who  began  the  dreadful  practice  in 
the  first  family  on  earth,  and  who,  more  or  less, 
has  been  carrying  on  the  same  work  ever  since, 
and  that  almost  among  all  parties.  "Persecution 
for  conscience*  sake,"  says  Dr.  Doddridge,  "is 
every  way  inconsistent,  because  (i)  it  is  founded 
on  an  absurd  supposition  that  one  man  has  a 
right  to  judge  for  another  in  matters  of  religion. 
(2)  It  is  evidently  opposite  to  that  fundamental 
principle  of  morality.  Persecution  is  so  far  from 
being  required  or  encouraged  by  the  gospel  that  it 
is  most  directly  contrary  to  many  of  its  precepts, 
and  indeed  to  the  whole  of  it."  The  chief  vic- 
tims of  this  diabolical  plot  have  been  Christians. 

(2)  Persecution  by  the  Jews.  The  New 
Testament  will  inform  the  reader  more  particu- 
larly how  the  first  Christians  suffered  for  the 
cause  of  truth.  Jesus  Christ  himself  was  exposed 
to  it  in  the  greatest  degree.  The  four  Evangelists 
record  the  dreadful  scenes,  which  need  not  here 
be  dwelt  upon. 

(3)  Persecution  by  Pagans.  There  were 
ten  persecutions  waged  by  Pagan  authorities 
against  the  Christians:  (i)  Under  Nero  A.  D. 
64.  He  inflicted  upon  the  Christians  the  most  hor- 
rible tortures,  so  that  his  name  is  the  very 
synon)rm  of  all  that  is  monstrous  and  repulsive. 
(2)  The  second  general  persecution  was  under 
Domitian  (A.  D.  95),  when  40,000  were  supposed 
to  have  suffered  martyrdom.  (3)  The  third  be- 
gan in  the  third  year  of  Trajan  (A.  D.  100),  and 
was  carried  on  with  great  violence  for  several 
years.  (4)  The  fourth  was  under  Antonius, 
when  the  Christians  were  banished  from  their 
houses,  forbidden  to  show  their  heads,  reproached, 
beaten,  hurried  from  place  to  place,  plundered, 
imprisoned,  and  stoned,  (s)  The  fifth  began 
A.  D.  127,  under  Severus,  when  great  cruelties 
were  committed.  In  this  reign  happened  the 
martyrdom  of  Perpetua  and  Felicitas,  and  their 
companions.  Perpetua  had  an  infant  at  the  breast, 
and  Felicitas  was  just  delivered  at  the  time  of 
their  being  put  to  death.  These  two  bea'^tiful 
and  amiable  young  women,  mothers  of  t'ufant 
children,  after  suffering  much  in  prison,  wete  ex- 
posed before  an  insulting  multitude,  to  a  wild 
cow,  who  mangled  their  bodies  in  a  most  horrid 
manner:  after  which  they  were  carried  to  a  con- 
spicuous place,  and  put  to  death  by  the  sword. 
(6)  Under  Maximinus  (A.  D.  235).*  (7)  Of 
great  severity  under  Decius  (A.  D.  249).  (8) 
Under  Valerian  (A.  D.  257).  (9)  Under  Aurelian 
(A.  D.  274),  and  (10)  under  Diocletian  (A.  D. 
303). 

PEBSEVEBANCE  (per'sS-ver'^ns),  (Gr.  wpwr- 
^aprdpriffiSf  pros-kar-ter' ay-sis^  persistency,  endur- 
ing constancy),  the  continuance  in  a  state,  or  in  a 
course  of  aCtion,  notwithstanding  much  opposi- 
tion (Eph.  vi:i8). 

From  the  Calvinistic  point  of  view  whatever 
partial  decays  of  grace  the  saints  really  have ;  and 
though,  if  left  to  themselves,  they  would  lose 
their  whole  stock  of  grace;  and  though  the  use 
of  watchfulness,  and  of  other  means  of  steadfast- 
ness, is  necessary  to  their  perseverance  in  their 
gracious  state,  nature,  and  course;  yet  their  total 
or  final  fall  from  the  same  is  evidently  incon- 
sistent with  a  multitude  of  Scriptures;  incon- 
sistent with  the  unchangeable  love,  the  justice, 
the  wisdom,  and  faithfulness  of  God ;  inconsist- 
ent with    his    unchangeable  purposes,  promises, 


covenant,  and  oath;  inconsistent  with  the 
honor  of  the  Father  as  their  chooser,  as  the  giver 
of  them  to  Christ  for  his  reward,  and  as  their 
establisherand  keeper;  inconsistent  with  the  honor 
of  the  Son  as  their  purchaser,  advocate,  builder, 
shepherd,  husband,  life,  and  one  body  and  spirit 
with  them;  inconsistent  with  the  honor  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  who  is  in  them  as  a  perpetual  in- 
habitant, worker,  comforter,  fountain  springing  up 
to  everlasting  life,  the  seal  of  redemption,  and 
earnest  of  their  glory  (Job  xvii:9;  Prov.  iviiS, 
and  x:25;  Ps.  ii:8;  cxxv:2,  and  cii:28;  Is.  xlvi: 
10;  liv:8-io;  lix:20,  21,  and  liii:io;  Jer.  xxxii: 
39-42;  Hos.  ii:i9,  20;  Matt.  xvi:i8,  and  xxiv: 
24;  Luke  xxii:32;  John  iv:l4;  vi:27,  35,  39,  40, 
54-58;  x:io,  28,  29;  xiii:i;  xiv:i6,  17,  19,  and 
xyii:6,  12,  15,  20,  24;  Acts  xiii:48;  Rom.  v:2i; 
viii:28-39;  ix:23,  and  xi:23;  i  Cor.  i:8,  9;  vi: 
15-19;  x:i3;  2  Cor.  i:2i,  22,  and  iii:3;  Gal.  ii: 
20;  Eph.  i:i3,  14;  iv:  30,  and  v:25-3o;  Phil,  i: 
6,  and  ii:3;  Col.  iii:i;  i  Thess.  v:8,  9,  23,  24; 
2  Thess.  iii:3;  2  Tim.  ii:i9;  Tit.  ii:i4;  Heb.  iii: 
3;  vi:i7-i9;  i  Pet.  i:5,  and  ii:9;  i  John  ii:i9,  and 
iii:9).     (See  Election;  Predestination.) 

Brown. 

PEBSIA  (per'shi),  (Heb.  ^Df,  paw-ras'.  a 
horse).    See  Persian. 

PEBSIAN  (per'shan),  (Heb.  ''PIS,  par-see^,  a 

Parsite).  Its  modem  name  of  Fars^  or  Farsistan, 
is  considered  a  corruption  of  its  original  appella- 
tion. 

It  is  the  name  of  a  people  and  nation  not  found 
in  the  older  records  of  the  Bible,  but  after  the 
Babylonish  period  it  occurs  frequently  (2  Chron. 
xxxvi:20,  22;  Ezra  iv:5,  sq.\  vi:i4,  sq.\  Esth.  i: 
3;  Dan.  vi:8;  i  .Mace.  i:i),  meaning  the  great 
Persian  kingdom  founded  by  Cyrus,  which  in  the 
period  of  its  highest  glory  comprised  all  Asiatic 
countries  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Indus, 
from  the  Black  and  Caspian  Sea  to  Arabia  and 
the  Indian  Ocean.  In  the  later  periods  of  the 
Biblical  history  it  is  not  referred  to  for  the  most 
part  except  in  conjunction  with  the  Medes  (see 
Medes) — a  conjunction  which  tends  to  confirm 
the  truth  of  the  sacred  records,  since  the  most  re- 
spectable historical  authorities  have  found  reason 
to  conclude  that  the  Medes  and  Persians  were 
in  truth  but  one  nation,  only  that  at  an  earlier 
period  the  Medes,  at  a  later  period  the  Persians, 
gained  the  upper  hand  and  bore  sway.  This 
ascendancy,  in  the  case  of  the  Persians,  as  gen- 
erally in  the  ancient  Asiatic  governments,  was 
owing  to  the  corrupting  and  enervating  influence 
of  supreme  and  despotic  power  on  the  one  side, 
and  on  the  other  to  the  retention  on  the  part  of 
mountaineers,  or  of  tribes  seated  remotely  from 
the  center  of  the  empire,  of  primitive  simplicity, 
— in  laborious  lives,  hard  fare,  and  constant  ex- 
posure, which  create  patient  endurance,  athletic 
strength,  manly  courage,  independence:  qualities 
which  in  their  turn  refuse  or  throw  off  a  yoke, 
and  convert  a  subject  into  a  conquering  and  rul- 
ing nation.  At  what  precise  time  this  great 
change  was  brought  about  in  regard  to  the  Medes 
and  Persians,  we  are  not  in  a  condition  to  de- 
termine historically. 

(1)  Domination  of  Persian  Dynasty.  With 
Cyrus  the  elder,  however,  begins  (B.  C.  558)  the 
domination  of  the  Persian  dynasty  which  held  rule 
over  Media  as  well  as  Persia.  Whether  (Tyrus  came 
to  the  throne  by  inheritance,  as  the  son-in-law 
of  Cambyses  II,  according  to  Xenophon,  or 
whether  he  won  the  throne  by  vanquishing  Asty- 
ages,  the  last  Median  king,  agreeably  to  the  state- 
ments of  Herodotus,  is  one  of  those  many  points 


PERSIAN 


1311 


PERSIAN 


connected  with  early  eastern  history  which,  for 
want  of  documents,  and  in  the  midst  of  historical 
discrepancies,  must  remain  probably  forever  un- 
certain. 

(2)  Betum  of  Captives.  The  most  interest- 
ing event  to  the  theologian  in  the  history  of 
Cyrus,  is  the  permission  which  he  gave  (B.  C. 
536)  to  the  captive  Jews  to  return  to  their  native 
iand.  After  a  prosperous  reign  of  the  unusual 
length  in  Asiatic  monarchies  of  thirty  years,  Cyrus 
was  gathered  to  his  fathers  (B.  C.  529).  He 
was  succeeded  by  Cambyses  (B.  C.  529),  who, ac- 
cording to  Herodotus,  reigned  seven  years  and 
five  months.  Then  came  (B.  C.  522)  Smerdis, 
nominally  brother  of  Cambyses,  but  in  reality  a 
Magian;  and  as  the  Magi  were  of  Median  blood, 
this  circumstance  shows  that,  though  the  Medes 
had  lost  the  sovereignty,  they  were  not  without 
great  power. 

(3)  Darius.  Smerdis  being  assassinated,  Darius 
Hystaspis  was  elected  king.  He  favored  the  Jews, 
and  permitted  them  to  resume  and  complete  the 
building  of  their  temple,  which  had  been  broken 
off  by  reason  of  jealousy  on  the  part  of  the 
heterogeneous  populations  of  Samaria  (Ezra  iv: 
2;  2  Kings  xvii:24),  and  the  influence  which 
they  exerted  at  the  Persian  court  (Ezra  iv:ii). 
(See  the  article  Darius.)  The  last  monarch  had 
for  successor  Xerxes,  who  is  probably  the 
Ahasuerus  of  Esther  and  Mordecai.  (See  Ahas- 
UERUS.)  After  a  reign  of  twenty  years,  Xerxes 
was  murdered  by  Artabanus,  who,  however,  en- 
joyed his  booty  only  for  the  short  period  of  seven 
months.  The  next  in  order  was  Artaxerxes  (I) 
Longimanus,  who  enjoyed  his  power  for  the  sur- 
prisingly long  period  of  forty  years,  and  then 
quietly  handed  the  scepter  over  to  his  son  Xerxes 
II  (B.  C.  424),  who  reigned  but  two  months. 
(See  Artaxerxes.)  He  was  followed  by  his  step- 
brother Sogdianus  (B.  C.  424),  whose  rule  came 
to  an  end  in  seven  months ;  thus  making  way  for 
Darius  Nothus,  whose  reign  lasted  nineteen  years. 
Artaxerxes  (II)  Mnemon  next  took  the  throne, 
and  is  reported  to  have  reigned  forty  or  forty- 
three  years  (Diod.  Sicul.  xiii,  108;  xv,  93).  His 
successor  was  Artaxerxes  Ochus  (B.  C.  364), 
who  occupied  the  throne  for  twenty-six  years. 
Then  came  Arses  (B.  C.  338),  reigning  three 
years.  At  last  Darius  Codomannus  (B.  C.  33$) 
ascended  the  throne. 

(4)  Decline.  But  the  valor,  hardihood,  and 
discipline  which  had  gained  the  dominion,  and 
which,  as  the  length  of  several  rei^s  in  the  suc- 
cession shows,  had  sustained  it  with  a  firm  and 
effectual  hand,  were  almost  at  an  end,  having 
been  succeeded  by  the  effeminacy,  the  luxurious- 
ness,  and  the  vices  which  had  caused  the  dissolu- 
tion of  earlier  Asiatic  dynasties,  and  among  them 
that  of  the  Medes,  which  the  Persians  had  set 
aside.  When  this  relaxation  of  morals  has  once 
taken  place,  a  dynasty  or  a  nation  only  waits  for  a 
conqueror.  In  this  case  one  soon  appeared  in  the 
person  of  Alexander,  misnamed  the  Great,  who 
assailinjf  Darius  on  several  occasions,  finally  over- 
came him  at  Arbela,  and  so  put  a  period  to  the 
Persian  monarchy  after  it  had  existed  for  219 
years.  On  this  the  country  shared  the  fate  that 
befell  the  other  parts  of  the  world  which  the 
Macedonian  madman  had  overrun ;  but,  more  for- 
tunate than  that  of  other  eastern  nations,  the 
name  of  Persia  and  of  Persians  has  been  pre- 
served even  to  the  present  day,  as  the  representa- 
tive of  a  people  and  a  government. 

(5)  Becapitulation.  The  events  which  tran- 
spired during  this  succession  of  Persian  kings, 
to  far  as  they  are  connected  with  the  Biblical 


history,  may  be  thus  briefly   narrated:    Cyrus, 
havinff  conquered  Babylon,  permitted  the  Jews  to 

?[uit  tneir  captivity  and  return  into  Palestine,  af- 
ording  them  aid  for  the  reconstruction  of  their 
national  house  of  worship.  Under  Cambyses, 
who  invaded  Egypt  and  became  master  of  the 
land,  adversaries  of  the  Jews  tried  to  render  them 
objects  of  suspicion  at  the  court;  which  intrigues, 
however,  had  full  effect  only  in  the  reign  of  his 
successor,  Smerdis,  who  issued  a  decree  expressly 
commanding  the  building  of  the  temple  to  cease 
(Ezra  iv:2i);  in  which  prohibition  Smerdis,  as 
he  was  of  the  Magian  tribe,  and  therefore  of  the 
priestly  caste,  may  have  been  influenced  by  re- 
ligious considerations.  A  milder  and  more  lib- 
eral policy  ensued.  Darius,  having  by  search  in 
the  national  records  ascertained  what  Cyrus  had 
done  towards  the  Jews,  took  off  the  prohibition, 
and  promoted  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple.  Darius 
Hystaspis  was  distinguished  for  great  enterprises, 
as  well  as  liberal  ideas.  He  carried  the  renown 
of  the  Persian  arms  to  India,  Libya,  and  Europe, 
and  began  the  Persian  attempt  to  subjugate 
Greece.  What  Xerxes  undertook,  and  what  suc- 
cess he  had  in  his  warlike  undertakings  against 
Greece,  is  known  to  all.  His  conduct  towards 
the  Jews,  as  well  as  his  own  despotism  and  lux- 
uriousness,  are  exhibited  in  the  book  of  Esther 
with  great  force  as  well  as  truth.  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus  led  an  army  into  Egypt,  which  had 
rebelled  against  its  Persian  masters.  He  was 
compelled  to  make  peace  with  the  Greeks.  Pal- 
estine must  have  suffered  much  by  the  passage 
of  troops  through  its  borders  on  their  way  fropi 
Persia  to  Egypt ;  the  new  colony  at  Jerusalem 
began  to  sink,  when  the  monarch  permitted  Nehe- 
miah  to  proceed  with  full  powers  to  the  Jewish 
capital,  in  order  to  strengthen  the  hands  of  hii 
brethren.  Darius  Nothus  had  to  fight  on  all  sides 
of  his  kingdom,  and  made  Phoenicia  the  scene  of 
a  war  against  the  combined  forces  of  Egypt  and 
Arabia.  Even  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  though  long 
busied  with  his  arms  in  other  parts,  did  not  lose 
sight  of  Egypt,  which  had  thrown  off  his  yoke, 
and  sent  new  Persian  armies  into  the  vicinity  of 
Palestine.  In  consequence,  the  Jews  had  much 
to  endure  from  the  insolence  of  a  Persian  gen- 
eral, namely,  Bagoses,  who  polluted  the  temple, 
and  'punished  the  Jews  seven  years*  (Joseph. 
Antiq.  xi,  7,  i).  Ochus  followed  the  plan  of  his 
father,  subdued  the  revolted  Phcenicians,  and 
again  fell  upon  Ejprpt.  The  remaining  period  of 
the  Persian  dominion  over  the  Jews  passed  away 
peaceably  (Joseph.  Antiq,  lib.  xi;  Jahn,  ArchaoL 
ii,  I,  231-312). 

The  Biblical  books,  Daniel,  Esther,  Nehemiah, 
and  Ezra,  combine  to  present  a  true  as  well  as 
high  idea  of  the  Persian  court  and  government. 

(6)  The  Empire.  The  extent  of  the  govern- 
ment was  from  India  to  Ethiopia,  including  one 
hundred  and  twenty-seven  provinces.  The  em* 
pire  was  under  the  control  of  vassal  princes  and 
nobles,  'the  power  of  Persia  and  Media,*  under 
whom  were  governors  of  various  ranks,  and  offi- 
cers for  every  species  of  duty.  It  was  specially 
the  duty  of  seven  ministers  of  state  ('chamber- 
lains') to  serve  in  the  immediate  presence  of  the 
monarch.  Other  officers,  however  high  in  rank, 
were  admitted  to  the  royal  person  only  through 
the  barriers  of  a  strictly-observed  ceremonial. 
Even  the  prime  minister  himself,  and  the  favored 
concubine  who  was  honored  with  the  title  of 
queen,  durst  come  no  nearer  than  the  outer  court, 
unless,  on  making  their  appearance,  the  king  ex- 
tended towards  them  his  scepter  of  gold.  The 
gorgeousness  of  the  court  dazzles  the  mind,  and 


1312       PERSIAN  LITERATURE.  ANCIENT 


surpasses  imagination.  Though  the  monarcn  was 
despotic,  he  was  not  strictly  arbitrary.  Aided  by 
a  council,  controlled  by  a  priesthood,  guided  by 
the  past  as  well  as  influenced  by  the  present,  the 


Uidlun  Drew 


Old  PerslBD  Drw 


king,  much  as  he  may  have  been  given  up  to  his 
personal  pleasures,  must  yet  have  had  a  difficult 
oRice  to  fill,  and  heavy  duties  to  discharge. 
Rulers  are  generally  insecure  in  proportion  to  the 
degree  of  their  despotism ;  and  so  we  find,  from 
the  Dlot  against  the  life  of  Ahasuerus  (Xerxes, 
B.  C,  485-465),  which  Mordecai  discovered  and 
made  known,  that  even  the  recesses  of  a  palace 
did  not  protect  the  kings  of  Persia  from  the  at- 
tempts of  the  assassin.  In  the  punishment,  how- 
ever, which  fell  upon  th^  wicked  Haman,  we  see 
the  summary  means  which  the  Persian  monarchs 
employed  for  avenging  or  defending  themselves, 
as  well  35  the  unshared  and  unqualified  power 
which  they  held  over  the  life  of  their  subjects 
even  in  the  highest  grades.  Indeed  it  is  not 
possible  to  read  the  book  of  Esther  without  fancy- 
mg  more  than  once  that  you  are  in  the  midst  of 
the  court  of  the  Grand  Seignior.  Not  least  among 
the  causes  of  this  illusion  is  what  is  narrated  in 
regard  to  the  harem  of  Xerxes.  The  women,  it 
seems,  had  a  palace  of  their  own,  and  dwelt  there 
apart  from  the  king,  who  paid  them  visits  of  cere- 
mony. 


PertiBO  Wirriot*. 

The  greatness  of  the  power  of  the  chief  viziers 
of  the  Persian  monarchy  is  illustrated  in  the  re- 
corded acts  of  Haman  and  Mordecai.  The  mode 
of  delegating  power  was  by  presenting  to  the  en- 
trusted person  the  royal  signet,  which  appears  to 
have  licensed  him  to  do  what  he  would,  by  such 
means  as   he  pleased. 

Xenophon  presents  us  with  the  fullest  mate- 
rials, namely,  in  his  Anabasis,  his  Hellenica,  and 
especially  in  his  Cyropadia,  which  is  an  imag- 


inary picture  of  a  perfect  prince,  according  to 
Oriental  conceptions,  drawn  in  the  person  of  Cy- 
rus the  elder.  (Hutchinson,  Two  Years  in  Per- 
sia; Markham,  Hist,  of  Pen.;  Rawlinson,  An- 
cient Monarchies,  vol.  iii.)  J.  R.  B. 

FEBSUK  LITEBATTTBi:,  AKCIENT.  The 
literature  of  Persia  rightly  claims  a  place  of 
recognition  among  the  literatures  of  the  world, 
not  alone  for  the  long  period  which  its  history 
covers,  but  also  for  the  real  merit  of  its  literary 
productions.  Younger,  indeed,  in  point  of  antiq- 
uity, and  less  in  compass  than  the  great  body  of 
its  cousin  literature,  the  Sanskrit  of  India,  and 
not  so  ancient  as  the  Egyptian  or  the  Old  Baby- 
lonian, nor  again  so  early  as  portions  of  the 
Hebrew,  its  claims,  nevertheless,  to  consideration 
are  hardly  inferior  to  any  one  of  the  tour.  In 
point  of  form  and  in  classic  finish,  it  is  true  that 
the  ancient  and  mediaeval  productions  of  Persia 
fall  far  below  the  Greek;  but  this  is  true  of 
other  Oriental  literatures  as  well.  The  later  and 
more  modern  development  of  Persian  literature, 
whether  it  be  in  the  realm  of  the  epic,  the  lyric, 
or  in  narrative  poetry,  deserves  a  high  rank  even 
when  judged  by  present  standards.  So  much 
by  way  of  general  estimate.  A  few  words  may 
now  be  added  with  reference  to  the  history  in 
ouUine  of  Iranian  literary  epochs. 

In  its  broadest  sense  the  title,  Literal-jre  of 
Persia,  is  conveniently  used  to  comprise  all  the 
literary  monuments  of  Iran  conceived  of  as  a 
great  nationality.  The  long  line  of  descent  cov- 
ers a  period  of  nearly  two  thousand  five  hundred 
years.  From  the  fact  that  "the  book  of  records 
of  the  chronicles"  was  brought  to  Ahasuerus  and 
read  before  the  king  (Esther  vi:i),  we  may  in- 
fer the  existence  of  annals,  chronicles,  legendary 
and  historical  accounts,  which  were  written  and 
kept,  long  before  the  days  of  King  Xerxes ;  nor 
has  the  stream  since  ceased  flowing,  that  could 
produce,  within  the  last  thousand  years,  poets 
such  as  Firdausi,  Omar  Khayyam,  Sa'di  and 
Hafiz.  And  the  sweet-voiced  nightingale  still 
flutes  in  the  modern  Persian  minstrel's  throat,  A 
glance,  next,  at  the  national  development  of  Iran 
may  render  clearer  the  life  of  Persia's  literary 
history. 

t.  Historical  and  Litararg  Periods.  The 
historical  beginnings  of  Iran  are  lost  in  the  dark- 
ness of  receding  antiquily.  but  we  know  from 
history  that  two  Iranian  empires,  the  kingdom  of 
Media  and  the  dominion  of  Baciria,  existed  be- 
fore Persia  proper  rose  above  the  horizon  under 
(he  first  great  Achaemenian  monarchs.  It  was 
the  conquering  sword  of  Cyrus  and  the  organiz- 
ing hand  of  Darius  that  founded  the  Achaemen- 
ian or  third  empire  (B.  C.  SS9-338).  The  throne 
of  the  Achaemenidae  crumbled  before  the  world 
conqueror,  Alexander  the  Great  (B.  C.  336-323), 
and  then  the  fourth  rule,  the  Seleucid  govern- 
ment, became  established  for  about  seventy  years. 
Fifth  came  the  Parthian  dynasty.  This  power 
tor  five  centuries  ruled  the  fate  of  Iran  (B.  C. 
aSO-A.  D.  2z6)  ;  but  it  gave  way  and  fell  before 
the  triumphant  ascendancy  of  the  Iranian  house 
of  the  Sassanids  (A,  D.  226-651).  whose  dynasty 
lasted  until  the  seventh  century  ot  our  era,  when 
the  conquest  of  Persia  by  the  Mohammedan 
Arabs  altered  the  entire  face  of  events.  This 
latter  event,  as  may  be  added,  wrought  a  mighty 
change  in  the  history  of  Persia  as  an  Iranian  na- 
tion. By  way  of  summary  it  should  be  staled  that 
each  of  these  great  eras  has  had  its  literary  bear- 
ing as  well  as  its  national  and  religious  signifi- 


PERSIAN  LITERATURE,  ANCIENT       1313        PERSIAN  LITERATURE,  ANCIENT 


Roughly  corresponding  to  the  influences  of  the 
great  epochs  mentioned,  we  can  distinguish  three 
more  or  less  marked  eras  in  (he  development  of 
Persian  literature;  (i)  Old  Iranian  Literature, 
extending  from  at  least  the  6th  century  B.  C.  to 
the  first  centuries  A.   D.,  and  including   (a)   the 


Avesta  or  Bible  of  Zoroaster,  and  (b)  the  Ancient 
Persian  Inscriptions  of  the  Achaemenian  kings. 
(2)  Middle  Persian  Literature  or  Pahlavi  liter- 
ary remains,  running  from  the  third  century  A.  D. 
to  the  glh  or  loth  centuries  A.  D.  (3)  New  Per- 
sian Literature,  beginning  with  Firdausi's  Shah 
Namah,  or  extending  from  about  the  10th  century 
to  the  present.  Chief  in  interest  and  importance 
are  the  first  and  the  last  of  these  great  literal' 
eras.  The  strictly  sacerdotal  character  of  the 
mediaeval  Iranian  or  Pahlavi  literature  tends  to 
circumscribe  its  artistic  and  esthetic  value.  The 
first  division  only  is  treated  here,  as  that  alone  is 
ptrtinent  to  Bible  study. 

2.  Old  Iranian  Literature,  From  the  earli- 
est times  of  Iranian  independence  there  ^ust  have 
been  some  sort  of  a  national  literature,  whether  in 
annals  or  chronicles,  lays  or  ballads,  legends  or 
m)^hical  stories,  traces  of  which  survive  perhaps 
in  the  New  Persian  Shah  Namah,  or  Book  of 
Kings,  and  in  epic  passages  of  the  Avesta.  But  so 
far  as  our  direct  knowledge  is  concerned,  Old 
Iranian  Literature  is  represented  by  two  ancient 
monuments,  one  the  Zoroastrian  Scriptures,  the 
other,  the  rc^l  Achaemenian  inscriptions.  The 
first  of  these  is  the  Avesta ;  the  second  is  the  mon- 
ument of  the  Ancient  Persian  Inscriptions  of  the 
Achaemenian  dynasty. 

(1)  The  Aveeta.  The  date  of  the  great  rock- 
records  is  fixed  as  contemporaneous  with  the 
monarchs  who  had  them  carved  (B.  C.  S21-338), 
but  the  date  of  the  Avesta  is  hard  to  determine. 
Like  our  own  Holy  Scriptures,  this  book  of  early 
Iran  represents  a  growth  and  development,  and 
it  gives  evidence  of  the  presence  of  different 
stages  and  strata.  Standing  in  some  degree  as  a 
remnant  of  the  power  of  ancient  Media  and  more 
especially  of  the  Baelrian  empire,  certain  parts 
of  it  must  be  old.  The  Gathas,  or  "Psalms"  (i) 
of  Zoroaster,  for  example,  can  hardly  be  later  in 
origin  than  the  sixth  century  B.  C, ;  on  the  other 
hand  some  portions  of  the  Avesta,  like  late  pas- 
sages in  Vendidad  or  bits  of  formulas  in  the 
Yasna,  may  be  as  late  as  our  own  era.  If  we 
knew  the  exact  date  of  Zoroaster  we  could  speak 
with  more  surety  regarding  the  seventeen  Gathas 
or  Psalms,  for  in  general  tone,  language  and 
composition  ihey  represent  his  epoch,  which  may 
perhaps  with  best  ground  be  placed  between  the 


seventh  and  sixth  century  before  the  Christiaa 
era;  although  some  extravagant  statements  in  the 
classics  claim  B.  C.  6000  as  the  time  of  his  ap- 
pearance. 

The  meaning  of  the  name  Avesta  is  not  abso- 
lutely certain;  possibly  it  is  "Law,"  "Knowledge," 
or  more  iikely  "Text"  (as  Scriptures).  The  title 
Zend-Avesta  is  not  accurate;  tend  or  land  signi- 
fies "commentary,  explanation"  and  refers  to  the 
Pahlavi  version  or  comment  on  the  text.  If  used 
at  all  the  phrase  should  rather  be  Avesta-Zand, 
i.  e..  Scriptures  and  commentary. 

Extent  of  the  Zend-Avestan  Literature.  The 
Avesta  itself  is  but  a  fragment  of  a  once  great 
literature,  encyclopedic  in  its  character,  which 
tradition  has  connected  with  the  prophet  Zoro- 
aster's name.  Pliny  speaks  of  2,000,000  verses  as 
composed  by  Zoroaster;  Persian  tradition  claims 
that  the  original  Zoroastrian  works  comprised 
twenty-one  Nasks  or  books.  Although  by  no 
means  all  these  were  composed  by  the  prophet,' 
they  were  at  least  regarded  as  canonical.  It  is 
further  asserted,  on  Persian  authority,  that  most 
of  them  were  destroyed  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
when  in  his  drunken  frenzy  he  allowed  the  palace 
at  Persepolis  to  be  burned.  A  great  part  of  the 
Scriptures  without  question  survived,  but  the 
dark  period  of  five  centuries  between  the  fall  of 
the  Achaemenian  power  and  the  rise  of  the  Per- 
sian house  of  Sasan  (3d  century  A.  D.)  was  not 
conducive  to  preserving  ancient  texts  in  their 
entirety.  It  was  under  the  Sasanian  monarchs, 
in  the  third  century  A.  D.,  that  a  renaissance  of 
Zoroastrianism  occurred ;  all  that  could  be  gath- 
ered of  the  Holy  Scriptures  was  then  collected, 
edited  and  codified  into  a  sacred  canon.  In  the 
sixth  century,  however,  with  the  tall  of  the  Zo- 
roastrian Creed  before  the  faith  of  Islam,  the  lit- 
erature was  again  scattered,  which  '^counts  for 
its  present  fragmentary  condition.  The  remnant 
that  has  survived  such  troublous  times,  has  been 

? reserved  chiefly  through  the  loyal  efforts  of 
aithful  Parsis  who  left  Persia  on  account  of  the 
fanatical  Mohammedan  persecution  and  sought 
refuge  and  safety  in  India,  settling  especially  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Bombay.  The  Indian  Zo- 
roastrians  to-day  number  nearly  90.000  believers, 
whereas  their  Iranian  cousins  have  dwindled  down 
to  less  than  10,000  souls.  The  story  of  how  the 
Avesta  was  introduced  into  Europe  toward  the 
close  of  the  last  century,  by  Anquetil  du  Perron, 
who  went  to  the  Orient  for  the  purpose  of  gain- 
ing a  knowledge  of  the  sacred  books  of  Zoroaster, 
is  a  narrative  that  reads  like  a  romance;  but 
there  is  not  room  to  give  it  here. 

According  to  the  estimate  of  West,  the  original 
great  Avesta  of  twenty-one  Nasks  must  have  con- 
tained about  345,700  words.  Our  present  Avesta 
contains  about  83,000  words  (Geldner) ;  that  is 
to  say,  about  one-fourth  of  the  original  work,  and 
in  extent  it  equals  perhaps  one-tenth  of  our  Bible 
(810,697  words).  Like  our  own  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures the  Avesta  is  divided  into  several  divisions 
or  books,  (a)  The  Yasna,  (Skt.  yaj/ia)  lit.  "sac- 
rifice," the  chief  liturgical  work  of  the  canon,  is 
a  collection  of  texts  relating  for  the  most  part  to 
the  ritual  of  the  haoma  or  sacred  juice  partaken 
of  in  the  celebration  of  the  solemn  Izashne  cere- 
mony. In  the  midst  of  the  Yasna  are  inserted 
the  Gathas  lit.  "hymns,  psalms."  These  Psalm* 
of  Zoroaster  are  his  metrical  sayings,  sermons 
or  teachings,  and  they  are  the  oldest,  the  most 
sacred,  and  the  most  interesting  part  of  the 
Avesta,  although  they  cover  less  than  a  hundred 
pages  of  text,  (fc)  The  Vtsperad  (Av.  vUpe 
ratavo  "all  the  lords")  is  a  collection  of  miiiot 


PERSIAN  LITERATURE,  ANCIENT       1314  PERSIAN  RELIGION,  ANCIENT 


litanies,  invocations  and  offerings  to  various  dei- 
fied objects,  divinities,  or  spiritual  heads  of  the 
faith,  (c)  The  Vendidad  (Av.  data  vidaeva, 
"law  against  the  Demons")  is  a  sort  of  Iranian 
Pentateuch  and  priestly  code;  it  forms  with  the 
Yasna  and  the  Visperad,  a  kind  of  ancient  Per- 
sian missal  or  prayer-book.  (<()  The  Yashts  (Av. 
yeskti  "worship  by  praise")  is  a  book  of  hymnic 
compositions  in  adoration  of  the  pre-Zoroasitrian 
divinities  and  mythical  heroes.  («)  Minor  texts, 
like  the  Nyaishes,  Gaits  Sirogahs,  Afringans  are 
often  put  together  as  a  Khordak  Ayesla,  "little 
Avefita,"  a  species  of  manual  of  daily  devotion. 
(0  Fragments  of  greater  or  less  extent  have 
been  preserved,  like  a  portion  of  the  Hadokht 
Nask,  the  Nirangistan,Aogemadaeco,some  glosses 
and  an  old  Zand-Paklavi  Glossary. 

The  language  of  the  Avesta  belongs  to  the 
Indo-Germanic  family,  and  is  a  cousin  to  the 
Sanskrit,  but  it  is  not  so  difficult  to  master  as  the 
Sanskrit.  In  style,  much  of  the  text  of  the  Avesta 
13  easy  and  simple  and  without  rhetorical  coloring; 
but  the  Gathas  are  extremely  difHcult  in  form  and 
in  substance.  The  key-note  of  their  thought  IS 
found  in  the  preaching  of  another  and  better  life, 
in  the  struggle  that  goes  on  in  the  world  between 
Ormazd  and  Ahriman,  in  the  eternal  reward  of 
the  righteous  and  the  damnation  of  the  wicked. 
The  meters  in  which  they  are  written  resemble  the 
Vedic  meters.  Many  other  parts  of  the  Avesta  are 
composed  in  rhythm  somewhat  akin  to  the  Kale- 
yala  verse  of  Hiawatha ;  but  much  of  the  Avesta 
is  in  plain  prose.  The  rhythmical  parts  as  a 
rule  are  older,  and  they  have  poetic  merit;  the 
prose  portions  are  generally  later  (excepting  the 
Vasna  Haplang-haiti,  Ys.  35-42),  and  often  con- 
sist of  stupid  repetitions.  This  distinction  must 
clearly  be  kept  in  mind ;  unfortunately  it  has  been 
frequently  overlooked. 

(2)  Ancient  Ferslan  Inscriptions.  The  an- 
cient Persian  inscriptions,  which  form  the  second 
monumental  record  of  ancient  Iran,  comprise 
about  a  thousand  lines  of  cuneiform  texts  in- 
scribed on  the  face  of  mountain  rocks,  on  stone 
tablets,  or  other  hard  surfaces ;  and  they  record 
(or  the  most  part  the  deeds  of  the  great  Achae- 
menian  kings,  Darius  and  his  followers,  since  the 


Bock  tnicriptioD  of  Behiiti 


,  Psrila. 


old-time  sovereignty  of  Media,  and  also  of  Bac- 
tria,  has  now  passed  to  Petsis  proper.  The  most 
important  inscription  is  the  one  which  Darius 
(Darayavaiush)  caused  to  be  chiseled  upon  the 
granite  face  of  the  Behistan  Mount  in  Persia. 
This  mountain  elevation  rises  sheer  from  the 
plain  to  the  height  of  nearly  seventeen  hundred 


feet.  A  portion  of  its  rodcy  side  the  king  caused 
to  be  smoothed  off  to  receive  a  royal  document  of 
eternal  character,  narrating  how,  by  divine  right 
and  by  his  own  prowess,  he  had  become  king.  It 
tells  of  the  battles  he  had  fought  and  the  victories 
he  had  won,  the  rebellions  he  had  crushed  and 
the  triumphs  he  had  achieved  in  organizing  his 
far-reaching  empire.  This  inscription  is  written 
in  three  languages:  the  first,  the  one  that  is  of 
direct  interest  in  the  present  connection,  is  an- 
cient Persian;  the  second  inscription  is  sculptured 
in  a  tongue  now  generally  termed  Neo-Susian;  the 
third  is  engraved  In  Neo- Babylonian.  The  style 
of  the  inscription  is  marked  by  a  calm  dignity  and 
simplicity  suited  to  such  a  record,  and  it  is  still 
effective  when  read  to-day,  even  though  the  in- 
evitable tialdness  of  an  official  style,  and  the  neces- 
sity of  repetition  that  characterizes  an  Oriental 
document  allow  no  scope  for  real  literary  merit. 
"I  am  Darius,  the  great  King,  the  King  of  Kings, 
the  King  of  Nations,  the  son  of  Vishtaspa,  the 
grandson  of  Arshama,  the  Achjemenian  — such 
are  the  opening  lines  of  the  record.  The  oft- 
recurring  introductory  phrase,  "Thus  saith 
Darius,  the  King"  (thaliy  Darayavaush  khskay- 
athiya),  is  not  without  a  certain  majesty.  The 
confiding  trust  in  Auramasda  (.Qrmaxd),  who 
gave  to  Darius  the  kingdom,  the  assurances  that 
in  all  this  edict  the  great  king  is  speaking  the 
truth  and  nothing  but  the  truth,  the  blessings  he 
invokes  upon  those  who  read  and  publish  abroad 
the  contents  of  the  inscription,  and  the  curses 
which  he  calls  down  upon  those  who  conceal  or 
destroy  it,  are  in  a  spirit  that  lends  the  subject 
interest  for  modern  readers  quite  apart  from  the 
acknowledged  historic  importance  of  the  monu- 
ment. With  his  love  of  truth,  and  perhaps  also 
with  a  purpose,  Darius  does  not  hesitate  to  de- 
scribe, even  in  detail,  the  cruel  punishments  he 
has  inflicted  upon  traitors,  rebels,  and  offenders. 

It  cannot  be  said,  in  giving  an  estimate  of  the 
edicts  of  his  successors,  Xerxes  and  Arta- 
xerxes  I,  II,  III,  that  they  are  fired  by  the  same 
power  and  vigorous  spirit  as  those  of  Darius. 
Their  inscriptions  are  much  shorter,  and  are  more 
mechanical  and  formulaic;  they  are  modeled  in 
part  upon  those  preceding  them.  It  is  not  with- 
out interest  to  the  philologist,  however,  to  watch 
the  phonetic  decay  in  language  that  is  evidenced 
in  their  style.  The  glory  of  the  inscriptions  be- 
longs lo  Darius  alone. 

The  story  of  the  deciphering  of  these  rock- 
records  in  wedged-shaped  characters  which  be- 
gins with  the  first  successful  attempts  of  Grote- 
fend,  in  1802,  and  continues  with  his  gifted  suc- 
cessors, is  one  of  the  most  instructive  chapters  in 
the  lessons  taught  by  the  science  of  philology, 
Dariusj  Xerxes,  Artaxerxes,  and  Cyrus  (whether 
Cyrus  the  Great  or  Cyrus  the  Younger  Is  not 
quite  established)  have  to-day  been  made  to  speak 
through  the  untiring  zeal  and  skill  of  modem 
scholarship,  which  has  opened  to  our  ears  these 
sermons  in  stone  from  the  ages  past. 

A.  V.  W.  J. 

FEBSZAir  SELIOIOK,  ANCIENT. 

(1)  Zoroaster.  The  religion  of  ancient  Per- 
sia, in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  word,  is  the  re- 
ligion that  was  founded  by  Zoroaster,  and  it  is 
therefore  best  called  Zoroastrianism.  The  faith 
has  been  designated  under  various  other  names, 
as  Blazdaism,  Magism,  Fire-worship,  Dualism  or 
Parsism.  according  to  certain  of  its  prominent 
features.  Its  sacred  book  is  the  Avesta,  the  old- 
est portions  of  which,  the  Gathas,  are  attributed 
lo  Zoroaster  himself.  It  is  supplemented  bjf  the 
Pahlavi  Texts  and  by  Parsi  tradition. 


PERSIAN  RELIGION,  ANCIENT  13 

It  is  now  no  longer  doubted  by  scholars  that 
Zoroaster  was  a  real  historical  personage.  The 
sources  of  information  concerning  his  life  are 
either  Iranian  or  non-Iranian.  Foremost  among 
the  Iranian  is  the  Aveita,  especially  its  oldest 
metrical  portions,  the  Gathas.  Of  great  tn^or- 
tance  also  is  the  information  given  by  the  Pah- 
lavi  writings  and  by  Parsi  tradition  (see  Frog- 
tess,  vol.  li,  No.  I,  p.  44).  Various  ancient  clas- 
sical writers  also  allude  to  the  prophet ;  mention 
may  be  made  especially  of  Theopompus,  Aris- 
totle, Pliny,  and  Plutarch,  while  lastly,  occasional 
references  are  found  in  Arabic,  Syriac  and  Ar- 

The  name  Zoroaster  was  taken  from  the  Greek 
form  ZaipodtTpJii,  Zoh-ok-as' trace ;  in  the  Avesta 
the  form  is  always  Zarathushtra ;  the  Pahlavi  texts 
write  Zartusht ;  the  modern  Persian,  Zardushl.  The 
meaning  of  the  name  Zarath-ushtra  is  very  doubt- 
ful and  many  etymologies  have  been  suggested. 
The  second  part  of  the  name — lufilro — certainly 
means  "camel."  The  first  part  has  been  translated 
in  various  ways  as  "lively,  leasing,  old,  golden," 
etc. 

The  era  when  the  prophet  flourished  has  been 
a  subject  of  much  dispute.  Persian  tradition  is 
probably  nearly  right  when  it  claims  as  his  era 
the  latter  half  of  the  seventh  and  the  beginning 
of  the  sixth  century  B.  C.  (or  more  exactly  B. 
C.  660-583).  The  Greek  and  Latin  classical  writ- 
ers claim  for  him  an  extravagant  antiquity,  any- 
where from  B.  C.  6000  to  1000.  For  a  full  dis- 
cussion of  this  question  we  refer  to  the  article  by 
Jackson  in  /.  A.  O.  S.,  vol.  XVII,  and  to  West's 
Introduction  to  "Marvels  of  Zoroaslrianism,"  Sa- 
cred books  of  the  East,  vol.  XLVII. 

The  question  of  the  birthplace  of  Zoroaster  is 
also  Open  to  debate;  but  Western  Iran,  probably 


gone  to  the  Median  Ragha,  where,  however,  he 
did  not  meet  with  the  wished-for  success,  and 
from  Ragha  he  turned  eastward  to  Bactria. 
There  he  found  a  generous  patron  in  King  Vish- 
taspa,  whose  strong  arm  helped  to  establish  the 
new  religion.  From  Bactria  the  religion,  now  on 
a  firm  footing,  presumably  came  back  to  Media, 
whence  it  was  carried  into  Persia  and  became  in 
all  probability  the  religion  of  the  great  Achae- 
menian  kings.     (See  /.  A.  0.  S.,  vol.  XV.) 

The  facts  that  we  have  of  Zoroaster's  life  often 
rest  on  doubtful  or  legendary  authority.  The 
outline,  however,  is  clear.  At  the  age  of  thirty 
he  is  said  (o  have  begun  his  ministry,  and  at  the 
age  of  forty-two  he  converted  King  Vishtaspa, 
the  Constantine  of  the  Iranian  faith.  According 
to  a  tradition  he  was  slain  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
seven.  There  seem  to  be  grounds  for  believing 
with  Firdatisi  that  this  happened  when  Balkh  was 
stormed  by  the  fierce  Turanians,  The  Pahlavi 
texts  always  mention  one  Bratar-i  Vakhsh  as 
the  slayer  of  the  prophet. 

The  religion  which  Zoroaster  founded  was  car- 
ried to  triumphant  ascendancy  by  the  victorious 
arms  of  the  great  Persian  kings,  and  became  one 
of  the  chief  religious  systems  of  the  ancient  Ori- 
ent. But  it  also  shared  the  reverses  of  its  ad- 
herents, when  Alexander,  the  youthful  hero  of 
Macedon,  overthrew  the  power  and  glory  of  the 
great  Persian  monarchy.  Under  the  Seleucid 
government,  and  still  more  during  the  five  cen- 
turies of  Parthian  rule,  it  fell  into  neglect.  With 
the  overthrow  of  the  Parthian  dynasty  and  the 
accession  of  the  Sassanian  empire  (A.  D.  226) 
came  the  Zoroastrian  renaissance.  The  old  texts 
were   again    collected,   codified,   translated    into 


15  PERSIAN  RELIGION,  ANCIENT 

Pahlavi,  and  explained.  The  religion  now  flour- 
ished even  more  than  during  the  Achaemenian 
period  and  continued  to  do  so  until  it  succumbed 
to  the  fanatic  assaults  of  a II -conquering  Islam. 


Flre-Alura  In  Penia. 

The  battle  of  Nehavend  (A.  D.  641)  sealed  the 
fate  of  Persia  and  of  its  religion.  Most  of  its 
followers  accepted  the  faith  of  the  victor;  of 
those  who  refused  to  forsake  their  ancient  belief, 
some  remained  scattered  throughout  their  native 
country,  oppressed  and  despised  by  the  proud  con- 
queror, but  most  of  them  sought  refuge  in  India, 
where  they  established  flourishing  communities, 
and  where  their  descendants,  the  Parsees,  are 
found  even  at  the  present  day.  The  most  numer- 
ous of  these  communities  is  at  Bombay,  contain- 
ing upwards  of  ninety  thousand  souls.  About  ten 
thousand  are  scattered  throughout  Persia,  so  that 
the  entire  number  of  modern  Zoroastrians  is  not 
more  than   one   hundred   thousand. 

During  its  golden  age  under  the  Sassanian  Em- 
pire, Zoroastrian  ism  was  not  tree  from  sects,  or 
from  heretical  movements.  The  heresy  of  Ma7dak 
shook  for  a  moment  the  union  of  church  and 
state ;  the  powerful  movement  of  Manichxism 
is  familiar  to  every  student  of  philosophy. 

When  we  now  come  to  examine  the  teachings 
of  the  Avesta,  we  are  struck  by  their  exalted 
character.  If  we  except  our  own  Bible,  it  would 
not  be  easy  to  find  other  sacred  writings  con- 
taining a  more  clear  idea  of  right  and  wrong,  a 
more  strenuous  insistence  on  purity  of  body  and 
soul,  a  nobler  conception  of  a  resurrection  and 
a  life  hereafter,  and  a  firmer  faith  in  the  com- 
ing of  a  Savior.  For  these  reasons  the  Zoro- 
astrian writings  merit  the  attention,  not  only  of 
the  biblical  or  philological  student,  but  also  qf 
everyone  interested  in  the  history  of  ethics  and 
of   religion. 

In  the  development  of  the  old  Iranian  faith, 
three  stages  are  discernible.  First,  there  was  the 
pre- Zoroastrian  stage,  when  nature  and  ancestor 
worship  prevailed.  The  worship  of  the  sun-pod 
Mithro,  the  moon-god  Mah,  the  star-god  Tish- 
trya,  of  the  sacred  Haoma-plant,and  probably  also 
the  worship  of  the  Fravashis,  or  souls  of  the  de- 
parted, goes  back  to  this  stage.  Then  came  the 
second  or  Zoroastrian  stage,  when  these  elements 
were  thrown  into  the  background,  and  the  faith 
became  more  spiritual,  especially  through  the 
ideal  conception  of  Dualism.  The  third  or  post- 
Zoroastrian  stage  exhibited  a  tendency  to  restore 
some  of  those  primitive  elements  to  their  old  po- 
sition without  degrading  the  new  ones  brought 
in  by  the  great  reformer.  The  Avesta  shows 
these  stages  clearly,  the  faith  in  its  purity  Being 
best  represented  by  the  Gathas,  of  which  Zoro- 
aster himself  was  the  author. 

(2)  DoallBm — Angela  and  Aemons.  From 
the  beginning  of  time  two  principles,  good  and 


PERSIAN  RELIGION,  ANCIENT  13! 

evil,  have  existed.  Ormazd  represents  the  good, 
Ahriman  the  evil.  Unceasing  warfare  goes  on 
between  these  two  principles,  Ormasd  makes, 
Ahriman  mars ;  the  one  dwells  in  endless  light, 
the  other  in  eternal  darkness.  But  although  the 
teaching  of  Zoroaster  is  dualistic  in  this  respect, 
it  is  monotheistic  in  so  far  as  it  postulates  the  ul- 
timate triumph  of  the  good  and  the  disappear- 
ance of  evil  from  the  regenerated  world.  It  also 
foretells  the  advent  of  the  Kshathra  Vairya,  the 
"Wished-for  Kingdom,"  and  exhorts  man,  a  tree 
agent,  to  contribute  to  its  coming  by  deliberately 
choosing  the  good  in  preference  to  the  evil. 

At  the  head  of  all  the  celestial  host  stands 
Ahura  Masda.  The  formof  the  name  here  given  is 
that  of  the  Avesia.  In  modern  Persian  it  appears 
as  Ormasd,  in  the  ancient  Persian  inscriptions 
as  Auramasda,  in  Pahlavi  as  Auharmazd.  Ahura 
probably  means  "lord,"  and  Mazda,  Ski.  Med- 
has  [compare  Greek  root  fw^,  according  to  Pah- 
lavi   tradition,  means  "great   wisdom." 

Herodotus  tells  us  that  the  Persians  had  no 
images  of  the  deity,  and  this  is  in  keeping  with 
the  spiritual  character  of  the  religion.  The  soli- 
tary picture  Auramazda  which  is  found  on  the 
rock-inscriptions  of  Behistan  is  really  not  Iranian, 
but  is  borrowed  from  Babylonian  art.  In  the 
"  Arda-I  Viraf,"  the  "  Divina  Commedia "  of 
Iran,  Ormasd  is  described  as  appearing  in  the 
majesty  of  flame,  but  no  deflnile  concrete  descrip- 
tion of  him  is  ever  allempted. 


Imste  at  AuruDaidB. 

Ahara  Mazda  is  invested  with  lofty  titles  and 
attributes.  Wisdom  and  power  are  incited  in  his 
name;  he  is  described  also  as  promoting  growth 
and  progress,  as  beneficent  and  holy,  as  radiant, 
glorious  and  righteous,  most  great,  most  good  and 
most  fair.  He  is  the  keeper  or  guardian,  watch- 
ful, infallible,  all  knowing.  His  most  prominent 
title  in  (he  Avesta  is  dalar,  "creator."  All  the 
good  in  the  world  has  been  created  by  him ;  it  is 
he  also  who  created  the  light,  the  earth  and  the 
plants.  Ormazd's  creation  is  preeminently  an 
intelligent  one,  and  his  creative  wisdom  is  per- 
sonified as  Khraiti,  "Wisdom."  Nor  is  it  in  the 
Avesta  alone  that  the  creator  idea  is  emphasized. 
In  the  ancient  Persian  inscriptions  thekings  thank- 
fully acknowledge  Auramasda  as  their  Creator 
and  Preserver.  All  through  the  Pahlavi  writings 
we  meet  with  the  epithet  dalar,  and  passages  from 
the  Greek  authors  may  be  adduced  in  confirma- 
tion of  the  creator-idea. 

In  many  respects  Ahura  Masda  offers  striking 
parallels  to  the  God  of  Judaism  and  Christianity. 
In  one  point,  however,  there  is  a  great  differ- 
ence: Jehovah  is  omniootent.  hut  Ormasd  is  op- 
posed and  limited  in  his  activity  by  Akriman. 

An  elaborately  developed  .system  of  angelology 
is  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the  faith. 


PERSIAN  RELIGION,  ANCIENT 


The  immediate  ministers  of  Ahura  Maeda  are  the 
Amesha  Spenlas,  "Immortal  Holy  Ones"  (the 
Persian  Atnshashpandi) ,  corresponding  most 
nearly  to  our  archangels.  Of  these  there  are  six, 
and  their  names  are  personifications  of  abstract 
virtues.  They  are:  (i)  fohu  Manak,  "Good 
Mind,"  Ahura  Mazda' i  good  spirit  personified, 
and  the  mediator  between  him  and  man;  (2) 
Asha  Vahishta,  "Best  Righteousness,"  a  person- 
ification of  order  in  the  world;  (3)  Khshalhra 
Vairya,  "the  Wished-for  Kingdom,"  represents 
the  "Good  Kingdom;"  (4)  Spenta  Armaiti,"'Ro\y 
Harmony,"  represents  peace  and  concord  among 
men ;  (5)  Haurvatat,  "Wholeness,"  and  (6) 
Ameretat,  "Immortality,"  are  invariably  men- 
tioned together. 

In  addition  to  these  we  must  also  mention 
Sraosha,  "Obedience,"  although  he  is  not  reck- 
oned among  the  Amesha  Spenlas  proper.  He  is 
the  special  foe  of  the  daevas  and  drujes,  a  sort  of 
Iranian  St.  Michael. 

Besides  the  Amesha  Spenlas  the  Avesta  men- 
tions some  minor  divinities,  ordinary  angels,  such 
as  the  Yazatas,  "Worshipful  Ones."  The  most 
important  of  these  are  Milhra,  the  Angel  of  Light, 
and  Rashnu,  the  Angel  of  justice.  These  two, 
together  with  Sraosha,  judge  the  soul  immedi- 
ately after  death.  The  other  deities  are  merely 
abstractions,  such  as  Arshtat,  "Truthfulness;" 
Parendi,  "Riches;"  Ashi,  "Rectitude;"  Vere- 
thraghna,  "Victory ;"  Hvar,  "Sun ;"  Mak, 
"Moon;"  Tishlrya,  "Star;"  and  Atar,  "Fire." 

At  the  head  of  the  demons  stands  Aagra 
Mainyu  or  Ahriman.  He  is  a  distinctively  Zoro- 
astrian  conception,  but  his  name  does  not  occur 
in  the  old  Persian  inscriptions.  The  etymology 
of  the  name  is  somewhat  obscure,  mainyu  means 
"spirit;"  angra  probably  means  "hostile,"  He  is 
the  inveterate  opponent  of  Ahura  Masda  and  of 
his  creation.  His  most  frequent  epithets  are 
such  as  pourumahrka,  "full  of  death,"  and  dush- 
dao,  "evil-knowing,  malign,"  He  is  the  seed  of 
darkness,  and  he  dwells  in  infinite  night.  In  con- 
trast to  the  omniscience  of  Ormasd  we  have  the 
ignorance  of  Ahriman.  He  knows  what  was  and 
what  is,  but  he  does  not  know  what  will  be.  He 
is  coeval  with  Ormazd,  but  not  coeternal ;  with 
the  advent  of  the  "Good  Kingdom,"  he  will  be 
banished  from  the  world. 

To  carry  out  consistently  the  duaJistic  idea  each 
Amashspand  has  for  an  opponent  some  Arch- 
Fiend.  So  we  find  also  seven  of  these  fiends:  (l) 
Aka  Manah,  "Evil  Mind,"  is  the  antagonist  of 
Vohu  Manah;  (2)  Andra,  probably  not  identical 
with  the  Vedic  Indra,  has  no  Special  attributes; 
(3)  Saurva,  rather  indistinct,  is  explained  as  the 
demon  of  misrule  and  of  headache;  (4)  Taro- 
maiti,  "Presumption,"  is  opposed  to  Aramaiti; 
(S  and  6)  Tauru  and  Zairka  are  opposed  to 
Haurvatat  and  Ameretat.  They  are  the  demons 
respectively  of  fever  and  thirst,  and  of  drought. 
Lastly,  there  is  Aeshma,  "Wrath,"  the  biblical 
Asmodeus,  who  is  the  special  foe  of  Sraosha. 

Below  these  Arch-Fiends  stand  the  Daevas,  of 
whom  we  mention  Buili,  the  tempter;  Kunda, 
drunkenness;  Aslovidhotu,  bone-divider — death; 
Driu/i,  poverty;  Zemaka,  winter;  and  Apaosha, 
drought. 

Next  to  the  daevas  stand  the  drujes,  for  the 
most  part  subordinate  female  demons,  such  as 
Nasu,  demon  of  corpses ;  Jahi,  demon  of  lust ;  the 
long-handed  yellow  Bushyvansta,  who  puts  men  to 
sleep;  Agha  Doitkra,  evil  eye,  and  others. 

In  addition  to  the  daevas  and  drujes  there  are 
also  pairikas,  fairies;  jainis  (jinns?);  and  yatus, 
sorcerers :  and  lastly,  three  evil  monsters,  AmM 


PERSIAN  RELIGION,  ANCIENT  18 

Dahaka,  a  dragon ;  Sruvara,  a  dragon ;  and  Catt- 
darewa,  an  evil  being  of  indefinite  description. 

(3)  EtMcB  and  EscbatologT'.  Uniilce  Bud- 
dhism, of  which  the  highest  ideal  is  qiiielistn,  Zo- 
roastrianism  is  a  religion  of  strangle  and  exer- 
tion. Its  leading  article  of  ffltth  is  the  doctrine 
of  free  will  and  moral  responsibility.  Man  is 
free  to  choose  either  the  good  or  the  evil,  but  he 
should  choose  the  former.  Every  good  action  in- 
creases the  power  of  Good,  every  evil  action  the 
power  of  Evil.  At  the  final  judgment,  man  must 
give  an  account  of  himself,  and  eternal  happi. 
ness  is  the  reward  of  the  righteous,  while  eternal 
punishment  awaits  the  wicked.  Purity  of  body 
and  soul  is  enjoined  on  all,  as  are  also  upright- 
ness, charity,  generosity  and,  with  particular  em- 
phasis, truthfulness.  The  moral  teachings  of  the 
prophet  may  be  summed  up  in  the  oft-recurring 
triad,  "humala,  kukhta,  hvarihta,"  "good 
thoughts,  good  words,  good  deeds."  Some  phy- 
sical duties  are  also  imposed.  Thus  the  youth 
are  exhorted  to  take  outdoor  exercise;  chastity 
and  soberness  are  insisted  upon,  although  the  ex- 
istence of  polygamy  and  concubinage,  in  antiq- 
uity, cannot  be  denied.  Asceticism,  as  it  was 
practiced  by  the  Brahmans  of  India,  has  no  place 
in  the  Persian  religion,  which  does  not  oppose  a 
wholesome  indulgence  in  the  joys  of  life.  Pa- 
triotism was  cultivated,  and  respect  for  civil  and 
religious  authority  was  inculcated.  In  general,  the 
ethical  code  of  Zoroastrianism  does  not  differ 
very  much  from  our  own.  (See  article  in  Inter- 
national Journal  of  Ethics,  October,  1896.} 


PERSIAN  RELIGION.  ANCIENT 


dead  bodies 


;  placed  to  be  devoured  by  vul- 


Combat  Between  King  Bi 


Great  stress  was  laid  on  prescriptions  designed 
to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  elements,  earth, 
water,  fire.  Dead  matter  was  not  allowed  to 
come  into  contact  with  these :  hence  arose  those 
peculiar  funeral  rites  that  characterize  ParsJsm 
even  at  the  present  day.  Special  structures,  the 
"towers  of  silence,"  were  erected,  on  which  the 


Lastly,  agriculture  was  strongly  supported,  the 
Avesia  giving  special  praise  to  those  that  prac- 
ticed the  good  deeds  of  husbandry. 

But  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  correct  estimate  of 
the  ethical  side  of  the  faith,  we  must  also  men- 
tion some  of  its  evil  features.  Of  these  the  most 
repulsive  to  us  is  the  hvaetvadaika  or  next-of- 
kin  marriage,  the  occurrence  of  which  among  the 
ancient  Iranians  is  undeniable.  Unpleasant  cus- 
toms, originating  in  stupid  superstitions,  were 
likewise  prevalent,  while  the  ancient  Persian  in- 
scriptions tell  of  horrible  punishments  inflicted  on 
rebels  and  traitors. 

It  is  in  its  doctrine  of  a  resurrection,  and  in 
its  views  of  a  life  hereafter,  that  Zoroastrianism 
appears  in  its  best  light.  Only  an  outline  of  the 
rematkable  doctrines  bearing  on  this  subject  can 
here  be  presented. 

Immediately  after  death  the  soul  is  brought 
for  individual  judgment  before  the  angels.  Mi  (Am, 
Sraosha  and  Rashnti.  Its  good  and  evil  deeds 
are  weighed  in  the  balance,  and  the  turn  of  the 
impartial  scales  irrevocably  decides  its  fate.  Then 
this  soul  must  cross  the  Chin  vat  Bridge,  which 
becomes  broad  for  the  good  spirit,  but  narrow  for 
the  evil  one.  Onward  the  good  spirit  passes 
through  the  regions  of  the  stars  (paradise  01  good 
thoughts),  of  the  moon  (paradise  of  good  words), 
and  of  the  sun  (paradise  of  good  deeds),  and  at 
last  enters  ffarrfn/nona," House  of  Song,"the  place 
of  "Eternal  Light."  On  the  other  hand,  the 
wicked  spirit  descends  through  the  grades  of  evil 
thoughts,  evil  words  and  evil  deeds,  down  to  a 
hell  of  darkness.  A  third  place,  Homislakdn 
"Ever  Stationary,"  an  Iranian  purgatory,  is  also 
recognized.  Thither  go  the  souls  of  those  whose 
good  and  evil  deeds  counterbalance.  They  suffer 
no  distress  except  the  changes  of  heat  and  cold, 
and  there  they  abide  until  the  day  of  doom. 

In  the  Avesia  and  the  Pahlavi  Texts  the  doc- 
trine of  a  resurrection  of  the  dead,  a  regenera- 
tion of  the  world,  and  of  the  coming  of  a  savior 
is  distinctly  recognized.  According  to  tradition 
the  world  is  to  last  12,000  years,  and  in  the  last 
3,000  years  of  this  aeon  Aushetor  and  Aushetor- 
mah,  born  from  the  seed  of  Zoroaster,  will  appear 
as  the  forerunners  of  the  great  SaoihyanI  or  sa- 
vior, who  is  to  preside  at  the  general  resurrec- 
tion. This  Savior  will  be  conceived  in  a  super- 
natural manner  by  a  virgin  bathing  in  Lake  Kan- 
savaya.  Coincident  with  his  advent  is  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead,  when  each  soul  assumes  again 
its  body  and  recognizes  relatives  and  friends.  All 
the  dead  are  assembled  and  the  righteous  are  sep- 
arated from  the  unrighteous.  Then  follows  the 
ordeal  of  molten  metal,  which  cleanses  and  puri- 
fies all  men  and  prepares  them  for  the  everlast- 
ing joys  of  heaven. 

The  last  great  conflict  is  at  hand.  The  powersof 
evil  gather  into  a  mighty  host  and  assail  the  good 
kingdom,  and  after  a  terrible  battle  the  Good  tri' 
umphs  and  Evil  is  banished  from  the  world.  The 
dragon  Ashi  perishes  in  the  molten  metal,  hell  is 
brought  back  by  Ormazd  to  enlarge  the  world, 
which  is  now  made  immortal,  and  all  men  with 
one  voice  sing  the  praise  of  Orntasd,  through 
whom  the  wicked  are  rescued  from  hell  and  the 
creation  is  restored  to  purity. 

This  article  is  based  on  a  course  of  lectures  on 
Zoroaster  and  his  Teaching,  delivered  at  Colum- 
bia University  in  the  year  1896-97  by  Professor 
A.  V.  Williams  Jackson. 

A.  F.  J.  R. 


PERSIS 


1318 


PETER 


FEBSIS  (per-sis),  (Gr.  U€p<rlt,  per-sece),  a 
Christian  woman  at  Rome,  to  whom  St.  Paul  sends 
greetings  (Rom.  xvi:i2),  A.  D.  55.  Paul  com- 
mends her  for  her  diligence  in  a  certain  work. 

PEBSON  (per's'n).  A  self-determining  intel- 
ligence possessed  of  understanding  and  will,  as 
contrasted  with  thing.  One  who  can  propose  his 
own  aims  and  he  his  own  aim,  and  is  responsible 
for  his  acts.    God  is  therefore  a  person. 

PEBSOKALITY  (per's'n-ait-ty). 

(1)  Regarding  the  personality  of  God  we  affirm 
that  he  is  the  one  eternal,  self-conscious  Being, 
and  not  merely  substance  or  principle. 

(2)  Some  have  objected  to  the  term  persons  as 
applied  to  the  Trinity,  as  unwarrantable.  The 
term  person,  when  applied  to  Deity,  is  certainly 
used  m  a  sense  somewhat  different  from  that  in 
which  we  apply  it  to  one  another;  but  when  it  is 
considered  that  the  Greek  words  (*Tiro<rT<i<rtf,  hy- 
postasis, and  TLpbffbnrovt  prosohpotit  to  which  it 
answers,  are,  in  the  New  Testament,  applied  to  the 
Father  and  Son  (Heb.  i:3;  2  Cor.  iv:6),  and  that  no 
single  term,  at  least,  can  be  found  more  suitable, 
it  can  hardly  be  condemned  as  unscriptural  and 
improper.  There  have  been  warm  debates  be- 
tween the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  about  the 
words  hypostasis  and  persona;  the  Latin  conclud- 
ing that  the  word  hypostasis  signified  substance  or 
essence,  thought  that  to  assert  that  there  were 
three  divine  hypostases  was  to  say  that  there  were 
three  gods.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Greek  church 
thought  that  the  word  person  did  not  sufficiently 
guard  against  the  Sabellian  notion  of  the  same  in- 
dividual Being  sustaining  three  relations;  where- 
upon each  part  of  the  church  was  ready  to  brand 
the  other  with  heresy,  till  by  a  free  arid  mutual 
conference  in  a  synod  at  Alexandria  (A.  D.  362), 
they  made  it  appear  that  it  was  but  a  mere  con- 
tention about  the  grammatical  sense  of  a  word; 
and  then  it  was  allowed  by  men  of  temper  on  both 
sides,  that  either  of  the  two  words  might  be  in- 
differently used.    (See  Trinity;  Image  of  (jod.) 

Buck. 

PEBT7DA  (pe-ru'da),  (Heb.  ^T^"^,  per-oo-daw*, 

kernel),  a  servant  of  Solomon  whose  descendants 
returned  from  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii  :55 ;  Neh.  vii  157), 
B.  C.  before  536. 

PESTILENCE  (pfis'tl-Urns),  (Heb.  "^3?,  deh'ber, 
plague  or  pestilence). 

The  terms  pestilence  and  plague  are  used  with 
much  laxity  in  our  Authorized  Version.  The  lat- 
ter, however,  which  generally  represents  the  He- 
brew word  is  by  far  the  wider  term,  as  we  read 
of  'plagues  of  leprosy,'  *of  hail,*  and  of  many 
other  visitations.  Pestilence  is  employed  to  de- 
note a  deadly  epidemic,  and  is  the  word  by  which 
deh*her,  "^Sjjt  (Sept.  ihan'ah-tos,  Bdvarot,  death,  and 

occasionally  loy-mos,  Xot/u^t),  plaf[ue  is  translated. 
In  our  time,  however,  both  these  terms  are  nearly 
synonymous;  but //fj^^  is,  by  medical  writers  at 
least,  restricted  to  mean  the  glandular  plague  of 
the  East.  There  is  indeed  no  description  of 
any  pestilence  in  the  Bible,  which  would  enable 
us  to  form  an  adequate  idea  of  its  specific 
character.^  Severe  epidemics  are  the  common 
accompaniments  of  aense  crowding  in  cities, 
and  ot  famine;  and  we  accordingly  often  find 
them  mentioned  in  connection  (Lev.  xxvi:25; 
Jer.  xiv:i2;  xxix:i8;  Matt.  xxiv:7;  Luke  xxi: 
II).  But  there  is  no  better  argument  for  be- 
lieving that  'pestilence'  in  these  mstances  means 
the  glandular  plague,  than  the  fact  of  its  being 
at  present  a  prevalent  epidemic  of  the  East.  It  is 
also  remarkable  that  the  Mosaic  law,  which  con- 


tains such  strict  rules  for  the  seclusion  of  lepers, 
should  have  allowed  a  disease  to  pass  unnoticed, 
which  is  above  all  others  the  most  deadly,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  the  most  easily  checked  by 
sanitary  regulations  of  the  same  kind.  The  de- 
struction of  Sennacherib's  army  (2  Kings  xix: 
35 )  has  also  been  ascribed  to  the  plague.  (Heck- 
er's  Hist,  of  the  Epidemics  of  the  Middle  Ages; 
Dr.  Brown,  art.  Tlague,'  in  Cyclop,  of  Pract. 
Med,;  Dr.  Russell,  Hist,  of  Aleppo.)    W.  A.  N. 

PBSTLE  (p€s'l),  (Heb.  '^^y,  el-ee',  lifted)  (Prov. 

xxvii.'22),  an  instrument  used  for  grinding  in  a 
mortar. 

PETEB  (pe'ter),  (Gr.  Il^pof,  pefros,  a  rock), 
originally  Simeon  or  Simon. 

!•  ffame  and  Family.  He  was  a  native  of  Beth- 
saida,  in  Galilee,  and  was  )  son  of  a  certain 
Jonas,  or  John;  whence  he  ts  named  on  one  oc- 
casion in  the  Gospel  history  Simon  Barjona,  that 
is,  son  of  Jona  (Matt.  xvi:i7). 

2.  Personal  Histors*  Along  with  his  brother 
Andrew,  he  followed  the  occupation  of  a  fisher- 
man on  the  sea  of  Galilee.  It  is  probable  that, 
before  they  became  known  to  Christ,  they  were 
both  disciples  of  John  the  Baptist.  That  Andrew 
was  such  we  are  expressly  informed  by  the 
Evangelist  John;  and  as  his  brother  seems  to 
have  been  much  of  the  same  mind  with  him  on 
religious  matters,  it  is  extremely  likely  that  he 
was  so  likewise.  Their  becoming  known  to  Christ 
was  owing  to  John's  pointing  him  out  on  the 
da^  after  his  baptism  to  Andrew  and  another 
disciple  (probably  the  evangelist  John),  as  'the 
Lamb  of  (jod;'  on  which  they  immediately  fol- 
lowed Christ,  and  spent  some  time  in  receiving 
his  instructions. 

(1)  Meets  Jesus.  Shortly  after  this,  Andrew 
finding  Simon,  carried  him  to  Christ,  who,  on 
receiving  him  as  his  disciple,  bestowed  upon  him 
that  surname  by  which  he  has  since  that  time 
been  most  commonly  designated:  'When  Jesus 
beheld  him  he  said.  Thou  art  Simon  the  son  of 
Jona;  thou  shalt  be  called  Cephas,  which  is  by 
interpretation  a  stone,  pet' ros  (xirpos), 

(2)  The  Call.  After  this  interview  the  two 
brothers  seem  to  have  returned  to  their  usual 
occupation  for  a  season,  as  we  have  an  account 
in  Matthew  (iv:  18-20)  of  their  being  summoned 
from  that  occupation  by  Christ  on  a  subsequent 
occasion,  posterior  to  his  temptation  in  the  wil- 
derness, and  to  the  commencement  of  his  public 
ministry  as  a  religious  teacher.  From  this  time 
forward  they  were  his  devoted  and  admiring  fol- 
lowers. In  the  course  of  the  evangelical  history 
several  anecdotes  of  Peter  are  incidentally  re- 
corded, for  the  purpose,  doubtless,  principally  of 
illustrating  the  character  and  teaching  of  our 
Lord,  but  which  tend  also  to  throw  light  upon 
the  history  and  character  of  his  attached  disciple. 

(3)  Chief  Incidents  in  the  Gospels.  Such  are 
the  accounts  furnished  by  the  Evangelists  of  his 
walking  upon  the  agitated  waters  of  the  sea  of 
Galileetomeethis  master  (Matt.  xiv:22,  sq.;  Mark 
vi:45,  sq.)  ;  of  his  bold  and  intelligent  avowals  of 
the  undoubted  Messiahship  of  Jesus,  notwith- 
standing the  difficulties  which  he,  along  with  the 
rest  of  the  disciples,  felt  in  reconciling  what  they 
saw  in  him  with  what  they  had  fondly  expected 
the  Christ  to  be  (Matt,  xvi  113-20)  ;  of  his  rash 
but  affectionate  rebuke  of  his  Lord  for  speaking 
of  suffering  and  death  as  in  prospect  for  him,  and 
as  forming  a  necessary  part  of  his  mediatorial 
work  (Matt,  xvi  121-23);  of  his  conduct  in  first 
rejecting,  with  an  earnestness  bordering  on  hor- 


PETER 


1319 


PETER 


ror,  the  offer  of  Christ  to  wash  his  feet,  and 
then,  when  the  symbolical  nature  of  that  act  had 
Wen  explained  to  him,  his  over-ardent  zeal  that 
not  his  feet  only,  but  also  his  hands  and  his 
head,  might  be  washed  (John  xiii:9,  sq.)  ;  his 
bold  and  somewhat  vaunting  avowal  of  attach- 
ment to  his  Master,  and  his  determination  never 
to  forsake  him,  followed  by  his  disgraceful  de- 
nial of  Jesus  in  the  hour  of  trial  (John  xiii:36, 
37;  Mark  xiv:29,  etc.);  of  his  deep  and  poign- 
ant contrition  for  this  sin  (Matt.  xxvi:75);  and 
of  his  Lord's  ample  forgiveness  for  his  offense, 
after  he  had  received  from  him  a  profession  of 
attachment  as  strong  and  as  frequently  repeated 
as  his  former  denial  of  him  (John  xxi:i5-i8). 
These  are  all  indicative  of  his  impulsive  nature. 

(4)  Subsequent  History.  In  the  subsequent 
Scripture  history  he  is  presented  to  us  as  the 
courageous  herald  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  by 
whose  mouth  the  first  public  declaration  of  salva- 
tion through  the  crucified  Jesus  was  made  to  the 
people;  by  whose  advice  and  counsel  the  early 
churches  were  planted  and  governed ;  and  by 
whom  the  prejudices  of  Judaism  were  first  fairly 
surmounted,  and  the  Gospel  preached  in  all  its 
universal  freeness  to  the  Gentile  world. 

The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  contain  recitals  of 
many  interesting  incidents  which  befell  him  whilst 
engaged  in  those  efforts.  Of  these,  the  chief  are 
his  imprisonment  and  trial  before  the  Sanhedrim 
for  preaching  Christ,  and  his  bold  avowal  of  his 
determination  to  persist  in  that  work  (Acts  iv: 
1-22)  ;  his  miraculously  inflicting  the  punishment 
of  death  on  the  infatuated  couple  who  had  dared 
to  try  an  experiment  upon  the  omniscience  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  (v:i-ii);  his  visit  to  Samaria,  and 
rebuke  of  Simon  Magus,  who  deemed  that  the 
miracles  of  the  apostle  were  the  result  of  some 
deep  magic  spell  of  which  he  had  not  yet  become 
possessed,  and  which,  consequently,  he  was  de- 
sirous of  purchasing  from  Peter  (viii -.14-24)  ; 
the  vision  by  which  he  was  taught  that  the  an- 
cient ritual  distinctions  between  clean  and  un- 
clean had  been  abolished,  and  thereby  prepared  to 
attend  on  the  summons  of  Cornelius,  to  whom 
he  preached  the  Gospel  (x:i-48);  his  apprehen- 
sion by  Herod  Agrippa,  and  his  deliverance  by  the 
interposition  of  an  angel,  who  opened  for  him  the 
doors  of  his  prison,  and  set  him  free  (xii:3-i9)  ; 
and  his  address  to  the  council  at  Jerusalem,  on 
the  occasion  of  a  request  for  advice  and  direction 
being  sent  to  the  church  there  by  the  church  in 
Antioch,  in  which  he  advocated  the  exemption  of 
Gentile  converts  from  the  ceremonial  institutes  of 
the  law  of  Moses  (xv:6-ii). 

In  all  these  incidents  we  trace  the  evidences  of 
his  mind  having  undergone  an  entire  change,  both 
as  to  its  views  of  truth  and  impressions  of  duty, 
from  what  is  displayed  by  the  earlier  events  of 
his  history. 

On  one  occasion  only  do  we  detect  something 
of  his  former  weakness,  and  that,  strangely  enough 
in  regard  to  a  matter  in  which  he  had  been  the 
first  of  the  apostles  to  perceive,  and  the  first  to 
recommend  and  follow,  a  correct  course  of  pro- 
cedure. The  occasion  referred  to  was  his  with- 
drawing, through  dread  of  the  censures  of  his 
Jewish  brethren,  from  the  Gentiles  at  Antioch, 
after  having  lived  in  frtee  and  friendly  intercourse 
with  them,  and  his  timidly  dissembling  his  con- 
victions as  to  the  religious  equality  of  Jew  and 
Gentile.  For  this  Paul  withstood  him  to  the  face, 
and  rebuked  him  sharply,  because  of  the  injury 
which  his  conduct  was  calculated  to  produce  to 
the  cause  of  Christianity.    With  this  single  ex- 


ception, however,  his  conduct  seems  to  have  been 
in  full  accordance  with  the  name  which  his  Mas- 
ter had  prophetically  bestowed  on  him  when  he 
called  him  Simon  the  Rock,  and  with  the  position 
which  Paul  himself  assigns  to  him,  at  the  very 
time  that  he  recounts  his  temporary  dereliction, 
as  one  of  *the  Pillars  of  the  Church'  (Gal.  ii:a 

14). 

Thus  far  we  are  enabled,  from  the  inspired 
documents,  to  trace  the  history  of  this  apostle; 
but  for  what  remains  we  must  be  indebted  to  evi- 
dence of  a  less  explicit  and  certain  character. 

(5)  Traditions.  Ecclesiastical  tradition  asserts 
that  he  performed  an  extensive  missionary  tour 
throughout  those  districts  in  which  the  converts 
to  whom  his  epistles  are  addressed  abode.  *Peter,' 
says  Origen,  'appears  to  have  preached  to  the  Jews 
in  the  dispersion,  in  Pontus,  Galatia,  Bithynia, 
Cappadocia,  and  Asia'  {In  Genesim,  tom.  iii; 
Euseb.  Hist.  Eccles.  iii,  i,  4).  This  tradition, 
however,  though  deriving  some  countenance  from 
I  Pet.  v:i3,  is  very  uncertain.  The  fact  that  no 
allusion  appears  in  his  epistles  to.  any  personal  ac- 
quaintance on  the  part  of  the  apostle  with  those 
to  whom  they  are  addressed,  militates  strongly 
against  its  authenticity.  Another  tradition  re- 
ports the  apostle  as  having  towards  the  close  of 
his  life  visited  Rome,  become  bishop  of  the 
church  in  that  city,  and  suffered  martyrdom  in 
the  persecution  raised  against  the  Christians  by 
Nero.  The  importance  of  these  points  in  con- 
nection with  the  claims  urged  by  the  Catholics  on 
behalf  of  the  supremacy  of  the  pope  has  led  to  a 
careful  and  sifting  examination  of  the  accuracy 
of  this  tradition ;  the  result  of  which  seems  to  be 
that,  while  it  is  admitted  as  certain  that  Peter 
suffered  martyrdom,  in  all  probability  by  cruci- 
fixion (Tertuflian,  De  Prcescript.,  38;  Lactantius, 
De  Mortibus  Persecutorium,  c.  ii),  and  as  prob- 
able  that  this  took  place  at  Rome,  it  has,  never- 
theless, been  made  pretty  clear  that  he  never  waa 
for  any  length  of  time  resident  in  that  city,  and 
morally  certain  that  he  never  was  bishop  of  the 
church  there.  (See  Peter  in  Rome.)  (Barrow, 
On  the  Pope^s  Supremacy,  Works,  vii,  207,  sq., 
Lond.  1831 ;  Ca,y e*s  Life  of  St.  Peter,  sec.  11; 
Campbell,  Eccles.  Hist.  lect.  xii ;  Neander.) 

3.  Character.  He  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of 
undoubted  piety,  of  ardent  attachment  to  his  Mas- 
ter, and  of  great  zeal  for  what  he  deemed  his  Mas- 
ter's honor;  but,  at  the  same  time,  with  a  mind 
rather  quick  than  accurate  in  its  apprehensions, 
and  with  feelings  rather  hasty  in  their  impulse  than 
determined  and  continuous  in  their  exercise. 
Hence  his  readiness  in  avowing  his  opinons,  and 
his  rashness  in  forming  them;  and  hence  also  the 
tendency  which  beset  his  honest  openness  to  de- 
generate into  bravado,  and  his  determinations  of 
valor  to  evaporate  into  cowardice  at  appalling 
forms  of  danger.  His  fall,  however,  and  his  sub- 
sequent restoration,  connected  as  these  were  with 
the  mysterious  events  of  his  Master's  crucifixion 
and  resurrection,  and  with  the  new  light  which 
had  by  them  been  cast  around  his  character  and 
work,  produced  a  powerful  change  for  the  better 
upon  the  apostle's  mind.  From  this  time  for- 
ward he  comes  before  us  under  a  new  aspect. 
A  sober  dignity  and  firmness  of  purpose  have  dis- 
placed his  former  hasty  zeal;  sagacity  and  pru- 
dence characterize  his  conduct;  and  whilst  his 
love  to  his  Master  shows  no  symptom  of  abate- 
ment, it  displays  itself  rather  in  active  labor  and 
much-enduring  patience  in  his  service,  than  in 
loud  protestations  or  extravagant  exhibitions  of 
attachment. 


PETER  IN  ROME  13 

FETEB  IN  BOHE. 

(1)  &0II1&I1  Catholic  To&ch.iiis.  The  teaching 

of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  is  as  follows:  "If 
any  one  should  deny  that  it  is  by  the  institution 
of  Christ,  the  Lord,  or  by  Divine  Right,  that 
blessed  Peter  should  have  a  perpetual  line  of  suc- 
cessors in  the  primacy  over  the  Universal  Church, 
or  that  the  Roman  Pontiff  is  the  successor  of 
blessed  Peter  in  the  Primacy,  let  him  be  anathe- 
ma I" 


imbs  of  Roma.) 

Decree  of  Vatican  Council,  1870:  "He  that 
acknowledgeth  not  himself  to  be  under  the  Bishop 
of  Rome,  and  that  the  Bishop  of  Rome  is  or- 
dained of  God  to  have  Primacy  over  all  the  world, 
is  a  heretic  and  cannot  be  saved,  nor  is  of  the 
flock  of  Christ." 

CatKH  Law  Church  of  Rome, 

Creed  of  Pope  Pius  IV,  1564 :  "I  acknowledge 
the  holy  catholic.  Apostolic,  Roman  Church,  for 
the  mother  and  mistress  of  all  Churches  and  I 
promise  true  obedience  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome 
—successor  to  St.  Peter,  Prince  of  the  Apostles, 
and  vicar  of  Jesus  Christ." 

Caleckismus  Romaniu  11,  VII,  XVII:  "The 
Roman  Bishop  .  .  .  occupying  as  he  does  the 
chair  of  St.  Peter,  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles, 
who  most  assuredly  himself  occu{>ied  it  till  his 
death,  is,  in  it,  entitled  to  the  highest  honors, 
the  most  unbounded  jurisdiction,  as  having  been 
conferred  on  him,  not  by  the  decrees  of  any  coun- 
cil or  any  other  human  authority,  but  by  God 
himself." 

Decree  of  Boniface  VIII  ed.  Gregory  XII, 
1648:  "There  are  one  Body,  one  Head  of  the 
one  and  sole  church,  viz,,  Christ  and  Christ's 
vicar,  Peter  and  the  successors  of  Peter  .  .  . 
Moreover  we  say,  determine  and  pronounce, 
that  every  human  creature  is  subject  to  the  Ro- 
man Pontiff,  as  of  absolute  necessity  to  salva- 

"After  the  death  of  St.  Peter,  the  Pope,  the 
Bishop  of  Rome,  has  always  been  taken  as  the 
visible  head  of  Christ's  church,  because  St.  Peter 
established  his  See  at  Rome  and  consecrated  it 
with  his  blood.'' 

Fom.  Ex.  Cath.  Doctrine,  p.  ii:,  1888. 

Imprimatur;  Cardinal  Gibbons :  "Whoever 
would  seek  salvation  must  adhere  to  this  unity; 
to  this  authority  of  St.  Peter  and  his  successors." 

Barras,  Gen.  Hist.  Cath.  Church,  i,  24.  Im- 
trimatur;  Archbishops  MeCloskey,  Spalding,  and 
Purcell. 

Cardinal  Perroul  in  the  year  1864  says :  "None 
but  an  apostate  Catholic  could  assert  that  Peter 
was  not  at  Rome ;  for  the  rea.5on  of  that  fact  is 
the  coming  of  St.  Peter  to  Rome,  and  the  seat 


30  PETER  IN  ROME 

there  established  by  him  is  connected  with  an 
article  of  our  faith — that  is,  the  Primacy  of  Order 
and  Justification  belonging  of  Divine  Right  to  the 
Roman  Pontiff.  Hence  it  follows  that  he  cannot 
be  a  Catholic  who  does  not  believe  in  the  coming 
to,  and  the  episcopate    and  death  of  St.  Peter 

The  whole  fabric  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  and  its  foundations  are  therefore  over- 
thrown unless  this  statement  concerning  St.  Peter 
at  Rome  can  be  established.  The  most  thorough 
investigation  of  noted  scholars  has  shown— that 
there  is  not  even  a  remote  tradition  (after  Pe- 
ter's death)  tor  the  first  century— to  prove  that 
he  was  ever  in  Rome.  In  fact  there  are  no  such 
assertions  until  after  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century,  in  any  document  of  authentic  note. 

(2)  Boman  Catholic  Admlealons.  Charles 
Du  Moulin,  the  great  ecclesiastical  lawyer  (A.  D. 
1566),  whom  Father  Calmet  speaks  of  as  a  itead- 
fasl  Roman  Catholic,  has  unequivocally  slated  it 
as  his  opinion  there  never  was  even  a  vague  tradi- 
tion among  the  ancients  about  Peter's  having  been 
in  Rome.  Du  Moulin  also  says;  "Even  when, 
after  the  breaking  up  of  the  empire,  the  Bishops 
of  Rome  began  to  extend  their  authority  over 
other  Churches,  they  never  alleged  or  put  forth 
this  story  of  Peter's  being  at  Rome;  the  story, 
I  suppose,  not  having  yet  been  invented."  Mis- 
sion and  Martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  (Vol.  iv.  p. 
460.) 

Father  Hardouin.  a  French  Jesuit  (A.  D.  1729), 
likewise  in  very  high  repute  in  Rome,  says :  "We 
Roman  Catholics  hold  that  at  least  Peter's  head 
was  brought  to  Rome  after  his  crucifixion,  and 
that  it  ought  to  be  worshiped  there ;  but  that  the 
Pope  is  Christ's  substitute  and  Peter's  successor  is 
clear  enough  without  our  being  bound  to  suppose 
that   Peter   himself  ever  came  to   Rome." 

De  Cormeniu,  a  Roman  Catholic,  Hist.  Popes, 
pp.  17,  18,  says  "There  is  no  proof  that  Peter's 
blood  was  shed  in  Rome.'' 

Ellendorf,  Roman  Catholic  professor  at  Berlin, 
Bib.  Sac,  Jan.  1859,  105,  says:  "Peter's  abode  at 
Rome  can  never  be  proved."  Frances  Turretin, 
Op.,  p.  144,  and  many  other  Roman  Catholicfl 
deny  the  visit  of  Peter  to  Rome. 

(3)  The  Verdict  of  Proteatant  Scholarship. 
George  Stanley  Faber,  among  England's  ablest 
wriler.s,  refers  to  the  learned  Scaliger  as  saying: 
"As  for  the  coming  of  Peter  to  Rome,  his  epis- 
copate of  twenty  years,  and  his  final  martyrdom, 
no  man  with  a  grain  of  common  sense  will  be- 
lieve a  single  syllable."  Facts  and  Assertions, 
etc.,  p.  58. 

Spanheim  and  Salmasius  also  deny  the  fact, 
F.  Turretin.  Op.  Hi,  148  Am.  ed. :  "That  Peter 
was  at  Rome  is  doubtful  and  uncertain:  it  is  far 
more  certain  that  he  never  saw  Rome." 

Ranke  also  in  Ref.  C,  II.  Chap.  3,  p.  472, 
says:  "Historical  criticism  has  shown  that  it  is 
a  matter  of  doubt  whether  the  Apostle  was  ever 
at  Rome  at  all." 

Lipsius,  a  great  German  critic,  asserts:  "The 
Roman  Peter  Legend  proves  itself  to  be  from 
beginning  to  end  a  fiction,  and  thus  our  critical 
judgment  is  confirmed.  The  feet  of  Peter  never 
trod  tht  Streets  of  Rome," 

Pres.  Quar.,  Apr.,  1876. 

(4)  VlewB  of  British  Scholars.  Taking  the 
Reformation  writers  we  have  Cranmer  and  Cover- 
dale,  Bishop  Hooper,  Bradford  and  Willet,  who 
argue  strongly  against  Peter's  ever  having  visited 

The  Orientalist,  Lightfoot,  denies  it. 


PETER  IN  ROME 


1321 


PETER,  THE  EPISTLES  OF 


John  Owen  asserts  his  belief  that  Peter  was 
never  in  Rome. 

Bishop  Bull  says:  "St.  Clement,  Bishop  of 
Rome  in  the  Apostolic  age,  speaking  of  the  labors 
of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  briefly  touches  on  the 
former,  but  dwells  on  praises  of  the  latter,  not  so 
much  as  mentioning  St.  Peter's  coming  to  Rome." 

J.  H.  Browne  in  Peter  the  Apostle  never  at 
Rome,  p.  45:  says:  ♦  ♦  ♦  "the  conclusion  of 
Bishop  Bull,  as  it  seems  to  me,  must  be  assented 
to,  and  the  testimony  accepted,  which  he  consid- 
ers must  be  drawn  from  the  silence  of  Clement  of 
Rome,  that  the  Apostle  Peter  was  never  in  that 
city." 

Of  modern  scholars  we  have  Adam  Qarke, 
who  asserts :  "I  am  of  the  opinion  that  St.  Pe- 
ter did  not  write  from  Rome — that  he  was  neither 
Bishop  of  Rome  nor  martyred  at  Rome — ^in  a 
word,  that  he  never  was  at  Rome." 

Dr.  Kitto  declares  in  his  Cyclopaedia:    "There 
is  no  sufficient  reason  for  believing  that  Peter 
was  ever  even  so  much  as  within  the  walls  of  • 
Rome." 

Dick  in  his  Theology  denies  it.  Hill,  Divinity, 
page  70,  calls  it  extremely  doubtful.  Robert  Hall 
writes  "That  Peter  was  ever  at  Rome,  we  have 
no  evidence  but  vague  uncertain  traditions." 

Bishop  Copleston  in  his  Errors  in  Romanism 
says:  "There  is  no  historical  evidence  of  the 
fact,  and  there  is  much  probability  against  it." 

Along  these  same  lines  in  denial,  the  following 
authors  are  found: 

Greenwood  in  Cathedra  Petri;  Edgar,  Var. 
Popery,  p.  68;  Timpson  Ch.  Hist.  p.  35;  Powell 
on  Succession,  p.  119;  Alex.  Bishop,  Two  Baby- 
Ions;  McGavin's  Protestant;  Arrowsmith,  Geog. 
Diet.  Scrip,;  J.  A.  Wylie,  The  Papacy,  p.  233. 

Littledale,  in  Plain  Reasons,  says:  "That  St. 
Peter  was  ever  at  Rome  at  all,  there  is  no  first 
hand  or  contemporaneous  testimony  to  the  opin- 
ion, whether  in  Scripture  or  elsewhere ;  whence  it 
is  clear  that  God  has  not  considered  it  important 
enough  to  be  certified  for  as  being  a  matter  of 
faith." 

Davidson, — Intr.  N.  T.  i,  142 :  says :  "The  con- 
nection of  Peter  with  Rome,  though  it  appears  in 
early  ecclesiastical  literature,  rests  on  an  msecure 
basis.  Distinguished  critics  reject  it,  not  without 
reason." 

Kennard  affirms,  Controv.  with  McLachlan,  p. 
49:  "I  boldly  and  advisedly  assert  there  is  no 
evidence  to  show  that  St.  Peter  was  ever  at 
Rome." 

Bagby's  Trav,  in  East,  p.  702;  Massey,  Secret, 
Hist.  Rome,  North  British  Review,  Nov.  1848; 
Blakie  in  Bible  History,  p.  418;  Encyc.  Brit.  Ar- 
ticle, Popedom. 

(5)  Views  of  American  Writers.  The  follow- 
ing authors  maintain  that  St.  Peter  was  never  in 
Rome:  Smyth,  Apostolical  Succes.,  p.  233:  C. 
Hodge,  Syst.  TheoL,  i.  132;  Elliot,  on  Romanism, 
\\.  223 ;  Bethune,  Lect.  Cat.,  ii.  350 ;  Jacobus,  Com., 
K\\.  17;  Hurst,  Short  Hist.  Early  Ch.,  p.  6; 
Strong,  Syst.  Theol.,  p.  507;  Dr.  N.  Murray  (Kir- 
ivan)  Let.  to  Bp.  Hughes,  57;  H.  C.  Vedder,  Bap. 
Quar.  Rev.  xi,  509;  R.  E.  Thompson,  Mag.  Christ. 
Literature,  Aug.,  1892. 

W.  M.  Taylor,  Life  of  Peter,  343;  Lansing, 
Rome  and  the  Rep.,  205;  Emerton,  Intr.  Mid. 
Ages,  102;  Shimeall,  End  of  Prelacy;  p.  289; 
New  Englander,  October,  1872;  Princeton  Rev. 
iii,  252;  T.  V.  Moore,  South  Meth.  Rev.  Jan. 
1856;  Bacon,  Lives  of  Apos.,  p.  253-257;  Dowling 
on  Romanism;  Snodgrass,  Apos.  Succ,  221 ;  N.  L. 
Rice,  Rom.  not  Christianity,  p.  139;  Nourse,  Prot. 


Rev.,  July,  1846,  p.  220;  Sawyer's  Organ,  Chris- 
tianity,  p.  49;  Prof.  Clement  M.  Butler  in  his 
work  St.  Paul  in  Rome,  p.  260,  says:  "We  find 
no  contemporaneous  witness  saying  that  St.  Peter 
was  at  Rome,  nor  even  saying  that  it  was  said. 
The  chain  of  testimony  fails  for  the  want  of  con- 
necting links  between  the  first  witnesses  and  the 
facts  alleged.  Nothing  is  accomplished  by  adding 
a  thousand  links  to  the  other  end  of  the  chain." 

Dr.  Chas.  Hodge,  Intr.  Com.  Epist.  Rom.  says : 
"The  tradition  rests  on  very  uncertain  authority." 
Dr.  John  Owen  describing  the  untrustworthiness 
of  the  Patristic  writings  says:  "The  truth  is, 
the  corruption  and  fiction  of  the  epistolical  writ- 
ings in  the  first  ages  was  so  intolerable  as  that 
very  little  of  that  kind  is  preserved  sincere  and 
unquestionable.  Hence  Dionysius,  the  Bishop  of 
Corinth,  complained  that  in  his  own  time  his  own 
epistles  were  so  corrupted  by  additions  and  sub- 
tractions that  it  seems  he  would  have  them  no 
more  esteemed  as  his.  He  said :  *As  the  brethren 
desired  me  to  write  epistles,  I  wrote  them,  and 
these  the  Apostles  of  the  devil  have  filled  with 
tares,  exchanging  some  things  and  adding  others, 
for  whom  there  is  a  woe  reserved.*  "         M.  G. 

PETEB,  THE  EPISTLES  OF. 

Of  the  seven  Catholic  Epistles,  there  are  two 
ascribed  to  St.  Peter.  The  nrst  of  these  is  one  of 
the  6/w\oyo6tieya,  or  those  universally  received  in 
the  early  church.  The  second  ranks  among  the 
drriXcydfuya,    or  controverted  books.    {Set  Anti- 

LEGOMENA.) 

1.  Genuineness  of  First  Epistle.  (1)  Ex- 
ternal Evidence.  The  external  evidence  in  fa- 
vor of  the  genuineness  of  this  Epistle  is  com- 
plete. *One  Epistle  of  Peter,'  says  Eusebius  {Hist. 
Eccles.  iii,  3),  'called  the  first,  is  universally  re- 
ceived;' and  Origen  had  before  this  time  ob- 
served that  Teter  .  .  .  has  left  one  Epistle 
acknowledged  to  be  his.'  It  is  cited  by  Irenaeus 
{Adv.  Hcer.  iv,  9,  2)  :  Teter  says  in  his  Epistle. 
In  whom,  though  now  ye  see  him  not,  yet  believ- 
**^gf  y^  rejoice  with  joy  unspeakable  and  full  of 
glory'  (i,  8,  and  again  he  cites  i  Pet.  ii:i6). 
Also,  by  Clemens  Alexandrinus  {Strom,  i,  3)  : 
Teter  in  the  Epistle  says,'  €tc.  And  by  Tertullian 
{Scorp.  c.  12):  Teter  says  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Pontus'  (comp.  i  Pet.  ii:2o).  Dr.  Lardner  ob- 
serves {Hist.  Apost.  c.  ix.)  that  *it  seems  to  be 
referred  to  by  Clement  of  Rome  in  his  first 
Epistle.'  Eusebius  notices  its  citation  by  Polycarp 
(comp.  Polycarp,  c,  i  with  i  Pet.  i  :8)  ;  and  also  by 
Papias  Hist.  Eccles^  iii  :39).  In  fact,'  saprs  De  Wette 
{Einleitun^,  sec.  173),  *if  we  except  its  omission 
in  the  ancient  catalogue  in  Muratori,  and  its  re- 
jection by  the  Paulicians,  it  has  never  been  called 
in  question.*  De  Wette  himself,  who  never  omits 
an  opportunity  of  raising  a  doubt,  contents  him- 
self with  observing  that  'as  its  contents  are  really 
apostolic,  any  doubts  arising  from  the  absence  of 
any  known  personal  relationship  between  the  au- 
thor and  those  to  whom  the  Epistle  was  ad- 
dressed, or  any  peculiarity  of  doctrinal  phrase- 
ology, find  no  favor  or  recognition.'  He  adds  that 
the  second  Epistle,  even  though  not  genuine,  bears 
testimony  (iii:i)  to  the  genuineness  of  the  first. 

(2)  Internal  Evidence.  The  internal  evi- 
dence is  equally  complete.  The  author  calls  him- 
self the  Apostle  Peter  (ch.  i:i),  and  the  whole 
character  of  the  Epistle  shows  that  it  proceeds 
from  a  writer  who  possessed  great  authority 
among  those  whom  he  addresses,  who  were  most 
probably  composed  chiefly  of  Jewish  Christians. 
The  writer  describes  himself  as  *an  elder,'  and  *a 
witness  of  Christ's  sufferings'  (v:i).    The  vehe- 


PETER,  THE  EPISTLES  OF 


1322 


PETER,  THE  EPISTLES  OF 


tnence  and  energy  of  the  style  are  altogether  ap- 
propriate to  the  warmth  and  zeal  of  Peter's  char- 
acter, and  every  succeeding  critic,  who  has  en- 
tered into  its  spirit,  has  felt  impressed  with  the 
truth  of  the  observation  of  Erasmus,  'that  this 
Epistle  is  full  of  apostolical  dignity  and  authority, 
and  worthy  of  the  prince  of  the  apostles/ 

The  only  indication  as  to  the  place  from  whence 
this  letter  was  addressed  to  the  five  provinces  is 
contained  in  chapter  v.  verse  13 :  *She  in  Babylon, 
elected  with  you  (1^  iw  BafivKQn  <ri/i*icXeicri>),  sa- 
luteth  you.'  For  whether  'she  in  Babylon'  refers 
to  the  church  or  to  an  individual  (in  which  lat- 
ter case  Peter's  wife  is  the  person  generally  be- 
lieved to  be  referred  to),  the  letter  must  have 
been  written  in,  or  at  least  in  the  neighborhood 
of,  Babylon.  But  where  Babylon  was,  or  whether 
it  was  the  celebrated  city  of  that  name  on  the 
Euphrates,  as  has  been  maintained  by  Beza,  Light- 
foot,  Basnage,  De  Wette,  Neander,  and  a  host  of 
learned  men,  is  a  question  which  has  never  been, 
and  probably  never  will  be,  decided. 

It  has  been  maintained,  as  an  objection  to  the 
supposition  that  Babylon  on  the  Euphrates  was 
meant,  that  there  were  no  Jews  residing  there 
at  the  date  of  this  Epistle,  inasmuch  as  they  had 
all  been  expelled  from  that  city  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  reign  of  Caligula,  with  the  exception  of 
such  as  were  permitted  to  remain  on  account  of 
connection,  or  other  special  reasons  (Hug's  Intro- 
duction) ;  while  those  in  Seleucia,  or  New  Baby- 
lon, were  soon  after  massacred,  or  fled  to  Ctesi- 
phon,  on  the  other  side  of  the  river.  Hug,  who 
still  maintains  that  Babylon  on  the  Euphrates  is 
'ntended,  conceives  that  the  aepSfuvoi,  or  'pious,* 
were  the  persons  to  whom  the  apostle's  injunc- 
tions were  addressed,  and  who  were  numerous  in 
the  East.  There  is  certainly  no  authority  from 
ecclesiastical  history  for  supposing  that  Peter 
was  ever  at  Babylon;  but  this  silence  proves 
nothing,  for  there  are  fourteen  years  of  the 
apostle's  life  concerning  which  we  have  no  in- 
formation. But  this  mention  of  Babylon  by  St. 
Peter  has  led  to  the  belief  that  he  may  have  paid 
a  visit  to  the  Parthians  TDe  Wette,  /.  c.),of  which, 
however,  there  is  no  other  indication  among  the 
ancients. 

Babylon  in  Egypt,  near  Memphis,  has  been  con- 
jectured by  Pearson,  Le  Clerc,  and  others,  to 
have  been  the  scene  of  Peter's  labors ;  but  neither 
for  this  is  there  any  evidence,  and  it  seems  to 
have  been  a  very  insignificant  place,  for  Strabo 
describes  it  only  as  a  frontier  garrison,  occupied 
by  one  of  the  Roman  legions  quartered  in  Egypt. 

Altbough  the  ancient  Syrian  writers  conceived 
the  Babylon  mentioned  by  St.  Peter  to  have  been 
a  city  in  the  East,  the  Greek  and  Latin  fathers 
held  the  name  of  Babylon  here  to  have  been,  as 
in  the  Apocalypse,  a  metonymy  for  Rome.  This 
was  the  prevailing  opinion  in  the  time  of  Eusebius, 
who  observes  (Hist.  Eccles.  ii,  15)  that  Peter  *is 
said  to  have  composed  his  first  Epistle  at  Rome, 
which  he  indicates  in  calling  it  figuratively  Baby- 
lon.' This  opinion  is  repeated  by  Jerome  (De 
Vir.  Illustr.,  ch.  viii)  CEcumenius  (ii,  p.  256), 
and  Bede  (Expos,  i  Pet.  v:i3).  It  has  been,  as 
is  observed  by  Lardner  and  Michaelis,  received 
by  most  members  of  the  church  of  Rome,  but 
certainly  not,  as  Mr.  Home  supposes  (Introd. 
vol.  ii,  c.  iv,  sec.  3,  after  Macknight  On  the 
Epistles),  by  all  the  learned  of  that  communion; 
for,  among  others,  Erasmus  (Comment.),  Du  Pin 
(Canon  of  Scripture),  and  Hug  (Introd,),  con- 
tend against  Rome  in  favor  of  Babylon  in  Mes- 
opotamia. That  Rome  was  meant  has  been  main- 
tained also  by  Grotius,  Whitby,  Macknight,  and 


Lardner.  Perhaps  the  strongest  objection  to  this 
hypothesis  arises  from  the  consideration  that  the 
use  of  a  mystical  name  is  unsuited  to  the  char- 
acter of  an  epistolary  writing,  although  adapted 
to  the  symbolical  and  poetical  style  of  the 
Apocalypse.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  arcana 
nomina  were  sometimes  used  by  the  early  Chris- 
tians. Louis  Capell  favors  the  idea  of  a  mystical 
name,  but  he  stands  alone  in  considering  Jeru- 
salem to  be  the  place  indicated.  It  may  be  added 
that  there  is  independent  authority  for  believing 
that  Peter  was  at  Rome,  but  none  that  he  was 
ever  either  in  Assyria  or  Egypt. 

2.  Age  of  the  Epistle.  The  Epistle  must 
have  been  written  before  A.  D.  67-68,  the  year  of 
St.  Peter's  martyrdom.  Lardner  places  the  date 
in  A.  D.  63  or  64,  chiefly  from  the  fact  that  an 
earlier  date  than  A.  D.  63  cannot  be  assigned 
for  his  arrival  at  Rome.  Hug  and  De  Wette 
(Introductions)  ,2Xi6.  Neander  (Hist,  of  the  Plant- 
ing  of  the  Christian  Church),  find  an  indication 
of  the  true  date  in  the  Neronic  persecution,  to 
which  the  Epistle  manifestly  refers.  The  Chris- 
tians were  now  suffering  persecutions  as  Chris- 
tians, and  according  to  the  popular  belief,  of 
which  Tacitus  informs  us  Nero  took  advantage, 
they  were  punished  as  evildoers  (malefici,  Taci- 
tus; KOKOTToiol,  I  Peter  ii:i2.) 

Hug  fixes  the  date  in  the  eleventh  year  of 
Nero's  reign,  or  A.  D.  65,  a  year  after  the  con- 
flagration of  the  city,  and  five  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem.  Lardner  supposes  that  Peter's 
first  Epistle  could  not  have  been  written  from 
Rome  before  the  death  of  St.  Paul  (A.  D.  66), 
as  it  is  diflicult  to  account  for  St.  Paul's  silence 
respecting  him  if  Peter  was  at  Rome  at  the  date 
of  any  of  his  epistles  from  that  city.  Others, 
however,  as  Bishop  Sherlock,  consider  that^  the 
first  Epistle  was  written  about  A.  D.  60.  It  is  at 
the  same  time  certain  that  Peter  had  read  sev- 
eral of  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  as  he  adopts  expres- 
sions, and  sometimes  whole  phrases,  from  the 
Epistles  to  the  Romans,  Ephesians,  Colossians, 
Galatians,  Thessalonians,  i  Corinthians,  and  i 
Timothy  (comp.  especially  i  Pet.  ii:i3,  with  i 
Tim.  ii:2-4;  ii:i8,  with  Eph.  vi:5;  i  Pet.  i:i, 
with  Eph.  1:4-7;  i:3,  with  Eph.  i:3;  i:i4,  with 
Rom.  xii:2;  ii:i,  with  Col.  iii:8,  and  Rom.  xii:i; 
ii:6-io,  with  Rom.  ix:32;  ii:i3,  with  Rom.  xiii: 
1-4;  ii:i6,  with  Gal.  v:i3;  ii:i8,  with  Eph.  yi:5; 
iii:i,  with  Eph.  v:22;  iiiig,  with  Rom.  xii:i7; 
iv:9,  with  Philipp.  ii:i4;  iv:io,  with  Rom.  xii: 
6,  etc.;  v:i,  with  Rom.  viii:  18;  v:5,  with  Eph. 
v:2i;  v:8,  with  i  Thess.  v:6;  v:i4,  with  i  Cor. 
xvi:2o).  There  is,  observes  Hug  (Introd.),  evi- 
dence of  more  than  accidental  relationship  even 
in  the  deviation  of  expression,  in  which,  however, 
there  is  no  essential  difference.  The  similarity 
in  thought  and  expression,  and  even  in  their  very 
plan  (Hug,  /.  c),  are  indeed  most  striking,  and 
this  circumstance  has  been  well  accounted  tor  by 
the  fact  that  Peter  had  not  himself  visited  the 
Asiatic  provinces,  and  had,  therefore,  reference 
to  the  Epistles  of  his  esteemed  colleague  for  the 
general  condition  of  the  inhabitants,  their  man- 
ner of  life,  their  virtues  and  their  failings,  and 
their  civil  and  domestic  relations.  There  are  also 
some  passages  identical  with  those  in  the  Epistle 
of  St.  James  (comp.  i  Pet.  i:6,  7,  with  James  i: 
2,  3;  i:24,  with  James  i:io;  ii:i,  with  James  i: 
21 ;  iv  :8,  with  James  v  :20 ;  and  v  :$,  with  James 
iv:6).  This  latter  passage,  is,  indeed,  a  citation 
from  Prov.  iii:34;  but  the  identity  of  the  conclu- 
sions drawn  by  each  renders  it  improbable  that 
here  was  a  merely  accidental  coincidence.  It  is 
also  remarkable  that  in  i  Pet.  iv:8,  and  James 


PETER,  THE  EPISTLES  OF 


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PETER,  THE  EPISTLES  OF 


v:  20,  there  occurs  (in  each)  the  same  citation 
from  Prov.  x:i2.  These  resemblances,  however, 
involve  important  consequences.  If  the  Epistle  of 
[anies  was  the  first  in  order  of  time  (see  James^ 
Epistle  of)  its  right  to  a  place  in  the  canon  is 
providentially  conhrmed  by  the  high  and  unex- 
ceptionable authority  of  St.  Peter. 

3.  Objects  and  Contents.  To  afford  consola- 
tion to  the  persecuted  appears  to  have  been  the 
main  object  of  this  Epistle.  To  this  the  moral 
instructions  are  subsidiary  (Hug's  Introd.).  The 
exhortations  to  a  pure  conscience,  to  rebut  the 
calumnies  of  the  time  by  their  innocence,  to  ab- 
stain from  violent  disputes,  to  pajr  respect  to  the 
existing  authorities,  to  exercise  increasing  love 
and  fidelity,  were  exhortations  all  given  with  a 
view  to  alleviate  their  fate,  or  enable  them  to 
bear  it.  The  repeated  references  to  the  example 
of  Jesus  in  his  death  and  sufferings,  are  designed 
to  strengthen  them  for  the  endurance  of  calamities. 
The  exhortation  to  the  slaves,  too,  has  reference 
to  the  unhappy  days,  in  which,  for  real  or 
imaginary  wrongs  and  hardships,  they  frequently 
became  the  accusers  and  betrayers  of  their  mas- 
ters. The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  con- 
tents : — 

The  salutation  and  introduction,  in  which  the 
inhabitants  of  the  five  provinces  who  were  pur- 
chased by  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  are  exhorted 
to  prepare  themselves  for  a  reward  higher  than 
the  enjoyments  of  this  fleeting  life  (i:i-i3).  They 
are,  therefore,  recommended  to  lay  aside  an3rthmg 
which  could  render  them  unworthy  of  Christ,  the 
center  of  their  hopes,  their  pattern  and  their 
Savior,  and  so  to  regulate  their  conduct  to  their 
superiors  that  none  should  be  able  to  reproach 
them  as  'evildoers.'  These  precepts  were  to  extend 
to  slaves,  to  whom  the  meek  and  suffering  Jesus 
should  be  an  example.  Women,  too,  were  to  ren- 
der their  submissive  noiseless  virtue  as  their 
chiefest  ornament,  and  men  should  cherish  and 
honor  them.  All  should  be  full  of  sympathy  and 
love,  and  mutual  indulgence.  Their  innocence 
should  be  so  marked  as  to  shame  the  calumniator, 
and  they  should  make  preparation  for  the  ap- 
proaching catastrophe,  when  they  should  have  an 
opportunity  of  imitating  Jesus  in  their  sufferings : 
hoping  for  them  all  to  have  no  other  reproach 
than  that  of  being  his  disciples.  The  presbyters 
are  enjoined  to  watch  over  their  flocks,  and  the 
subordinate  to  pay  them  respect,  and  all  should 
be  on  the  watch,  and  lay  aside  their  worldly 
cares.  All  these  exhortations  are  enforced  by 
the  example  of  (Christ,  and  by  the  punishment  of 
the  disobedient  in  the  days  of  Noah,  those  spir- 
its in  prison  to  whom  Christ  went  and  preached 
(iii:i9,  20). 

4.  The  Second  Epistle  (see  Antilegomena) 
has  been  the  subject  of  more  discussion  than  any 
other  book  in  the  New  Testament,  and  its  gen- 
uineness has  been  contested  by  not  a  few  of  the 
ablest  critics.  Our  space  will  not  allow  us  to 
notice  in  detail  all  the  objections  which  have 
been  raised  against  it,  but  it  will  be  our  duty  to 
state  the  most  important.  Its  genuineness,  the 
date  of  its  composition,  and  its  characteristics, 
are  so  intimately  connected,  that  we  shall  pursue 
a  different  method  in  treating  of  this  Epistle  from 
that  which  we  have  adopted  in  regard  to  other 
books. 

The  author  of  the  first  epistle  refers  (i  Pet. 
v:i2)  to  a  former  letter,  now  no  longer  extant, 
which  has  been  generally  concluded  to  be  a  pri- 
vate communication,  as  the  present  is  expressly 
called  the  Second  Epistle  (2  Pet.  iii:i). 


(1)  Early  Testimony.  The  first  writer  who 
has  expressly  named  it  is  Origen  (Homily  on 
Joshua),  who  speaks  of  the  two  Epistles  of  Peter. 
He  also  cites  the  second  epistle  in  his  fourth 
homily  on  Leviticus,  Tetrus  dicit,  consortes,  in- 
quit,  facti  estis  divince  natural  (2  Pet  i:4),  and 
gives  it  the  name  of  Scripture  ('as  the  Scripture 
says  in  a  certain  place,  the  dumb  ass,  replying 
with  a  human  voice,  reproved  the  madness  of 
the  Prophet'  alluding  to  2  Pet.  ii:i6;  Opp.  ii, 
p.  32).  At  the  same  time  he  observes  {ap.  Euseb. 
vi:25)  that  'Peter  has  left  one  acknowledged 
Epistle,  and  perhaps  a  second,  for  this  is  con- 
tested.' Firmilian,  Bishop  of  Cappadocia,  also 
{Ep.  ad  Cyprian,)  speaks  of  Peter's  epistles  in  a 
passage  referring  evidently  to  the  second.  Earlier 
allusions  have  been  supposed  to  exist  in  the  Shep- 
herd of  Hermas  {Vision  iii,  7),  'reliquerunt  znam 
suam  veram'  (2  Pet.  ii:i5),  and  Vision  iv:3,  'ef- 
fugistis  saculum  hoc*  (2  Pet.  ii:2o).  Clemens 
Romanus  has  also  been  thought  by  some  to  have 
referred  to  this  epistle  in  the  passages,  'saved 
Noah,  the  eighth  preacher  of  righteousness'  (see 
2  Pet.  ii:6),  and  'by  hospitality  and  piety  Lot  was 
delivered  from  Sodom,  when  the  whole  region 
was  destroyed  by  fire  and  brimstone,  the  Lord 
thereby  making  it  manifest  that  he  does  not  for- 
sake those  who  trust  in  him,  but  those  that  turn 
aside  he  appoints  to  punishment  and  torment'  (2 
Pet.  ii:6,  7,  9). 

Irenxus  (A.  D.  178)  is  supposed  by  some  to  al- 
lude to  2  Pet.  iii  :8,  'The  day  of  the  Lord  is  as  a 
thousand  years;'  as  is  also  Justin  Martyr,  who 
cites  the  same  passage  in  an  earlier  part  of  the 
same  century.  But  others  have  supposed  that  the 
allusion  here  is  to  Ps. :  xc:4.  Eusebius  observes 
(Hist,  Eccles,  vi,  14)  that  'Clement  of  Alexandria 
(A.  D.  192-217)  wrote  in  his  'TironJ»-fcHretf  ('Ad- 
umbrations'), commentaries  on  the  canonical 
epistles,  and  also  on  the  antilegomena,  that  is, 
Jude  and  the  other  Catholic  epistles,  together 
with  that  of  Barnabas,  and  the  so-called  Revela- 
tion of  Peter.'  Cassiodorus,  however,  who  pub- 
lished a  Latin  translation  of  the  Adumbrations 
(De  Instit,  div,  leg,  c  8),  seems  to  confine  the 
explications  of  Cement  to  i  Peter,  i  and  2  John, 
and  James. 

(2)  Catholic  Epistles.  Although  we  do  not 
know  by  whom  the  collection  of  Catholic  Epistles, 
as  distinct  from  the  Pauline,  was  made,  yet  there 
can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  such  collection,  in- 
cluding all  the  Antilegomena,  existed  before  the 
close  of  the  second  century.  It  was  well  known 
in  the  time  of  Origen,  and  is  referred  to  by 
Eusebius  as  generally  received  in  his  time  (Hist, 
Eccles.  ii,  23),  for  he  expressly  calls  St.  James' 
'the  first  of  the  seven  Catholic  Epistles.' 

(3)  Doubts.  Eusebius  at  the  same  time  in- 
forms us  of  the  doubts  which  had  been  raised 
before  his  time  in  regard  to  our  epistle :— 'That 
called  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter,  as  we  have 
been  informed,  has  not  been  received  as  a  part 
of  the  New  Testament.  Nevertheless,  appearing 
to  many  to  be  useful,  it  has  been  carefully  studied 
with  the  other  Scriptures'  (Hist.  Eccles.  iii,  3). 

The  next  writers  who  refer  to  the  doubts  re- 
specting our  epistle,  are  Didymus,  the  blind 
teacher  of  Alexandria,  in  the  fourth  century,  and 
his  pupil  St.  Jerome.  The  former  acquaints  us 
(Comment.)  that  'it  should  not  be  concealed  that 
the  present  epistle  was  considered  spurious^  {fal' 
satam  esse),  and  that  although  published,  it  was 
not  in  the  Canon.'  And  Jerome  observes  (De 
Vir.  Illustr.)  that  'Peter  wrote  two  epistles  called 
Catholic,  the  second  of  which  had  been  denied  by 
many  (or  most,  plerique)  to  be  his,  because  of 


PETER.  THE  EPISTLES  OF 


1324 


PETER,  THE  EPISTLES  OF 


the  difference  of  style.'  And  again,  'Paul  had 
for  his  interpreter  Titus,  and  Peter  had  Mark, 
.  .  .  .  the  two  epistles  attributed  to  Peter 
differ  in  both  style  and  character,  and  the  struc- 
ture of  their  language;  from  which  we  must  of 
necessity  suppose  that  he  made  use  of  two  dif- 
ferent interpreters.* 

It  may  be  here  observed  that  the  Fathers  sup- 
posed that  such  of  the  sacred  writers  as  did  not 
understand  Greek  (among  whom  they  reckoned 
St.  Peter)  dictated  in  their  native  language  to  an 
amanuensis,  who  wrote  down  in  Greek  what  they 
had  uttered  in  Hebrew.  Silas,  or  Silvanus,  has 
been  conjectured  to  have  acted  in  this  capacity  to 
St.  Peter  in  the  writing  of  his  first  epistle  ( i  Pet. 
v:2).  Finally,  St.  Gregory  the  Great  observes, 
towards  the  close  of  the  sixth  century,  that  there 
were  some  who  asserted  that  Peter's  second 
epistle,  in  which  Paul's  epistles  were  commended, 
was  not  his.  *Before  the  fourth  century,'  observes 
the  Roman  Catholic  Professor  Hug,  'Christian 
writers  with  perfect  freedom  advocated  or  denied 
the  authority  of  certain  writings  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament according  as  their  judgment  dictated.* 

(4)  Beceived  as  Ghenuine  in  the  Fourth  Cen- 
tury. We  find,  however,  that  before  the  close  of 
the  fourth  century  the  doubts  had  subsided,  and 
this  epistle  was  received  as  genuine  by  St. 
Athanasius,  St.  Cyril,  St.  Epiphanius,  St.  Jerome, 
and  St.  Augustine,  and  by  Rufinus.  Gregory 
Nazianzen  alone  considers  it  doubtful  whether 
three  or  seven  Catholic  epistles  ought  to  be  used. 
The  only  dissentient  voices,  after  this  period,  were 

frobably  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  and  Cosmas 
ndicopleustes  (see  Antilegomena),  the  latter 
on  dogmatical  rather  than  critical  grounds,  as  the 
destruction  of  the  world  by  fire  clashed  with  his 
opinions.  It  is  enumerated  in  the  canon  of  Laod- 
icea  (A.  D.  360?)  and  in  the  eighty-fifth  apostoli- 
cal canon,  and  was  finally  adopted  by  the  councils 
of  Hippo  and  Carthage,  which  included  among 
the  canonical  books  all  those  which  are  now 
commonly  received,  making  no  distinction,  how- 
ever, between  the  acknowledged  and  controverted 
books^  of  the  New  Testament,  or  between  the 
canonical  and  deutero-canonical  of  the  Old. 

(5)  The  Beformation.  Although  before  this 
period  certain  books  were  rejected  from  the  de- 
fect of  historical  evidence,  or  from  internal 
grounds  of  suspicion,  an  undeviating  uniformity 
now  took  place,  and  no  controversy  was  raised  re- 
specting any  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament 
until  the  inquiring  age  which  ushered  in  the  Ref- 
ormation. We  now  find  Erasmus  denying  the 
genuineness  of  our  epistle.  Although  Luther  does 
not  appear  to  have  had  any  doubts  of  its  genuine- 
ness, he  revived  the  ancient  distinction  in  regard 
to  the  books  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
— separating  the  apocryphal  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament from  the  canonical,  and  in  the  enumera- 
tion of  the  books  leaving  the  antilegomena  of 
the  New  without  any  numbers  attached  to  them: 
and  in  the  Lunenberg  edition  of  Luther's  Bible, 
published  in  1614  (68  years  after  Luther's  death) , 
these  books  are  headed  by  the  words,  'Apocrypha 
of  the  New  Testament.'    (See  Antilegomena.) 

Our  epistle  was  called  in  question  by  Calvin 
(Comm.  in  Ep.  Cath.),  who  observes  that,  'not- 
withstanding some  affinity  in  style,  the  dis- 
crepancies between  it  and  the  former  are 
such  as  to  indicate  that  they  had  not  the  same 
author.'  It  was,  however,  received  by  all  the  Re- 
formed Confessions,  as  well  as  by  the  Council  of 
Trent.  It  has  been  since  that  period  rejected 
by  Grotius  (Annot.),  Scali^er  (Scaligeriana,  ii, 
p.  22),  Salmasius   iDe  Eptsc,  p.  145),  Semler 


{Prarf,),  Eichhorn  {Einlett),  Schmidt  (Einleit,), 
Walker  {Clavis),  Schott  (IsagX  Guericke  {Beit- 
ragft  p.  176,  note),  Credner  (Einleit.),  De  Wette 
(Einleit,),  Ullman,  to  some  extent  (Der  2  Brief 
Pet.)t  and  Neander  (Hist,  of  the  Planting,  etc.). 
Among  its  numerous  defenders  it  will  be  sufficient 
to  mention  the  names  of  Michaelis  (Marsh's 
transl.,  vol.  vi);  Lardner  Pott.  {Proieg,) ;  Au- 
gusti  {Einieit,)\  Flatt  {Progr,)\  Dahl  (Dis- 
sert,);  Bertholdt  (Einteit.  vol.  vi\  who,  however, 
rejects  the  second  chapter;  Nietzche  {Dissert.); 
and  Olshausen  ( Ofiusc.  Academ. ) ;  with  the 
learned  Roman  Catnolics,  Hug  {Jntrod.)  and 
Feilmoser.  The  latter,  however,  fluctuates  in  his 
opinion  (Einteit,,  p.  527). 

Before  proceeding  to  consider  the  grounds  for 
and  against  the  rejection  of  this  epistle,  it  may  be 
useful  to  inquire  into  its  internal  structure  and 
contents. 

(6)  Contents.  The  writer  designates  himself 
here  as  the  Apostle  Peter  (Simon,  or,  according 
to  some  MSS.,  Symeon  Peter,  2  Pet.  i:i;  comp. 
Acts  xv;i4;  John's  Gospel  Passim)  more  clearly 
than  in  the  first  epistle;  as  personally  known  to 
Jesus  .(i:i4) ;  as  a  beloved  orother  of  Paul  (;ii- 
15);  and  as  the  author  of  the  first  epistle  (iii:i). 

(/)  Addressed  to  the  Same  People.  It  is  ad- 
dressed to  the  same  persons  with  the  first,  whom 
he  presupposes  to  be  acquainted  with  the  writings 
of  St.  Paul  (iii:i5;  comp.  Rom.  ii:4).  Neander 
(Planting  of  the  Church)  asserts  that  the  readers 
appear  to  have  been  personally  instructed  by  the 
apostle,  which  implies  a  relationship  in  which  the 
author  did  not  stand  to  the  readers  of  the  first 
epistle.  He  refers  to  his  approaching  death  (i: 
14).  The  main  object  is  the  refutation  of  erro- 
neous teachers. 

(2)  An  Eyewitness,  He,  therefore,  as  an 
eyewitness  of  the  acting  and  teaching  of  Jesus, 
is  enabled  to  give  them  more  accurate  instruc- 
tion than  those  who  would  mislead  them.  He 
exhorts  them  to  advance  in  the  knowledge  and 
doctrine  of  Jesus,  by  adding  to  their  faith  forti- 
tude {dp€Ti/J¥),  and  every  other  excellent  quality. 
He  denounces  (ch.  ii.)  punishment  against  false 
teachers,  by  examples  drawn  from  the  disobedient 
angels,  the  world  before  the  Flood,  and  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah.  He  inveighs  against  those  teach- 
ers for  resigning  themselves  to  impurity,  and 
speaking  evil  of  God  and  angels,  whereas  angels 
have  not  ventured  to  do  this  even  of  Satan.  He 
compares  them  to  the  false  prophet  Balaam, 
and  to  clouds  filled  with  wind.  He  rebukes 
those  mockers  who  doubted  of  the  coming  of 
CThrist,  which  was  only  delayed  in  mercy,  but 
predicts  the  dissolution  of  the  world  by  fire,  and 
warns  them  to  keep  themselves  in  readiness  for 
the  new  heavens  and  the  new  earth. 

(3)  Difference  in  Style.  We  have  already  seen 
that  the  main  reasons  which  induced  many  of  the 
ancients  to  reject  this  epistle  arose  from  the  dif- 
ference in  style  and  structure  between  the  first 
and  second  epistle.  The  ancients  have,  however, 
not  entered  into  detail  in  the  examination  of  this 
subject,  a  task  which  has  been  left  to  their  more 
critical  successors.  It  is  said,  for  instance,  to  be 
distinguished  by  a  different  usus  loquendi,  as  by 
the  word  sotar  frequently  applied  to  our  Lord, 
parousia,  day  of  the  Lord,  or  of  judgment;  and 
msteadof  'revelation,'  knowledge  (gnosis  and 
epignosis)  is  said  to  be  enforced  with  peculiar 
prominence.  The  Christian  religion  is  called  *thc 
way  of  truth,  and  of  righteousness*  (ii:2,  21).  It 
contains  a  surprising  multitude  of  hapaxlegomena» 
instead  of  the  very  few  found  in  the  first  epistki 


PETER,  THE  EPISTLES  OF 


1325 


PETER,  THE  EPISTLES  OF 


A  remarkable  difference  has  been  observed  in 
respect  to  the  appellations  of  our  Savior^  who 
is  in  the  first  epistle  generally  called  simply  Christ 
or  Jesus  Christ ;  but  the  word  K^pu>s,  which  in  the 
first  epistle  often  occurs,  and  is  always  applied 
(with  one  exeption  only,  1:3)  to  God  the  Fa- 
ther, is  applied  in  the  second  in  almost  every 
place  to  Christ.  Its  application  in  all  other  pas- 
sages in  the  first  epistle  is  confined  also  to  cita- 
tions from  the  Old  Testament,  except  in  ii:i3» 
where  the  Vulgate  reads  Deum.  It  is  peculiar  to 
the  first  epistle  to  subjoin  to  the  terms  God,  Jesus 
Christ,  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  epithets  designed  to 
exalt  the  glory  of  the  divinity.  The  second  epistle 
has  no  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament — in 
which  the  first  abounds,  and  is  remarkable  for 
clothing  its  sentiments  in  the  language  of  the  Old 
Testament.  De  Wette  furnishes  as  instances  of 
repetition,  indicating  a  carelessness  of  style  in 
the  author  of  the  second  epistle  (2  Pet.  1:3,  4), 
where  occur  dedoramenos,  and  dedoratai  and  dia 
is  several  times  repeated  (2  Pet.  ii:i-3),  in  which 
apoleia  occurs  three  times ;  2  Pet.  ii  17,  8,  in  which 
dikaios  occurs  as  many  times;  and  2  Pet.  iii:i2- 
14,  in  which  there  is  a  similar  repetition  of 
poosdokein.  The  first  epistle  is  also  said  to  be  re- 
markable for  a  frequent  and  peculiar  use  of  the 
particle  hos,  of  which  the  second  furnishes  but 
one  example  (iiiQ).  Olshausen  adds,  that  in  the 
second  epistle  the  subjects  proceed  in  regular  or- 
der, and  uninterruptedly,  while  the  first  is  remark- 
able for  detached  and  independent  sentences  (see 

1  Pet.  i:3-i2). 

{4)  Resemblances,  But  in  compensation  for 
these  differences,  the  resemblances  are  remark- 
ably striking.  One  of  the  most  obvious  of  these 
is  the  reference  in  both  to  the  deluge,  and  the 
number  of  persons  saved,  the  first  epistle  men- 
tioning eight  persons  (i  Pet.  iii:20),  and  the  sec- 
ond speaking  of  Noah  the  eighth  (2  Pet.  ii:5). 
Some,  however,  here  connect  Noah  with  the  fol- 
lowing words,  viz.,  Noah,  the  eighth  preacher  of 
righteousness,  comparing  it  with  the  parallel  pas- 
sage in  Jude,  'Enoch,  the  seventh  from  Adam/ 
the  Jews  having  various  ways  of  enumerating  the 
good  men  who  lived  before  Abraham  (UUmann, 
Der  zweite  Brief  P.). 

There  are  some  words  used  in  a  peculiar  sense 
by  the  author  of  each  epistle,  as  apothesis  (i  Pet 
iii:2i;  2  Pet.  i:i4)  ;  areta  (i  Pet.  iitg;  2  Pet.  i: 
3);  anastrephesthai  (i  Pet.  i:i7);  anastropha  (i 
Pet.  i:i5;  ii:i2;  iii:i,  17);  amomos  and  aspilos 
(i  Pet.  i:i9;  2  Pet.  ii:i3);  poreuesthai  (i  Pet. 
iv:3;  2  Pet.  ii:io;  iii:3)  ;  epithmina  (i  Pet.  i:i4; 

2  Pet.  ii:io;  iii:3);  ho  kalesas  (iFtt,i:iS;  ii:9» 
21)  ;  and  idios  (iPet.  iii:i,5;  2  Pet.  i:2o;  ii:i6,22; 
iii:i6).  Some  critics  have,  indeed,  vindicated  the 
genuineness  of  the  epistle  principally  on  the 
ground  of  resemblance  in  both  sentiment  and  dic- 
tion. Of  these  it  will  be  sufficient  for  our  purpose 
to  refer  to  Hug  and  Michaelis.  The  former  of 
these  observes  that  the  resemblance  between  the 
two  is  *so  thorough  as  to  denote  an  identity  of 
authorship'  (Fosdick's  transl.)  ;  and  Michaelis  had 
before  this  asserted  (/.  c)  that  the  agreement  be- 
tween them  appeared  to  him  to  be  such,  'that  if 
the  second  was  not  written  by  St.  Peter,  the  per- 
son who  forged  it  not  only  possessed  the  power  of 
imitation  in  a  very  unusual  degree,  but  under- 
stood likewise  the  design  of  the  first  epistle,  with 
which  the  ancients  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
acquainted.*  The  principal  difference  of  style, 
however,  is  found  in  the  second  chapter,  the  char- 
acter, of  which  is  totally  unlike  an3rthing  con- 
tained in  the  first  epistle.  The  resemblance,  in- 
deed, between  this  chapter  and  the  short  epistle 


of  St.  Jude,  is  so  striking,  that  it  has  been  at  all 
times  perceived  that  one  must  have  at  least  read, 
if  not  copied  from  the  other. 

(5)  Resemblance  to  Jude.  All  those  theologi- 
ans who  have  disputed  the  genuineness  of  Peter's 
second  epistle  have  maintained  that  its  writer 
adopted  the  sentiments  and  language  of  Jude,  and 
this  opinion  is  favored  even  by  many  of  the  mod- 
em advocates  of  its  genuineness,  including  Ols- 
hausen and  Hug.  But  which  of  the  two  wrote 
first  is,  notwithstanding,  a  question  impossible  to 
decide.  'St.  Jude's  Epistle  is  so  like  the  second 
chapter  of  St.  Peter's  Second  Epistle,'  says  Bishop 
Sherlock,  'the  figures  and  images  in  both  are  so 
much  the  same  ....  that  it  has  been  com- 
monly thought  that  St.  Jude  copied  after  St.  "Pe- 
ter's  Epistle.'  This  was  the  more  generall3r  re- 
ceived opinion,  and  was  held  among  the  ancients 
by  CEcumenius  (ii,  p.  633),  and  maintained  at  the 
time  of  the  Reformation  by  Luther,  who  observes, 
in  his  Preface,  that  'no  one  can  deny  that  Jude's 
Epistle  is  an  extract  or  copy  from  St.  Peter's  Sec- 
ond Epistle,  as  the  very  words  are  nearly  the  same 

and  allegeth  stories  which  have  no  place  in 

Scripture'  (see  Enoch,  Book  of;  Jude,  Epistle 
of;  see  also  Edinburgh  Review,  C5ct.  1834,  and 
the  extract  from  it  in  Mr.  Ward's  Ideal  of  a  Chris- 
tian Church,  1844,  p.  175,  where  Luther  is  re- 
proached for  maintaining  this  opinion).  It  was 
however,  adopted  by  Mill  (Proleg.),  Michaelis 
(Introd.),  Storr  (Opusc),  Haenlein  (Einleit.), 
Dahl  {De  a^vrla  Ep.  Petr,  poster,  et  Jud,),  Wet- 
stein  (Test.  Nov.),  and  among  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics by  Du  Pin  and  Calmet.  One  set  of  critics 
have  supposed  that  one  of  the  writers  of  these 
epistles  had  intended  to  illustrate  at  large  what 
the  other  had  briefly  stated;  others,  that  one 
sought  to  abridge  what  the  other  had  stated  dif- 
fusely. The  former  of  these  views  is  maintained 
by  Hug  and  Olshausen.  The  latter  writer  founds 
his  view  on  the  fact  that  Peter  does  not  give  the 
minute  statements  found  in  Jude,  especially  in  re- 
gard to  the  history  of  angels,  in  which  passages 
Jude  alone  goes  into  details,  while  Peter  advances 
a  general  historical  fact, — which  he  conceives  to 
be  characterisic  of  a  later  composition. 

(d)  Bishop  Sherlock's  View.  Dr.  Sherlock, 
bishop  of  London,  adopted  a  middle  course.  Per- 
ceiving that  the  argument  from  the  style  affected 
only  the  second  chapter,  which  'abounds  in 
pompous  words  and  expressions,'  and  that  the 
style  of  this  chapter  differed  as  much  from  the 
rest  of  the  second  epistle  as  it  does  from  the 
first,  he  conceived  that  neither  writer  borrowed 
from  the  other,  but  that  each  made  use  of  a  com- 
mon document.  The  explanation  of  St.  Jerome, 
that  Peter  used  two  different  interpreters,  the 
bishop  entirely  rejects,  as,  if  this  were  the  case, 
the  difference  of  styie  would  have  appeared  in 
the  whole  epistle,  and  not  in  the  second  chapter 
only.  The  bishop  conceives  that  notwithstanding 
the  remarkable  resemblance  between  both,  there 
is  sufficient  variation  to  prove  that  the  one  was 
not  a  mere  transcriber  of  the  other's  thoughts  or 
language.  'St.  Peter  has  an  instance  not  to  be 
found  in  Jude;  and  St.  Jude  has  an  instance  not 
to  be  found  in  Peter :  St.  Jude  quotes  the  prophecy 
of  Enoch,  of  which  St.  Petei  says  nothing;  St. 
Peter  refers  to  the  preaching  of  Noah,  of  which 
St.  Jude  says  nothing,  although  both  relate  to  one 
and  the  same  thing,  the  destruction  of  the  old 
world.'  The  circumstance  that  each  quotes  from 
a  common  Hebrew  document  will,  in  his  lord- 
ship's judgment,  account  not  only  for  the  differ- 
ence in  style  between  Peter's  two  epistles,  but 
for  that  which  exists  between  the  second  <4iapter 


PETER,  THE  EPISTLES  OF 


1326 


PETER.  THE  EPISTLES  OF 


and  the  first  and  third  of  Peter's  second  epistle. 
The  bishop  at  the  same  time  admits  that  there  are 
some  instances  of  agreement  which  cannot  pos- 
sibly be  drawn  from  any  Jewish  book  (as  2  ret. 
ii:i-i3,  comp.  with  Jude  4-12;  and  2  Pet.  iii:2, 
3,  with  Jude  17,  18).  He  therefore  supposes  that 
Jude  had  both  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter  and 
the  old  Jewish  book  before  him.  Herder  sup- 
poses this  lost  book  to  have  been  the  Zendavesta 
of  Zoroaster.  The  strongest  objection  to  Bishop 
Sherlock's  ingenious  conjecture  will  be  found  in 
the  fact  that  the  resemblance  to  the  epistle  of 
St.  Jude  is  not  confined  to  the  second  chapter 
of  Peter's  Second  Epistle,  but  will  be  found 
equally  striking  in  the  third  chapter,  amounting,  in 
thtf  originals,  although  not  in  the  English  Au- 
thorized Version,  nearly  to  identity  of  expres- 
sion. 

(7)  Other  Views,  A  late  eminent  critic,  per- 
ceiving that  the  opponents  of  the  epistle  were  in- 
duced by  this  resemblance  of  the  second  epistle 
to  St.  Jude  to  deny  its  genuineness,  maintained 
that  this  resemblance  was  accidental,  and  has  en- 
deavored to  show  that  the  second  chapter  is  an 
interpolation,  and  that  without  it  there  is  a  closer 
connection  between  the  first  and  third  chapters 
(Bertholdt,  Einleitung  in  die  Schriften  des  A, 
und  N,  Test.),  But  it  has  been  satisfactorily 
shown  in  reply  that,  though  the  second  chapter 
has  no  necessary  connection  with  either  the  first 
or  third,  yet  there  are  references  in  the  third 
chapter  to  matters  propounded  in  the  second. 

(a)  Bertholdt  conceives  that  the  argument 
against  the  epistle  founded  on  the  diflference  of 
style  is  met  by  adopting  his  view,  as  the  first 
and  third  chapters  agree  in  style  with  the  first 
epistle.  Olshausen  maintains,  in  reply  to  this, 
that  the  circumstance  of  Peter's  having  appro- 
priated a  great  part  of  Jude's  epistle  will  of  itself 
account  for  the  difference  of  style  in  the  sec- 
ond chapter;  and  that  there  is  no  discrepancy 
b^ween  the  style  of  the  first  and  second  epistles 
of  Peter,  which  is  not  common  to  every  part  of  the 
second  epistle,  or  strikingly  peculiar  to  the  first 
and  third  chapters.  The  hypothesis  of  Bertholdt, 
even  if  true,  would  not  remove  the  difficulties,  as 
many  of  the  circumstances  which  have  been  sup- 
posed to  militate  against  the  genuineness  of  the 
epistle  are  found  in  the  first,  and  still  more  in 
the  third  chapter.  It  would  be  doing  an  unneces- 
sary violence  to  our  epistle,  in  direct  opposition  to 
all  external  testimony. 

(b)  Ullmann  proceeded  one  step  further.  'Not 
long  since,'  says  Hug,  *the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter 
met  with  an  opponent,  who  menaced  its  dismem- 
berment, and  maintained  his  right  to  do  this  vio- 
lence with  learning  and  acuteness.'  He  separates 
it  into  three  distinct  portions,  which  happen  to  cor- 
respond with  the  present  division  into  chapters. 
The  first  chapter  he  ascribes  to  Peter,  and  consid- 
ers it  to  be  one  of  his  epistles,  the  conclusion  of 
which  was  early  lost.  To  this  precious  relic  some 
unknown  person,  to  effect  a  well-meant  purpose, 
;has  added  the  next  two  chapters,  for  which  the 
Epistle  of  Jude  afforded  him  materials.  The  ob- 
ject of  this  writer,  as  well  as  of  Bertholdt,  is  to 
vindicate  the  genuineness  of  part  of  the  epistle,  by 
rejecting  those  parts  which  are  beset  with  great- 
est difficulties.  But  while  Ullmann,  as  above  al- 
luded to  (Der  sweite  Brief  Pet.  krit.  untersucht, 
1821),  clearly  shows  that  Bertholdt's  hypothesis 
merely  lessens,  without  removing  the  difficulty, 
his  own  solution  of  the  remaining  objections, 
which  consists  simply  in  cutting  the  knot,  has  not 
been  such  as  to  satisfy  any  reasonable  mind.  He 
argues  from  a  resemblance  in  style  between  St. 


Peter's  first  epistle,  and  the  first  chapter  of  the 
second,  and  particularly  from  the  use  in  each 
of  certain  words  in  a  peculiar  sense,  as  dptrij, 
dxSOtffit,  etc.,  that  these  portions  emanated  from 
the  same  writer,  and  further  maintains  that  there 
is  no  coherence  between  the  first  chapter  and  the 
remaining  portions  of  the  epistle.  But  it  has 
been  shown  that  this  incoherence  exists  only  in 
the  fancy  of  the  learned  German,  as  the  first  chap- 
ter (4,  16,  17),  is  but  a  preface  to  the  refutation 
of  erroneous  opinions  in  the  second  (Hug's  In- 
trod.)  ;  and,  further,  from  a  comparison  of  the 
first  with  the  third  chapter,  that  there  are  suffi- 
cient resemblances  of  expression  to  show  that  the 
whole  epistle  had  an  identical  origin  (Ols- 
hausen.) 

But  although  neither  these  resemblances  be- 
tween the  Epistles  of  Peter  and  Jude,  nor  the 
difference  in  style  between  the  First  and  Second 
Epistles  of  St.  Peter,  are  of  themselves  sufficient 
to  destroy  the  genuineness  of  St.  Peter's  epistle 
yet  they  would  doubtless  have  some  weight  in 
affecting  it,  if  supported  by  other  internal  marks 
of  spuriousness.  We  shall  therefore  now  con- 
sider whether  such  marks  actually  exist,  and  shall 
mention  the  principal  indications  which  have  had 
weight  in  the  minds  of  some  learned  men  against 
the  authority  of  our  epistle.  In  the  first  place, 
anachronisms  have  been  pretended  to  be  discov- 
ered which  remove  the 'epistle  from  the  apostolic 
age  and  place  it  in  the  second  century. 

(c)  The  first  who  imagined  that  he  discovered 
an  indication  of  this  nature  was  the  illustrious 
Grotius,  who,  conceiving  that  the  errors  of  the 
Carpocratians,  a  sect  which  originated  in  the  sec- 
ond century,  were  those  against  which  the  second 
and  third  chapters  were  directed,  ascribed  the  au- 
thorship of  the  epistle,  not  to  Simon  or  Simeon 
Peter,  but  to  Simeon,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  the 
successor  of  St  James.  This  opinion,  however, 
which  assumes  upon  mere  conjecture  that  the 
name  Peter  (i:i),  the  words  our  beloved  brother 
(iii  :i5),  and  the  i6th,  17th,  and  iSth  verses  of  the 
first  chapter,  were  interpolated  by  those  who 
wished  to  have  the  epistle  pass  for  Peter's,  has 
been  long  exploded.  Neitzch  has  shown  that  the 
representation  of  the  heretics  described  by  Peter 
does  not  accord  with  the  Carpocratians.  It  is  as 
probable  that  the  Gnostics  were  the  heretics  aimed 
at,  the  seeds  of  whose  heresies  were  doubtless 
sown  in  the  apostolic  age.  This  second  Epistle' 
(iii:i),  in  the  opinion  of  Grotius,  refers  to  the 
third  chapter  only,  the  two  former  chapters  form- 
ing a  distinct  and  previous  letter. 

(7)  Anachronisms,  Etc.  (a)  The  doubts  re- 
specting the  coming  of  Christ  expressed  in  2  Pet. 
iii:4,  have  also  been  considered  as  indicating  a 
later  age  than  the  apostolic,  and  it  has  been  as- 
serted by  the  opponents  of  the  genuineness  of  our 
epistle  that  sufiScient  time  had  not  elapsed  during 
St.  Peter's  lifetime  for  the  application  of  the  ex- 
pression 'our  fathers  have  slept.'  This  passage  is 
also  one  of  those  adduced  by  Ullman  (/.  c.) against 
the  genuineness  of  the  third  chapter.  Olshausen 
has  replied  to  this  objection  by  maintaining  that 
the  scoffers  referred  to  were  not  believers,  but 
gnostic  heretics,  wlio  ridiculed  the  faith  of  true 
Christians  in  relaition  to  the  return  of  Christ. 

(b)  But  a  still  more  remarkable  anachronism 
has  been  pretended  to  be  discovered  in  2  Pet.  iii : 
15,  16,  where  Paul  is  said  *in  all  his  epistles  .  .  . 
which  tHe  unlearned  and  unstable  do  wrest  as  they 
do  the  other  Scriptures'  etc. — thus  both  attribut- 
ing a  collection  of  the  Pauline  epistles  to  a  period 
within  the  lifetime  of  their  author,  and  applying 
the  term  Scriptures,  which  is  exclusively  applied 


PETER.  THE  EPISTLES  OF 


1327 


PETER,  THE  EPISTLES  OP 


hy  the  New  Testament  writers  to  the  Scriptures 
of  the  Old  Testament,  to  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul. 
Now  it  is  well  known  that  there  was  no  collection 
)f  St.  Paul's  epistles  completed  before  the  second 
century,  and  that  to  no  part  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  the  term  Scriptures  applied  until  near 
its  close.  (See  Scripture,  Holy.)  In  respect  to 
the  former  part  of  this  objection,  however,  it  has 
bneen  well  shown  by  Augusti  (Commentar  uber  die 
Cathol.  Brief.)  that  Peter  does  not  here  refer  to 
all  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  but  that  the  word  all 
is  to  be  taken  relatively,  and  referred  to  the  more 
important  epistles,  which  were  most  probably 
widely  diffused  in  the  lifetime  of  the  apostle. 
To  the  reasoning  derived  from  the  phrase  'the 
o/A^r  Scriptures,*  wherein  the  word  Xotxdj  with 
the  article  is  said  by  Ullmann  to  indicate  things  of 
a  like  nature,  more  than  one  reply  has  been  given. 
It  has  been  shown  that  things  of  a  different  nature 
are  sometimes  referred  to  by  this  phrase  (comp. 
Luke  xviii:9;  Acts  v:i3;  Ephes.  ii:3;  and  iv:i7, 
if  the  reading  be  correct).  Another  interpretation 
of  the  words  has  therefore  been  proposed,  viz., 
that  the  word  'Scriptures'  here  has  no  reference 
to  the  sacred  writings,  but  to  books  in  general,  or 
such  writings  as  were  used  by  the  parties  referred 
to.  Olshausen,  however,  has  given  an  interpreta- 
tion, by  which  he  conceives  the  serious  difficulties 
by  which  this  passage  is  beset  may  be  wholly  re- 
moved. He  supposes  that  the  words,  'in  which 
are  some  things  hard  to  be  understood,'  relate  to 
the  epistles  which  Paul  had  sent  to  the  readers 
of  Peter's  epistle,  and  that  the  ,other  Scriptures 
are  the  other  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  just  before 
named  (all  his  epistles).  This  explanation  seems 
much  more  satisfactory  than  that  of  Storr  (De 
Cath.  Epist  Oceas.  et  Consil.),  who  conceives 
that  'other  Scriptures*  mean  other  passages  in  the 
same  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  as  ypa4>'^  signifies 
a  passage  in  Mark  xv  :28,  Luke  iv  :2i,  where,  how- 
ever, it  means  a  particular  passage,  but  not  any 
passage  indiscriminately. 

(c)  An  objection  of  quite  a  diflferent  character 
has  been  derived  from  2  Pet.  iii:2,  already 
referred  to;  in  our  English  Version,  'the  com- 
mandment of  us  the  apostles  of  the  Lord.'  But 
the  order  of  the  words  in  our  Greek  copies  will 
not  bear  this  rendering:  to  answer  our  Version, 
we  must  read  ijftCi¥  rwv  * AwoardXuy,  These  words 
therefore,  'our  apostles,'  as  the  words  must  be 
translated,  would  seem  to  separate  the  writers  from 
the  apostles.  Bishop  Sherlock  proposes  that  the 
sentence  be  transposed,  and  that  the  word  ijfiQi^  be 
placed  after  Kvpiov,  as  in  the  parallel  passage  in 
Jude  17,  when  the  whole  sentence  would  run  thus, 
'the  commandment  of  the  apostles  of  our  Lord 
and  Savior;'  a  reading  supported  by  the  iCthi- 
opic,  and  which  Olshausen  also  favors,  observing 
that  'there  are  as  many  genitives  as  there  are 
words,  and  these  not  following  each  other  in 
proper  order.*  But  there  is  no  necessity  for  hav- 
ing recourse  to  conjecture,  if  we  adopt  the  reading 
of  the  Alexandrine,  the  Vatican,  the  Ephrem,  and 
other  manuscripts  of  ijii(op  have  ifiQw,  Accord- 
ing to  this  reading  there  is  no  further  difficulty, 
and  the  sentence  will  stand  thus :  'the  word  spoken 
by  the  holy  prophets  and  your  apostles,  the  com- 
mandment of  the  Lord  and  Savior.'  This  read- 
ing is  also  confirmed  by  the  Vulgate,  which  has 
'et  apostolorum  vestrorum,  prceceptorum  Domini 
et  Salvatoris/  The  Syriac  also  reads,  'the  com- 
mandment of  our  Lord  and  Savior,  which  through 
the  apostles.' 

((/)  On  another  alleged  anachronism,  brought 
forward  by  Neander  {Hist,  of  the  Planting,  etc.), 
founded  on  the  phrase  'the  holy  mount'  (2  Pet. 


i:i8),  we  shall  merely  observe  that  this  might 
with  as  much  force  be  adduced  as  an  argument 
against  our  epistle  being  a  work  of  the  second 
century. 

(e)  An  objection  has  been  also  taken  from 
Peter's  referring  to  the  aqueous  origin  of  the 
earth  and  its  destruction  by  fire,  which  Ullmann 
and  others  consider  mythical  in  their  character. 
But  so  far  from  this  being  the  case  in  regard  to 
the  origin  of  the  earth,  it  completely  coincides 
with  the  Mosaic  cosmogony.  (See  Cosmogony.) 
And  as  to  the  destruction  of  the  world  by  fire, 
although  nowhere  else  alluded  to  in  the  New 
Testament,  it  is  not  only  intimated  by  the  prophets, 
but  is  in  strict  accordance  with  the  physiological 
conclusions  of  the  science  of  modem  geology. 

(8)  Genuineness.  If  Wetstein's  interpretation 
be  well  founded,  and  if  the  writer  made  use  of 
these  strong  figures  to  indicate  the  Roman  wftr, 
and  the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  state  and  city, 
instead  of  forming  an  objection,  they  will  furnish 
an  additional  and  powerful  argument  in  favor  of 
the  early  date,  and  consequently  of  the  genuine- 
ness of  our  epistle. 

It  is  fully  conceded  that  there  is  no  other  book 
in  the  New  Testament  against  whose  authority 
so  many  arguments  can  be  adduced  as  against  this 
epistle.  One  of  the  most  impartial  as  well  as 
ablest  critics  of  modern  times,  after  weighing 
them  all,  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  neither  its 
genuineness  nor  its  spuriousness  can  be  demon- 
strated by  undoubted  arguments;  but,  while  he 
admits  that  unfriendly  critics  will  see  occasion 
fop  doubt,  yet,  relying  on  subjective  grounds,  he 
is  persuaded  of  the  authenticity  of  the  epistle, 
and  that  the  arguments  which  go  to  disprove  its 
genuineness  are  not  of  sufficient  weight  to  estab- 
lish its  spuriousness,  or  cause  it  to  be  'stricken 
from  the  number  of  inspired  books.'  This  is  in 
accordance  with  the  decision  which  he  has  formed 
of  the  sacred  books,  and  which  consists  (i)  of 
those  whose  genuineness  and  authorship  can  be 
determined;  (2)  of  those  whose  spuriousness  can 
be  shown,  of  which  there  are  none;  (3)  of  those 
whose  author  is  uncertain,  but  whose  authenticity 
is  clear,  viz.,  Hebrews,  James,  2  and  3  John,  and 
Jude;  and  (4),  those  whose  authenticity  or  spuri- 
ousness cannot  be  positively  ascertained.  These 
are,  in  his  estimation,  i  and  2  Timothy,  Titus, 
and  2  Peter.  To  these  he  adds  the  Apocaljrpse, 
as  being  a  work  of  a  peculiar  kind,  but  of  whose 
genuineness  he  entertains  no  doubt  (Olshausen, 
ut  supra) . 

The  authorship  of  other  portions  of  the  sacred 
writings  may  indeed  be  rendered  uncertain,  with- 
out throwing  any  doubts  on  their  right  to  a  place 
in  the  canon,  as  in  the  instance  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews.  No  one  contests  the  right  of  the 
Epistles  of  Jude  or  of  James  to  their  present 
position  in  the  canon,  although  it  is  uncertain 
whether  their  authors  were  the  apostles  of  those 
names  or  the  brethren  of  our  Lord.  But  it  is 
far  otherwise  with  the  Epistle  of  St.  Peter.  As 
Olvin  has  observed,  'If  it  is  to  be  received  as 
canonical,    Peter    must    have    been    its    author 

for  any  other  one  to  have  personated 

the  apostle  would  have  been  a  deception  unworthy 
the  Christian  name.'  It  has  been  indeed  main- 
tained that  some  well-meaning  individual  may 
have  personated  Peter,  either  to  intimate  that  a 
reconciliation  had  taken  place  between  him  and 
St.  Paul,  to  strengthen  the  minds  of  the  Gentiles 
who  doubted  the  coming  of  Christ,  or  the  more 
easily  to  gain  advantage  over  the  heretics.  But 
although  it  may  be  true  that  some  writers  have 
through  modesty  (see  Lee's  Dissertation  upon  2 


PETER,  THE  EPISTLES  OF  13 

Esdras;  Laurence's  Ascetisio  Valis  Isaiae,  p.  i?8; 
and  the  Rev.  W.  Mascall's  Preface  to  the  Anctent 
Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England,  1844)  used 
another's  name  and  prefixed  it  to  their  work,  we 
are  convinced,  with  Olshausen,  from  the  internal 
structure  of  our  epistle,  that  it  would  not  have 
been  possible  to  have  found  a  pious  man  the  bold 
and  unblushing  inventor  of  a  literary  artifice  so 
manifest  as  the  author  in  question  must  have  been 
if  he  had  dishonestly  assumed  the  character  of 
Peler.  We  must  also  bear  in  mind  how  cautious 
and  discriminating  were  the  Fathers  of  the 
Church,  who  first  admitted  this  book  into  the 
canon.  Nor  were  they  strangers  to  the  applica- 
tion of  the  higher  criticism,  while  they  had  op- 
portunities of  adducing  external  evidence  which 
is  not  within  our  reach.  'Higher  criticism,'  says 
Hug,   is   still   open   to   us,   and   I   even   entertain 


8  PETITION 

agrees  with  the  time  assigned  by  Dr.  Lardner, 
between  64  and  66  (see  JuDE,  Epistle  of).  But  if 
Jude  certainly  quoled  the  book  of  Enoch,  and  if 
the  result  of  the  investigation  of  Liicke,  who  con- 
cludes that  this  book  was  written  in  the  6rst 
century,  at  Ihe  time  of  the  Jewish  war,  and  prob- 
ably after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  be  correct, 
this  circumstance  would  of  'ns,e\{,  cateris paribus, 
settle  the  question  in  favur  of  the  priority  of  St. 
Peter's  second  episile.  Bishiip  Sherlock  main- 
tains that  there  are  no  less  than  five  years  inter- 
vening between  ilie  date  uf  tlie  two  epistles  uf 
Peter  (see  Dissertation  on  Ike  Authortty  of  the 
Second  Epist/e  0/ St.  Peler).  ^   ^ 

PETHAHIAK  (pSth'a-hi'ah).  (Heb.  'I^TC^.^rM- 
akh-ya-ai',  freed  by  Jehovah). 

1-  A  descendant  of  Aaron,  and  head  of  the 


!i  II.  HiiniiD)>  OTBtTbrea  ThooMnd  YMraOl 


the  hope  of  drawing  from  it  manifest  proofs  of 
the  genuineness  of  some  of  these  epistles,  par- 
ticularly those  of  James  and  Jude,  and  the  Second 
of  St.  Peter.'  Its  apostolical  character  is  con- 
fessed. 'In  the  two  epistles  of  Peter,'  says  Priest- 
ley, 'many  attentive  readers  have  observed  that 
....  there  is  a  peculiar  dignity  and  energy, 
exceeding  anything  in  the  writings  of  Paul,  and 
worthy  of  the  prince  of  the  apostles'  {Hist,  of 
Christian  Church,  i,  141 ;  see  also  Wright's  Seller, 
P-  543)- 

By  those  who  acknowledge  its  genuineness  its 
date  is  generally  fixed  about  the  year  A.  D.  65, 
or  not  long  before  Peter's  death,  which  they 
deduce  from  2  Pet.  i  114,  Wetstein  concludes  from 
a  Pet.  iii  that  it  must  have  been  written  before 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  in  which  case  none 
will  allege  that  any  but  Peter  could  have  been 
its  author.  If  it  were  proved  that  Peter  had 
Jude's  epistle  before  him.  this  must  have  been 
written  not  long  before  the  same  period,  which 


3.  A  Levite  who  put  away  his  Gentile  wife  and 
signed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Ezra  x:23; 
Neh.  ix:5).     (B.   C.  about  458.) 

3-  Son  of  Meshezabeel,  of  Judah,  and  Arta- 
xerxes'  counsellor  in  matters  concerning  the 
Jews   (Neh.  xi;24).     (B.  C.  446,) 

FETHOB  (pS'thSr).  (Heb.  "''-'^f,  petA-ore',  en- 
tension).  The  place  '-i  Mesopotamia  to  which 
Balak  sent  Balaam  '.o  curse  Israel  (Num.  xxii:;; 
Deut.  xxiii:;).  It  was  north  of  Palestine,  on  the 
Euphrates  near  the  rivernow  called  Sajur,  a  few 

■'      from  the  ancient  Hittite  capital,  Carchemish, 


PETBUEIi  (pe-thQ'el),  <Heb. 


^KIPE 


'■,petk-oo-ale'. 


PETITION  (p6-t(sh-tiB).    See  Prayer, 


PETRA 


k,  (pi'tri),  (called  by  the  earlier  Greek 
writers  Hirpa,  pee'trak),  was  the  capital  of  the 
Nabathxan  Arabs  in  the  land  of  Edom.and  seems 
to  have  given  name  to  the  kingdom  and  region  of 
Arabia  Petraa. 

As  there  ia  mention  in  the  Old  Testament  of  a 
stronghold  which  successively  belonged  to  the 
Amorites  (Judg.  1:36).  the  Edomites  (2  Kings 
xiv:7)  and  the  Moabites  (Is.  xvi;i,  comp.  m 
Heb.  ch.  xliiiii),  and  bore  in  Hebrew  the  name 
of  *2P,  Selah,  which  has  the  same  meaning  as 
Petra  in  Greek,  viz.,  'a  rock,'  that  circumstance 
has  led  to  the  conjecture  that  the  Petra  of  the 
Nabathzans  had  been  the  Selah  of  Edom.  But 
the  consideration  of  that  point  in  a  work  of  this 
nature  falls  more  naturally  under  the  Bible  head 
of  Sela,  to  which  article  accordingly  the  reader 
Is  referred;  and  there  likewise  the  question  will 
be  disposed  of  as  to  whether  (on  the  suppositioi 


ir  with  the  locality  of  the  far-famed  Wady  Mtlsa. 
(See  Arabia;  Idum£a;  Nebaioth.)  N.  M. 

PSUI.TEAI  (pe-m'tbai),  (Heb.  ^I?Vv?,  peh-oel- 
Uh-tkak'ef,  ray  wages). 

The  last  mentioned  of  the  eight  sons  of  Meshel- 
cmiah.  He  was  a  Levite,  and  a  doorkeeper  in 
the  tabernacle  in  the  time  of  David  (i  Chron. 
xxvi:5).     (B.  C  about  1020.) 

FHAXEC  (pba'lek),  (Or.  #d\«r,  faFek,  Phalec), 
a  Greek  form  of  Peleg  (Luke  iii:35). 

PHALi:.U(pha'lu),  (Gen.  xlviig).    See  Pallu. 

PHAi;n  (pha'ti),  (Heb.  '^l'?,  pal-U«\  deliv- 
ered). Son  of  Laish,  who  was  given  Michal  in 
marriage  by  Saul,  after  David  had  been  driven 
anvay  as  an  outlaw  (i  Sam.  xxv;44).  (B.  C. 
about  1061).     He  is  called  Phaltiel  (2  Sam.  iii :  15). 

PHAZ/TIEL  (phai'ti-el),  (Heb.  ''(*'»??,  pai-tee- 
ale',  deliverance  of  God),  the  son-in-law  of  Saul 
(2Sam.  iii:i5).    (See  Phalti;  Palti). 

FHANTTEL  (pha-nii'el),  (Gr.  ^rov^X./an-oo-alf , 
probably  from  Penuel,  lace  of  God),  a  man  of 
Asshur,  and  father  of  Anna  the  prophetess  (Luke 
ii:^),  B.C.  about  8a 

FHABAOH  (ta'ro  or  fa'ta-o),  (Heb.^J''!?,>fl»-tf', 
the  sun),  the  general  title  of  the  kings  of  Egypt 
in  the  Old  Testament,  and  found  onlythere  ana  m 
the  writers  who  have  drawn  from  that  source. 

It  often  stands  simply  like  a  proper  name  (Gen. 
xii:i5;  xxxvii;36;  xhz,  sq.\  xliv:i,  sq.\  and  so 
generally  throughout  the  Pentateuch,  and  alao  in 
Cant.  i:9;  Is.  xix:ll;  xxxjz).  'King  of  Egypt' 
is  sometimes  subjoined  to  it  (i  Kings  iii:i;  a 
Kings  xvii:?;  xviiirai);  and  sometimes  also  the 
more  specific  designation,  or  real  proper  name  of 
the  monarch  is  indicated,  as  Pharaoh  Necho  (a 
Kings  xxlii;33),  Pharaoh  Hophra  (Jer.  xliv:30). 
Josephus  intimates  that  the    word    signifif     "' 


word  'king"  written  in  the  dialect  of  Memphis, 
oura,  and  with  the  masculine  article  piowo  (Ja- 
blonski,  Opusc.  i,  374;  Peyron,  Lex.  Copt.,  p. 
150).  The  idea  has,  however,  been  more  recently 
started  that  Pharaoh  corresponds  to  the  E^ptian 
phra,  'the  sun,'  which  is  written  as  an  hiero- 
glyphic symbol  over  thetitles  of  kings  (Wilkinson, 
Anc.  Egyptians,  iv,  287).  It  seems  to  us  that  this 
explanation  might  be  admitted  without  contra- 
dicting the  other,  seeing  that  it  is  not  only  pos- 
sible, but  highly  probable,  that  the  Egyptians 
M 


should  tnake  the  name  of 
the  sun  a  royal  title,  and 
that  at  length  custom  ren- 
dered it  eijuivalent  to  'king.* 
The  practice  of  ancient,  and 
indeed  modern.  Oriental 
kings,  of  associating  the 
idea  of  their  own  dignity 
with  the  glory  of  the  sun,  is 
well  known. 

Modern  Egyptologists  (De 
Rouge,  Brugsch,  and  Ebers) 
define  its  .meaning  as  "the 
great  house,"  and  its  appli- 
cation would  thus  be  equiv- 
alent to  our  "the  sublime 
porte."  On  account  of  the 
great  uncertainty  which  still 
surrounds     Egyptian    chro- 


ferent  Pharaohs  mentioned 
in  the  Bible,  but,  in  many 
points,  the  investigations  of 
Egyptologists  and  Biblical 
scholars  have  reached 
pretty  certain  conclusions. 
Ten  Pharaohs  are  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  Testament. 

(1)  Tlie  Pbaraob  of 
Abraham.  The  Pharaoh  of 
the  time  of  Abraham  (Gen. 
xii  ;i^)  is  most  prt^ably 
identical  with  Salalis,  the 
head  of  the  fifteenth  dy- 
nasty, one  of  the  Shepherd- 
kings  (Hyksos),  foreigners 
of  the  Semitic  race,  who 
conquered  Egypt  and,  hav- 
ing   become    Egyptian  ized, 

ruled    it    for    several    cen-  _ 

turies.    The  date  of  Abra- „^^^^„,         r, 
hams  visit  to  Egypt  is  most    it, thaphuaolioCiha 
probably  fixed  at  about  B.  oppniiion. 

C.2080. 

(2)  The  Pharaoh  of  Joseph.  The  Pharaoh 
of  Joseph  ((^en.  xli)  was  the  last,  or  the  last  but 
one,  of^the  fifteenth  dynasty;  probably  identical 
with  Apqphis,  who  reigned  at  least  twenty-six 
years.  (B.  C.  1876-1850.)  Bunsen  identifies  him 
with   Osirtesen   HI,    the  Sesostris    of    classical 

(3>  The  Pharaoh  of  tha  Opprestiaii.  "The 
new  king  over  Egypt  who  knew  not  Joseph" 
(Exod.  1:8),  and  under  whose  reign  Moses  was 
born — is  now  by  most  Egyptologists  identified 
with  Rameses  H,  the  third  sovereign  of  the  nine- 
teenth dynasty  (the  Sesostris  of  the  Greeks),  the 
most  prominent  of  the  Pharaohs,  a  conqueror  of 
many  lands,  the  master  builder  of  Egypt,  whose 
statues  and  temples  in  ruins  are  found  all  over 
the  Nile  valley  from  Zoan  (Tanis)  to  Karnak.  It 
was  his  dau^ter  who  found  and  adopted  Moses 
(Exod.  ii:5-I0).  His  mummied  body  was  taken 
from  the  tomb  in  1S81  and  unwrapped  in  the  Bon- 
lak  mttseum.  That  this  Pharaoh  was  Aahmes  I 
(the  Amosis  of  Josephus),  the  first  sovereign  of 
the  eighteenth  dynasty,  is  now  pretty  generally 
abandoned.     (See  Egypt.) 

<4)  The  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodna.  The  Pha- 
raoh of  the  Exodus  (Exod.  v:i),  before  whom 
Moses  wrought  his  miracles,  and  who  perished 
with  his  army  in  the  pursuit  of  the  Israelites, 
was  Meneptah,  the  thirteenth  son  of  Rameses 
II,  who  began  to  rule  B.  C.  1^28,  His  reign  was 
inglorious  and  marked  a  period  of  decline.  He 
did  not  even  finish  his  father's  tomb.    On  a  mon- 


<S)  Tlie  rather-in-Law  of  Kared. 
raoh  whose  daughter,  Biihiah,  was  given  in  mar- 
riage to  Mered,  a  descendant  of  Judah  (i  Chron. 
iv:i8).  The  date  of  this  marriage  cannot  be  as- 
certained, being  fixed  i>y_  some  at  the  time  of  the 
exode,  while  others  bring  down  this  event  to 
near  the  time  of  David.  "The  most  interesting 
feature  connected  with  this  transaction  is  the  name 
Bithiah    (daughter    of    Jehovah),  given  to  the 


daugl 
of  Is 


srael  as  exerting  i 


(6)  The  Brother-In-lAW  of  Hadad.  The 
Pharaoh  who  gave  the  sister  of  his  queen  in  mar- 
riage to  Hadad,  an  Edomite  of  royal  blood,  who 
escaped  the  massacre  ot  Joab  and  fled  to  Egypt 
(i  Kings  xi:i8-2o),  Osochar  is  probably  the 
Pharaoh  in  question,  although  according  to  Afri- 
eanus  he  would  be  Psusennes  I. 

(7)  The  7athef-lii-I>aw  of  Solomon.  The 
Pharaoh  whose  daughter  Solomon  married  and 
brought  "into  the  city  of  David  until  he  had  made 
an  end  of  building  his  own  house,  and  the  house 
of  the  Lord"  (l  Kings  iii:i),  consequently  before 
the  eleventh  year  of  his  reign,  in  which  year  the 
temple  was  finished  (i  Kings  vi  ;37,  38).  This 
Pharaoh  afterward  made  an  expedition  into  Pal- 
estine, took  Gezer,  slew  the  Canaanites  who  dwelt 
in  the  city,  and  gave  it  to  his  daughter,  Solomon's 
wife  (I  Kings  ]x:i6). 

(8)  Tha  "PbaxaxOi  of  Eazeldali.  The  Pharaoh 
in  whom  Kin;  Hezekiah  put  his  confidence  in  his 


10  PHARISEES 

war  with  Sennacherib  (2  Kings  xviii  :2i).  He  m^ 
be  reasonably  supposed  to  be  Sethos  or  the  2et  uf 
Manetho,  the  last  king  of  the  twenty-third  dy- 
nasty. He  reigned  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  Heie- 
kiah  (B.  C.  about  711),  and  was  the  contemporary 
of  Tirhakah,  king  of  Ethiopia,  and  of  Sennache- 
rib, king  ot  Assyria  (Is.  xxxvi:6). 
PHABAOH-HOPHBA  (fa'ro-hfiph'ra).  (Hcb. 

si^n  nin^8_  ^^.^  ^^jr.„_  p^j^^j  ^j  ^^^^  g^^,   ^^^ 

HOPHRA. 

PHABAOH-NECHO  (fa'ro-nfi'koh),  (Hcb.  ''> 
and  ™5,  lui-ff'].  also  called  simply  Necho,  was  the 
*'th  or  sixth  nilcr  of  the  Saite  dynasty,  and  reigned 

Dm  B.  C.  610  to  594. 

He  made  an  expediton  against  Assyria,  but  was 

■countered  by  Josiah,  king  of  Judah,  who  sided 

ithAssyria,  and  who  was  defeated  and  killed  at 

legiddo  {2  Chron.  xxxv:30-24;  2  Kings  xxiii ; 

I,   30)-       The   Jews   then   raised  Jehoahaz,   the 

(unger  son  of  Josiah,  to  the  throne,  but  he  was 

■posed  by  Necho,  who  gave  the  scepter  to  Je- 

Jiakim,  the  elder  son  of  Josiah.    Necho's  army 

was  afterward  defeated   at  Carchemish  by 

Nebuchadnezzar,  and  he   lost  all  bis  Asiatic 

possessions  (2  Kings  xxivij).    (See  Necho.) 

FHASAOH'S  DAUOHTXB  (fa'co's  da'- 

ter). 

1.  The  daughter  of  the  Pharaoh  who  op- 
pressed the  Israelites  and  who  saved  Moses' 
life  (Exod.  ii:5-io).    (See  Pharaoh,  3.) 

2.  Bithiah,  wife  of  Mered,  was  a  daughter  of 
one  of  the  Pharaohs  probably  reigning  about 
the  time  of  the  Exodus.    (See  Pharaoh,  5,) 

8.  A  wife  of  Solomon,  and  probably  the 
daughter  of  a  ruler  of  the  twenty-first  dynasty 
(I  Kings  iii:i;vii:8:ix:24).  [See  Pharaoh, 7.) 
PHASES  (pha'riz),  (Gr.  *«^»,  fai-reAs'),  ft 
reek  form  of  Pharez  (Matt.  i:3;  Li^e  iii:33). 
FHABBZ  (pha'rez),  ( Heb.  W,  pek' reb. 
"tach),  A  son  of  Judah  by  Tamar,  and  twin  of 
irah  or  Zerah  (Gen.  xxxviil:29,  30).  (B.  C. 
out  1890.)  He  founded  a  tribd  family  named 
r  him.  Two  more  such  families  sprang  from  his 
ns,  and  bore  their  names  (Num.  xxvi:20.  21;  1 
iron.  liT4,  s)-  He  was  an  ancestor  of  David  and 
irist  (Ruth  iv:i2-i8;  Matt.  i:3). 
PHABIBBISS  (pb&r'i-seez),  (Or.  #a>u<ra»t,  far- 

is-ah'yoi,  a  separatist,  from  Heb.  ^'^,  pawrash' , 

to  separate). 

(1)  Name.  The  name  denotes  those  who  are 
separated,  1.  e.  from  ordinary  persons,  of  course, 
by  the  correctness  of  their  opinions  and  the  holi- 
ness of  their  lives.  They  were  a  Jewish  sect  who 
had  the  dominant  influence  in  the  time  of  our 
Lord,  to  whose  faults  the  overthrow  of  the  state 
may  be  attributed,  and  who  have  to  bear  the  aw- 
ful burden  of  having  crucified  the  Lord  and 
giver  of  life. 

(2)  Origin.  The  precise  period  when  the 
Pharisees  appeared  as  a  sect,  history  does  not 
supply  us  with  the  means  of  determining.  That 
they,  however,  as  well  as  their  natural  opponents, 
the  Sadducees,  existed  in  the  priesthood  of 
Jonathan,  in  the  interval,  that  is,  between  159  and 
144  before  Christ,  is  known  from  Josephus,  who 
{Antiq.  xiii,  5)  makes  mention  of  them  as  wdl  as 
of  the  sect  of  the  Essenes.  The  terms  he  em- 
ploys warrant  the  conviction  that  they  were  then 
no  novelties,  but  well  known,  well  defined^  and 
two  established  religious  parties.  But  from  the 
time  of  Jonathan  to  that  of  Ezra  (about  460  B. 
C),   there  had  taken  place  no  great   formativQ 


PHARISEES 


1331 


PHARISEES 


event  such  as  could  of  itself  cause  so  great  a 
change  in  the  Hebrew  system  as  was  the  rise  of 
these  sects;  whereas  the  influences  to  which  the 
Israelites  had  been  subject  in  the  Medo-Persian 
dominions,  and  the  necessarily  somewhat  new  di- 
rection which  things  took  on  the  rebuilding  of 
the  temple  and  the  restoration  of  the  civil  and 
religious  polity,  could  hardly  fail,  considering  the 
distance  from  Moses  at  which  these  changes  hap- 
pened, and  the  great  extent  to  which  the  people 
had  lost  even  the  knowledge  of  the  institutions 
and  language  of  their  forefathers,  to  lead  to  di- 
versities of  views,  interests,  and  aims,  whence 
sects  would  spring  as  a  natural  if  not  inevitable 
result.  There  is,  therefore,  good  reason  to  refer 
the  origin  of  the  Pharisees  to  the  time  of  the  re- 
turn from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  a  period  which 
constitutes  a  marked  epoch,  as  dividing  the  He- 
braism of  the  older  and  purer  age  from  the  Juda- 
ism of  the  later  and  more  corrupt  times.  Nor, 
did  our  space  allow,  should  we  find  it  difficult  to 
trace  the  leading  features  of  the  Pharisaic  char- 
acter back  to  those  peculiar  opinions  and  usages 
with  which  the  old  Israelitish  type  of  mind  had 
been  made  familiar,  and  at  the  same  time  corrupt, 
in  the  Persian  empire. 

(3)  CharacteristicB.  But  as  we  think  it  more 
for  the  reader's  instruction  to  lay  before  him  the 
very  words  in  which  this  sect  is  described,  than 
to  give  a  philosophical  account  of  the  rise  and 
connection  of  their  principles,  to  which  of  neces- 
sity our  own  views  would  impart  a  coloring,  we 
shall  proceed  to  transcribe  a  nearly  literal  transla- 
tion of  the  most  important  passages  in  question. 

The  Pharisees  have  delivered  to  the  people  a 
great  many  observances  by  succession  from  their 
fathers,  which  are  not  written  in  the  law  of  Moses, 
and  for  that  reason  it  is  that  the  Sadducees  re- 
ject them,  and  say  that  we  are  to  esteem  those 
observances  to  be  obligatory  which  are  in  the 
written  word,  but  are  not  to  observe  what  are  de- 
rived from  the  tradition  of  our  forefathers.  Hence 
gfreat  disputes.  The  Sadducees  are  able  to  per- 
suade none  but  the  rich,  and  have  not  the  popu- 
lace obsequious  to  them,  but  the  Pharisees  have 
the  multitude  on  their  side.'  The  Pharisees  are 
not  apt  to  be  severe  in  punishments*  (Joseph. 
Antiq.  xiii:io.  5  and  6;  Epiphan.   //ipr.  15). 

The  Pharisees  live  meanly  and  despise  deli- 
cacies in  diet:  and  they  follow  the  conduct  of 
reason,  and  what  that  prescribes  to  them  as  good 
they  do.  They  also  pay  respect  to  such  as  are  in 
years ;  nor  are  they  so  bold  as  to  contradict  them 
in  anything  which  they  have  introduced;  and 
when  they  determine  that  all  things  are  done  by 
fate,  they  do  not  take  away  from  men  the  free- 
dom of  acting  as  they  think  fit,  since  their  notion 
is  that  it  hath  pleased  God  to  make  a  constitution 
of  things  whereby  what  he  wills  is  done,  but  so 
that  the  will  of  man  can  act  virtuously  or  vi- 
ciously.' 

(4)  Belief.  They  also  believe  that  souls  have 
an  immortal  vigor  in  them,  and  that  under  the 
earth  there  will  be  rewards  or  punishments,  ac- 
cording as  men  have  lived  virtuously  or  viciously 
in  this  life.  The  latter  are  to  be  detained  in  an 
everlasting  prison;  but  the  former  shall  have 
power  to  revive  and  live  again:  on  account  of 
which  doctrine  they  are  able  greatly  to  persuade 
the  body  of  the  people:  and  whatsoever  is  done 
about  divine  worship,  prayers,  and  sacrifices,  is 
performed  according  to  their  directions,  insomuch 
that  the  cities  gave  great  attestations  to  them  on 
accoimt  of  their  entire  virtuous  conduct*  (Jo- 
seph. Antiq.  xviii,  i,  3). 

The  bodies  of  all  men  are  mortal,  and  are  cre- 


ated out  of  corruptible  matter;  but  the  soul  is 
ever  immortal,  and  is  a  portion  of  the  divinity 
that  inhabits  our  bodies'  (De  Bell.  Jud.  iii,  8,  5). 
They  say  that  all  souls  are  incorruptible,  but  that 
the  souls  of  good  men  only  are  removed  into 
other  bodies,  and  that  the  ouls  of  bad  men  are 
subject  to  eternal  punishment. 

The  Pharisees  are  those  who  are  esteemed 
most  skilfull  in  the  exact  interpretation  of  the 
laws.  They  ascribe  all  to  Fate  (or  Providence) 
and  to  God,  and  yet  allow  that  to  act  what  isvjjjght 
or  the  contrary  is  for  the  most  part  in  the  power 
of  man. 

The  Pharisees  say  that  some  actions,  but  not 
all,  are  the  work  of  fate,  that  some  of  them  are 
in  our  own  power,  and  that  they  are  liable  to  fate, 
but  are  not  caused  by  fate'  (Joseph.  Antiq.  xiii, 

5,  9). 

(5)  Political  Power,  Etc.  The  Pharisees  are 
a  sect  of  Jews  which  appear  to  be  more  pious 
than  others,  and  to  expound  the  laws  more  ac- 
curately. These  Pharisees  artfully  insinuated 
themselves  into  her  (Queen  Alexandra's)  favor 
by  little  and  little,  and  became  the  real  adminis- 
trators of  public  affairs;  they  banished  and  re- 
stored whom  they  pleased ;  they  bound  and  loosed 
at  their  pleasure;  they  had  the  enjoyment  of  the 
royal  authority,  whilst  the  expenses  and  the  diffi- 
culties of  it  belonged  to  Alexandra.  She  was  a 
sagacious  woman  in  the  management  of  great  af- 
fairs, and  became  not  onlx_very  powerful  at  home, 
but  terrible  also  to  foreign  potentates:  while  she 
governed  other  people,  the  Pharisees  governed 
her.  She  was  so  superstitious  as  to  comply  with 
their  desires,  and  accordingly  they  slew  whom 
tb^  pleased'  (Joseph.  De  Bell.  Jud.  i,  5,  2,  3). 

There  was  a  certain  sect  that  were  Jews,  wJio 
valued  themselves  highly  upon  the  exact  skill 
they  had  in  the  law  of  their  fathers,  and  made 
men  believe  they  were  highly  favored  by  God,  tx 
whom  this  set  of  women  were  inveigled.  These 
are  those  that  are  called  the  sect  of  the  Phari- 
sees, who  were  able  to  make  great  opposition  to 
kings;  a  cunning  sect  they  were,  and  soon  ele- 
vated to  a  pitch  of  open  fighting  and  doing  mis- 
chief. Accordingly,  when  all  the  people  of  the 
Jews  gave  assurance  of  their  good  will  to  C3aesar 
and  to  the  king's  government,  these  men  did  not 
swear,  being  about  6,000;  and  when  the  king  im- 
posed a  fine  upon  them,  Phreroras'  wife  paid  it. 
In  order  to  requite  this  kindness,  since  they  were 
believed  to  have  a  foreknowledge  of  things  to 
come  by  divine  inspiration,  they  foretold  how 
(jod  had  decreed  that  Herod's  government  should 
cease,  and  that  the  kingdom  should  come  to  her 
and  Phreroras,  and  to  their  children ;  so  the  king 
Herod  slew  such  of  the  Pharisees  as  were  prin- 
cipally accused,  and  all  who  had  consented  to 
what  the  Pharisees  had  foretold*  (Joseph.  Antiq. 
xvii,  2,  4). 

The  sect  of  the  Pharisees  are  supposed  to  ex- 
cel others  in  the  accurate  knowledge  of  the  laws 
of  their  country'  (Joseph.  Vita,  sec.  38). 

The  Pharisees  have  so  great  a  power  over  the 
multitude  that  when  they  say  anything  against 
the  king  or  against  the  high-priest,  they  are  gen- 
erally believed'  (Joseph.  Anttq.  xiii,  10,  5). 

'Moreover  the  Pharisees  are  friendly  to  one  an- 
other, and  are  for  the  exercise  of  concord  and  re- 
gard for  the  public'  (Joseph.  De  Bell.  Jud.  ii,  8, 

14). 

(6)  Character   as   Foiind   in  the   Gospels. 

There  is  another  source  of  our  knowledge  of  the 
Pharisees — ^the  books  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
light  in  which  they  here  appear  varies,  of  course, 
with  the  circumstances  to  which  its  origin  is  due. 


PHARISEES 


1332 


PHEBE 


The  reader  has  just  had  before  him  the  account 
of  a  friend  and  an  adherent,  an  account  which, 
therefore,  we  may  believe,  is  conceived  and  set 
forth  in  the  most  favorable  manner.  The  gospels 
present  the  character  of  the  Pharisees  in  a  darker 
hue,  inasmuch  as  here  a  higher  standard  is 
brought  into  use,  a  loftier  morality  is  the  judge. 
To  pass  on  to  the  views  given  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  high  repute  in  which  the  Pharisees 
were  held,  as  expositors  of  the  national  laws, 
whether  civil  or  religious,  may  be  seen  in  John 
vii  148 ;  Acts  xxii  13 ;  the  casuistry  which  they  em- 
ployed in  expounding  the  Scriptures,  in  Matt,  ix ; 
34;  XV  :5;  xxiii:i6;  Mark  vii  7,  sq.;  their  exces- 
sive zeal  in  proselytism  (Matt.  xxiii:i5);  yet 
their  concealment  of  light  and  hindrance  of  prog- 
ress (Matt.  xxiii:i3)  ;  their  inordinate  regard  for 
externals,  and  oppressive  but  self-sparing  rule 
(Matt.  xxiii:3,  sq.,  25)  ;  their  affectation  of  gran- 
deur and  distinction  (Matt.  xxiii:5,  sq.);  their 
shocking  hypocrisy  (Matt.  xxiii:i4,  27 ^  sq?)  ;  their 
standing  on  inconsiderable  points,  while  they  neg- 
lected such  as  were  of  consequence,  preferring 
ceremonial  rites  to  justice  and  charity  (Matt. 
xxiii:24;  xii:2-7;  Luke  vi:7;  John  ix:i6,  sq.; 
Mark  vii:i)  ;  the  display  which  they  affected  even 
in  works  of  religion  (Matt.  vi:i,  sq.;  xxiii:5): 
their  pride  and  self-gratulation  as  assuredly,  and 
before  others,  religious  men  (Luke  xviii  rp,  sq.)  ; 
their  regard  to  tradition  (Matt.  xv:2;  Mark,  vii: 
3)  ;  they  formed  schools,  which  had  masters  and 
disciples  (Matt,  xxii:  16;  Luke  v:33);  agreeably 
with  their  general  doctrines,  they  regarded  the 
act  rather  than  the  motive  (Luke  xi:39;  xviii: 
II,  sq.) ;  and  were  given  to  fasts,  prayers,  wash- 
ing, paying  of  tithes,  alms,  etc.  (Matt.  ix:i4); 
xxiii:i5,  23;  Luke  xi:39,  sq.;  xviii  :i2);  exhibit- 
ing themselves  to  the  people,  in  order  to  gain 
their  favor,  as  self-denying,  holy  men,  zealous  for 
(jod  and  the  law,  a  kind  of  Jewish  stoics  (Matt 
ix:ii;  Luke  v:3o;  vi:2;  Matt.  xxiii:5,  15,  29); 
while  in  reality  they  were  fond  of  the  pleasures 
of  sense,  and  were  men  of  lax  morals  CMatt.  v: 
20;  XV  :4,  8;  xxiii:3,  14,  23,  25;  John  viii:7).  At 
an  early  period  they  determined  in  the  Sanhedrim 
to  withstand  and  destroy  Jesus,  instigated  doubt- 
less by  the  boldness  with  which  he  taught  the 
necessity  of  personal  righteousness  and  pure  wor- 
ship (Matt.  xii:i4). 

In  regard  to  the  opinions  of  the  Pharisees, 
the  New  Testament  affords  only  fragments  of  in- 
formation, which  are,  however,  m  accordance  with 
the  fuller  particulars  furnished  by  Josephus. 
From  Acts  xxiii  :6,  8,  we  learn  that  they  believed 
in  the  existence  of  higher  created  beings  than 
man,  doubtless  the  good  and  bad  spirits  of  the 
CHialdee  philosophy.  The  same  places  also  instruct 
us  that  they  held  a  resurrection  of  the  dead 
(comp.  Matt.  xxii:24,  sq.). 

It  thus  appears  that  the  Pharisees  were  in 
general  a  powerful  religious  party,  or  rather  the 
predominant  influence,  in  the  Jewish  state,  who 
aspired  to  the  control  of  the  civil  and  religious 
institutions,  affected  popularity  among  the  people, 
exerted  influence  in  the  councils  of  kings,  queens, 
and  people  of  rank ;  were  the  recognized  teachers 
and  guides  of  the  national  mind,  proud  of  their 
orthodoxy,  pluming  themselves  on  their  superior 
sanctity,  practicing  austerities  outwardly,  but  in- 
wardly indulging  their  passions  and  descending 
to  unworthy  and  shameful  acts;  and  withal  c3 
narrow  spirit,  contracted  views,  seeking  rather 
their  own  aggrandisement  than  the  public  good, 
of  which  they  used  the  name  merely  as  a  pretext 
and  a  cover. 

We  are   not  to  suppose  that  there   were  no 


individuals  in  the  body  free  from  its  prevailing 
vices.  There  did  not  fail  to  be  upright  and  pure- 
minded  men,  who  united  inward  piety  to  outward 
correctness  of  conduct,  and  were  indeed  superior 
to  the  principles  of  their  sect;  such  was  Nico- 
demus  (John  iii:i)  ;  such  also  Gamaliel  may  have 
been  (Acts  v:34;  comp.  Berach.  xiii,  2;  Sota, 
XX,  3;  Bahyl.  Sota,  xxii.  2).  Of  men  of  this 
kind  many  were  led  to  embrace  the  Gospel  (Acts 
XV  :5). 

In  general,  however,  their  power  was  all  di- 
rected against  Jesus  and  his  work.  With  what 
force  they  must  have  acted  appears  obvious  from 
the  preceding  remarks.  Nor  is  the  reader  to  im- 
agine that  they  were  merely  a  few  learned  men, 
congregated  together  in  the  capital,  engaged  in 
learned  pursuits  or  religious  practices,  and  in  con- 
sequence leaving  our  Lord  at  liberty  to  pursue  his 
ordinary  duties  up  and  down  the  land.  The  capi- 
tal was  doubtless  their  headquarters,  but  they 
pervaded  the  entire  country  in  considerable  num^ 
bers  (six  thousand  are  referred  to  above),  and 
were  therefore  present  in  all  parts  to  withstand 
the  publication  of  the  Gospel  of  that  kingdom 
every  feature  of  which  they  hated  (Luke  v:i7) ; 
and  as  they  constituted  a  large  portion  of  the 
Sanhedrim  (Acts  v:34;  xxiii :6,  sq.),  and  had  ap 
almost  unlimited  influence  with  the  people,  great 
indeed  was  the  power  which  they  wielded  in  their 
conflict  with  the  infant  church.  Perhaps  there 
never  was  an  instance  in  any  social  condition  in 
which  the  elements  of  power  supplied  by  religion, 
politics,  high  life,  and  humble  condition  were  more 
thoroughly  or  more  densely  combined  in  order 
to  oppose  and  destroy  the  growing  power  of  new 
ideas  and  lofty  aims.  The  victory,  however,  was 
for  man,  because  it  was  also  of  God.  Darkness, 
indeed,  prevailed  for  three  days,  covering  the 
land,  and  casting  a  thick  shadow  over  the  world. 
But  the  Sun  of  Righteousness  arose,  and  still 
shines. 

Pharisaism,  how  compact  soever  might  be 
its  appearance  outwardly,  and  as  against  a  com- 
mon enemy,  had  its  own  internal  dissensions.  The 
question  of  more  or  less  of  moderate  or  extreme 
views,  of  what  on  one  side  would  be  called  tem- 
porizing and  on  the  other  consistency,  agitated 
this  school  as  it  has  agitated  most  others.  In  the 
age  of  our  Lord  there  were  two  leading  parties, 
that  of  Hillel  and  that  of  Schammai,  the  former 
representing  a  moderate  Pharisaism,  the  latter 
'the  straitest  sect,'  to  which  Paul  had  probably 
belonged. 

Some  of  the  extracts  from  Josephus  show 
clearly  that  the  Greek  philosophy  had  an  influence 
on  the  doctrines  of  the  Pharisees.  (Milman,  Hist, 
of  the  Jews;  Edersheim,  Life  of  Jesus;  Farrar, 
Life  of  Christ;  Geike,  Life  of  Christ.) 

J.  R.  B. 

FHABOSH  (pha'r6sh),  (Ezra  viii:3).    See  Par- 

OSH. 

FHABPAB   (phar'par),  (Heb.  "^S^S,  par'par, 

swift),  one  of  the  rivers  of  Damascus  (2  Kings  v: 
12).    See  Abana. 

It  is  commonly  identified  with  A'waj,  formed 
by  the  junction  of  several  streams  rising  in  Her- 
mon. 

FHABZITES   (phar'zites).  (Heb.  ^TW,  hap- 

par-tsee\  with  the  article,  the  Partsi),  the  descend- 
ants of  Pharez  (Num.  xxvi:20),    (See  Perez.) 

PHASEAH  (pha-se'ah),  (Neh.  vii:5i).  See 
Paseah. 

PHEBE  (phe'be),  (Gr.  *of/3iy,  fo/bay).  See 
Phgbbe. 


PHENICE 


S  (phe-oi'se),  (Gr.  toittt^,  fo^-nee'kay, 
;  Acts  xiilg;  xv:3;  in  x)tvii;i2  *olrit. 
:ily  on  the  southeast  of  Crete,  with  a 
liarboi,  in  the  attempt  to  reach  which  theship'in 
which  Paul  voyaged  as  a  prisoner  to  Rome,  was 
driven  out  of  its  course,  and  eventually  wrecked 
(Acta  xxviiiiz). 

Both  Ptolemyand  Sirabo  mention  a  town  named 
Phoenix.  Phenice  or  Phcenix  has  been  identified 
with  the  harbor  of  Lutro,  about  thirty-five  miles 
we  St- north  west  from  Cape  Matala.  It  has  lately 
been  shown  that  this  place  has  an  admirable  har- 
bor with  a  good  depth  of  water,  and  sheltered 
from  the  winter  winds. 
PHENICL&.  (pbe-Dlsh-4).  See  Phcenicia. 
PHIBEBETH  (phlVe-sSth),  (Heb.  '153"''?,A'- 
bek'seth,  the  cat  goddess  Basht,  Ezek.  xxx:i7).  See 

Pl-BESETH. 

FHIOHOL(phl'kDl), (Heb.  ^i'p.^i^-^o/^', mouth 
of  all,  i.e.  all-commanding),  the  proper,  or  more 
probably,  the  titular  name  oE  the  commander  of  the 
troopsot  Abimelech,the  Philistine  king  of  Gerar, 


J3  PHILEMON 

in  Asia  Minor  it  withstood  the  Turks  the  long- 
est.   It  was  taken  by  Bajazet  I  in  A,  D.  1302. 

Philadelphia  still  exists  as  a  Turkish  town,  un- 
der the  name  of  Allah  Shehr,  'city  of  God,'  i.  e. 
High-town.  It  covers  a  considerable  extent  of 
ground,  running  up  the  slopes  of  four  hills,  or 
rather  of  one  hill  with  tour  fiat  summits.  The 
country,  as  viewed  from  these  hills,  is  extremely 
magnificent — gardens  and  vineyards  lying  at  the 
back  and  sides  of  the  town,  and  before  it  one  of 
the  most  extensive  and  beautiful  plains  of  Asia. 
The  town  itself,  ahhough  spacious,  is  miserably 
built  and  kept,  the  dwellings  being  remarkably 
mean,  and  the  streets  exceedingly  filthy.  Across 
the  summits  of  the  hill  behind  the  town  and  the 
small  valleys  between  them  runs  the  town  wall, 
strengthened  by  circular  and  square  towers,  and 
forming  also  an  extensive  and  long  quadrangle  in 
the  plain  below.  There  are  about  10,000  inhabi- 
tants, mainly  Turks,  It  is  stated  that  there  are 
five  churches  in  the  town,  besides  twenty  others 
which  were  too  old  or  loo  small  for  use.  Six 
ts,  indicating  as  many  mosques,  are  seen 


If  the  Abimelech  of  the  time  of  Isaac  was  the 
son  of  the  Abimelech  of  the  time  of  Abraham,  we 
may  conclude  that  the  Phichol  who  attended  on 
the  second  Abimelech  was  the  successor  of  the 
one  who  was  present  with  the  first  at  the  inter- 
view with  Abraham  (Gen.  xxi  ;22 ;  xxvi  :z6).  But 
the  whole  subject  of  these  interviews  is  beset  with 
difficulties.  (See  Abimelech;  Abraham;  Isaac.) 

PHILADELPHIA  (phn'a-dSl'phi-a),  (Gr.  *iX«8- 
ft^ia.  fil-ad-etfee-ah,  brotherly  love),  a  city  of 
Lesser  Asia,  and  one  of  the  seven  containing  the 
Christian  churches  to  which  the  Apocalyptic  ad- 
monitions were  addressed. 

The  town  stood  about  twenty-five  miles  south- 
east from  Sardis,  in  north  latitude  32°  28',  east 
longitude  28°  30',  in  the  plain  of  Hermus,  about 
midway  between  the  river  of  that  name  and  the 
termination  of  Mount  Tmolus.  It  was  the  second 
in  Lydia  (Ptolem.  v,  2;  Plin.  Hisl.  Nat.  v,  30), 
and  was  built  by  King  Attalus  Philadelphus,  from 
whom  it  took  its  name.  In  B.  C.  133  the  place 
passed,  with  the  dominion  in  which  it  lay,  to  the 
Romans.  The  site  is  reputed  by  Straho  (xiii,  p. 
628)  to  have  been  very  liable  to  earthquakes;  hut 
it  continued  a  place  of  importance  and  of  strength 
down  to  the  Byzantine  age ;  and  of  all  the  towns 


in  the  town ;  and  one  of  these  mosques  is  believed 
by  the  native  Christians  to  have  been  the  church 
in  which  assembled  the  primitive  Christians  ad- 
dressed in  the  Apocalypse.  There  are  tew  ruins; 
but  in  one  part  there  are  still  found  four  strong 
marble  pillars,  which  supported  the  dome  of  a 
church.  The  dome  itself  has  fallen  down,  but 
its  remains  may  be  observed,  and  it  is  seen  that 
the  arch  was  of  brtck.  On  the  sides  of  the  pil- 
lars are  inscriptions,  and  some  architectural  or- 
naments in  the  form  of  the  figures  of  saints.  One 
solitary  pillar  of  high  antiquity  has  been  often 
noticed,  as  reminding  beholders  of  the  remark- 
able words  in  the  Apocalyptic  message  to  the 
Philadelphian  church:  'Him  that  overcometh  will 
I  make  a  pillar  in  the  temple  of  my  God;  and  he 
shall  go  no  more  out'  (Rev.  iii:i2).  (Arundell. 
Seven  Churches;  Arundell,  Discoveries  in  Asia.) 

PHILEMON  (phl-li'moQ),  (Gr.  *Aii;iu»,  fil-ay'- 
mone,  affectionate]. 

A  rich  citizen  of  Colosse,  in  Phrygia,  who  was 
converted  to  the  Christian  faith,  with  Apphia  his 
wife,  by  Epaphras,  a  disciple  of  Paul ;  but  it  would 
appear  from  the  expression  in  Philem.  verse  19, 
'that  Philemon  was  really  a  convert  of  Paul; 
unless  we  could  admit  that  the  apostle  had  for- 


1 


PHILEMON,  EPISTLE  TO 


1334 


PHILEMON,  EPISTLE  TO 


merly  been  the  means  of  saving  his  life;  for 
which  we  have  no  warrant.  (A.  D.  57.)  Some 
have  supposed  that  Archippus  was  son  to  Phile- 
mon; and  as  the  apostle  terms  him,  "our  fellow 
soldier,"  it  is  possible,  that  the  connection  had 
been  of  long  standing,  and  consequently,  much  in- 
tercourse might  have  taken  place  between  Paul 
and  Philemon,  distinct  from  any  reference  to 
Philemon's  situation  at  Colosse. 

Though  it  is  usually  said  that  Paul  had  con- 
verted and  baptized  Onesimus,  the  runaway  slave 
of  Philemon  (see  Onesimus),  at  Rome,  yet  from 
the  phrase  (Col.  ivrp)  "who  is  one  of  you,"  it  is 
natural  to  infer  that  Onesimus  had  professed 
Christianity  before  his  elopement  (so  Epaphras  is 
called  one  of  themselves,  chap.  1:7.);  otherwise, 
he  could  be  no  member  of  the  church  at  Colosse : 
and  very  likely,  this  transgression  of  a  professor 
had  not  only  mortified  Philemon  extremely,  but 
had  scandalized  the  church,  and  had  become  pub- 
licly notorious  among  the  heathen  also. 

Philemon  was  undoubtedly  a  man  of  property; 
and  like  Gains,  the  lady  Eclecta,  and  Phoebe,  he 
exercised  great  hospitality  towards  Christian 
brethren,  especially  evangelists.  But  from  the  di- 
rection of  the  apostle  "to  prepare  him  a  lodging" 
(comp.  Macknight,  et  al,  in  loc.)  in  a  hired  house, 
in  the  city,  where  he  might  receive  all  visitors,  it 
would  appear  that  Philemon's  premises  were  not 
very  extensive. 

Philemon  might  have  been  a  deacon  in  or  of 
the  churches  at  Colosse,  but  the  term  "fellow  la- 
borer" is  not  sufficient  to  prove  that  he  was  a 
bishop;  though  it  implies  a  previous  personal 
knowledge,  and  perhaps  much  confidential  com- 
munication, between  the  parties.  If  we  might  add 
a  personal  knowledge  of  Philemon,  by  those 
also  who  salute  him  in  Paul's  letter, — Timothy, 
Epaphras,  Mark,  Aristarchus,  Demas,  Luke, — ^it 
would  gfreatly  heighten  our  conception  of  this 
good  man's  character,  and  suggest  a  variety  of 
occasions  on  which  he  might  have  rendered  the 
brethren  services  equally  extensive  and  important. 
His  house  at  Colosse  was  shown  in  the  time  of 
Theodoret  and  tradition  represents  him  as  bishop 
of  that  city  and  as  having  suffered  martyrdom. 

PHILEMON,  EPISTLE  TO 

(1)  Authorship.  That  this  epistle  was  writ- 
ten by  the  apostle  Paul  is  the  constant  tradition 
of  the  ancient  (Thurcli.  It  is  expressly  cited  as 
such  by  Origen  (Homil.  XIX,  in  Jerem.,  tom.  i, 
p.  185.  ed.  Huet.)  ;  it  is  referred  to  as  such  by 
Tertullian  {Nov,  Marc,  v,  21);  and  both  Eusebius 
(Hist.Eccles.  iii,  25)  and  Jerome  (Proem,  in  Ep.  ad 
Philcm.  tom.  iv,  p.  442)  attest  its  universal  re- 
ception as  such  in  the  Christian  world.  The  lat- 
ter, indeed,  informs  us  that  some  in  his  day 
deemed  it  unworthy  of  a  place  in  the  canon,  in 
consequence  of  its  being  occupied  with  subjects 
which,  in  their  estimation,  it  did  not  become  an 
apostle  to  write  about,  save  as  a  mere  private  in- 
dividual ;  but  this  he,  at  the  same  time,  shows  to 
be  a  mistake,  and  repudiates  the  legitimacy  of 
such  a  standard  for  estimating  the  genuineness  or 
authority  of  any  book.  It  was  also  admitted  as 
canonical  by  Marcion  (Hieronym.  /.  c).  That 
this  epistle  should  not  have  been  quoted  by  sev- 
eral of  the  Fathers  who  have  quoted  largely  from 
the  other  Pauline  epistles  (e.  ^.,  Irenaeus,  Cle- 
ment of  Alexandria,  and  (Typrian),  may  be  ac- 
counted for  partly  by  the  brevity  of  the  epistle, 
and  partly  by  their  not  having  occasion  to  refer 
to  the  subjects  of  which  it  treats.  Paley  has  ad- 
duced the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this 
epistle  and  that  to  the  Colossians  with  great  force, 
as  evincing  the  authenticity  of  both  (Horw  Fau- 


lin<B,  c.  14)  ;  and  Eichhorn  has  ingeniously  shown 
how  a  person  attempting,  with  the  epistle  to  the 
Colossians  before  him,  to  forge  such  an  epistle 
as  this  in  the  name  of  Paul,  would  have  been  nat- 
urally led  to  a  very  different  arrangement  of  the 
historical  circumstances  and  persons  from  what 
we  find  in  the  epistle  which  is  extant  (Einleit.  ins 
Neu  Testament  iii,  302). 

(2)  Time  of  Writing.  This  epistle  was  evi- 
dently written  during  the  apostle's  imprisonment 
(verses  9,  10),  and  as  we  have  already  endeavored 
to  show  (see  Colossians,  Epistle  to  the),  dur- 
ing his  two  years'  imprisonment  at  Rome. 

(3)  Occasion.  It  was  occasioned  by  his  send- 
ing back  to  Philemon  his  runaway  slave  Onesi- 
mus, who,  having  found  his  way  to  Rome,  was 
there,  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  apostle, 
converted  to  Christianity;  and,  after  serving  Paul 
for  a  season,  was  by  him  restored  to  his  former 
master,  without  whose  consent  the  apostle  did 
not  feel  at  liberty  to  retain  him. 

(4)  Contents.  The  epistle  commences  with  the 
apostle's  usual  salutation  to  those  to  whom  he 
wrote ;  after  which  he  affectionately  alludes  to  the 
good  reputation  which  Philemon,  as  a  Christian, 
enjoyed,  and  to  the  joy  which  the  knowledge 
of  this  afforded  him  (verses  1-7).  He  then  gently 
and  gracefully  introduces  the  main  subject  of 
his  epistle  by  a  reference  to  the  spiritual  ob- 
ligations under  which  Philemon  lay  to  him,  and 
on  the  gyound  of  which  he  might  utter  as  a  com- 
mand what  he  preferred  urging  as  a  request. 
Onesimus  is  then  introduced ;  the  change  of  mind 
and  character  he  had  experienced  is  stated;  his 
offense  in  deserting  his  master  is  not  palliated; 
his  increased  worth  and  usefulness  are  dwelt 
upon,  and  his  former  master  is  entreated  to  re- 
ceive him  back,  not  only  without  severity,  but 
with  the  feeling  due  from  one  Christian  to  an- 
other (verses  8-16).  The  apostle  then  delicately 
refers  to  the  matter  of  compensation  for  any  loss 
which  Philemon  might  have  sustained  either 
through  the  dishonesty  of  Onesimus  or  simply 
through  the  want  of  his  service;  and  though  he 
reminds  his  friend  that  he  might  justly  hold  the 
latter  his  debtor  for  a  much  larger  amount  (see- 
ing he  owed  to  the  apostle  his  own  self),  he 
pledges  himself,  under  his  own  hand,  to  make 
good  that  loss  (verses  17-19).  The  epistle  con- 
cludes with  some  additional  expressions  of 
friendly  solicitude;  a  request  that  Philemon 
would  prepare  the  apostle  a  lodging,  as  he  trusted 
soon  to  visit  him ;  and  the  salutations  of  the  apos- 
tle and  some  of  the  Christians  by  whom  he  was 
surrounded  at  the  time  (verses  20-25). 

(5)  Felicity  of  Expression.  This  epistle  has 
been  universally  admired  as  a  model,  graceful,  deli- 
cate, and  manly  writing.  *It  is  a  voucher,' says  Eich- 
horn, *for  the  apostle's  urbanity,  politeness,  and 
knowledge  of  the  world.  His  advocacy  of  Onesi- 
mus is  of  the  most  insinuating  and  persuasive 
character,  and  yet  without  the  slightest  perver- 
sion or  concealment  of  any  fact.  The  errors  of 
Onesimus  are  admitted,  as  was  necessary,  lest  the 
just  indignation  of  his  master  against  him  should 
be  rousedanew;  but  they  are  alluded  to  in  the  most 
admirable  manner:  the  good  side  of  Onesimus 
is  brought  to  view,  but  in  such  a  way  as  to  fa- 
cilitate the  friendly  reception  of  him  by  his  mas- 
ter, as  a  consequence  of  CHiristianity,  to  which 
he  had,  during  his  absence,  been  converted;  and 
his  future  fidelity  is  vouched  for  by  the  noble 
principles  of  Christianity  to  which  he  had  been 
converted.  The  apostle  addresses  Philemon  on 
the  softest  side :  who  would  willfullv  refuse  to  aK^ 
aged,  a   suffering,  and  an    unjustly  imprisonNl 


PHILETUS 


1335 


PHILIP 


friend  a  request?  And  such  was  he  who  thus 
pleaded  for  Onesimus.  The  person  recommended 
IS  a  Christian,  a  dear  friend  of  the  apostle's,  and 
one  who  had  personally  served  him;  if  Philemon 
will  receive  him  kindly,  it  will  afford  the  apostle 
a  proof  of  his  love,  and  yield  him  joy.  What 
need,  then,  for  long  urgency  ?  The  apostle  is  cer- 
tain that  Philemon  will,  of  his  own  accord,  do 
even  more  than  he  is  asked.  More  cogently  and 
more  courteously  no  man  could  plead.' 
W.  L.  A. 

FHHiETUS  (phi-le'tus),  (Gr.  *tXiyT6f,  fl-ay-M, 
beloved),  an  apostate  Christian,  mentioned  by 
Paul,  in  connection  with  Hymenseus  (2  Tim.  ii:i7), 
(see  Hymenaus),  and  is  named  with  him  in  i  Tim. 
1:20.    (A.  0,58-64.) 

PHILIP  (phflip),  (Gr.  *iXi«-«-of,  fifip-pos.  lov-r 
of  horses). 

1.  The  apostle. 

One  of  the  twelve  apostles.  He  was  of  Beth- 
saida,  'the  city  of  Andrew  and  Peter*  (John  i: 
u).  He  became  one  of  the  disciples  of  John  the 
Baptist,  and  was  in  the  neighborhood  where  John 
was  baptizing,  at  the  time  of  our  Lord's  baptism. 
(A.  D.  25-28.)  Andrew  and  John,  who  were  also 
disciples  of  the  Baptist,  heard  the  testimony  con- 
cerning Jesus  which  the  latter  gave,  and  thence- 
forth attached  themselves  to  him  as  the  promised 
Messiah. 

(1)  The  Call.  Through  Andrew  his  brother, 
Simon  (Peter)  was  brought  to  Christ;  and  as  on 
the  next  day  Philip  unhesitatingly  accompanied 
Jesus  when  called  to  follow  him,  it  is  probable 
that  his  townsmen  had  previously  spoken  to  him 
of  Jesus  as  the  long-expected  Savior  (John  i: 
35-44).  Philip  was  thus  the  fourth  of  the  apos- 
tles who  attached  themselves  to  the  person  of 
Jesus— of  those  'who  left  all  and  followed  him.* 

(2)  Invites  Kathanael.  The  first  act  of  Philip 
was  to  bring  to  the  Lord  Nathanael,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  have  also  become  an  apostle  under  the 
name  of  Bartholomew  (John  i:45-Si)-  (See  Na- 
thanael.) 

(3)  The  Loaves  and  Fishes.  Little. more  is  re- 
corded of  Philip  in  the  Scriptures;  but  it  is  re- 
markable that  when  Christ  beheld  the  five  thou- 
sand people  whom  he  afterwards  fed  with  five 
loaves  and  two  fishes,  he  singled  out  Philip  for 
the  question,  'Whence  shall  we  buy  bread  that 
these  may  eat?*  It  is  added.  This  he  said  to 
prove  him,  for  he  himself  knew  what  he  would 
do.'  Bengel  and  others  suppose  that  this  was 
because  the  charge  of  providing  food  had  been 
committed  to  Philip,  while  Chrysostom  and  Theo- 
dore of  Mopsuestia  rather  suppose  it  was  because 
this  apostle  was  weak  in  faith.  The  answer  of 
Philip  agrees  well  enough  with  either  supposition. 
Two  hundred  pennyworth  of  bread  is  not  suffi- 
cient for  them,  that  every  one  of  them  may  take 
a  little'  (John  vi:i-7).  But  it  is  well  to  compare 
this  with  John  xiv  :8,  where  the  inappropriate  re- 
mark of  Philip,  'Lord,  show  us  the  Father,  and 
it  sufficeth  us,  evinces  that  he  experienced  in  a 
de^ee  beyond  his  brother  apostles,  the  difficulty 
which  they  generally  felt  in  raising  themselves 
above  the  things  of  sense. 

(4)  Application  of  Greeks.  Intermediately, 
we  find  recorded  the  application  to  Philip  of  cer- 
tain 'Greeks'  (proselytes  of  the  gate)  at  Jeru- 
salem, who  wished  to  be  introduced  to  Jesus,  of 
whom  they  had  heard  so  much.  Knowing  that 
his  master  was  not  forward  to  gratify  mere  curi- 
osity, Philip  was  uncertain  whether  to  comply 
with  their  wish  or  not,  but  first  consulted  Andrew, 
who  ^&at  with  him  to  mention  the  circumstance 


to  Jesus  (John  xii:2i,  22).  This  incident,  al- 
though slight,  is  indicative  of  character,  as  we 
feel  sure  that  some  of  the  other  apostles,  Peter 
for  instance,  would  at  once  have  complied  with  or 
declined  this  application  on  their  own  responsi- 
bility. The  sacred  history  only  adds  to  these  facts, 
that  Philip  was  present  with  the  other  apostles 
at  the  religious  assembly  following  the  Lord's 
resurrection  (Acts  i:i3). 

(5)  Later  Tradition.  The  later  traditions  con- 
cerning this  apostle  are  vague  and  uncertain; 
but  there  is  nothing  improbable  in  the  state- 
ment that  he  preached  the  (Jospel  in  Phrygia 
(Theodoret,  in  Ps,  cxvi;  Niceph.  Hist.  Eccles. 
ii»  39)  •  and  that  he  met  his  death  at  Hierapolis 
in  Syria  (Euseb.  Hist,  Eccles,  iii,  31 ;  v:24).  The 
further  statement,  that  Philip  was  married  and 
had  daughters  (Euseb.  as  above,  Clem.  Alex. 
Strom,  iii,  192;  Niceph.  ii,  44),  very  probably  arose 
from  confounding  him  with  Philip  the  Evangelist 
(Acts  xxi;8). 

2.  The  Evangelist.  (1)  As  Deacon.  One  of 
the  first  seven  deacons  (Acts  vi  :5)  ;  also  called  an 
'Evangelist'  (xxi:8),  which  denotes  one  of  those 
ministers  of  the  primitive  church,  who,  without 
being  attached  to  anv  particular  congregation, 
preached  the  (Sospel  from  place  to  place  (Eph. 
iv:ii;  2  Tim.  iv:5).  (A.  U.  29.)  Being  com- 
pelled to  leave  Jerusalem  by  the  persecution  which 
ensued  on  Stephen's  death,  Philip  was  induced 
to  take  refuge  in  Samaria. 

(2)  Meets  Simon  Magus.  He  there  came  to 
a  ci^  where  Simon  Magus  was  held  in  high 
reverence  through  the  wonders  which  he  wrought. 
But  the  substantial  and  beneficent  miracles  which 
were  performed  by  Philip  in  the  name  of  Jesus, 
drew  away  their  attention  from  the  imposter,  and 
prepared  their  minds  for  the  reception  of  the  Gos- 
pel. Simon  himself  seems  to  have  regarded  him 
as  in  league  with  some  superhuman  being,  and 
looking  upon  baptism  as  the  initiatory  rite  of  a 
compact  through  which  he*  might  obtain  the  same 
powers,  he  solicited  and  obtained  baptism  from 
the  Evangelist.     (See  Simon,  10.) 

(3)  Instructs  the  Eunuch.  After  Peter  and 
John  had  come  to  Samaria  to  complete  and  carry 
on  the  work  which  Philip  had  been  the  means  of 
commencing,  the  Evangelist  himself  was  directed 
by  a  divine  impulse  to  proceed  towards  Gaza, 
where  he  met  the  treasurer  of  Candace,  queen  of 
Ethiopia  (see  Candace;  Ethiopia),  by  whose 
conversion  and  baptism  he  became  the  instrument 
of  planting  the  first  seeds  of  the  (Sospel  in 
Ethiopia  (Acts  viii:i-39).  Philip  then  retraced 
his  steps,  and  after  pausing  at  Azotus,  preached 
the  Gospel  from  town  to  town  till  he  came  to 
Caesarea  (verse  40). 

(4)  Later  Events.  At  this  place  he  seems  to 
have  settled ;  for  when  Paul  was  on  his  last  jour- 
ney to  Jerusalem,  he  and  his  party  were  enter- 
tained in  the  house  of  Philip,  on  which  occasion 
it  is  mentioned  that  he  had  *four  daughters,  vir- 
gins, who  did  prophesy'  (Acts  xxirp),  or,  who 
were  endued  with  the  faculty  of  speaking  under 
divine  inspiration,  and  of  predicting  future  events, 
together  with  other  supernatural  gifts  vouchsafed 
to  the  primitive  Christians,  in  accordance  with  the 
prophecy  in  Acts  ii:i8.  With  this  fact  the  Scrip- 
tural history  of  Philip  closes,  and  the  traditions 
which  refer  to  his  subsequent  proceedings  are  un- 
certain and  conflicting.  The  (jreek  martyrologies 
make  him  to  have  been  bishop  of  Tralles,  in 
Lydia;  but  the  Latins  make  him  end  his  davs  in 
Caesarea  (Acta  Sanct,  ad  6  Junt)\  but  in  all  old 
accounts  Philip  the  Apostle  and  Philip  the 
Evangelist  are  much  confounded. 


PHILIPPI  13: 

'  J.  Son  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  tetTarch  of 
Batanxa,  Trachonitis,  and  Auranitis  (Luke  lii: 
t).  (Sec  Herodian  Fauilv.)  He  ruled  from 
B.  C.  4  to  A.  D.  34. 

4.  Another  Son  of  Herod  the  Gr«af  called 
hy  Joseiihus  Herod,  and  first  husband  of  Herodias 
(Matt,  xivij;  Mark  vi:i7;  Luke  iiiiig).  (A,  D.  be- 
fore 25.)    (See  Herodian  Family.) 


of  AmphipoliB,  within  the  limits  of  ancient  Thrace 
(Acts  xvi:I2;  xx£;  Phil.  i:i.) 

It  was  anciently  <:3.\\eA  Kray-nee' det,  Kpijcifci, 
Fotmtains,  but  having  been  taken  and  iorti- 
fied  by  Philip  of  Macedon,  he  named  it,  after  him- 
aelf,  Philippi.    In  the  vicinity  were  mines  of  gold 


S  PHILIPPIANS.  EPISTLE  TO  THE 

but  ruins— heaps  of  stone  and  rubbish,  overgrown 
with  thorns  and  briars;  but  nothing  of  the  in- 
numerable busts  and  statues,  thousands  of  col- 
umns, and  vast  masses  of  classic  ruins,  of  which 
the  elder  travelers  speak.  Ruins  of  private  dwell- 
ings are  still  visible;  also  something  of  a  semi- 
circular shape,  probably  a  forum  or  market-place, 
'perhaps  the  one  where  Paul  and  Silas  received 
their  undeserved  stripes.'  The  most  prominent  of 
the  existing  remains  is  the  remainder  of  a  palatial 
edifice,  the  architecture  of  which  is  grand,  and 
the  materials  costly.  The  pilasters,  chapiters,  etc., 
are  of  the  finest  white  marble,  and  the  walls  were 
formerly  encased  with  the  same  stone.  These 
marble  blocks  are  gradually  knocked  down  by  the 
Turks,  and  'wrought  into  their  silly  grave-stones,' 
The  travelers  were  informed  thai  many  of  the 
ruins  are  now  covered  by  stagnant  water,  at  the 


and  silver:  and  the  spot  eventually  became  cele- 
brated for  the  battle  in  which  Brutus  and  Cassius 
were  defeated.  Paul  made  some  stay  in  this 
place  on  his  first  arrival  in  Greece,  and  here 
founded  the  church  to  which  he  afterwards  ad- 
dressed one  of  his  epistles.  It  was  here  that  the 
interesting  circumstances  related  in  Acts  xvi  oc- 
curred; and  the  city  was  again  visited  by  the 
Apostle  on  his  departure  from  Greece  (Acts  xx: 
6),  In  the  former  passage  (xvi:i2)  Philippi  is 
called  a  colony  ko-loh-nte' ah  (imXwWo),  and 
IhiG  character  it  had  in  fact  acquired  through 
many  of  the  followers  of  Antony  having  been 
colonized  thither  by  Augustus  (Dion.  Cass,  xlvii: 
432).  The  fact  that  Philippi  was  a  colony  was 
formerly  disputed;  but  its  complete  verification 
has  strongly  attested  the  minute  accuracy  of  the 
sacred  narrative. 

The  plain  in  which  the  ruins  of  Philippi  stand 
is  embraced  by  the  parallel  arms  of  mountains 
extended  from  the  Necrokop,  which  pour  into  the 
plain  many  small  streams,  by  which  it  is  abun- 
dantly watered  and  fertilized.  The  acropolis  is 
upon  a  mount  standing  out  into  the  plain  from  the 
northeast,  and  the  city  seems  to  have  extended 
from  the  base  of  it  to  the  south  and  southwest. 
The  remains  of  the  fortress  upon  the  top  consist 
of  three  ruined  lowers  and  considerable  portions 
ct  wal'jj  o*  stone,  brick,  and  very  hard  mortar. 
The  plain  below  does  not  now  exhibit  anything 


bottom  of  which  they  may  be  seen;  but  they  did 
not  visit  this  spot. 

PSnCLIPPIAJJB  (pbl-IIp'pi-anz),  (Or.  *t)urr4<riD<, 
fil-ip-pay' ue-oi,  Phifippians),  the  patrial  title  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Philippi  (Phil.  iv:i5), 

PHTT.TPPLUra,  EPiaiLB  TO  THE  (phll-Ip'- 
pi-anz,  fi-pls"l  too  the), 

I,  jtathentMtii.  Of  this  part  of  the  Apostle 
Paul's  writings  the  authenticity  has  never  been 
questioned.  Professing  to  be  written  by  that  dis- 
tinquished  servant  of  Christ,  it  bears  on  every 
part  of  it  the  impress  of  his  pecuHar  style,  manner 
of  thought,  and  form  of  doctrine ;  and  the  internal 
evidence  of  authenticity  arising  from  the  inci- 
dental allusions  in  it  to  persons  and  circumstances 
ia  very  strong  (Hora  Paulina  c.  7).  It  is 
referred  to  formally  and  expressly  by  Polycarp, 
in  his  Epxsile  to  the  Philippians  (sec.  5,  sec.  11), 
besides  being  repeatedly  quoted  by  him.  It  is 
quoted  by  the  churches  at  Vienne  and  Lyons,  in 
their  letter  to  the  churches  in  Asia  and  Phrygia, 
preserved  by  Eusebius  {Hist.  Eccles.,  v.  2)  ;  by 
Irenseus  (Cont.  Hter.,  iv  18,  sec.  4)  ;  by  Clement 
of  Alexandria  (P<Bdag.  lib.  i,  p.  107;  Strom.,  iv, 
p.  Sli;  Admon.  ad  Genfes,  p.  56) ;  V  Tertutlian 
{De  Resur.  Carnis,  c.  23) ;  byOri^en  {Conl.  Celt., 
lib.  iii.  p.  122.  ed.  Spencer;  et  mpiss.)  ;  by  Cyprian 
(Lib.  Teslim.,  iii,  39) ;  and  by  many  of  the  later 
Fathers. 


PHILIPPIANS.  EPISTLE  TO  THE 


1337 


PHILISTINES 


(1)  When  Written.  From  allusions  in  the 
epistle  itself,  it  is  evident  that  it  was  written  at 
Rome  during  the  period  of  the  apostle's  two  years 
imprisonment  in  that  city,  and  in  all  probability 
towards  the  close  of  that  period  (i:i3,  I4»  23,  26; 
ii:i8,  25). 

(2)  Occasion.  It  seems  to  have  been  composed 
on  the  occasion  of  the  return  to  Philippi  of 
Epaphroditus,  a  member  of  the  church  in  that 
place,  who  had  been  deputed  to  Rome  with  a 
pecuniary  contribution  from  the  church  in  aid  of 
the  apostle.  Full  of  gratitude  for  this  work  of 
friendly  remembrance  and  regard,  Paul  addressed 
to  the  church  in  Philippi  this  epistle,  in  which, 
besides  expressing  his  thanks  for  their  kindness, 
he  pours  out  a  flood  of  eloquence  and  pathetic 
exhortation,  suggested  partly  by  his  own  circum- 
stances, and  partly  by  what  he  had  learned  of 
their  state  as  a  church.  That  state  appears  to 
have  been  on  the  whole  very  prosperous,  as  there 
is  much  commendation  of  the  Philippians  in  the 
epistle,  and  no  censure  is  expressed  in  any  part  of 
it  either  of  the  church  as  a  whole,  or  of  any  in- 
dividuals connected  with  it. 

2.  Contents.  At  the  same  time  the  apostle 
deemed  it  necessary  to  put  them  on  their  guard 
against  the  evil  influences  to  which  they  were 
exposed  from  Judaizing  teachers,  and  false  pro- 
fessors of  Christianity.  These  cautions  he  inter- 
poses between  the  exhortations  suggested  by  his 
own  state  and  by  the  news  he  had  received  con- 
cerning the  Philippians,  with  which  his  epistle 
commences  and  with  which  it  closes. 

(1)  Part  First.  We  may  thus  divide  the  epistle 
into  three  parts.  In  the  ^rst  of  these  (i,  ii), 
after  the  usual  salutation  and  an  outpouring  of 
warm-hearted  affection  towards  the  Philippian 
church  (i:i-ii),the  apostle  refers  to  his  own  con- 
dition as  a  prisoner  at  Rome ;  and  lest  they  should 
be  cast  down  at  the  thought  of  the  unmerited  in- 
dignities he  had  been  called  upon  to  suffer,  he  as- 
sures them  that  these  had  turned  out  rather  to 
the  furtherance  of  that  great  cause  on  which  his 
heart  was  set,  and  for  which  he  was  willing  to 
live  and  labor,  though,  as  respected  his  personal 
feelings,  he  would  rather  depart  and  be  with 
Christ,  which  he  deemed  to  be  *far  better'  (12- 
24).  He  then  passes  by  an  easy  transition  to  a 
hortatory  address  to  the  Philippians,  calling  upon 
them  to  maintain  steadfastly  their  profession,  to 
cultivate  humanity  and  brotherly  love,  to  work 
out  their  own  salvation  with  fear  and  trembling, 
and  concluding  by  an  appeal  to  their  regard  for  his 
reputation  as  an  apostle,  which  could  not  but  be 
affected  by  their  conduct,  and  a  reference  to  his 
reason  for  sending  to  them  Epaphroditus  instead 
of  Timothy,  as  he  had  originally  designed  (i  125 ; 

ii:3o). 

(2)  Part  Second.  In  part  second  he  strenu- 
ously cautions  them,  as  already  observed,  against 
Judaizing  teachers,  whom  he  stigmatizes  as  'dogs* 
(in  reference  probably  to  their  impudent,  snarling, 
and  quarrelsome  habits),  *evilworkers,'  and  'the 
concision;'  by  which  latter  term  he  means  to 
intimate,  as  Theophylact  remarks  (in  loc),  that 
the  circumcision  in  which  the  Jews  so  much 
gloried  had  now  ceased  to  possess  any  spiritual 
significance,  and  was  therefore  no  better  than 
a  useless  mutilation  of  the  person.  On  this  theme 
he  enlarges,  making  reference  to  his  own  stand- 
ing as  a  Jew,  and  intimating,  that  if  under  the 
Christian  dispensation  Jewish  descent  and  Jewish 
privileges  were  to  go  for  anything,  no  one  could 
have  stronger  claims  on  this  ground  than  he; 
but  at  the  same  time  declaring  that  however  he 
had    once    valued    these,  he  now  counted  them 


'all  but  loss  for  the  excellency  of  the  knowledge 
of  Christ'  (iii:i-i2).  A  reference  to  his  own 
sanctified  ambition  to  advance  in  the  service  of 
Christ  leads  him  to  exhort  the  Philippians  to  a 
similar  spirit;  from  this  he  passes  to  caution 
them  against  unnecessary  contention,  and  against 
those  who  walk  disorderly,  concluding  by  remind- 
ing them  of  the  glorious  hopes  which,  as  Chris- 
tians, they  entertained  (ver.  13-21). 

(8)  Part  Third.  In  the  third  part  we  have  a 
series  of  admonitions  to  individual  members  of 
the  church  at  Philippi  (iv:i-3),  followed  by  some 
general  exhortations  to  cheerfulness,  moderation, 
prayer,  and  good  conduct  (ver.  4-9) ;  after  which 
come  a  series  of  allusions  to  the  apostle's  circum- 
stance? and  feelings,  his  thanks  to  the  Philippians 
for  their  seasonable  aid,  and  his  concluding  bene- 
dictions and  salutations  (ver.  10-23). 

Heinrichs  has  advanced  the  opinion,  that  of 
these  three  parts  of  this  epistle  the  first  belongs 
to  a  different  composition  from  the  other  two 
{Nov.  Test.  Koppan.  vol.  vii.  pt.  ii.  p.  31).  It  is 
not  worth  while  to  recapitulate  his  reasonings  in 
support  of  this  notion;  they  have  been  fully  ex- 
amined and  sufficiently  refuted  by  Krause  {An 
Epist.  Pttuli  ad  Phil,  in  duos  Epistolas  .... 
dispescenda  sit?  Dis.  crit.  exeget.  Regiom.  181 1), 
and  Schott  {Isagoge  in  New  Testament  sec. 
70). 

J.  Stple.  This  epistle  is  written  throughout 
in  a  very  animated  and  elevated  style.  It  is  full 
of  the  most  sublime  thoughts  and  the  most  affec- 
tionate exhortations.  It  resembles  more  the  pro- 
duction of  a  father  addressing  his  children  than 
that  of  an  apostle  laying  down  authoritatively 
what  is  to  be  received  and  followed.  The  whole 
of  it  shows,  as  Theophylact  observes,  how  very 
much  he  loved  and  estimated  those  to  whom  it 
was  addressed.  {Proem,  in  Ep.  ad  Phil,) 

W.  L.  A. 

PHUiISTIA    (phMrs'ti-i),  (Heb.  ^t)^,pe/-eA'' 

sheth^  migration),  or  a  land  of  sojourners. 

A  poetical  Scriptural  word  for  the  prose  form, 
"land  of  the  Philistines"  (Ps.  lx:8;  Ixxxvii: 
4;  Is.  xiv:29;  R.  V.).  It  comprised  the  south- 
western portion  of  Canaan,  which  was  low  and 
unhealthy  in  autumn,  but  fertile.  The  chief  cities 
wefe  Gaza,  Ekron,  Ashdod,  Ashkelon,  and  Gath. 

PHUiISTIM    (phl-Ws'tim),    (Gen.    x:i4).      See 
Philistines. 
PHILISTINES    (phMrs'trnes).    (Heb.   C^n;^??!. 

pel'ish'teem^  \  Chron.  xiviio;  0**?^??^^?    pel-ish- 

tee-yeem\  Amos  ix:7;  comp.  the  Gr.  ^vXarrte//*  of 
the  Sept.). 

(1)  Kame.  A  strong  tribe  southwest  of  the  land 

of  Israel,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  ^???,  {pel- 

eh'sheth),  UaXanrTlyri  (Pal-ace-tee^nay),  Palestina, 
Palestine. 

(2)  Country.  It  occupied  only  a  portion  of  the 
southern  coast,  namely,  that  which  was  bounded 
on  the  west  by  the  hill  country  of  Ephraim  and 
Judah,  and  on  the  south  extended  from  Joppa  to 
the  borders  of  Egypt,  thus  touching  on  the  Israel- 
ite tribes  Dan,  Simeon,  and  Judah.  Indeed  the 
portions  of  Simeon  and  Dan  covered  a  large  part 
of  Philistia,  but  its  possession  by  the  Israelites 
was  disputed,  and  was  never  entirely  achieved. 
This  country  was  originally  held  by  the  Avims, 
who  were  destroyed  and  their  land  seized  by  the 
Caphtorims,  coming  forth  out  of  (Taphtor  (Deut. 
ii:23).  In  Jer.  xlvii:4  the  Philistines  are  denom- 
inated *the  remnant  of  the  country  (or  isle)  of 
Caphtor.'    In  Amos  ix:7,  the  Divine  Being  asks, 


PHILISTINES 


1338 


PHILISTINES 


'Have  I  not  brought  the  Philistines  from  Caph- 
tor?'  The  Caphtorim  and  the  Philistim  are  also 
associated  together  as  kindred  tribes  in  the  gen- 
ealogical list  of  nations  given  in  Gen.  x:i4,  both 
being  descendants  of  Mizraim.  Caphtor  has  been 
thought  to  be  Cappadocia.  Others  hold  that  the 
Philistines  being  a  part  of  the  great  Semitic  fam- 
ily, went  westward,  under  pressure  from  the 
wave  of  population  which  came  down  from  the 
higher  country  to  the  sea-coast,  but  afterwards  re- 
turned eastward,  back  from  Crete  to  Palestine; 
so  that  in  Amos,  ix  :7  it  is  to  be  understood  that 
God  brought  them  up  to  Palestine,  as  he  brought 
the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt — back  to  their  home. 
But  in  Gen.  x:i3,  14,  the  Philistines  are  derived 
from  Mizraim,  that  is,  from  Egypt.  Therefore  it 
has  been  held  that  Phoenician  invaders  were  the 
Hyksos  of  Egyptian  history,  whence  the  Philis- 
tines would,  in  relation  to  their  stay  and  dominion 
in  Egypt,  be  spoken  of  as  of  Egyptian  origin. 

(3)  History-  If  now  we  follow  the  Biblical  ac- 
counts we  find  the  history  of  the  Philistines  to  be 
in  brief  as  follows.  They  had  established  them- 
selves in  their  land  as  early  as  the  time  of  Abra- 
ham, when  they  had  founded  a  kingdom  at  Gerar 
(Gen.  xxi:32;  xxvi:i).  When  the  Israelites  left 
Egypt  they  were  deterred  by  fear  of  the  power 
of  the  Philistines  from  returning  by  the  shortest 
road— that  which  the  caravans  still  take — ^because 
it  lay  through  the  country  of  the  Philistines 
(Exod.  xiii:i7).  In  the  time  of  Joshua  (xiii: 
3)  the  Philistines  appear  in  a  league  of  five 
princes,  or  governors  of  so  many  tribes  or  petty 
states— 'all  the  borders  of  the  Philistines  from 
Sihor  which  is  before  Egypt  even  unto  the  borders 
of  Ekron  northward  counted  to  the  Canaanites.' 
Joshua  appears  to  have  thought  it  prudent  to  at- 
tempt nothing  for  the  dispossession  of  the  Philis- 
tines, and  he  therefore  had  no  hostile  relations 
with  them,  for  the  division  of  Philistia  among 
the  tribes  was  nothing  more  than  a  prospective 
but  unfulfilled  arrangement  (Josh.  xv:45;  xix: 
43).  The  days  of  the  Judges,  however,  brought 
conflicts  between  the  Israelites  and  the  Philis- 
tines, who  dwelt  wide  over  the  land,  and  even  ex- 
ercised dominion  over  their  Hebrew  neighbors 
(Judg.  iii:3i;  xiy;  xiii:i;  xiv:2,  4,  5;  xviii). 

In  the  time  of  Eli  the  Philistines  succeeded  in 
getting  the  ark  into  their  possession  (i  Sam. 
iv) ;  but  a  defeat  which  they  suffered  under  Sam- 
uel put  an  end  to  their  dominion,  after  it  had 
lasted  forty  years  (i  Sam.  vii).  This  subjection 
of  the  Israelites  began  after  the  death  of  Jair, 
and  continued  to  the  termination  of  the  period  em- 
braced in  the  book  of  Judges.  Within  this  space 
of  time  fall  the  life  and  the  heroic  actions  of 
Samson.  Notwithstanding  the  total  defeat  which 
the  Philistines  had  undergone,  and  the  actual 
termination  of  their  political  supremacy,  they  con- 
tinued to  be  troublesome  neighbors.  There  was 
sore  war  against  the  Philistines  all  the  days  of 
Saul'  (i  Sam.  xiv:52) ;  a  conflict  which  was  car- 
ried on  with  various  success,  and  in  which  the 
king  found  great  support  in  the  prudent  bravery 
of  his  son  Jonathan  and  the  high  courage  of 
David  (i  Sam.  xiii  14;  xiv;  xvii:i8;  xix:8;  xxiii: 
28).  Even  after  his  separation  from  Saul  David 
inflicted  many  blows  on  the  Philistines  (l  Sam. 
xxiii),  but  soon  saw  himself  obliged  to  seek  ref- 
uge in  Gath  (i  Sam.  xxvii),  and  was  in  conse- 
quence near  making  common  cause  with  them 
against  Saul  (i  Sam.  xxix),  who  met  with  his 
death  at  their  hands  while  engaged  in  battle  (i 
Sam.  xxxi). 

They  also  raised  their  arms  against  David, 
when  he  had  become  king  of  all  Israel,  but  were 


several  times  beaten  by  that  brave  monarch  (2 
Sam.  v:i7,  sq.;  viii:i).  *Mighty  men/  perform- 
ing valorous  deeds  in  imitation  of  David's  ren- 
contre with  (joliath,  gave  the  king  their  support 
against  this  brave  and  persevering  enemy  (2  Sam. 
xxiii  :8,  sq.). 

Solomon  appears  to  have  been  undisturbed  by 
the  Philistines,  but  they  had  settlements  in  the 
land  of  Israel  under  the  early  Ephraimitic  kings 
(i  Kings  XV 127;  xvi:i5).  To  Jehoshaphat  they 
became  tributary  (2  Chron.  xviiiii). 

Under  Jehoram,  however,  they,  in  union  with 
the  Arabians,  fell  on  Jerusalem,  and  carried  off 
the  king's  substance,  as  well  as  his  wives  and 
children  (2  Chron.  xxi:i6). 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  reign  of  king  Jehoash, 
their  city  Gath  was  taken  by  Hazael,  king  of  Syria, 
who  also  threatened  Jerusalem  (2  Kings  xii:i7). 

But  in  the  time  of  Ahaz  they  revolted,  and 
carried  with  them  a  part  of  western  Judah,  hav- 
ing 'invaded  the  cities  of  the  low  country  and 
of  the  south  of  Judah,  and  taken  Bethshemesh 
ajid  Aialon,*  etc.  (2  Chron.  xxviii:i8;  comp.  Is. 
xiv:29). 

Hezekiah  in  the  first  years  of  his  reign  ob- 
tained some  advantages  over  them  (2  Kings 
xviii  :8).  Soon,  however,  Assyrian  armies  went 
against  Philistia,  and,  with  a  view  to  an  invasion 
of  Egypt,  got  into  their  power  the  strong  frontier- 
fortress  of  Ashdod  (Is.  XX :i),  which  at  a  later 
time  Psammetichus  took  from  them,  after  a  siege 
of  twenty-nine  years  (Herod,  ii.  157). 

In  consequence  of  the  hostile  relations  between 
Assyria  and  Egypt,  Philistia  suffered  for  a  long 
period,  as  the  troops  of  the  former  power  took 
their  way  through  that  land,  and  Pharaoh-Necho 
captured  the  stronghold  Gaza  (Is.  xlviiri).  The 
same  was  done  by  Alexander  the  Great  in  his  ex- 
pedition to  Egypt. 

On  the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  state,  the 
Philistines,  like  other  neighboring  peoples,  acted 
ill  towards  the  Jews,  having  'taken  vengeance 
with  a  despiteful  heart'  (Ezek.  xxv:i5).  Many 
of  those  who  returned  from  the  captivity  'had 
married  wives  of  Ashdod,  and  their  speech  spoke 
half  in  the  speech  of  Ashdod'  (Neh.  xiii  123, 
sq.). 

In  the  Maccabaean  period  the  Philistines  were 
Syrian  subjects,  and  had  at  times  to  suffer  at  the 
hands  of  tfie  Jews  (i  Mace.  x:86;  xi:6o,  sq.). 
King  Alexander  (Balas)  gave  Jonathan  a  part  of 
their  territory,  Accaron,  with  the  borders  thereof 
in  possession  (i  Mace.  x:89). 

The  Jewish  monarch  Alexander  Jannaeus  over- 
came and  destroyed  Gaza  (Joseph.  Antiq.  xiii. 
3.  3;  D^  Bell.  Jud.  i.  4.  2).  By  Pompey  Azotus, 
Jamnia  and  Gaza  were  united  to  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Syria  (Antiq.  xiv.  4.  4)  ;  but  Gaza  was 
given  by  Augustus  to  King  Herod   (Antiq.  xv. 

7.  3). 

(4)  Cities.  The  Philistine  cities  were  greatly 
distinguished.  Along  the  whole  coast  from  north 
to  south  there  ran  a  line  of  towns — in  the  north 
the  Phoenician,  in  the  south  the  Philistine — which 
were  powerful,  rich  and  well  peopled. 

The  chief  cities  of  the  Philistines  were  five 
— Gaza,  Ashdod,  Askalon,  Gath,  and  Ekron  (Josh, 
xiii  13;  Judg.  iii:3).  Several  of  these  Palestinian 
cities  flourished  at  the  same  time;  and  though 
now  these,  now  those  cities  gained  at  different 
periods  pre-eminence  in  power,  wealth,  and  popu- 
lation, and  though  some  did  not  rise  till  others 
had  declined  or  perished,  yet  is  it  true  that  from 
the  earliest  times  till  the  century  after  Christ  a 
number  of  important  towns  existed  on  the  nar- 
row strip  of  land  which  borders  the  Mediter- 


PHILISTINES 


1339 


PHILOSOPHY 


ranean  sea,  such  as  was  never  seen  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world,  the  Ionian  coast  of  Asia  Minor 
not  excepted. 

The  greatness  of  these  cities  was  mainly  owing 
to  commerce,  for  the  coast  of  Palestine  was  in 
the  earliest  ages  exclusively  in  possession  of  the 
trade  which  was  carried  on  between  Europe  and 
Asia.  Besides  a  great  transit  trade,  they  had 
internal  sources  of  wealth,  being  given  to  agri- 
culture (Judg.  XV  :5).  In  the  time  of  Saul  they 
were  evidently  superior  in  the  arts  of  life  to  the 
Israelites;  for  we  read  (i  San),  xiii:2o)  that  the 
latter  were  indebted  to  the  former  for  the  utensils 
of  ordinary  life. 

(5)  Belig^on.  Their  religion  was  not  essen- 
tially different  from  that  of  the  Phoenicians.  The 
idol  which  they  most  reverenced  was  Astarte,  the 
Assyrian  Semiramis,  or  Derketo,  who  was  also 
honored  as  Dagon,  in  a  very  ancient  temple  at 
Askalon  and  at  Gaza,  also  at  Ashdod  (Movers, 
p.  589,  sq.;  Lengerke,  Kanaan,  p.  200;  Herod, 
i,  105;  Judg.  xvi:23;  i  Sam.  v:i,  sq.;  i  Mace. 
x:83).  This  was  a  species  of  fish- worship,  a 
remnant  of  which  may  still  be  found  in  the  spe- 
cial care  taken  of  certain  holy  fish  in  some  parts 
of  Syria  (Niebuhr,  Reise,  ii.  167;  Burckhardt,  i. 
278,  521).  In  Ekron  Baal-zebub  had  his  chief 
seat.  Priests  and  soothsayers  were  numerous  (i 
Sam.  vi;2).  Their  magicians  were  in  repute  (Is. 
ii:6),  and  the  oracle  of  Baal-zebub  was  consulted 
by  foreigners  (2  Kings  1:2).  They  had  the  cus- 
tom of  carrying  with  them  in  war  the  images  of 
their  gods  (2  Sam.  v:2i).  Tradition  makes  the 
Philistines  the  inventors  of  the  bow  and  arrow. 

J.  R.  B. 

(6)  Present  Condition.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact 
that  the  principal  towns  of  Philistia,  Gaza,  Ash- 
kelon,  Joppa,  Ashdod,  Lachish,  and  Gath  have 
never  once  disappeared  from  history,  but  exist 
at  the  present  day  under  the  names  of  Gaszch, 
Askaitim,  Yafa,  Esdud,  Umm  Lakis,  and  Beit 
fibrin — ^that  is,  Beth-geborim,  "the  house  of  the 
giants."  Many  other  of  the  modern  names  also 
preserve  the  memory  of  the  old  Philistine  history 
and  worship.  Low  mounds  at  intervals  show  the 
sites  of  former  cities.  Four  and  a  half  miles  from 
Gaza  a  colossal  marble  statue  has  recently  been 
discovered  (1879).  The  total  height  of  the  figure 
is  15  feet.  The  hair  hangs  in  long  ringlets  down 
upon  the  shoulders,  and  the  beard  is  long,  indicat- 
ing a  man  of  venerable  age.  The  right  arm  is 
broken  in  half,  while  the  left  arm  is  crossed  oyer 
the  breast  to  the  right  shoulder,  the  hand  being 
hidden  by  the  drapery  of  a  cloth  covering  the 
shoulders.  There  is  no  inscription  on  the  figure 
or  the  pedestal,  which  is  a  huge  block  carved 
in  one  piece  with  the  figure.  The  statue  was 
found  in  a  recumbent  position,  buried  in 
the  sand,  on  the  top  of  a  hill  near  the  sea. 
It  had  evidently  been  removed  from  its  original 
site,  which  is  unknown.  Its  estimated  weight 
is  12,000  pounds.  Lieut.  Conder  thinks  it  is  the 
statue  of  Mamas  (the  Cretan  Jupiter),  the  god 
of  Gaza,  which  once  stood  in  the  principal  temple 
of  Gaza,  but  which  had  been  buried,  perhaps  at 
the  time  of  the  destruction  of  the  temple,  by 
Porphyrins  (A.  D.  406).  (See  Palestine  Explora- 
tion Fund's  Quarterly  Statement  for  January, 
1880.) 

The  inhabitants  are  a  race  distinct  from  the 
rest  of  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  and  it  has 
been  suggested  that  the  fellahtn^  or  peasantry, 
are  of  Canaanite  origin,  though  no  doubt  a  mixed 
race  as  now  constituted.    Schaff,  Bib.  Diet. 

For  the  present  condition  of  the  land  of  the 
Philistines,    see    Ashdod;    Ashkelon;    Ekron; 


Gath  ;    Gaza  ;    Gerar  ;    Gibbethon j    Jabneel  ; 
Metheg-amma;  Palestine. 

PHILOLOGTJS  (phM6ro-gus),  (Gr.  ^ik6\oyos, 
ai-oHog-oSt  fond  of  talk). 

One  of  the  Christians  at  Rome  to  whom  Paul 
sent  his  salutations  (Rom.  xvi:i5).  Dorotheus 
makes  him  one  of  the  seventy  disciples,  «nd  al- 
leges that  he  was  placed  by  the  apostle  Andrew 
as  bishop  of  Sinope,  in  Pontus.  But  this  seems 
altogether  improbable.     (A.  D.  55.) 


(fr-15s'6-fy).  (Gr.*iXp<ro0fo,yf/-<?j- 
of'ee'aht  love  of  wisdom),  used  by  the  (Greeks  to 
denote  skill  in,  or  zeal  for,  any  art  or  science  or 
any  branch  of  knowledge. 

During  his  visit  to  Athens,  St.  Paul  was  en- 
countered by  certain  philosophers  of  the  Epicure- 
ans and  of  the  Stoics  (Acts  xvii:i8),  the  two 
great  moral  schools  of  Greek  philosophy.  This 
is  the  only  instance  related  in  the  New  Testament 
of  an  encounter  between  Christianity  and  West- 
ern speculation.  But  Eastern  speculation,  in  many 
ways  and  under  many  forms,  tried  from  the 
earliest  times  to  penetrate  into  the  mysteries  of 
Christianity,  and  in  the  philosophy  against  which 
Paul  warned  the  Colossians  (Col.  ii:8  et  seq.), 
we  recognize  not  only  an  outgrowth  of  Eastern 
speculation,  but  the  prototype  of  that  fantastic 
mysticism  which  afterward  played  so  conspicuous 
a  part  in  the  history  of  the  Eastern  Church  under 
the  name  of  Gnosticism  (comp.  i  Tim.  vi:2o). 
Schaff,  Bib.  Diet. 

1.  Value  of  Knowledge  of  Greet,  Philos- 
ophp.  In  the  articles  on  (Gnosticism  and  Logos 
it  has  been  shown  that  a  knowledge  of  Crreek  phi- 
losophy throws  light  on  one  of  the  most  recondite 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  bringing  us  acquainted 
with  expressions  and  opinions  current  through- 
out the  civilized  world  during  the  rise  and  prog- 
ress of  Christianity,  and  showmg  how  these  modes 
of  expression  came  to  be  adopted  by.  the  first 
converts  to  Christianity,  and  afterwards  to  be 
employed  by  St.  John  in  his  Gospel.  Indeed,  if  a 
knowledge  of  the  sacrificial  language  of  the  Jews 
throws  light  upon  Christ's  mission,  in  so  far  as 
its  object  was  to  put  an  end  to  the  numerous 
sacrifices  and  ceremonial  ministrations  of  the 
Jewish  priesthood,  it  is  not  less  evident  that  a 
knowledge  of  the  philosophical  language  of  the 
Greeks  will  throw  light  upon  the  first  use 
amongst  the  Christian  converts,  and  upon  the 
subsequent  adoption  by  St.  John  into  his 
(k)spel,  and  by  St.  Paul  into  his  Epistles,  of 
the  remarkable  language  employed  to  describe  the 
mission  and  the  nature  of  Christ.  But  not  only 
may  a  knowledge  of  ancient  learning,  and  more 
especially  of  ancient  philosophy,  supply  valuable 
assistance  for  the  better  understanding  of  Chris- 
tian doctrines;  but  we  may  derive  from  such 
knowledge  the  fullest  and  clearest  proofs  of  the 
benefit  conferred  by  Christianity  on  the  progress 
of  principle  and  civilization:  and  we  may  add, 
that  we  have  a  direct  warrant  from  St.  Paul  to 
employ  ancient  learning,  and  more  especially 
Greek  philosophy,  in  rendering  to  the  Christian 
religion  the  services  we  have  specified. 

2.  St.  Paul's  Denunciation  of  Moral  Evils. 

(1)  Vices  and  Crimes.  Perhaps  there  does  not 
occur  in  the  Christian  record  a  more  striking  and 
important  passage  than  that  which  we  shall  quote 
from  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans:  that  Epistle 
A'hich,  for  its  general  and  paramount  interest 
(being  equally  addressed  to  Gentile,  Jew,  and 
Christian),  has  been  placed  first  of  the  Epistles. 
Indeed,  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  proves,  by  the 
plainest,   facts,   that   Christianity   was  absolutely 


PHILOSOPHY 


1340 


PHINEHAS 


necessary  for  the  removal  of  the  most  intolerable 
evils  that  ever  oppressed  the  world.  The  Apostle 
of  the  Gentiles,  having  in  the  opening  chapter 
given  a  fearful  picture  of  the  vices  and  crimes 
of  Rome,  the  truth  of  which  is  fully  established 
by  the  writings  of  Tacitus  and  Suetonius,  Martial 
and  the  Roman  satirists  (and  in  the  next  chapter, 
ii:i7,  hS  charges  the  same  neglect  of  moral  duty, 
under  pretense  of  a  sounder  faith,  upon  the 
Jews),  proceeds  to  address  Gentile  and  Jew  in  a 
strain  of  manly  and  noble  eloquence,  which,  if  we 
estimate  the  magnitude  of  the  interests,  individual 
and  domestic,  private  and  public,  religious,  moral, 
and  political,  which  then  depended  and  still  de- 
pends on  the  understanding  and  reception  of 
Christianity  in  its  truth  and  power,  must  be  al- 
lowed to  leave  every  other  example  of  reasoning 
and  eloquence  far  behind  it.  The  words  of  St. 
Paul,  following  his  exposure  of  the  wickedness 
of  Rome  (of  heathen  vices  as  the  direct  conse- 
quences of  heathen  superstitions)  are  contained  in 
Rom.  i  :2i,  24-26,  28,  29,  etc. 

(2)  Necessity  of  Beligious  Change.  In  the 
first  chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  the 
necessity  of  a  great  religious  change,  preparatory 
to  a  great  moral  change — a  change  of  faith  and 
worship,  preparatory  to  a  change  in  principles 
and  conduct — is  fully  and  plainly  made  out.  The 
Apostle  to  the  Gentiles  was  about  to  build  upon 
the  Jewish  Scriptures,  but  for  the  edification  of 
the  whole  world,  a  purer  faith  and  a  more  rea- 
sonable service  than  Jew  or  Gentile  had  yet 
known.  The  moral  ruin  of  the  Jewish  temple  had 
already  taken  place. — 'Behold,  thou  art  called  a  Jew, 
and  restest  in  the  law,  and  makest  thy  boast  of 
God;  and  knowest  his  will,  and  approvest  the 
things  that  are  more  excellent,  being  instructed 
out  of  the  law;  and  art  confident  that  thou  thy- 
self art  a  guide  to  the  blind,  a  light  of  them 
which  are  in  darkness,  an  instructor  of  the  fool- 
ish, a  teacher  of  babes;  which  hast  the  form  of 
knowledge  and  of  the  truth  in  the  law.  Thou, 
therefore,  which  teachest  another,  teachest  thou 
not  thyself?  Thou  that  preachest,  A  man  should 
not  steal,  dost  thou  steal?  Thou  that  sayest,  A 
man  should  not  commit  adultery,  dost  thou  com- 
mit adultery  ?  Thou  that  abhorrest  idols,  dost  thou 
commit  sacrilege?  Thou  that  makest  thy  boast 
of  the  law,  through  breaking  the  law  dishonorest 
thou  God'?  (Rom.  ii :2i).  On  the  other  hand,  the 
ruins  of  Gentile  temples,  Egyptian,  Greek,  and 
Roman,  still  witness  the  truth  of  St.  Paul's  words 
to  the  same  effect — *When  they  knew  God,  they 
glorified  him  not  as  God,  but  became  vain  in 
their  imaginations,  and  their  foolish  heart  was 
darkened.  Professing  themselves  to  be  wise,  they 
became  fools,  and  changed  the  glory  of  the  in- 
corruptible God  into  an  image  made  like  to  cor- 
ruptible man,  and  to  birds,  and  four-footed  beasts, 
and  creeping  things.  Wherefore  Grod  also  gave 
them  up  to  uncleanness.* 

In  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  it  is  the  obje'.t  of 
St.  Paul  to  prove,  both  to  Jew  and  Cxentile,  that 
the  moral  world,  though  it  had  the  law  of  Moses 
and  the  philosophy  of  Greece,  was  so  sunk  in 
superstition,  sin,  and  crime,  that  the  whole  body 
of  society  was  corrupt,  and  that  there  was  not  a 
hope  of  cure  till  the  sources  of  corruption, 
whether  in  the  pharisaical  observances  of  the  Jew, 
or  in  the  profligate  superstitions  of  the  Gentile, 
were  superseded  by  a  purer  faith  and  a  sounder 
worship.  St.  Paul  contends  that  neither  the  law 
of  Moses,  nor  the  philosophy  of  Greece,  was  able 
to  raise  Jew  or  Gentile  from  the  bondage  of  sin 
and  death;  and  he  challenges  the  religious  and 
\he  moral,  and,  we  may  add,  the  political  facts 


of  those  times,  to  prove  the  truth  of  his  as- 
sertion. His  object  was  not  to  depreciate  either 
the  Mosaic  law  or  the  Greek  philosophy,  the  au- 
thority of  the  one,  or  the  morality  of  the  other, 
but  to  show  that  so  long  as  the  pharisaical  ob- 
servances of  the  Jew,  and  the  profliga/te  super- 
stitions of  the  Gentile,  remained  in  force,  neither 
religion  nor  philosophy  could  prevent  the  world 
from  sinking  deeper  and  deeper  into  pollution. 
The  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  allows  that  *they 
knew  (}od,'  but  he  cpntends  that  *they  glorified 
Him  not  as  God ;'  and,  therefore,  he  asserts,  *God 
gave  them  up  to  lasciviousness ;  he  allows,  tha^ 
some  amongst  them  though  they  had  not 
the  law,  did  by  nature  the  things  contained 
in  the  law;*  but  he  contends  that  the  principles 
and  conduct  of  such  men  were  but  an  oasis  in  the 
midst  of  a  howling  wildernesSj  for  that  the  mass 
of  men  were  given  up  *to  vile  affections.' 

(3)  Speculative  Knowledge  of  Ood.  It  is  im- 
possible to  deny  that  in  the  Greek  philosophy  we 
find  the  rise  and  progress  of  a  speculative  knowl- 
edge of  God  of  no  common  character  or  measure; 
but  it  is  just  as  impossible  to  deny  that  though 
the  nations,  amongst  which  a  few  such  burning 
and  shining  lights  had  arisen,  might  be  said  *to 
know  God,  it  was  notorious  that  'they  glorified 
Him  not  as  God.'  It  is  by  following  out  St. 
Paul's  argument,  and  by  examining  the  truth  of 
his  statements,  that  we  feel  all  the  necessity  of  an 
abolition  of  heathen  superstitions,  and  the  estab- 
lishing of  a  better  faith,  before  sound  principles 
and  right  conduct  could  be  understood  and  prac- 
ticed by  the  mass  of  mankind,  though  they  had 
been  conceived  by  a  few  philosophers. 

(4)  Necessity  of  Change  in  Faith  and  Wor- 
ship. If  to  this  evidence  of  the  necessity  of  a 
change  of  faith  and  worship  for  the  salvation  of 
the  ancient  world,  proving  that  without  such 
change  the  religious,  and  moral,  and  political  ref- 
ormations which  were  required,  were  quite  unat- 
tainable,—if,  to  this  evidence,  we  add  proofs  of 
the  religious,  moral,  and  political  reformation 
which  Christianity  actually  introduced, — and  if, 
to  this  two-fold  evidence  respecting  the  necessity 
of  a  change  of  faith,  and  the  efficacy  of  the  change 
to  Christianity,  we  add  the  evidence  of  the  actual 
effects  of  Christianity  in  our  own  times,  freedom 
to  the  slave,  knowledge  to  thei  gnorant,  and  civil- 
ization to  the  heathen  (for  though  these  benefits 
have  been  wrought  by  politicians,  it  has  been  in 
compliance  with  a  motive  and  a  zeal  which  as- 
suredly were  not  supplied  by  worldly  wisdom 
or  wordly  justice) ,— and  if,  to  this  three-fold 
evidence,  we  add  present  indications,  that  still 
higher  religious,  and  moral,  and  political  effects 
will  be  wrought  out  by  Christianity  —  we  have  in 
this  four-fold  evidence  a  body  of  proof  respecting 
the  usefulness  of  Christianity  exactly  fitted  for 
the  wants  of  the  time  J.  P.  P. 

PHINEHAS  (pWn'e-has),  (Heb.  Dnrjl  pee- 
nekk-aws't  mouth  of  brass).  ^  *    ' 

1.  A  son  of  Eleazar  and  grandson  of  Aaron  the 
high  priest.  An  incident  which  illustrates  the 
zealous  and  somewhat  passionate  character  of 
Phinehas  occurred  before  the  Israelites  entered 
the  Promised  Land.  The  Israelites  were  en- 
camped in  the  plains  of  Moab,  and  were  lament- 
ing the  sin  into  which  they  had  been  seduced 
by  the  MidianiteS,  when  a  prince  of  Judah  named 
Zimri  was  beheld  conducting  a  woman  of  Midian 
named  Cozbi  to  his  tent.  The  licentious  ef- 
frontery of  this  act  kindled  the  wrath  of  Phine- 
has, who  hastened  after  them  into  the  tent  and 
transfixed  them   both  with   his  javelin  (Num.) 


PHLEGON 


1341      PHCENICIA  AND  THE  PHCENICIANS 


XXV  :7,  sq.),  (B.  C.  1619.)  This  bold  act  pointed 
out  Phinehas  to  Moses  as  a  proper  person  to  ac- 
company as  priest  the  expedition  which  was  im- 
mediately after  sent  forth,  under  the  command  of 
Joshua,  against  the  Midianites,  and  by  which  the 
cause  of  the  deluded  Israelites  was  abundantly 
avenged  (Num.  xxxi:6,  sq.).  After  the  conquest 
of  the  Promised  Land,  when  the  warriors  of  the 
two  and  half  tribes  beyond  the  Jordan  were  per- 
mitted to  return  to  their  homes,  Phinehas  was  at 
the  head  of  the  deputation  sent  after  them  to 
inquire  and  remonstrate  concerning  the  altar  which, 
on  their  way,  they  had  set  up  on  the  bank  of 
the  Jordan ;  and  it  was  he  doubtless  who  pro- 
nounced the  forcible  address  to  the  supposed  of- 
fenders. He  was  certainly  the  first  to  express  his 
satisfaction  and  joy  at  the  explanation  which  was 
given,  and  which,  with  a  lightened  heart,  he  bore 
back  to  the  tribes  assembled  at  Shiloh  (Josh. 
xxii:5,  sq,). 

It  appears  that  while  his  father  lived  Phinehas 
filled  the  post  of  superintendent  or  chief  of  the 
Levites,  probably  after  Eleazar  became  high  priest 
(Num.  iii:32;  i  Chron.  ix:2o).  At  the  death 
of  his  father,  he  succeeded  to  the  pontificate 
(Josh.  xxiv:33)  ;  but  the  only  case  in  which  he 
appears  officially  in  the  Bible  is  in  connection 
with  the  unhappy  circumstances  recorded  at  the 
end  of  the  book  of  Judges,  in  which  he  comes 
forward  as  high  priest  to  consult  Jehovah.  This 
mention  of  his  name  enables  us  to  conclude  that 
the  chronological  place  of  these  occurrences  would 
be  rather  towards  the  beginning  than  at  the  lat- 
ter end  of  the  book  in  which  they  are  found. 
(See  Judges;  Priest,  Hebrew  Priesthood.) 

2.  A  Levite,  father  of  the  Eleazar  who  aided 
Meremoth  in  weighing  the  sacred  vessels  of  the 
Temple  (Ezra  viii:2).     (B.  C.  before  458.) 

8.  The  son  of  Eli  the  high  priest,  and  brother 
of  Hophni  (i  Sam.  i:3;  ii:34;  iv:ii,  19-22;  xiv: 
3).  (B.  C.  1 125.)     (See  Eu;  Hophni;  Samuel.) 

PHLEGON  (phle'gon),  (Gr.  *X^wf,  fle^one, 
burning),  one  of  the  Christians  of  Rome  to  whom 
Paul  sent  his  salutations  (Rom.  xvi:i4).  The 
legend  {ap.  Doretheus)  makes  him  to  have  been 
one  of  the  seventy  disciples,  and  bishop  of  Mara- 
thon.  (A.  D.  55.) 


(fe'be),  (Gr.  ^ol^%foy'bayt  radiant),  a 
deaconess  of  the  church  in  the  eastern  port  of 
Corinth,  Cenchrea. 

It  is  most  likely,  from  what  the  apostle  says  of 
Phoebe,  that  "she  had  been  a  succorer  of  many, 
and  of  myself  also"  (Rom.  xvi:i,  2),  that  she 
was  a  woman  of  property,  not  to  say  of  distinc- 
tion. Cenchrea  was  a  port  of  considerable  com- 
merce; and  as  it  is  clear  that  Phoebe  went  to 
Rome  on  important  business  in  whicli  the  faith- 
ful at  Rome  might  assist  her,  it  is  probable  also, 
that  she  was  engaged  in  trade  on  her  own  ac- 
count; something  like  Lydia  of  Philippi.  That 
she  was  much  in  the  confidence  of  the  apostles 
cannot  be  doubted;  and,  we  think,  from  the  im- 
port of  the  term  rendered  succorer  (patroness), 
she  may  be  taken  for  the  counterpart  of  the  hos- 
pitable Gains,  "mine  host  (says  St.  Paul),  and  the 
host  of  the  whole  church."    (A.  D.  55.) 

PHOBNICE  (phe'nise).    See  Phenice. 

PHCENICIA  AND  THE  PHOBNICIANS  (fd- 
nfsb-a  and  the  f^-n¥sh-anz). 

(1)  Name.  The  Greeks  called  those  merchants 
who  came  from  that  coast  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  which  runs  parallel  with  Mount  Lebanon, 
^iwiKtSt  foy nee^keks*  This  name  probably  arose 
from  the  circumstance  that  the  chief  article  of  the 
commerce  of  these  merchants  was  ^iy6f.  Purple. 


The  name  "Phoenicia"  does  not  occur  in  the  Old 
Testament;  in  the  New  Testament  it  appears  once 
as  "Phoenicia"  and  twice  as  "Phenice"  (Acts  xxi:2; 
xi:i9;  xv:3).  There  are  numerous  prophecies  in 
the  Old  Testament,  however,  concerning  the  over- 
throw of  cities  in  this  country,  which  nave  been 
signally  fulfilled.    (See  Tyre  and  Sidon.) 

(2)  Country.  The  country  inhabited  by  the 
Phoenicians  was  called  by  the  Greeks  foy-nee*- 
kayt  ^ivlmi,  and  by  the  Romans  Phoenice.  In 
Cicero  (De  Fin.  iv.  20)  there  occurs  the  doubtful 
reading  Phoenicia.  (Compare  the  Vulgate  in 
Num.  xxxiii:5i).  However,  this  latter  form  of 
the  name  has  come  into  general  use. 

This  name  was  used  by  the  ancients  some- 
times in  a  wider,  sometimes  in  a  narrower  sense. 
Phoenicia,  in  its  widest  signification,  embraces  the 
whole  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  situated  between 
the  river  Orontes  and  Pelusium  (comp.  Strabo 
xvi  p.  754,  sq.)  When  Ptolenueus  and  Strabo 
speak  of  Phoenicia  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  they 
mention  the  river  Eleutheros  as  the  northern 
boundary;  and  Ptolemaeus  states  also  that  Dora, 
situated  to  the  south  of  the  promontory  Carmel, 
and  north  of  the  river  Chorseus,  was  the  most 
southern  of  the  maritime  towns  of  Phoenicia. 

Phoenicia  is  situated  between  about  lat.  33^ 
and  35**  N.,  and  under  long.  33**  E.  The  whole 
of  Phoenicia  is  situated  at  the  western  declivity  of 
Mount  Lebanon.  (Compare  the  article  Libanus 
OR  Lebanon.) 

(3)  Vegetable  Productions.  Phoenicia  was 
distinguished  by  the  variety  of  its  vegetable  pro- 
ductions. This  variety  was  occasioned  by  the 
great  diversity  of  climate  produced  by  the  di- 
versity in  the  elevation  of  the  soil.  The  Lebanon 
is  said  to  bear  winter  on  its  head,  spring  on  its 
shoulders,  autumn  in  its  lap,  and  to  have  summer 
at  its  feet.  The  fertility  of  Phoenicia  is  increased 
by  the  numerous  streams  whose  springs  are  in 
Mount  Lebanon.  Even  in  the  Song  of  Solomon 
we  read  the  praises  of  the  spring  of  living  waters 
which  flows  down  from  Lebanon.  The  dense 
population  assembled  in  the  great  mercantile 
towns  greatly  contributed  to  augment  by  artificial 
means  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil. 

The  population  of  the  country  is  at  present  very 
much  reduced,  but  there  are  still  found  aqueducts 
and  artificial  vineyards  formed  of  mold  carried 
up  to  the  terraces  of  the  naked  rock.  Ammianus 
Marcellinus  says,  Phcenice  regio  plena  gratiarum 
et  venustatis,  urbibus  decorata  magnis  et  pulchris 
— Phoenicia  is  a  charming  and  beautiful  country, 
adorned  with  large  and  elegant  cities. 

Even  now  this  country  is  among  the  most  fertile 
in  Western  Asia.  It  produces  wheat,  rye,  and 
barley,  and,  besides  the  more  ordinary  fruits, 
also  apricots,  peaches,  pomegranates,  almonds,  cit- 
rons, oranges,  figs,  dates,  sugar-cane,  and  grapes, 
which  furnish  an  excellent  wine.  In  addition  to 
these  products,  it  yields  cotton,  silk,  and  tobacco. 
The  country  is  also  adorned  by  the  variegated 
flowers  of  oleander  and  cactus. 

The  higher  regions  are  distinguished  from  the 
bare  mountains  of  Palestine  by  being  covered  with 
oaks,  pines,  cypress  trees,  acacias,  and  tamarisks ; 
and  above  all  by  majestic  cedars,  of  which  there 
are  still  a  few  very  old  trees,  whose  stems  meas- 
ure from  thirty  to  forty  feet  in  circumference. 
The  inhabitants  of  Sur  still  carry  on  a  profitable 
traffic  with  the  produce  of  Mt.  Lebanon,  namely, 
wood  and  charcoal. 

(4)  Animal  Productions.  Phoenicia  produces 
also  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats;  and  innumerable 
swarms  of  bees  supply  excellent  honey.  In  the 
forests   there   are   bears,   wolves,  panthers,   and 


PHOENICIA  AND  THE  PHOENICIANS      1342      PHOENICIA  AND  THE  PHOENICIANS 


jackals.  The  sea  furnishes  great  quantities  of 
fish,  so  that  Sidon,  the  most  ancient  among  the 
Phoenician  towns,  derived  its  name  from  fishing. 
Concerning  the  natural  geography  of  Phoenicia, 
compare  especially  the  works  of  Forbiger,  Raumer, 
and  Robinson ;  also  Winer,  vol.  ii.  p.  30. 

(5)  Inhabitants.  The  inhabitants  of  Phoenicia 
might  at  the  first  view  appear  to  have  derived 
their  origin  from  the  same  source  (pre-Abra- 
hamite)  as  the  Hebrews,  for  they  spoke  the  same 
langtiage. 

In  the  Old  Testament  the  Phoenicians  and  Ca- 
naanites  are,  however,  described  as  descending, 
not  from  Shem,  but  from  Ham.  Herodotus,  also, 
on  the  authority  of  some  Persian  historians,  states 
that  the  Phoenicians  came  as  colonists  to  the  Sy- 
rian coasts  from  the  Erythraean  Sea.  The  first 
Phoenician  colony  was  Sidon,  which  is  therefore 
called  in  Genesis  (x:i5)  the  first-born  of  Ca- 
naan. But  soon  other  colonies  arose,  like  Arka 
(Oien.  x:i7),  Aradus,  and  Smyrna  (Gen.  x:i8), 
etc.,  whose  power  extended  beyond  the  Jordan, 
and  who  drove  out  before  them  the  earlier  inhabi- 
tants of  Palestine.  Hence  it  arose  that  the  ap- 
pellation, 'the  land  of  Canaan,'  was  transferred  to 
the  whole  of  Palestine,  although  it  is  by  no  means 
a  country  of  a  low  level,  but  is  full  of  high  ele- 
vations. However,  the  O^naanites,  in  a  stricter 
sense,  were  the  people  who  resided  in  the  lower 
regions  along  the  coast,  and  on  the  banks  of  the 
Jordan. 

When  the  Israelites  conquered  the  country,  the 
Canaanites  on  the  Phoenician  coast,  who  resided 
in  powerful  maritime  towns,  preserved  their  inde- 
pendence, and  were  called  Canaanites  in  particu- 
lar. Thus  we  read,  in  Is.  xxiiirii,  the  term  Ca- 
naan, in  the  signification  of  Phoenicia.  The  same 
word  has  also  this  meaning  in  the  inscriptions  on 
the  Phoenician  coins.  In  the  Septuagint  the  He- 
brew word  is  frequently  translated  foi-nix,  ^olvi^. 
In  Job  xl:30,  A.  V.  xli:6,  the  Hebrew  word 
means  a  merchant,  because  the  Phoenicians  were 
the  most  important  of  all  mercantile  nations. 

The  Carthaginians,  as  Phoenician  colonists, 
maintained,  even  in  the  days  of  St.  Augustine, 
that  they  were  Canaanites. 

(6)  Cities.  During  the  period  of  the  "conquest 
of  Canaan  (see  Canaan),  by  the  Israelites,  the 
Phoenicians  possessed  the  following  towns,  which 
we  will  enumerate  successively,  in  the  direction 
from  south  to  north: — Dora  (Josh.  xi:2;  xviiiii, 
sq.);  Ptolemais  (Judg.  i:33);  Ecdippa  (Josh. 
xix:29)  ;  Tyre  (Josh.  xix:29)  ;  Sarepta  (i  Kings 
xviirp,  sq.;  Luke  iv:26);  Sidon  (Gen.  x:i5); 
Berytus  (Ezek.  xlvii:i6;  2  Sam.  viii:8);  Byblus 
(Josh.  xiii:5);  Tripolis,  Simyra  (Gen.  x:i8); 
Arka  (Gen.  x:i7);  Simna  (Gen.  x:i7);  Aradus 
(Gen.  x:i8).  Compare  the  respective  articles  on 
these  towns.  Sidon  is  the  only  Phoenician  town 
mentioned  in  Homer  (see  Iliad,  vi.  239;  xxiii.743; 
Odyss.  XV. 415;  xvii.424),Heeren,  in  his  work, On 
the  Commerce  and  Politics  of  the  Ancients,  vol. 
i.  part  ii.  p.  9,  Gottingen,  1824,  justly  observes  that 
the  numerous  towns  which  were  crowded  together 
fn  the  narrow  space  of  Phoenicia  covered  almost 
the  entire  coast,  and,  together  with  their  harbors 
and  fleets,  must  have  presented  an  aspect  which 
has  scarcely  ever  been  equaled,  and  which  was 
calculated  to  impress  every  stranger  on  his  ar- 
rival with  an  idea  of  wealth,  power,  and  enter- 
prise. 

(7)  Commerce.  As  the  annals  and  public  doc- 
uments of  the  Phoenicians  have  all  been  lost,  our 
knowledge  of  their  history  is  consequently  con- 
fined to  occasional   notices  in  the  Hebrew  and 


classical  authors  of  antiquity.  This  deficiency  of 
historical  information  arises  also  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  the  facts  of  Phoenician  history 
were  less  connected  than  the  events  in  the  his- 
tory of  other  nations.  The  Phoenicians  never 
formed  one  compact  body  politic,  and  conse- 
quently did  not  always  gradually  advance  in  their 
political  constitution  and  in  the  extent  of  their 
power.  Every  town  endeavored  to  advance  its 
commerce  in  its  own  way.  Thus  there  constantly 
entered  into  the  life  of  the  Phoenicians  new  ele- 
ments, which  disturbed  a  gradual  historical  prog- 
ress. Phoenicia  was  a  country  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  maritime  towns,  but  did  not  afford 
room  for  great  political  events.  The  history  of 
the  Phoenicians  is  that  of  their  external  com- 
merce. 

A  mercantile  nation  cannot  bear  despotic  gov- 
erhment,  because  the  greatest  external  liberty  is 
requisite  in  order  constantly  to  discover  new 
sources  of  gain,  and  to  enlarge  the  roads  of  com- 
merce. The  whole  of  Phoenicia  consisted  of  the 
territories  belonging  to  the  various  towns.  Each 
of  these  territories  had  its  own  constitution,  and 
in  most  of  them  a  king  exercised  supreme  power. 
We  hear  of  kings  of  Sidon,  Tyre,  Aradus,  and 
Byblus.  ^ 

It  seems  that  after  Nebuchadnezzar  had  be- 
sieged Tyre  in  vain,  the  royal  dignity  ceased  for 
some  time,  and  that  there  existed  a  kind  of  re- 
publican administration,  under  suffetes  or  judges. 
The  regal  power  was  always  limited  by  the  magis- 
tracy and  the  priesthood.  The  independent  Phoeni- 
cian states  seem  to  have  formed  a  confederation, 
at  the  head  of  which  stood  for  some  time  Sidon, 
and  at  a  later  period  Tyre.  (See  Tyre.)  Tripo- 
lis was  built  conjointly  by  the  various  states  in 
order  to  form  the  seat  of  their  congress.  The 
smaller  states  were  sometimes  so  much  oppressed 
by  Tyre,  that  they  preferred  rather  to  submit  to 
external  enemies. 

The  position  of  Phoenicia  was  most  favorable 
for  the  exchange  of  the  produce  of  the  East  and 
West.  The  Libanus  furnished  excellent  timber 
for  ships.  Corn  was  imported  from  Palestine. 
Persians,  Lydians,  and  Lycians  frequently  served 
as  mercenaries  in  the  Phoenician  armies  (Ezek. 
xxviiiio,  11).  Phoenicia  exported  wine  to  Egypt 
(Herod.  iii:5,  6).  Purple  garments  were  best 
manufactured  in  Tyre,  (jlass  was  made  in  Sidon 
and  Sarepta. 

In  Phoenicia  was  exchanged  the  produce  of  all 
known  countries.  After  David  had  vanquished 
the  Edomites  and  conquered  the  coasts  of  the 
Red  Sea,  King  Hiram  of  Tyre  entered  into  a 
confederacy  with  Solomon,  by  which  he  ensured 
for  his  people  the  right  of  navigation  to  India. 
The  combined  fleet  of  the  Israelites  and  Phoeni- 
cians sailed  from  the  seaports  of  Ezion-geber  and 
Elath.  These  ports  were  situated  on  the  eastern 
branch  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  Sinus  iClaniticus,  or 
Gulf  of  Akaba.  Israelitish-Phoenician  mercantile 
expeditions  proceeded  to  Ophir,  perhaps  Abhira, 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Indus. 

It  seems,  'however,  that  the  Indian  coasts  in 
general  were  also  called  Ophir.  Three  years 
were  required  in  order  to  accomplish  a  mercan- 
tile expedition  to  Ophir  and  to  return  with  car- 
goes 01  gold,  algum-wood,  ivory,  silver,  monkeys, 
peacocks,  and  other  Indian  produce.  Some  names 
of  these  products  are  Indian  transferred  into  He- 
brew, as  almuggim;  Sanscrit  valgu,  or,  according 
to  the  Decanic  pronunciation,  valgum;  shen-hab- 
bim  (ivory)  ;  Sanscrit  ibha;  kokh  (ape)  ;  Sanscrit 
kapi;    tukkiyim    (peacock) ;    Sanskrit    cikhi,    ac- 


PHCENICIA  AND  THE  PHOENICIANS      1343      PHOENICIA  AND  THE  PHOENICIANS 


cording  to  the  Decanic  pronunciation  (compare 
I  Kings  ix:27;  x:ii,  22).  (See  Commerce; 
Ophir.) 

It  seems,  however,  that  these  mercantile  expedi- 
tions to  India  were  soon  given  up,  probably  on 
account  of  the  great  difficulty  of  navigating  the 
Red  Sea.  King  Jehoshaphat  endeavored  to  re- 
commence these  expeditions,  but  his  fleet  was 
wrecked  at  Ezion-geber  (i  Kings  xxii:49).  About 
B.  C.  616  or  601,  Phoenician  seamen  undertook, 
at  the  command  of  Pharaoh-Necho,  a  voyage  of 
discovery,  proceeding  from  the  Red  Sea  round 
Africa,  and  returning  after  two  years  through  the 
columns  of  Hercules  to  Egypt  (Herod,  iv,  42). 
The  27th  chapter  of  Ezekiel  mentions  the  com- 
merce by  land  between  India  and  Phoenicia. 

The  names  of  mercantile  establishments  on  the 
coasts  of  Arabia  along  the  Persian  Gulf  have 
partly  been  preserved  to  the  present  day.  In 
these  places  the  Phoenicians  exchanged  the  prod- 
uce of  the  west  for  that  of  India,  Arabia,  and 
Ethiopia.  Arabia  especially  furnished  incense, 
gold,'  and  precious  stones.  The  Midianites  (Gen. 
xxxvii:28)  and  the  Edomites  (Ezek.  xxvii:i6) 
effected  the  transit  by  their  caravans.  The  forti- 
fied Idumxan  town  Fetra  contained  probably  the 
storehouses  in  which  the  produce  of  southern 
countries  was  collected.  From  Egypt  the  Phoe- 
nicians exported  especially  byssus  (Ezek.  xxyii: 
7)  for  wine.  According  to  an  ancient  tradition, 
the  tyrant  of  Thebes,  Busiris,  having  soiled  his 
hands  with  the  blood  of  all  foreigfners,  was  killed 
by  the  Tyrian  Hercules.  This  indicates  that 
Phoenician  colonists  established  themselves  and 
their  civilization  successfully  in  Upper  Egypt, 
where  all  strangers  usually  had  been  perse- 
cuted. 

At  a  later  period  Memphis  was  a  place  where 
most  of  the  Phoenicians  in  Egypt  were  estab- 
lished. Phoenician  inscriptions  found  in  Egypt 
prove  that  even  under  the  Ptolemies  the  intimate 
connection  between  Phoenicia  and  Egypt  still  ex- 
isted. 

From  Palestine  the  Phoenicians  imported,  be- 
sides wheat,  especially  from  Judaea,  ivory,  oil, 
and  balm;  also  wool,  principally  from  the  neigh- 
boring nomadic  Arabs.  Damascus  furnished  wme 
(Ezek.  xxvii:5,  6,  17,  18,  21),  and  the  mountains 
of  Syria  wood.  The  tribes  about  the  shores  of 
the  Caspian  Sea  furnished  slaves  and  iiC^^:  for 
instance,  the  Tibaraeans  (Tubal),  and  Moscni 
(Meshech).  Horsemen,  horses,  and  mules  came 
from  the  Armenians  (Togarmah). 

The  treasures  of  the  East  were  exported  from 
Phoenicia  by  ships  which  sailed  first  to  Cyprus, 
the  mountains  of  which  are  visible  from  the  Phoe- 
nician coast.  Citium  was  a  Phoenician  colony  in 
Cyprus,  the  name  of  which  was  transferred  to 
the  whole  of  Cyprus,  and  even  to  some  neighbor- 
ing islands  and  coasts  (Gen.  x:4;  Is.  xxiii:i,  12). 
Cyprus  was  subject  to  Tyre  up  to  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  There  are  still  found  Phoe- 
nician inscriptions  which  prove  the  connection 
of  Cyprus  with  Tyre.  At  Rhodes  also  are  found 
vestiges  of  Phoenician  influence.  From  Rhodes 
the  mountains  of  Crete  are  visible.  This  was  of 
great  importance  for  the  direction  of  navigators, 
before  the  discovery  of  the  compass.  In  Crete, 
and  also  in  the  Cycladic  Isles,  are  vestiges  of 
Phoenician  settlements.  On  the  Isle  of  Thasos, 
on  the  southern  coast  of  Thrace,  the  Phoenicians 
had  gold  mines ;  and  even  on  the  southern  shorer 
of  the  Black  Sea,  they  had  factories.  However, 
when  the  Greeks  became  more  powerful,  the 
Phoenicians  sailed  more  in  other  directions.  They 
occupied  also  Sicily  and  the  neighboring  islands. 


but  were,  after  the  Greek  colonization,  confined 
to  a  few  towns,  Motya,  Soloes,  Panormus  (Thuc. 
vi.  2).  The  Phoenician  mercantile  establishments 
in  Sardinia  and  the  Balearic  Isles  could  scarcely 
be  called  colonies. 

(Carthage  was  a  Phoenician  colony,  which  prob- 
ably soon  became  important  by  commerce  with 
the  interior  of  Africa,  and  remained  connected 
with  Tyre  by  means  of  a  common  religion. 
After  Phoenicia  had  been  vanquished  by  the  As- 
syrians, Babylonians,  and  Persians,  the  settle- 
ments in  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Spain  came  into 
the  power  of  Carthage.  The  Phoenicians  had  for 
a  long  period  exported  from  Spain  gold,  silver, 
tin,  iron,  lead  (Ezek.  xxxviii:i3),  fruit,  wine,  oil, 
wax,  fish,  and  wool.  Their  chief  settlement  was 
Tarshish,  which  means  subjection. 

There  are  other  names  of  towns  in  Spain  which 
have  a  Phoenician  derivation :  Gades  and  Malaga, 
on  account  of  much  salt  fish  thence  exported.  The 
voyage  to  Tarshish  was  the  most  important  of 
those  undertaken  by  the  Phoenicians.  Hence  it 
was  that  their  largest  vessels  were  all  called  ships 
of  Tarshish,  although  they  sailed  in  other  direc- 
tions (i  Kings  x:22). 

It  appears,  also,  that  the  Phoenicians  exported 
tin  from  the  British  Isles,  and  amber  from  the 
coasts  of  Prussia.  Their  voyages  on  the  western 
coasts  of  Africa  seem  to  have  been  merely  voy- 
ages of  discovery,  without  permanent  results.  The 
Spanish  colonies  were,  probably,  the  principal 
sources  of  Phoenician  wealth,  and  were  founded 
at  a  very  remote  period.  The  migration  of  the 
Phoenician,  Cadmus,  into  Boeotia,  likewise  belongs 
to  the  earlier  period  of  Phoenician  colonization. 
Phoenicia  flourished  most  in  the  period  from  Da- 
vid to  Cyrus  (B.  C.  1050-550). 

(8)  Colonies.  In  this  period  were  founded  the 
African  colonies,  Carthage,  Utica,  and  Leptis. 
These  colonies  kept  up  a  frequent  intercourse 
with  the  mother  country,  but  were  not  politically 
dependent.  This  preserved  Phoenicia  from  the 
usual  stagnation  of  Oriental  states.  The  civiliza- 
tion of  the  Phoenicians  had  a  great  influence  upon 
other  nations.  Their  voyages  are  described  in 
Greek  m)rthology  as  the  expeditions  of  the  Ty- 
rian Hercules.  The  course  of  the  Tyrian  Hercules 
was  not  marked  like  that  of  other  conquerors — 
viz.  Medes  and  Assyrians — by  ruined  cities,  and 
devastated  countries,  but  by  flourishing  colonies,* 
by  agriculture,  and  the  arts  of  peace. 

(9)  Belig^on.  According  to  the  Phoenician 
religion  the  special  object  of  worship  was  the 
vital  power  in  nature,  which  is  either  producing  or 
destroying.  The  productive  power  of  nature, 
again,  is  either  procreative,  masculine,  or  recep- 
tive, feminine.  These  fundamental  ideas  are  rep- 
resented by  the  Phoenician  gods,  who  appear  un- 
der a  g^eat  variety  of  names,  because  these  leading 
ideas  may  be  represented  in  many  different  ways. 

We  need  not  here  enter  into  details  concern- 
ing the  Phoenician  gods,  as  the  principal  of  them 
have  been  noticed  under  their  names.  (See  Baal; 
AsHTORETH.)  It  suffices  to  state  generally,  that 
the  procreative  principle  was  worshiped  as  Baal, 
lord,  and  as  the  sun.  The  rays  of  the  sun  are, 
however,  not  only  procreative,  but  destructive; 
and  this  destructive  power  is  especially  repre- 
sented in  the  Ammonitish  fire-god  Moloch.  Thus 
Baal  represented  both  the  generative  and  the  de- 
structive principles  of  nature;  in  which  latter  ca- 
pacity the  Hebrews  worshiped  him  by  human  sac- 
rifice (i  Kings  xviii:28;  Jer.  xixis).  He  was 
the  tutelary  god  of  Tyre,  and  hence  had  the  name 
of  Melkar,  equivalent  to  Melech-kereth,  *king  of 


PHRAT 


1344 


PHYLACTERY 


the  city,*  whom  the  Greeks  called  the  Tyrian  Her- 
cules. 

Of  Baaltis  or  Astarte,  which  are  usually  identi- 
fied, although  they  seem  to  have  been  originally 
different,  we  shall  here  add  nothing  to  what  has 
been  already  stated  under  Ashtoreth. 

Besides  these  principal  deities,  the  Phoenicians 
worshiped  seven  kabtrim,  mighty  ones,  whose 
numbers  corresponded  with  the  seven  planets.  These 
kabirim  were  considered  as  protectors  of  men  in 
using  the  powers  of  nature,  especially  navigation. 
With  these  seven  kabirim  was  associated  Esmun 
(the  eighth),  representing  the  sky  full  of  fixed 
stars,  surrounding  the  seven  planets,  the  refresh- 
ing air  and  the  warmth  of  life.  Many  Phoenician 
names  are  compounded  with  Esmun.  Hence  we 
infer  that  he  was  frequently  worshiped  (comp. 
Gesen.  Mon,  Phoen.  p.  ij6,  sq,).  G.  B. 

(10)  Present  Condition.  Phoenicia  is  now  a 
land  of  ruins,  the  whole  shore  from  the  "Ladder 
of  Tyre"  northward,  according  to  Porter,  being 
strewn  with  them.  "Heaps  of  hewn  stones  and 
quantities  of  marble  tesserae  lay  in  my  path,  while 
broken  shafts  and  mounds  of  rubbish  were  seen  to 
the  right  and  left,  here  crowning  a  cliff,  there 
washed  by  the  waves.  One  thing  I  specially  no- 
ticed: from  the  time  I  left  Achzib  tilf  I  reached 
the  fountains  (of  Tyre)  I  did  not  see  a  human 
being;  a  mournful  and  solitary  silence  reigns 
along  Phoenicia's  coast."  (Giant  Cities,  p.  277.) 
Stanley  writes  in  a  similar  strain:  "There  is  one 
point  of  view  in  which  this  whole  coast  is  spe- 
cially remarkable.  *A  mournful  and  solitary  si- 
lence now  prevails  along  the  shore  which  once  re- 
sounded with  the  world's  debate.'  This  sentence, 
with  which  Gibbon  solemnly  closes  his  chapter 
on  the  Crusades,  well  sums  up  the  general  im- 
pression still  left  by  the  six  days*  ride  from  Bei- 
rut to  Ascalon;  and  it  is  no  matter  of  surprise 
that  in  this  impression  travelers  have  felt  a  re- 
sponse to  the  strains  in  which  Isaiah  and  Ezekiel 
foretold  the  desolation  of  Tyre  and  Sidon.  In 
one  sense,  and  that  the  highest,  this  feeling  is 
just.  The  Phoenician  power  which  the  prophets 
denounced  has  entirely  perished."  (Sinai  and 
Palestine,  p.  266.) 

PHBAT  (phr^t).    See  Euphrates. 

PHBYGIA  (phrj^j'i-4),  (Gr.  ^pvyla,  froog-ee'ah, 
barren,  parched),  was  the  largest  kingdom  of  Asia 
Minor;  it  had  Bithynia  north,  Pisidia  and  Lycia 
south,  Galatia  and  Cappadocia  east,  and  Lydia 
and  Mysia  west.  Christianity  was  planted  in  this 
country  by  Paul  (Acts  xvi:6;  xviii:23). 

Jews  from  Phrygia  were  present  in  Jerusalem 
at  the  feast  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii:io).  The  cities 
Laodicea,  Hierapolis,  and  Colossae  mentioned  in 
the  New  Testament  belonged  to  Phrygia,  as  well 
as  Antioch  of  Pisidia.  (See  Smith,  Diet,  of  Clas- 
sical Geog.) 

PHT7BAH   (phQ'rah),   (Heb.   '"^Jf,  poo -rait/, 

bough).  A  servant  w*ho  accompanied  Gideon,  when 
he  went  by  night  as  a  spy  to  the  camp  of  the  Mid- 
ianites  (Judg.  viiiio-ii).    (B.  C.  1362.) 

PHT7BIM  (pha'rim),  (Esth.  xi:i).    See  PURIM. 

PHUT  (phut),  (Heb.  tt'lB,  po^A,  bow). 

A  son  of  Ham  (Gen.  x:6),  progenitor  of  an 
African  people  of  the  same  name,  sometimes  ren- 
dered *Libya*  (Jer.  xlvi:9;  Ezek.  xxvii:io;  xxx: 
5;  xxxviii:5;  Nah.  iii:9). 

PHTJVAH   (phfl'vah),  (Heb.  '"^^f,  poovvaw\ 

mouth,  blast).  The  second  son  of  Issachar  (Gen. 
xlvi:i3).  (B.  C.  1900.)  The  name  is  Pua  (A. 
V.  Num.  xxvi:23),  and  Puah  (i  Chron.  vii:i). 
The  descendants  of  Phuvah  were  called  Punites 
(Num.  xxvi:23). 


PHYOELLUS  (phH6rius),(Gr.*<>7eXXof,/ew^- 
el'los^  a  fugitive),  a  Christian  of  Asia,  who,  being 
at  Rome  while  St.  Paul  was  there  in  prison  (A.  D. 
64),  forsook  him  with  Hermogenes,  in  nis  necessity 
(2  Tim.  i:is). 

It  is  not  certain  whether  this  forsaking  of  the 
apostle  was  accompanied  with  a  declension  from 
the  faith  or  not.  Phygellus  may  have  left  (see 
2  Tim.  iv:i6)  the  apostle  at  some  critical  time 
when  his  support  was  expected;  or  he  may  have 
been  a  leader  of  some  party  of  nominal  Chris- 
tians at  Rome,  such  as  the  apostle  describes  at 
an  earlier  period  (Phil.  i:i5,  16)  opposing  him 
there  (Smith,  Bib,  Diet.) 

PHYLACTERY  (fi-iak'ter-J). 

(1)  Name.  (Gr.  ipvXoKTijpiop,  foo-lak-tay* ree-otit 
a.  station   for  a  guard;   in  Rabbinical    Hebrew 

r.'^?^,  up-ee-leen't  prayer  fillets). 

(2)  Form  and  Use.  The  Phylactery  was  a 
piece  of  parchment  inscribed  with  particular  pas- 
sages of  Scripture  (Deut.  vi:4-9;  xi:  13-21;  Exod. 
xiii:i-io,  11-16).  They  were  folded  up  and  en- 
closed in  a  small  leather  box,  generally  one  and 
a  half  inches  square,  and  worn  upon  the  forehead 
nearly  between  the  eyes,  or  upon  the  left  arm 
near  to  the  heart, 
being  attached  by 
straps  of  leather 
(Joseph.  Antiq,  iv, 
8,  13;  Hieron.  in 
Ezek,  xxiv:i7>. 
They  were  consid- 
ered as  thus  re- 
minding the  wear- 
ers to  fulfill  the  law 
with  the  head  and 
heart,  and  they 
were  also  regarded 
as  amulets,  protect- 
ing the  wearer  from 
the  powers  of  evil, 
specially  demons 
(Targ,/»  Cant,  viii: 
3).  On  this  notion  was  founded  the  Greek  name  o! 
0vXaicri}piov,  which  means  a  'safeguard.' 

These  appendages  were  used  during  the  stated 
prayers,  and  only  by  men.  The  whole  observance 
IS  founded  on  the  authprity  of  the  texts  which  are 
written  on  the  strips  of  parchment,  as  Exod.  xiii : 
16 :  *It  shall  be  for  a  token  upon  thine  hand,  and 
for  frontlets  (bands,  fillets)  between  thine  eyes;* 
which,  although  in  all  probability  only  figurative 
expressions,  have  been  literally  understood,  and 
acted  upon  by  the  Jews  since  the  Exile.  In  exist- 
ing usage  the  skin  employed  in  making  the  phy- 
lacteries is  prepared  with  much  care,  and  the  writ- 
ing traced  with  minute  accuracy  and  neatness. 
The  Hebrew  ritualists  give  very  exact  and  nu- 
merous directions  on  this  subject,  which  are  re- 
quired to  be  closely  observed.  The  case  itself  is 
composed  of  several  layers  of  parchment  or  of 
black  calf-skin.  The  phylacteries  for  the  head 
have  four  cavities,  in  each  of  which  is  put  one 
of  the  four  texts  to  which  we  have  referred;  but 
the  phylacteries  for  the  arm  have  only  one  cavity, 
containing  the  same  texts  all  written  on  one  slip 
of  parchment.  Light  foot  thinks  it  not  unlikely 
that  our  Savior  himself  wore  the  Jewish  tephelin 
or  phylacteries,  as  well  as  the  sisith  or  fringes, 
according  to  the  custom  of  his  nation;  and  that 
in  Matt.  xxiii:5,  our  Lord  condemns  not  the 
wearing  of  them,  but  the  pride  and  hypocrisy  of 
the  Pharisees  in  making  them  broad  and  visiljle, 
to  obtain  respect  and  reputation  for  wisdom  and 
piety.  (Townley,  Reasons  for  the  Laws  of  Moses, 
p.  350.) 


Phylacteries. 


FHYSIC,  PHYSICIAN 


1345 


PI-BESETH 


i 


PHYSIO,  PHYSICIAN  (firz-Yk,fir-zIsh'aii),(Heb. 
^^  raw-faw',  to  heal,  repair). 

There  can  be  no  question  that  the  Israelites 
brought  some  knowledge  of  medicine  with  them 
from  Egypt,  whose  physicians  were  celebrated  in 
all  antiquity.  To  the  state  of  medical  knowledge 
in  that  country  there  are  indeed  some  allusions 
in  Scripture,  as  contained  in  the  notice  of  the 
corps  of  physicians  in  the  service  of  Joseph  (Gen. 
1 :2) ;  of  the  use  of  artificial  help  and  practiced 
midwives  in  child  birth  (Exod.  i:i6)  ;  and  of  the 
copious  materia  medica,  the  'many  medicines.' 
which  their  medical  practice  had  brought  into 
use   (Jer.  xlviiii). 

In  the  early  stage  of  medical  practice  attention 
was  confined  among  all  nations  to  surgical  aid 
and  external  applications:  even  down  to  a  com- 
paratively late  period  outward  maladies  appear  to 
have  been  the  chief  subjects  of  medical  treatment 
among  the  Hebrews  (Is.  i:6;  Ezek.  xxx:2i;  2 
Kings  viii:29;  ix:i5);  and  although  they  were 
not  altogether  without  remedies  for  internal  or 
even  mental  disorders  (2  Chron.  xvi:i2;  i  Sam. 
xvi:i6),  they  seem  to  have  made  but  little  prog- 
ress in  this  branch  of  the  healing  art.  The  em- 
ployment of  the  physician  was,  however,  very 
general  both  before  and  after  the  Exile  (2  Chron. 
xvi:i2;  Jer.  viii:22;  Sirach  xxxviii:i;  Mark  v: 
26;  comp.  Luke  iv:23;  v:3i;  viii:43). 

The  medicines  most  in  use  were  salves,  partic- 
ularly balms  (Jer.  viii  :22;  xlvi  :ii ;  comp.  Prospero 
Alpinus,  Med,  jEgypt,  p.  118),  plasters  or  poul- 
tices (2  Kings  XX  :7;  comp.  Plin.  xxiii.  63),  oil- 
baths  (Joseph.  De  Bell.  Jud,  i.  ZZ.  5;  ii.  21.  6), 
mineral  baths  (Joseph.  Antiq.  xvii.  6.  5;  Vita,  16; 
De  Bell.  Jud.  i,  33,  5;  ii,  21,  6;  comp.  John  v:2, 
sq.),  river  bathing  (2  Kings  v:io).  Of  remedies 
for  internal  complaints,  some  notion  may  be  formed 
from  the  Talmudical  intimations  of  things  law- 
ful and  unlawful  to  be  done  on  the  Sabbath  day. 
They  were  mostly  very  simple,  such  as  our  old 
herbalists  would  have  been  disposed  to  recom- 
mend. 

Amulets  were  also  much  in  use  among  the 
Jews.  Strict  persons,  however,  discountenanced 
such  practices  as  belonging  to  'the  ways  of  the 
Amorites.'  Enchantments  were  also  employed  by 
those  who  professed  the  healing  art,  especially  in 
diseases  of  the  mind ;  and  they  were  much  in  the 
habit  of  laying  their  hands  upon  the  patient  (2 
Kings  v:ii ;  Joseph.  Antiq.  ii.  5). 

The  part  taken  by  the  priest  in  the  judgment 
on  leprosy,  etc.,  has  led  to  an  impression  that  the 
medical  art  was  in  the  hands  of^  the  Levitical 
body.  (See  Leprosy.)  This  may  in  some  degree 
be  true;  not  because  they  were  Levites,  but  be- 
cause they,  more  than  any  other  Hebrews,  had 
leisure,  and  sometimes  inclination  for  learned 
pursuits.  The  acts  prescribed  for  the  priest  by 
the  law  do  not,  however,  of  themselves,  prove 
anything  on  this  point,  as  the  inspection  of  lep- 
rosy belonged  rather  to  sanitary  police  than  to 
medicine — although  it  was  certainly  necessary  that 
the  inspecting  priest  should  be  able  to  discrimi- 
nate, according  to  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  law, 
the  diagnosis  of  the  disease  placed  under  his  con- 
trol (Lev.  xiii:i3;  xiv:i5).  The  priests  them- 
selves were  apt  to  take  colds,  etc.,  from  being 
obliged  to  minister  at  all  times  of  the  year  with 
naked  feet;  whence  there  was  in  latter  times  a 
medical  inspector  attached  to  the  temple  to  attend 
to  their  complaints  (Kail,  De  Morhis  Sacerdot. 
V.  T.;  Lightfoot,  p.  781). 

Of  anatomical  knowledge  some  faint  traces  msiy 
be  discerned  in  such  passages  as  Job  ix:8,  sq.  It 
86 


does  not  appear  that  the  Hebrews  were  in  the 
habit  of  opening  dead  bodies  to  ascertain  the 
causes  of  death.  We  know  that  the  Egyptians 
were  so,  and  their  practice  of  embalmment  must 
have  ^ven  them  much  anatomical  knowledge 
(Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egypt,  iii.  392).  But  to  the 
acquisition  of  such  knowledge  there  were  great 
obstacles  among  a  people  to  whom  simple  con- 
tact with  a  corpse  conveyed  pollution.  (See  Dis- 
eases OF  THE  Jews;  Plague;  Leprosy;  Job; 
Blains;  etc.) 

PI-BESETH  (pi-b6'seth),  (Heb.  ^3  \  pee-beh'- 

seth;  Sept.  Bo^JjScurTof,  Boo'bas-tos,  Bubastos). 

A  city  of  Egypt  which  is  named  with  several 
others  in  Ezek.  xxx:i7.  According  to  the  Septu- 
agint,  which  is  followed  by  the  Vulgate,  it  is  the 
same  with  Bubastis,  which  was  the  principal  town 
of  the  Nomos  Bubastites  (Plin.  Hist.  Is  at.  v.  9; 
Ptol.  iv.  s). 

The  name  was  derived  from  the  goddess 
Bubastis  (Copt.  Pascht),  whom  the  Greeks  identi- 
fied with  their  Artemis.  A  great  festive  pilgrim- 
age was  yearly  made  to  her  temple  in  this  place 
by  great  numbers  of  people  (Herod,  ii.5-9).  Bu- 
bastis is  described  with  unusual  minuteness  by 
Herodotus  (ii.  137,  138)  ;  and  Wilkinson  assures 
us  that  the  outlines  of  his  account  may  still  be 
verified.  The  city  was  taken  by  the  Persians, 
who  destroyed  the  walls  (Diod.  Sic.  xvi.  51)  ;  but 
it  was  still  a  place  of  some  consideration  under 
the  Romans.  It  was  near  Bubastis  that  the  ca- 
nal leading  to  Arsinoe  (Suez)  opened  to  the  Nile 
(Herod,  ii.  138)  ;  and  although  the  mouth  was 
afterwards  often  changed  and  taken  more  south- 
ward, it  has  now  returned  to  its  first  locality,  as 
the  present  canal  of  Tel-el- Wadee  commences  in 
the  vicinity  of  Tel  Basta.  This  Tel  Basta,  which 
undoubtedly  represents  Bubastis,  is  in  north  lati- 
tude 30°  36';  east  longitude  31*  33'.  The  site 
is  occupied  by  mounds  of  great  extent,  which  con- 
sist of  the  crude  brick  houses  of  the  town,  with 
the  usual  heaps  of  broken  pottery.  The  temple, 
of  which  Herodotus  states  that,  although  others 
in  Egypt  were  larger  and  more  magnificent,  none 
were  more  beautiful,  is  entirely  destroyed;  but 
the  remaining  stones,  being  of  the  finest  red  gran- 
ite, confirm  the  historian's  testimony.  (Wilkin- 
son, Modern  Egypt,  i.  300,  427-429.) 

Dr.  William  G.  Winslow  says:  "The  most 
precious  treasures  revealed  at  Bubastis,  when 
Naville's  wand  touched  the  mounds,  are  the 
inscriptions  of  the  XVHIth  dynasty  and  of 
the  Hyksos  monuments.  Declared  the  proph- 
et Ezekiel:  'The  young  men  of  Aven  and 
of  Pi-beseth  (i.  e.,  Bubastis)  shall  fall  by 
the  sword:  and  these  cities  shall  go  into  captiv- 
ity.' The  name  of  Meneptah  occurs  several 
times  upon  the  monuments ;  and  the  explorer  also 
disinterred  the  first  Hyksos  statue  ever  found 
with  the  head-dress  complete;  and  then  another 
Hyksos  statue.  Near  to  the  latter  statue,  now  in 
the  British  Museum,  was  found  the  name  that 
signifies  his  standard — ^Apepi — the  last  of  the 
Hyksos  kings,  under  whom  Joseph  entered  Egypt. 
Bubastis  adjoins  what  is  now  proved  to  have 
been  'the  land  of  Goshen,*  just  where  Jacob  set- 
tled; and  Bubastis  would  be  precisely  where  Jo- 
seph's Pharaoh  would  reside,  or,  at  least,  often 
hold  a  court. 

"Here  is  a  remarkable  coincidence:  near  to  a 
statue  that  is  in  all  probability  that  of  Joseph's 
Pharaoh,  is  found  one  bearing  the  name  Raian — 
the  name  that  Arab  tradition  assigns  to  that 
Pharaoh.  From  our  scientific  investigation,  we 
can  simply  suppose  that  Dr.Naville  has  unearthed 


PICTURE 


veritable  statues  of  Che  renowned  prime 
sovereign ;  and  we  ask  (he  significant  question, 
Did  Joseph's  Pharaoh  have  the  name  Raian  as 
well  as  Apepi,  or  did  he  Rourish  in  his  long  life 
under  two  potentates?  Every  mound  of  Egypl  w 
history  in  fragmenU,  if  not  in  complete  form." 
VICTUBX  (prk'tOr). 

1.  Mas-ieeik'  (Heb.  f^W^,  figure).  Used  lit- 
erally (Frov.  xxv:ti),  or  to  denote  idolatrous 
representations  engraved  upon  stones,  or  colored 
(Eiek.  xxiii:i4).  Movable  pictures  were  probably 
unknown  to  the  Jews,  but  they  must  have  been 
familiar  with  the  pictures  on  enameled  brick  in 
the  walls  of  Babylon. 

2.  {Heb.  ^'?F,  sei-ee-ya^ ,  conspicuous),  the 
flag  of  a  ship,  as  seen  from  a  distance  (Is.  ii:i6). 
The  term  should  not,  in  the  judgment  of  scholars, 
be  confined  to  flags,  but  that  it  relers  to  all  kinds 
of  works  of  art,  whether  in  paintings  or  sculpture, 
that  were  pleasing  in  appearance. 

PIECE  OF  OOLD.  A  term  used  by  translators 
where  the  unit  of  weight  was  not  specifically  men- 
tioned, but  where  a  shekel  is  ordinarily  intended 
(Judg.  viii:26;  a  Sam.  xii:30;  Deut.  xxix:i7;  i 
Kings  x:io.    A.  V.  "shekel"). 

PIECE  OF  KOHEY.    See  Stater;  Money. 

PIECE  OF  SILVEB  (Heb.  YI<,  rats).  In  the 
New  Testament  this  term  denotes  the  shekel 
(Matt.  xxvi:is;  xxvii:g;  Zech.  xi:i2);  in  Luke  xv: 
8,  however,  it  is  a  drachma.  In  the  Old  Testa- 
ment it  means  a  definite  amount  of  metal,  and 
usually  the  shekel  is  understood.    (See  Money.) 

PIETT  (pffi-ij).  Found  in  the  A.  V.  only  in  the 
exhortation  "  Let  them  learn  first  to  show i>(V/K  or 
godliness  at  home"  (i  Tim,  v:4;  Gi.tietpiui,  yoo- 
ub-eh'o),  better  "among  their  own  household.' 

PIGEON  (plj'iSa).  1.  (Heb.  *>X-^ . go-zawf).  a 
young  bird.  S.  (Heb.  "V  >  yo-navt),  a  dove.  See 
Dove;  Turtledove. 

PI-HAHIBOTH  (pl-ha-hl'rolh),  (Heb.  ^"^ 
'■^.pee  kak-kkee-roth' ,  place  of  reservoirs). 

A  place  near  the  northern  end  of  the  Gulf  of 
Suez,  east  of  Baalzephon  (Exod.  xiv:3,  9;  Num. 
jtjtxiii:?).  The  Hebrew  signification  of  the  words 
would  be  equivalent  to  'mouth  of  the  caverns;' 
but  it  is  doubtless  an  Egyptian  name,  and  as  such 
would  signify  a  'placewheregrass  or  sedge  grows.' 
(See  Exodus.)  Naville  identifies  it  with  Pekere- 
heC  near  Fithom. 

FII^TE,  PONTmS  (pi'late,  p6n'ti-us),  (Gr. 
llt\drts,pil-atos,  Hberun,  ^00 '/^f-nj),  was  the  sixth 
Roman  Procurator  of  Judea(Matt.  xxvii:2;  Mark 
xv:i;  Lukeiii:!;  John  xviii-xix),  under  whom  our 
Lord  taught, suffered,  and  died  (Acts  iii:i3;  iviz?; 
xiii:38;  iTim.  vi:i3;  Tacit.  ^H«a/.xv:44). 

The  tistimony  of  Tacilus  on  this  point  is  no 
less  clear  than  it  is  important ;  for  it  fixes  be- 
yond a  doubt  the  lime  when  the  foundations  of 
our  religion  were  laid.  The  words  of  the  great 
historian  are:  Auctor  nominis  ejus  Ckriitus, 
Tibcrio  imperitante,  per  Procuratorrm  Pontium 
Pilalum  sHpplicio  affectus  est.  'The  author  of 
that  name  (Christian)  or  sect  was  Christ,  who 
was  capitally  punished  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius 
by  Pontius  Pilate.* 

1.  Personal  HIstorp.  Pilate  was  the  successor 
of  Valerius  Gratus,  and  governed  Judxa,  as  we 
have  seen,  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  He  hEld  his 
office  for  a  period  of  ten  years.  The  agreement 
on  this  point  between  the  accounts  in  the  New 
Testament  and  those  supplied  by  Josephus,  is  en- 


16  PILATE,  PONTIUS 

tire  and  satisfactory.  It  has  been  exhibited  in  de- 
tail by  the  learned,  accurate,  and  candid  Lardner 
(vol.  i.  150-389,  Lond.  1827). 

(1)  Official  UlBtakea.  Pilate's  conduct  in 
his  office  was  in  many  respects  highly  culpa- 
ble. Josephus  has  recorded  two  instances  in 
which  Pilate  acted  very  tyrannically  {Aniiq.  xviii. 

3.  I ;  comp.  De  Bell.  Jud.  ii.  9.  2.  J4.)  in  regard  to 
the  Jews.  His  own  misconduct  led  the  Samari- 
tans to  take  a  step 'which  in  itself  does  not  ap- 
pear seditious  or  revolutionary,  when  Pilate  seized 
the  opportunity  to  slay  many  of  the  t>eoi)le,  not 
only  in  the  fight  which  ensued,  but  also  in  cold ' 
blood  after  they  had  given  themselves  up,  'But 
when  this  tumult  was  appeased,  the  Samaritan 
Senate  sent  an  embassy  to  Vitellius,  now  Presi- 
dent of  Syria,  and  accused  Pilate  of  the  murder 
of  those  who  had  been  slain.  So  Vitellius  sent 
Marcellus,  a  friend  of  his,  to  lake  care  of  the  af- 
fairs of  Judsea,  and  ordered  Pilate  to  go  to  Rome 
to  answer  before  the  emperor  to  the  accusations 
of  the  Jews.  Pilate,  when  he  had  tarried  ten 
years  in  Judxa,  made  haste  to  Rome,  and  this  in 
obedience  to  the  orders  of  Vitellius,  which  he 
durst  not  contradict ;  but  before  he  could  get  to 
Rome,  Tiberius  was  dead'  (Joseph.  Anttq,  xviii. 

4.  2).  This  removal  took  place  before  the  Pass- 
over in  A.  D.  36,  probably  about  September  or 
October,  A.  D,  35;  Pilate  must,  therefore,  as 
he  spent  ten  years  in  Judxa,  have  entered  On  his 
government  about  October,  A.  D.  25,  or  at  least 
before  the  Passover,  A.  D.  26,  in  the  twelfth  year 
of  Tiberius'  sole  empire  (comp.  Lardner,  i.  391,  tq. 

To  be  put  out  of  his  government  by  Vitellius, 
on  the  complaints  of  the  people  of  his  province, 
must  have  been  a  very  grievous  mortification  to 
Pilate ;  and  though  the  emperor  was  dead  before 
he  reached  Rome,  he  did  not  long  enjoy  the  im- 


munity as  he  anticipated ;  for,  as  Eusebius  {Chron. 
p.  78)  stales,  he  shortly  afterwards  made  away 
with  himself  {out  of  vexation  for  his  many  mis- 
fortunes). 

Owing  to  the  atrocity  of  the  deed  in  which 
Pilate  took  a  principal  part,  and  to  the  wounded 
feelings  of  piety  with  which  that  deed  has 
been  naturally  regarded  by  Christians,  a  very 
dark    idea     has    been     formed     of    the    char* 


PILATE,  PONTIUS 


1347 


PILATE.  PONTIUS 


acter  of  this  Roman  governor.  That  char- 
acter was  undoubtedly  bad;  but  moral  de- 
pravity has  its  degrees,  and  the  cause  of  re- 
ligion is  too  sacred  to  admit  any  spurious  aid 
from  exaggeration.  It  is  therefore  desirable  to 
form  a  just  conception  of  the  character  of  Pilate, 
and  to  learn  specifically  what  were  the  vices  un- 
der which  he  labored.  For  this  purpose  a  brief 
outline  of  the  evangelical  account,  such  as  will  en- 
able the  student  to  obtain  a  comprehensive  view 
of  the  conditions,  seems  necessary. 

(2)  Evangelical  Account.  The  narratives  on 
which  the  following  statement  is  founded  may  be 
found  in  John  xviii,  xix;  Matt,  xxvii;  Mark  xv; 
Luke  xxiii, 

Jesus  having  been  betrayed,  apprehended,  and 
found  guilty  of  blasphemy  by  the  Jewish  San- 
hedrim, is  delivered  to  Pilate  in  order  to  undergo 
the  punishment  of  death,  according  to  the  law  in 
that  case  provided.  (See Crucifixion.)  This  ti*adi- 
tion  of  Jesus  to  Pilate  was  rendered  necessary 
by  the  fact  that  the  Jews  did  not  at  that  time 
possess  on  their  own  authority  the  power  of  life 
and  death.  Pilate  could  not  have  been  ignorant 
of  Jesus  and  his  pretensions.  He  might,  had  he 
chosen,  have  immediately  ordered  Jesus  to  be  ex- 
ecuted, for  he  had  been  tried  and  condemned  to 
death  by  the  laws  of  the  land;  but  he  had  an  al- 
ternative. As  the  execution  of  the  laws,  in  the 
case  at  least  of  capital  punishments,  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Roman  Procurator,  so  without  any 
violent  straining  might  his  tribunal  be  converted 
into  a  court  of  appeal  in  the  last  instance.  At 
any  rate,  remonstrance  against  an  unjust  verdict 
was  easy  and  proper  on  the  part  of  a  high  officer, 
who,  as  having  to  inflict  the  punishment,  was  in 
a  measure  responsible  for  its  character.  And 
remonstrance  might  easily  lead  to  a  revision  of 
the  grounds  on  which  the  verdict  had  been  given, 
and  thus  a  cause  might  virtually  be  brought,  de 
novo, before  the  Procurator;  this  took  place  in  the 
case  of  our  Lord.  Pilate  gave  him  the  benefit  of 
a  new  trial,  and  pronounced  him  innocent. 

(3)  Criminal  Conduct.  This  review  of  the 
case  was  the  alternative  that  lay  before  Pilate, 
the  adoption  of  which  speaks  undoubtedly  in  his 
favor,  and  may  justify  us  in  declaring  that  his 
guilt  was  not  of  the  deepest  dye. 

That  the  conduct  of  Pilate  was,  however,  highly 
criminal  cannot  be  denied.  But  his  guilt  was 
light  in  comparison  with  the  gross  criminal  de- 
pravity of  the  Jews,  especially  the  priests.  His  was 
the  guilt  of  weakness  and  fear,  theirs  the  guilt  of 
settled  and  deliberate  malice.  His  state  of  mind 
prompted  him  to  attempt  the  release  of  an  ac- 
cused person  in  opposition  to  the  clamors  of  a 
misguided  mob;  theirs  urged  them  to  compass 
the  ruin  of  an  acquitted  person  by  instigating  the 
populace,  calumniating  the  prisoner,  and  terrify- 
ing the  judge.  If  Pilate  yielded  against  his  judg- 
ment under  the  fear  of  personal  danger,  and  so 
took  part  in  an  act  of  unparalleled  injustice,  the 
priests  and  their  ready  tools  originated  the  false 
accusation,  sustained  it  by  subornation  of  per- 
jury, and  when  it  was  declared  invalid,  enforced 
their  own  unfounded  sentence  by  appealing  to 
the  lowest  passions.  Pilate,  it  is  clear,  was  ut- 
terly destitute  of  principle.  He  was  willing,  in- 
deed, to  do  right,  if  he  could  do  right  without 
personal  disadvantage.  Of  gratuitous  wickedness 
he  was  perhaps  incapable.  Certainly  in  the  con- 
demnation of  Jesus  he  has  the  merit  of  being  for 
a  time  on  the  side  of  innocence.  But  he  yielded 
to  violence,-  and  so  committed  an  awful  crime.  In 
his  hands  was  the  life  of  the  prisoner.  Con- 
vinced of  his  innocence  he  ought  to  have  set  him 


at  liberty,  thus  doing  right  regardless  of  con- 
sequences. But  this  is  an  act  of  high  virtue  which 
we  hardly  require  at  the  hands  of  a  Roman  gov- 
ernor of  Judaea;  and  though  Pilate  must  bear 
the  reproach  of  acting  contrary  to  his  own  de- 
clared convictions,  yet  he  may  equally  claim  some 
credit  for  the  apparently  sincere  efforts  which  he 
made  in  order  to  defeat  the  malice  of  the  Jews 
and  procure  the  liberation  of  Jesus. 

(4)  Official  Beport.  That  Pilate  made  an  of- 
ficial report  to  Tiberius  of  the  condemnation  and 
punishment  of  Jesus  Christ  is  likely  in  itself,  and 
becomes  the  more  likely  if  the  view  we  have 
given  of  Pilate's  character  is  substantially  cor- 
rect, for  then  the  governor  did  not  regard  the 
case  of  Jesus  as  an  ordinary,  and  therefore  incon- 
siderable one,  but  must  have  felt  its  importance 
alike  in  connection  with  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice, the  civil  and  religious  character  of  the  Jews, 
and  therefore  with  the  tenure  of  the  Roman 
power.  The  voice  of  antiquity  intimates  that 
Pilate  did  make  such  a  report ;  the  words  of  Jus- 
tin Martyr  are:  That  these  things  were  so  done 
you  may  know  from  the  Acts  made  in  the  time  of 
Pontius  Pilate*  {Apol.  i.  76).  A  similar  passage 
is  found  a- little  further  on  in  the  same  work. 
Now,  when  it  is  considered  that  Justin's  Apology 
was  a  set  defense  of  Christianity,  in  the  shape 
of  an  appeal  to  the  heathen  world  through  the 
persons  of  its  highest  functionaries,  it  must  seem 
very  unlikely  that  the  words  would  have  been 
used  had  no  such  documents  existed;  and  nearly 
as  improbable  that  those  Acts  would  have  been 
referred  to  had  they  not  been  genuine.  Tertullian 
also  uses  language  equally  decisive  {Apol.  verse 
21).  Eusebius  gives  a  still  fuller  account  {Hist. 
Eccles.  ii.  2).  These  important  passages  may 
be  found  *in  Lardner  (vi.  606,  seq.).  See  also 
Ord's  Acta  Pilati,  or  Pilate's  report  (vii:4),  long 
circulated  in  the  early  church,  being  received 
without  a  suspicion  (Chrysost.  Horn.  viii.  in 
Pasch.;  Epiphan.  H(Br,  1.  i;  Euseb.  i.  9  and  11; 
9,  5,  and  7).  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
documents  were  genuine.  Such  is  the  opinion  of 
Winer  {Real  Worterb.)  Lardner,  who  has  fully 
discussed  the  subject,  decides  that  *it  must  be 
allowed  by  all  that  Pontius  Pilate  composed  some 
memoirs  concerning  our  Savior,  and  sent  them  to 
the  emperor'  (vi.  610).  Winer  adds,  'What  we 
now  have  in  Greek  under  this  title  {Pilate's  Re- 
port) ^  see  Fabricii  Apocr.  i.  237,  239;  iii.  456,  as 
well  as  the  two  letters  of  Pilate  to  Tiberius,  are 
fabrications  of  a  later  age.' 

2»  Character.  If  now  we  wish  to  form  a 
judgment  of  Pilate's  character,  we  easily  see  that 
he  was  one  of  that  large  class  of  men  who  aspire 
to  public  offices,  not  from  a  pure  and  lofty  de- 
sire of  benefiting  the  public  and  advancing  the 
good  of  the  world,  but  from  selfish  and  personal 
considerations,  from  a  love  of  distinction,  from 
a  love  of  power,  from  a  love  of  self-indulgence; 
being  destitute  of  any  fixed  principles,  and  having 
no  aim  but  office  and  influence,  they  act  right  only 
by  chance,  and  when  convenient,  and  are  wholly 
incapable  of  pursuing  a  consistent  course,  or  of 
acting  with  firmness  and  self-denial  in  cases  in 
which  the  preservation  of  integrity  requires  the 
exercise  of  these  qualities.  Pilate  was  obviously 
a  man  of  weak,  and  therefore,  with  his  tempta- 
tions, of  corrupt  character. 

The  view  given  in  the  Apostolical  Constitu- 
tions (ver.  14),  where  unmanliness  an-an-dree'- 
ah  {dvavdpCa)  is  ascribed  to  him,  we  take  to 
be  correct.  This  want  of  strength  will  readily 
account  for  his  failing  to  rescue  Jesus  from  the 
rage  of  his  enemies,  and  also  for  the  acts  of  in- 


n 


PILDASH 


1348 


PILLAR,  PLAIN  OF  THE 


justice  and  cruelty  which  he  practiced  in  his  gov- 
ernment— acts  which,  considered  in  themselves, 
wear  a  deeper  dye  than  does  the  conduct  which 
he  observed  in  surrendering  Jesus  to  the  malice 
of  the  Jews.  And  this  same  weakness  may  serve 
to  explain  to  the  reader  how  much  influence 
would  be  exerted  on  this  unjust  judge,  not  only 
by  the  stern  bigotry  and  persecuting  wrath  of 
the  Jewish  priesthood,  but  specially  by  the  not 
concealed  intimations  which  they  threw  out 
against  Pilate,  that,  if  he  liberated  Jesus,  he  was 
no  friend  of  Tiberius,  and  must  expect  to  have 
to  give  an  account  of  his  conduct  at  Rome.  And 
that  this  was  no  idle  threat,  nothing  beyond  the 
limits  of  probability,  Pilate's  subsequent  deposi- 
tion by  Vitellius  shows  very  plainly;  nor  could 
the  procurator  have  been  ignorant  either  of  the 
stern  determination  of  the  Jewish  character,  or  of 
the  offense  he  had  by  his  acts  given  to  the  heads  of 
the  nation,  or  of  the  insecurity,  at  that  very  hour, 
when  the  contest  between  him  and  the  priests  was 
proceeding  regarding  the  innocent  victim  whom 
they  lusted  to  destroy,  of  his  own  position  in 
the  office  which  he  held,  and  which,  of  course 
he  desired  to  retain.  On  the  whole,  then,  viewing 
the  entire  conduct  of  Pilate,  his  previous  iniquities 
as  well  as  his  bearing  on  the  condemnation  of 
Jesus — viewing  his  own  actual  position  and  the 
malignity  of  the  Jews,  we  cannot,  we  confess, 
give  our  vote  with  those  who  have  passed  the 
severest  condemnation  on  this  weak  and  guilty 
governor.  J.  R.  B. 

(Hase,  in  his  Leben  Jesu,  p.  245,  affords 
valuable  literary  references  on  this,  as  on  so  many 
other  New  Testament  subjects.  EUicott,  His- 
torical Lectures  on  the  Life  of  Our  Lord; 
Neander,  Life  of  Christ;  Edersheim,  Life  of 
Jesus.  ^ 

PIIJ)ASH   (pn'dSsh),  (Heb.  tn)^^  pil.dawsh\ 

flame  of  fire). 

Son  of  Abraham's  brother,  Nahor,  by  his  wife, 
who  was  also  his  niece,  Milcah  (Gen.  xxii:22). 
(B.  C.  about  2046.) 

PILEHA  (pH'e-hi),  (Heb.  «7?9.  pil-kkaw',  a 
slice) 

The  head  of  a  family  and  one  who  sealed  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah   (Neh.  x:24).     (B.  C. 

445.) 
PILESEB"(pMe'ser).  See  Tiglath-Pileser. 

PILGIUM  (pn'grlm),  (Gr.  TaperlSrifios,  par-ep- 
iday-mos^  a  sojourner,  Heb.  xi:i3;  i  Pet.  h:ii). 

The  word  denotes,  properly,  one  who  is  going 
forward  to  visit  a  holy  place,  with  design  to  pay 
his  solemn  devotions  there.  Whether  pilgrimages 
are  as  ancient  as  the  days  of  Jacob  we  know 
not;  but  if  they  were,  it  gives  a  very  expressive 
sense  to  the  words  of  that  good  old  man,  who 
calls  the  years  of  his  life  "the  days  of  his  pilgrim- 
age" (Gen.  xlvii:9). 

Figurative.  Saints  are  "pilgrims,"  or  "way- 
faring men ;"  travelers  from  one  place  to  another ; 
their  condition  here  is  very  unsettled;  but  united 
to,  and  assisted  by  the  divine  Savior,  they,  through 
much  danger  and  opposition,  proceed  from  one 
degree  of  grace  to  another,  till  thejr  at  last  arrive 
at  their  everlasting  home  (i  Pet.  ii:ii;  Heb.  xi: 
13;  Is.  XXXV  :8). 

PrLL(pn).    See  Pilled. 

PILLAB  (pH'ler),  (Heb.  •''?S5,  mats-tsay-baw', 

"pillar"),  is  more  frequently  translated  "image"  or 
"statue"  (Deut.  vii:5;  xii:  3;  xvi:22;  Lev.  xxvi:i, 
etc.). 

It  denotes  in  general  a  column  or  supporter. 
A  pillar  of  cloud,  a  pillar  of  fire,  a  pillar  of 


smoke,  signify  a  cloud,  a  fire,  a  smoke,  which, 
rising  up  toward  heaven,  forms  an  irregular  col- 
umn. The  pillars  of  heaven  (Job  xxvicii)  and 
the  pillars  of  the  earth  (Job  ix:6;  Ps.  Ixxvrj) 
are  metaphorical  expressions,  by  which  the 
heavens  and  the  earth  are  compared  to  an  edifice 
raised  by  the  hand  of  God,  and  founded  upon  its 
basis  or  foundation.  This  appears  from  the  pas- 
sage in  Job  (xxxviii:4-6)  :  "Where  wast  thou 
when  I  laid  the  foundations  of  the  earth?" 

Figurative,  (i)  The  church  is  called  the 
"pillar  and  ground  of  truth;"  in  and  by  her  are 
exhibited  and  maintained  the  truths  of  (jod,  as  the 
edicts  of  civil  rulers  were  wont  to  be  held  up  to 
public  view  on  the  pillars  to  which  they  were 
affixed  (i  Tim.  iiiiis)  ;  or  the  "pillar  and  ground" 
of  truth  may  be  the  mystery  of  godliness  men- 
tioned in  ver.  16.  (2)  Saints  and  ministers,  es- 
pecially more  noted  ones,  are  like  "pillars;"  they 
are  fixed  on  the  foundations  of  divine  truth;  they 
have  their  affections  bent  heavenward,  and  they 
greatly  tend  to  support  the  churches  and  nations 
where  they  live  (Cant,  iii  :io;  Gal.  ii  :9).  (3)  Saints 
are  like  the  "pillars  of  smoke"  which  towered 
from  the  brazen  or  golden  altar ;  amidst  manifold 
storms  they  ascend  towards  God  in  holy  affections 
and  exercises — sprayer,  praise,  and  thanksgiving 
(Cant.  iii:6).  (4)  They  are  as  "pillars  in  the  tem- 
ple of  God;"  to  the  honor  of  his  grace  they  are 
fixed  in  his  church  and  new-covenant  state,  and 
are  at  last  unalterably  fixed  in  their  celestial  hap- 
piness (Rev.  iii:i2).  (5)  Magistrates,  and  funda- 
mental rulers  of  government  are  "pillars"  which 
connect  and  support  the  structure  of  a  state;  and 
which,  when  removed,  the  ruin  of  the  kingdom 
or  nation  quickly  ensues  (Ps.  lxxv:3).  (6) 
When  the  Lord  sent  Jeremiah  to  preach  to  the 
nations,  he  said  to  him  (Jer.  i:i8),  "Behold,  I 
have  made  thee  this  day  a  defensed  city,  and  an 
iron  pillar." 

PILLAB  OF  CLOUD  AND  FIBE  (pTl'ler  6v 
kloud    and   fir),    (Heb.    IJ?  'I'^^i?   *«   '^'^^^^  am- 

mood*aysht  am-moocP  aw-nawn'). 

In  Exod.  xiii:i8,  it  is  stated  that  "God  led  the 
people  about,  through  the  way  of  the  wilderness ;" 
in  vers.  21,  22  (comp.  xiv  .-24 ;  Num.  xiv  114 ;  Neh. 
ix:i2-i9)  it  is  said  that  "Jehovah  went  before 
them  by  day  in  a  pillar  of  cloud,  to  lead  them 
in  the  way,  and  by  night  in  a  pillar  of  fire  to 
give  them  light ;  to  go  by  day  and  night." 

(1)  Form.    In  the  daytime  it  was  like  a  cloud, 
dark  and  heavy,  and  in  the  night  bright  and  shin- 
ing, like  fire.    It  also  served  as  a  signal  for  rest* 
or  motion  (Num.  ix:i7-23). 

(2)  God's  Presence.  It  was  the  symbol  of 
God's  presence  and  protection.  The  fire  in  the 
pillar  was  the  same  as  that  in  which  the  Lord 
revealed  himself  in  the  burning  bush,  and  after- 
ward descended  upon  Sinai  amid  thunder  and 
lightning  in  a  thick  cloud  (Exod.  xix:  16-18).  It 
was  a  symbol  of  the  "zeal  of  the  Lord,"  and 
therefore  was  enveloped  in  a  cloud  which  pro- 
tected Israel  by  day  from  heat,  sunstroke,  and 
pestilence  (Is.  iv  .-4,  5 ;  xlix  :io ;  Ps.  xci  .-5,  6 ;  cxxi : 
6).  At  night  it  lighted  up  Israel's  path  by  its 
splendor,  and  defended  it  from  terror,  calamity 
(Ps.  xxyiiri,  sa.;  xci  .-5.  6).  It  also  threatened 
destruction  to  those  who  murmured  against  God 
(Num.  xviirio),  sending  out  fire  against  the  reb- 
els and  consuming  them  (Lev.  x:2;  Nimk  xvi: 
35)-     (See  Exodus.) 

PILLAB,  PLAIN  OF  THE  (pH'ler,  plan  «v 

the),  (Heb.  ^SJ,  naw-tsab\  to  be  set  up),  or  better 

"oak  of  the  pillar"  was  a  tree  near  Shechem,  where 
Abimelech  was  crowned  (Judg,  ix:6).     (See  Oak.) 


PILLAR  OF  SALT 


1340 


PISGAH 


PILLAB  OP  SALT  (pYl'ler  6v  salt),  (Heb.  ^V' 
net'Sib't  a  monument).    See  Lot. 

PILLED  (pYld).  (Heb.  ^^^ , paw-isat ,  Gen.  xxx: 
37),  having  the  skin  or  bark  peeled  ofif. 

PILLOW   (pn'16),  (Heb.   ^t^^^,   mer-ah-ash' 

aw\  headpiece),  something  on  which  to  lay  the 
head  (Gen.  xxviii:ii,  i8;  elsewhere  "bolster"). 
Other  Hebrew  words  are: 

1.  Keb-eer*  (Heb.  "^^5?,  plaiting,  i  Sam.  xix:i3, 

i6),  which  probably  means  a  piece  of  woven  goats* 
hair  folded  up. 

3.  Kth'seth  (Heb.  ^??,  £zek.xiii:i8, 20), wrongly 

translated  pillow;  the  word  means  concealment  or 
covering. 

8.  The  Greek  word  is  Pros-kef-at ahee-on,  rpwr- 
ffc^dXeuoi',  headpiece  (Mark  iv:38).  The  Savior  used 
the  rowers*  bench  or  its  cushion  for  a  pillow. 

PILOT  (pi'lut).  (Heb.  ^3^  kho-baie',  a  steers- 
man, Ezek.  xxvii:8,  27-29).  It  is  rendered  "ship- 
master" in  Jonah  i:6. 

VILTAl  (pll'tai),  (Heb.  ^S>??.  piMah'ee,  Jah 
causes  to  escape). 

A  priest  and  head  of  the  house  of  Moadiah, 
in  the  time  of  Joiakim,  the  high  priest  (Neh.  xii: 
17).    (B.  C.  445) 

PIN  (pfn),  (Heb.  ^\^^^,  yaw'thade\  a  tent-pin),  a 
pin  or  nail. 

A  copper  peg  driven  into  the  ground  to  hold 
the  ropes  of  the  court  (Exod.  xxvii:i9;  xxxv: 
18;  xxxviii:20,  31;  xxxix:40;  Num.  iii  :37;  iv: 
32)  ;  elsewhere  it  is  called  nail. 

PINBTBEB(pintre).(Heb.l9^  V'.atessheh'' 

men,  Neh.  viii:i5,  and  "^v'T!^,  tid-hawr',  enduring, 
Is.  xli:i9). 

This  tree  is  mentioned  as  a  tree  of  Lebanon.  The 
root  of  the  original  word  denotes  "curvature"  or 
"duration,"  neither  of  which  meanings  suits  the 
pine.  Tristram  suggests  the  elm,  a  species  of 
which  grows  upon  Lebanon,  and  Gesenius  the  oak, 
but  the  proper  translation  is  very  dpubtful.  The 
word  rendered  "pine  branches"  in  Neh.  viiiris, 
is  the  oil  tree.    (See  Oil  Tree;  Oren.) 

PINING  SICKNESS  (pin  'rn§  stk'nes).  "Pining" 
is  the  translation  of  Is.  xxxviii:i2,  for  the  He- 
brew •^?1  (dal'iaw'),  dangling,  i.  e.,  like  a  loose 

thread. 

In  the  A.  V.  it  is  translated  "I  have  rolled  up 
like  a  weaver  my  life:  he  will  cut  me  off  from 
the  loom." 

PINNACLE  (pfn'ni-k'l),  (Gr.TrtpOyiov.pter-oog' 
ee-on,  a  wing,  a  summit,  a  pointed  extremity,  Matt. 
iv:5;  Luke  iv:9). 

In  the  account  of  our  Lord's  temptation  (Matt. 
iv:5),  it  is  stated  that  the  devil  took  him  to  Jeru- 
salem, 'and  set  him  on  a  pinnacle  of  the  tem- 
ple.' The  part  of  the  temple  denoted  by  this 
term  has  been  much  questioned  by  different  com- 
mentators, and  the  only  certain  conclusion  seems 
to  be  that  it  cannot  be  understood  in  the  sense 
usually  attached  to  the  word  (1.  e.  the  point  of 
a  spiral  ornament),  as  in  that  case  the  article 
would  not  have  been  prefixed.  Grotius,  Ham- 
mond. Doddridge,  and  others,  take  it  in  the  sense 
of  balustrade  or  pinnated  battlement.  But  it  is 
now  more  generally  supposed  to  denote  what  was 
called  the  king's  portico,  which  is  mentioned  by 
Josephus  (Antiq,  xv.  11.  5),  and  is  the  same  which 
is  called  in  Scripture  'Solomon's  porch,'  to  which 
there  was  a  passage  by  stairs,  and  which  over- 


looked the  valley  on  the  east,  and  had  beneath 
a  perpendicular  depth  of  600  or  700  feet. 

PINON  (pi'non),  (Heb.  ]^^^,pee-n(m€',orepit). 
See  PuNON. 

PIPE  (pip),  (Heb.  ^^^7,  khaw-UeV,  a  pipe  or 

flute,  I  Sam.  x:5;  i  Kings  i:4o;  Is.  v:i2;    xxx:29; 
Jer.  xlviii:36). 


(pfp'erj,  (Gr.  odXi/TiJj,  aw-lay-tace'^  one 
who  plays  on  a  pipe  or  a  flute  (Rev.  xviii:22). 

PTKAM  (pi'ram),  (Heb.  CKI?,  ^/r-aze/»f',  wild, 
roving). 

An  Amorite,  king  of  Jarmuth  at  the  time 
Joshua  took  Canaan  (Josh.  x:3).  (B.  C.  about 
1618.)  He  with  four  others  were  hanged  by 
Joshua's  command  (Josh.  x:27). 

PIBATHON  (prr'a-th6n),  (Heb.  X'^^'\^ , pir-aw- 

thone,  Sept.,  Josephus,  and  i  Mace.  ix:5o,  ^apa^t^v, 
far-ah'thone), 

A  town  in  the  land  of  Ephraim,  to  which  Ab- 
don,  judge  of  Israel,  belonged,  and  in  which  he 
was  buried  (Judg.  xii:i3,  15).  Josephus  names 
it  twice  {Antiq.  v.  7,  13;  xiii.  i,  3);  and  in  the 
last  instance  coincides  with  i  Mace.  ix:50,  in 
ranking  it  among  the  towns  whose  ruined  fortifi- 
cations were  restored  by  Bacchides,  in  his  cam- 
paign against  the  Jews. 

PHtATHONITE  (plr'a-thon-ite),  (Heb.  ''J'-ny^^^ 

Pir-aW'thO'nee\  the  native  of,  or  dweller  in,  Pira- 
THON);  an  epithet  of  Abdon  (Judg.  xii:  13,  lO,  and 
Benaiah  ana  another  of  David's  oflficers  (i  (Ihron. 
xxvii:i4;  xi:3i). 

PISGAH  (pfz'gah),  (i^eb.  ^^^^,pis'gaw\ a  cleft), 

a  mountain  ridge  in  the  land  of  Moab,  on  the 
southern  border  of  the  kingdom  of  Sihon  (Num. 
xxi:2o;  xxiii:i4;  Deut.  iii:27;  Josh.  xii:3).  In  it 
was  Mount  Nebo,  from  which  Moses  viewed  the 
promised  land  before  he  died  (Deut.  xxxiv.i). 

Some  scholars  have  questioned  whether  "pis- 
gah"  is  a  proper  name.  It  occurs  eight  times  in 
Scripture;  four  times  with  Ashdoth.  In  Deut. 
iv:4,  9  the  English  version  reads  "springs  of 
Pisgah."  The  Septuagint  renders  "Pisgah  and 
"Ashdoth-pisgah"  as  a  proper  name  only  four 
times ;  the  Jewish  Targums  render  it  "hill. '  The 
English  version  regards  it  as  a  proper  name, 
and  it  has  a  prominent  place  in  Christian  litera- 
ture. 

The  great  interest  which  Nebo  and  Pisgah  pos- 
sess, as  the  scene  of  the  last  days  of  Israel's  law- 
giver, has  led  recent  travelers  carefully  to  explore 
the  region  in  order  to  discover  the  location  of 
these  historic  peaks.  Robinson  long  ago  suggested 
that  the  name  NebA  might  represent  the  ancient 
Nebo.  In  1863,  De  Saulcy,  when  about  an  hour's 
ride  from  HesbSn  on  his  way  to  Ma'ifit  found  a 
peak  which  the  Arabs  called  y<f^^/  Nebd.  This  he 
regarded  as  the  long-lost  Nebo,  and  says  he  was 
rejoiced  to  recover  the  famous  mount  so  long 
searched  for  without  success.  Among  ether  ex- 
plorers who  have  visited  the  region  are  Tristram 
m  1864,  and  again  in  1872 ;  Due  de  Luynes,  1864 ; 
Captajn  Warren,  1867 ;  and  the  expeditions  of  the 
American  Exploration  Society  in  1873  and  1877. 

In  1875  the  American  Society  issued  an  ex- 
tended statement  on  the  identification  of  Pisgah 
bjr  the  Rev.  J.  A.  Paine.  He  thinks  De  Saulcy 
mistook  the  height  of  Nebi  *Abduiidh  for  Jebel 
Nebd ;  he  likewise  rejects  the  description  of  Tris- 
tram as  inaccurate,  and  infers  that  Due  de  Luynes 
may  have  "suppressed  the  real  name,  Jebel  Nebd, 
and  endeavored  to  substitute  a  term  of  his  own, 
Jebel  Musd,  as  the  Arabic  name  of  the  mountain/* 


PISHTAH 


1350 


PITDAH 


though  he  holds  "that  the  members  of  Due  de 
Luynes'  party  were  the  first  to  ascend  Mount 
Nebo  with  a  consciousness  that  they  were  stand- 
ing on  the  summit  supposed  to  be  made  sacred  by 
the  death  of  the  great  lawgiver."  Mr.  Paine 
claims  to  have  discovered  that  the  name  Jehel 
Siaghah  is  applied  by  the  Arabs  to  the  extreme 
western  headland  or  peak  ntdiT  Jebgl  Nebd ;  dind. 
after  noticing  the  extent  of  the  view  and  the 
grandeur  of  the  scenery  declares:  "Two  conclu- 
sions are  irresistible — namely:  the  highest  por- 
tion of  the  range  is  Nebo;  the  extreme  headland 
of  the  range  is  Pisgah."  He  urges  in  favor  of 
this  identification  of  Pisgah  with  Jebel  Siaghah: 
(i)  the  similarity  in  the  names;  (2)  the  posi- 
tion of  Siaghah,  "the  only  headland  overlooking 
the  circuit  of  the  Jordan — the  place  above  all 
others  to  be  selected  for  the  sake  of  a  remarkable 
view;"  Mr.  Paine  says:  "Two-thirds  of  the 
Dead  Sea  stretches  out  an  azure  sheet  to  the 
southward,  and  beyond  it  the  land  which  Moses 
saw"   (Deut  xxxiv:i-4). 

His  theory  of  the  site  of  Pisgah  is  sharply 
questioned  by  Wolcott,  Tristram,  Warren,  and 
others,  chiefly  on  the  ground  that  it  fails  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  Biblical  narrative,  and 
that  Siaghah  is  not  the  modern  equivalent  of 
Pisgah.    (Schaff,  Bib,  Diet.)     (See  Nebo.) 


(ptsh'tah).  Reference  was  made  to 
this  article  under  Flax;  but,  as  it  is  desirable  to 
consider  it  in  connection  with  Shesh,  both  sub- 
stances will  be  treated  of  under  that  head.  (See 
Flax  ;  Shesh). 

PISIDIA  (pi-srd'i-a),  (G-  Uundla,  pis-id-ee' ah, 
pitchy). 

A  district  of  Asia  Minor,  lying  mostly  on  Mount 
Taurus,  between  Pamphylia,  Phrygia,  and  Ly- 
caonia.  Its  chief  city  was  Antioch,  usually  called 
Antioch  in  Pisidia,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
metropolitan  city  of  the  same  name.  (See 
Antioch.) 

FISON  (pi'zon),  (Heb.  T^^?,  pee-shone\  full 
flowing  or  canal). 

One  of  the  four  great  rivers  that  watered 
paradise  (Gen.  ii:ii,  12),  and  which  ran  through 
all  the  land  of  Havilah,  where  excellent  gold 
was  found.  It  has,  of  course,  been  placed  as 
variously  as  the  garden  of  Eden,  to  which  article 
the  reader  is  referred.  Eusebius  and  Jerome  call 
it  the  Ganges ;  Josephus  calls  it  Gotha ;  and  Solo- 
mon, the  commentator,  calls  it  the  Nile.  If  Eden 
was  in  Armenia,  near  the  sources  of  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  then  the  ancient  Pison  may- 
be the  modern  Phasis. 

The  Rev.  L.  W.  Bacon  sums  up  these  views 
by  stating  that  "for  the  river  of  Havilah,  the 
Pison,  some  like  (for  the  sound  of  the  name 
doubtless)  the  Phasis;  others  (because  it  is  so 
great  and  beautiful),  the  Halys;  and  others,  the 
Cyrus,  flowing  into  the  Araxes."  The  above 
writer  would  identify  the  Pison  with  the  Jorak 
or  Acampis,  that  rises  in  the  same  mountain  with 
the  Araxes  and  the  Euphrates,  and  bounds  Colchis 
on  the  west. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  Eden  was  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Euphrates,  some  would  identify  the  Pison 
with  the  river  Jaah,  which  empties  into  the  Tigris 
near  Kurnah.  (Newman's  Babylon,  p.  68.) 
Among  other  streams  which  have  been  suggested 
as  identical  with  the  Pison  are  the  Indus,  the 
Ganges,  the  Hyphasis,  the  Nile,  etc.  Dr.  Tayler 
Lewis  suggests  the  northern  shore  of  the  Arabian 
Sea.  *  (Lange's  Genesis,  p.  219.)  (See  Eden; 
Havilah.) 


(prz'pah),  (Heb.  '"^IP?.  pis-paw',  dis- 
persion), an  Asherite,  and  second  son  of  Jether  (i 
Chron.  vii:38).  B.  C.  about  1017. 

PIT  (pJt),  (Heb.  "^???,  ^^A-^j'r'),  a  large  deep  hole 

in  the  ground,  either  natural  or  artificial  (Gen. 
xiv:io;  xxxvii:20,  24,  etc.). 

Figurative,  (i)  A  pit  is  significant  of  the 
devices  of  crafty  men  and  devils  (Ps.  cxix:85; 
Prov.  xxvi:27;  Ezek.  xix:4).  (2)  To  "go  down 
into  the  pit"  (Ps.  xxviii:i;  xxx.-p,  etc.)  means 
to  denote  dying  without  hope,  or  else  a  simple 
going  to  the  place  of  the  dead.  (3)  Great  dis- 
tress and  misery,  spiritual  or  temporal  (Is. 
xxxviii:i7;  Matt.  xv:i4)  ;  and  so  Messiah's  suf- 
ferings are  called  a  "horrible  pit,"  how  dark,  dis- 
mal, and  uneasy  to  escape  (Ps.  xl:2).  (4)  What- 
ever ensnares  men,  and  tends  to  render  them  mis- 
erable, and  from  which  it  is  hard  to  escape;  so  a 
harlot  and  her  enticing  language  are  called  a 
"deep  and  narrow  pit"  (Prov.  xxii:i4;  xxiii: 
27).  (5)  "To  dig  a  pit"  (Ps.  vii :i5 ;  Ivii :6;  Prov. 
xxvi:27)  is  to  plot  mischief.  (6)  A  place  of 
despair,  perplexity,  ruin  and  punishment  (Rev. 
ix:i;  xi:7;  xvii:8;  xx:i). 

PITCH  (plch),  (Heb.  ''PD,  J^Aay-mawr'),  boiling 

up,  to  be  rif^,(Gen.  vi:i4;  xiv:io;  Exod.  11:3,  A.  V. 

"slime");  ^IJ»^^^'/^M,  flowing,  or  fluid  (Is.  xxxiv: 

9);  while  in  Exod.  ii:3  both  words  are  used  with 
seme  sense  of  difiference  implied.     (See  Asphal- 

TUM). 

PITCHE-a  (prch'er). 

1.  A'<:i^(Heb.  "^5,from  an  old  root,  to  deepen). 

The  custom  of  drawing  water  in  pitchers  still  pre- 
vails in  the  East,  an  earthen  vessel  with  two  han- 
dles or  in  modern  times  a  skin-bottle  being  used  for 
the  purpose;  and  the  letting  down  of  the  pitcher 
upon  the  hand  (Gen.  xxiv:i8)  justifies  the  infer- 
ence that  it  was  carried  upon  the  head  or  left 
shoulder  and  balanced  with  the  right  hand,  and 
when  presented  was  rested  on  the  left  hand. 

The  same  word  is  used  (i  Kings  xvii:i2;  xviii: 
J3)  of  the  vessel  in  which  the  widow  of  Sarepta 
kept  her  meal,  A.  V.  "barrel,"  and  of  the  barrels  of 
water  used  by  Elijah  on  Mount  Carmel;  also  of  the 
pitchers  eniployea  by  Gideon's  three  hundred  men 
(Judg.  vii:i6). 

3.  Other  Hebrew  words  are,  neh*bel  (''??)   or 

/wry<5^/(^33,  Lam.  iv:2).  It  is  united  with  kheh*- 
res  \Pl^t  pottery),  meaning  an  earthen  vessel, 

8.  Ker-am'ee-on  (Gr.  Kepdfuop,  earthenware,  Mark 
xiv:i3;  Luke  xxii:io). 

Figurative,  (i)  To  mark  the  contempt  and 
weakness  of  the  Jews  and  their  priests,  these  sons 
of  Zion,  they  are  likened  to  "earthen  pitchers" 
(Lam.  iv:2).  (2)  The  heart  is  called  a  pitcher, 
for  from  it  the  blood  is  forced  out  to  the  several 
parts  of  the  body  from  the  right  ventricle,  like 
water  being  poured  out  of  a  vessel,  and  the  pro- 
cess of  circulation  is  made  perpetual;  so  when 
death  renders  it  unserviceable  for  conveying  the 
blood,  it  is  said  to  be  "broken  at  the  fountain" 
(Eccles.  xii:6). 

PITDAH  (pTt'dah),  {Ueb,  ^1'^^,  pit-daw  A' ;  Sept. 
Tord^iop,  to-padz* ee-on), 

A  precious  stone;  one  of  those  which  were  in 
the  breastplate  of  the  high-priest  (Exod.  xxviii: 
17),  and  the  origin  of  which  is  referred  to  Cush 
(Job  xxviii  rip).  It  is,  according  to  most  an- 
cient versions,  the  to^az  (Gr.  rovd^iov,  to-padz'ee- 
on)  which  most  ot  the  ancient  Greek  writers 
describe  as  being  of  a  golden  yellow  color  (Stra- 
bo,  xvi.  p.  770 ;  Diod.  Sic.  iii.  39) . 


PITHOM 


1351 


PLACE 


It  IS  clear  that  the  stone  was  highly  prized 
by  the  Hebrews.  Job  declares  that  wisdom  was 
more  precious  than  the  pitdah  of  Cush  (Job 
xxviiirip)  ;  and  as  the  name  Cush  includes  South- 
em  Arabia,  and  the  Arabian  Gulf,  the  intimation 
coincides  with  the  statement  of  Pliny  and  others, 
that  the  topazes  known  to  them  came  from  the 
Topaz  Island  in  the  Red  Sea  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat, 
xxxvii.  8;  comp.  vi.  29;  Diod.  Sic.  iii.  30;  Strabo, 
xvi.  p.  770),  whence  it  was  probably  brought  by 
the  Phoenicians.  In  Ezek.  xxviii:i3,  the  pitdah  is 
named  among  the  precious  stones  with  which  the 
king  of  Tyre  was  decked. 

PITHOM  (pl'thom),  (Heb.^^^,/^tf-M^w«<f',  nar- 
row pass),  one  of  the  'treasure-cities*  which  the  Is- 
raelites built  in  the  land  of  Ck>shen  'for  Pharaoh* 
(Exod.  i:ii).    (See  Egypt;  Goshen). 

The  excavations  made  by  Naville,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Egyptian  Exploration  Fund, 
showed  that  Tell  el-Maskhuta  was  the  ancient 
Pithom.  It  is  on  the  canal  between  Cairo  and 
Suez.  Inscriptions  show  that  the  city  dates  from 
about  the  time  of  Rameses  II,  the  Pharaoh  of 
the  oppression.  Bricks  were  found  in  the  walls, 
some  with,  and  some  without  straw  (Exod.  v: 
10-12).  Naville  thinks  that  the  city  contained 
storehouses  or  granaries.  Pithom  was  called 
Heroopolis  in  the  time  of  the  Greek  dynasty. 
The  civil  city  surrounding  Pithom  was  called 
Thuku,  probably  the  Succoth  of  Exod.  xii:37. 

Dr.  William  C.  Winslow  says:  "Among  the 
rays  flashed  from  the  prism  of  archaeological  ex- 
ploration and  research  in  Old  Egypt,  during  the 
past  decade,  are  those  which  relate  directly  or 
mdirectlyto  Old  Testament  history.  From  a  purely 
scientific  standpoint,  light  upon  the  history  of  the 
Hebrew  nation,  particularly  in  the  dawn  of  its 
career,  is  of  no  little  value  to  the  scholar  and 
to  all  interested  in  the  evolution  of  civilization; 
while  to  the  believer  in  Christianity  as  well  as 
to  the  Jewish  race,  such  light  cast  upon  the  nar- 
rative of  the  sojourn  in  Egypt  is  doubly  precious 
as  well  as  interesting.  If  science  is  glad  to  have 
a  Schliemann  answer  the  question,  are  the  stories 
of  Homer  pure  fiction?  both  science  and  religion 
are  glad  to  have  a  Naville  reply  to  the  interroga- 
tion, was  Rameses  II  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Oppres- 
sion? 

Now,  does  the  Pithom  discovered  by  Naville 
substantiate  the  descriptive  contexts  of  Exodus 
i?  We  read  that  the  children  of  Israel  "built 
for  Pharaoh  treasure  cities,  Pithom  and  Raamses" 
(Exodus  i:ii).  The  sacred  name  Pithom  (Pi 
Tum)  occurs  fifteen  times,  and  the  civil  name, 
Succoth,  twenty-two  times,  on  the  various  ex- 
cavated monumental  inscriptions. 

Consider  how  well  the  English,  the  Hebrew, 
and  the  Septuagint  descriptive  words— treasure, 
store,  fortified— harmonize  on  this  site  of  Pithom 
found  by  Naville.  A  treasure  city  has  special  sig- 
nificance when  we  remember  that  grain  was  a 
medium  of  exchange,  and  granaries  a  kind  of 
government  bank.  An  order  for  so  much  corn 
meant  an  order  on  the  treasury.  An  order  for 
bread  in  the  fifty-second  year  of  Rameses  II 
is  thus  translated :  "Paid  out  in  bread  to  the  men 
this  day — serf-folk,  8  persons,  16  loaves;  house- 
folk,  12  persons,  24  loaves."  I  think  the  English 
translation  does  not,  after  all,  misconceive  the 
Hebrew  of  Exodus  i:ii;  for  in  the  absence  of 
iron  and  timelocks,  the  grain  treasuries  were 
strongly  built,  and  the  treasury  not  easily  plun- 
dered. How  was  it  at  Pithom?  Enormously 
thick  walls  and  most  substantial  partitions  be- 
tween the  chambers;  entrance  only  from  the  top; 


a  place  easily  guarded  against  the  Shasu,  or 
Bedouins,  of  that  day.  In  tact,  these  grain  treas- 
uries were  as  much  needed  in  the  days  of  Rameses 
as  are  government  treasuries  in  our  own  day. 

And  the  site  itself  scientifically  testifies  to  the 
statement  of  both  versions. 

We  are  informed,  also,  that  the  Israelites  were 
forced  to  make  bricks  with  straw,  without  straw, 
with  stubble — the  precise  conditions  of  the  brick 
found  at  Pithom.  Moreover,  it  was  not  the  usual 
practice  to  use  mortar  with  sunburnt  bride;  yet 
the  rare  exception  was  made  at  Pithom,  for  there 
to-day  may  be  seen  the  thin  layers  of  mortar  be- 
tween the  excavated  bricks;  the  sentence  in 
Exodus  after  the  mention  of  Pithom  refers  to  its 
use.    (See  Brick.) 

The  Hebrew  builded  better  than  he  knew  at 
Pithont  In  the  course  of  time,  the  clay,  the 
brick,  and  the  mortar  over  which  he  sighed  bore 
witness  to  his  historic  servitude  in  Egypt,  to  his 
tyrant,  to  Pithom  as  a  Biblical,  and  Hermopolis 
as  a  classical,  site  of  greatest  value  in  our  knowl- 
edge of  ancient  geography. 

It  was  no  hjrperbole  for  the  London  Times  to 
say  that  the  discovery  of  Pithom  was  the  most 
brilliant  Biblical  identification  of  our  time. 

PITHOK  (pi'thon),  (Heb.  V'f^^?,  pee-thon^,  ex- 
pansive), first  named  son  of  Micah,  a  descendant 
of  Saul  (I  Chron.  viii:38;  1x141),  (B.  C.  after  1050). 

PITY  (prt'J),   (Heb.    ^^n,  khaw-mal,   gentle, 

kind,  clement).  Among  its  many  meanings  are 
the  following: 

!•  To  spare  (have  mercy)  (Jer.  xiii:i4). 

8.  To  spare  (preserve)   (Jonah  iv:io). 

The  Lord  "pitieth"  those  that  fear  him  (Ps. 
ciii:i3)  ;  that  is,  shares  with  them  in  their  afflic- 
tions (Acts  xvi  :26)  ;  tenderly  feels  for  and  power- 
fully supports  them  under  them  (Is.  Ixiii  rg) ; 
richly  comforts  them  under  their  distresses  (Is. 
Ii:i2;  lxvi:i3;  2  Cor.  i:4;  vii:6);  and  at 
length  he  delivers  wholly  out  of  them  ( Ps.  xxxiv : 
17.  19).  The  Lord  is  said  to  be  very  pitiful 
(James  v:ii),  that  is,  of  many  bowels,  in  allusion 
to  a  tender  mother,  all  whose  affections  are  moved, 
and  yearn  within  her,  when  her  child  suffers  (i 
Kings  iii:26;  Luke  1:78).  Christians  (i  Pet.  iii:8 
are  required  to  be  pitiful,  that  is,  rightly  boweled, 
their  feelings  to  be  suitablv  and  proportionably 
attuned  to  such  objects  of  distress  as  present 
themselves  before  them,  to  have  sympathy,  com- 
passion with,  etc. 

PLAGE  (plas),  (Heb.  ^r,  yawd^  hand  or  monu- 
ment).   Among  its  meanings  are: 

1.  A  space  or  room  where  one  is  (Gen.  xl:3). 

2.  A  city  or  dwelling  (Gen.  xviii:26,  33) 

3.  A  state  or  condition  (Eccl.  x:4). 

4.  An  employment  (Gen.  xl:i3). 

5.  A  text  of  Scripture  (Acts  viii:32). 

6.  "High  places'*  denote  tops  of  mountains,  or 
anything  high  and  elevated  (Amos  iv:6). 

7.  Places  where  the  true  God  or  idols  were 
worshiped  (i  Kings  iii:2;  xii:3i). 

Figurative,  (i)  To  "/iov^ />/ac^/' iS  to  receive 
welcome,  room,  or  proper  entertainment  (John 
viii:37).  (2)  "give  place,"  is  to  make  way  or 
room  for  one  (Luke  xivig).  (3)  We  "give  place 
to  the  devil,"  when  we  encourage,  or  listen  to  his 
temptations  (Eph.  iv:27).  (4)  We  "give  (lace  to 
wrath,"  when  we  overlook  the  passionate  mjuries 
done  us,  and  render  good  for  evil  (Rom.  xiirig). 
(5)  The  Romans  took  away  the  Jews'  "place/* 
when  they  destroyed  their  cities  and  country 
(John  xi:48).    (6)  To  be  "in  the  place"  of  an- 


PLAGUE 


1362 


PLAGUES  OF  EGYPT 


other,  is  to  be  his  deputy,  acting  for,  and  ac- 
counting to  him.  (7)  Joseph  was  in  the  "place 
of  God";  as  his  deputy,  he  showed  kindness  to 
his  brethren  (Gen.  f:i9).  (8)  The  "plcu:e  of  the 
holy/*aLnd  the  "place  where  God*s  honor  dwelleth" 
is  the  temple  and  ordinances  of  his  grace,  where 
he  is  represented  to,  and  found  by,  his  people  (Ps. 
xxvi:8;  Eccl.  viii:io).  (9)  God  "returns  to  his 
place"  when  he  hides  himself,  as  if  shut  up  in 
heaven  (Hos.  v:i5)  ;  or  when  he,  as  it  were,  steps 
into  his  judgment-seat,  and  according  to  equity, 
delivers  his  friends  and  punishes  his  foes  (Ps. 
xxxvii:7).  (10)  He  comes  "out  of  his  place/'  when 
he  manifests  his  perfections,  in  the  just  display 
of  his  wrath  (Is.  xxvi:2i).  (11)  The  "high 
places"  that  God  sets  his  people  on  are  a  high 
station  in  church  or  state ;  a  prosperous  and  com- 
fortable condition  (2  Sam.  xxii:34;  Hab.  iiiriQ). 
(12)  The  "high  places"  where  spiritual  wicked- 
nesses are  stationed,  is  the  air  where  evil  spirits 
roam;  the  powers  of  the  soul,  where  inward  cor- 
ruptions prevail ;  and  the  outward  supports  of 
heathenish  idolatry  and  wickedness  (Eph.  vi: 
12). 

PLAGUE  (plag).  Several  Hebrew  and  Greek 
words  are  renaered//<a^^  in  the  Bible. 

1.  Neh'ghef  (Heb.  Hv^-,  a  stumbling),  and  so 

a  divine  infliction,  mostly  of  a  fatal  disease  (Exod. 
xii:i3;  xxx:i2;  Num  viniig;  xviirii,  12). 

2.  Deh'ber  (Heb.  "'3'3,  destruction),  is  rendered 

"plague"  only  in  Hos.  xiii:i4,  in  the  passage,  "O 
death,  1  will  be  thy  plagues."  It  means  the  cessa- 
tion or  annihilation  of  death  (comp.  i  Cor.  xv:55; 
Is.  XXV  :8). 

3.  Neh'gah  (Heb.  ^5^,  a  stroke,  blow),  strokes, 

i,  e,,  judgments,  calamities,  which  God  inflicts  upon 
men  (Gen.  xii:i7;  Exod.  xi:i;  Ps.  xxxviii:i2; 
xxxix :  1 1,  etc.).  The  term  is  specially  applied  to  the 
disease  of  leprosy  (Lev.  xiii:3). 

4.  Mag'gay-faw'  (Heb.  •"'?S^),  mainly  pestilen- 
tial and  fatal  diseases  (Exod.  ix:i4;  Num.  xiv:37; 
xvi:48,5^.;  xxv:8,9, 18;  i  Sam.  vi:4;  2Sam.xxiv:2i, 
25;  I  Chron.  xxi:22,  etc.). 

6.  Mak'kaw'  (Heb.  •"'f^,  a  beating,  smiting), 

calamities  inflicted  of  God  (Lev.  xxvi:2i;  Num. 
xi:33  ;  Deut.  xxviii:59,  61 :  xxix:22  ;  i  Sam.  iv:8  ; 
Jer.  xix:8  ;  xlix:i7  ;  1:13). 

6.  Kad'dakh'ath  (Heb.  f1D!l|l,  ague,  R.  V.  fe- 
ver), rendered  (Lev.  xxvi:i6)  'burning  ague,*  and 
is  said  to  'consume  the  eyes  and  make  the  soul  to 
pine  away'  (the  Septuagint  calls  this  disease 
ftcTcpof,  ik'ter-os,  'jaundice').  It  may  be  the  ma- 
larial fever  which  occurs  in  the  Jordan  valley  and 
the  Lebanon  valleys,  in  Jerusalem  and  in  the  Shep- 
helah,  as  well  as  around  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  This 
disease  is  occasionally  accompanied  by  jaundice. 
Uvp€T6s,  pn-re-tos',  was  the  disease  of  the  noble- 
man's son  at  Capernaum  (John  iv:46)  and  of  Si- 
mon's mother-in-law  (Luke  iv:38  'a  great  fever') 
at  the  same  place.  (See  Hippocrates,  Epidem.  iii). 
The  word  in  Matt.  viii:i4  and  Mark  i:30  is 
Tvpiffffovira,  Purges' soo-sah.  Fevers  were  malig- 
nant and  at  times  assumed  the  form  of  a  plague  m 
Palestine.  Kaddakhath  may  be  considered  as  a 
generic  term  for  all  fevers,  intermittent,  remittent, 
typhoid,  typhus,  putrid,  etc. 

T  Kheh'res  (Heb.  ^^C,  itch,  Deut.  xxviii:27). 

It  Is  probable  that  the  word  translated  itch  in  this 
passage  refers  to  some  other  tormenting  skin  dis- 
ease, as  eczema  or  prurigo,  while  that  translated  in 
the  A.  V.  "scab,"  and  in  the  R.  V.  "scurvy"  (Heb. 
garahh,  Arab,  jarah),  is  the  true  itch.  It  is  the 
parasitic  disease  of  this  name  now  known  to  be 


due  to  a  small  mite,  Sar copies  scabiei,  which  bur- 
rows in  the  skin.  In  some  cases,  when  neglected, 
it  spreads  over  the  whole  body,  which  becomes 
covered  with  a  rough  crust  adhering  to  the  sur- 
face. It  is  very  easily  communicated  from  person 
to  person,  and  cannot  be  healed  unless  the  para- 
site be  destroyed.  It  disqualified  its  victims  from 
the  priesthood  (Lev.  xxi:20).  The  Hebrew  word 
is  derived  from  a  root  which  means  to  scratch, 
hence  the  Vulgate  uses  prurigo.  It  is  not  at  all 
uncommon  in  Syria  at  the  present  day. 

8.  Palsy  (Gr.  ropaXin-tic^s,  par-al-00-tee-kos', 
loosened).  The  word  'pals)r'  is  a  corruption  of  the 
French  paralysie,  and  came  into  use  in  English 
at  any  rate  about  the  year  1500,  for  it  is  used  in 
the  English  translation  of  Mandeville's  Travels. 
The  words  palsy  and  paralysis  are  used  to  express 
loss  of  the  power  of  motion,  a  common  symptom 
in  diseases  of  the  central  nervous  system.  This 
condition  is  usually  serious,  often  intractable,  and 
is  generally  fairly  rapid  in  its  onset,  but  slow  in 
disappearing.  Palsy  in  the  New  Testament  de- 
notes apoplexy,  or  paralysis  of  the  whole  system ; 
paralysis  of  one  side;  a  paralysis  affecting  the 
whole  body  below  the  neck ;  and  a  paralysis  caused 
by  a  contraction  of  the  muscles,  so  that  the  limb* 
can  be  neither  drawn  up  nor  extended,  and  soon 
become  emaciated  and  dried  up  ( i  Kings  xiii  :4-6 ; 
Matt.  iv:24;  xii:  10-13;  Luke  vi:6;  John  v  15-7). 
A  fearful  form  of  this  disease  is  known  in  East- 
ern countries.  The  limbs  remain  immovably  fixed 
in  the  position  in  which  they  were  at  the  time  of 
the  attack,  and  the  suffering  is  so  exquisitely  se- 
vere that  death  is  often  occasioned  in  ^i  few  days 
(Matt.  viii:6). 

9.  The  Greek  words  are  /id<rTi^  (mas' fix,  whip), 
figuratively  a  disease  (Matt,  v:  29,  34 ;  Mark  iii:io ; 
Luke  vii:2i);  and  rXiryiJ  [P^^y-g^y'*  stroke),  a  pub- 
lic calamity,  heavy  affliction,  sent  by  God  as  a  pun- 
ishment (Rev.  ix:  18,  20;  xi:6;  xv:i,  6,  8;  xvi:9; 
xviii:4,  8;  xxi:9;  xxii:i8).  (Me.  &  Str.  Bid.  Cyc.) 
(See  Pestilence.) 

Figurative,  (i)  A  person  afflicted  with  leprous 
spots  (Lev.  xiii:4,  12,  etc.).  (2)  The  plague  of 
the  heart  is  its  inward  corruptions  (i  Kings  viii: 
38).  (3)  The  seven  last  plagues  are  those  that 
shall  come  on  the  Antichristians  for  their  ruin 
(Rev.  xxi:9).  (4)  Christ  is  the  plague  of  death 
and  destruction  of  the  grave;  as  by  his  death  and 
interment  he  removed  the  curse  and  sting  of  death 
and  the  grave  from  his  people,  and  rendered  them 
noted  blessings  to  them  (Hos.  xiii  .-14). 

FLAGXXES  OP  EGYPT  (plags  6v  ejjpt),  the 
term  usually  employed  to  express  the  visitation  of 
divine  wrath  upon  the  Egyptians  for  refusing  to 
let  the  Israelites  depart. 

When  the  Lord  had  ordered  Moses  to  lead 
the  people  of  Israel  out  of  Goshen  and  conduct 
them  to  (Canaan,  and  Pharaoh,  hardening  his 
heart,  opposed  the  command  of  the  Lord  and 
would  not  let  the  people  go,  ten  fearful  plagues 
fell  upon  the  land  of  Egypt. 

The  different  plagues  were  as  follows:  1. 
The  waters  of  the  Nile  changed  into  blood;  the 
fishes  died,  and  no  man  could  drink  of  the  river. 
But  the  magicians  imitated  the  miracle  and  Pha- 
raoh hardened  his  heart  (Exed.  vii:  14-25). 

2.  Then  followed  the  plague  of  the  frogs;  but 
this  too  was  imitated  l^y  the  magicians,  and 
Pharaoh  hardened  his  heart  still  more  (Exod. 
riii:i-i5). 

3.  With  the  third  plague,  however — that  of 
lice — the  magicians  were  conquered,  and  acknowl- 
edged, "This  is  the  finger  of  God"  (Exod.  viii: 
16-19). 

4.  The  fourth  plague  sent  swarms  of  flies  out 


PLAIN 


1353 


PLASTER,  MASON'S 


over  the  country,  and  the  people  were  devoured 
by  their  venomous  bite  ( Ps.  Ixxviii  145) .  Pharaoh 
now  relented  and  declared  himself  willing  to  yield, 
but  on  the  removal  of  the  plague  he  again  hard- 
ened his  heart  (Exod.  viii:20-32). 

5.  A  very  grievous  murrain  attacked  the  horses, 
asses,  camels,  oxen,  and  sheep  of  Egypt,  while 
those  of  the  children  of  Israel  were  free  (Exod. 
ix;i-7). 

6.  Boils  broke  out  upon  man  and  beast,  even 
upon  the  magicians  themselves  (Exod.  ix:8-i2). 

7.  Then  a  frightful  thunderstorm,  with  hail, 
passed  over  the  land  of  Egypt,  destroying  the 
growing  crops,  breaking  trees,  overthrowing  build- 
ings everywhere,  but  sparing  Goshen.  Alarmed, 
Pharaoh  promised  to  yield,  but  on  the  withdrawal 
of  the  plague  he  again  hardened  his  heart  (Exod, 

ix:  13-35). 

8.  Locusts  followed,  and  ate  up  what  the  hail- 
storm had  left;  but  Pharaoh  sent  Moses  and 
Aaron  away  from  his  presence,  and  heeded  not 
the  warning  (Exod.  x:i-2o). 

9*  A  thick  darkness  fell  for  three  days  upon  the 
land.  For  three  days  no  man  was  able  to  rise. 
But  in  Goshen  there  was  light.  Then  Pharaoh 
was  seized  by  despair,  and  he  threatened  Moses 
with  death  if  he  ever  saw  his  face  again  (Exod. 
x:2i-28). 

10.  Finally,  the  firstborn  of  the  Egyptians  were 
smitten  at  midnight  (Exod,  xii:29,  30);  "and 
Pharaoh  rose  up  in  the  night,  he  and  all  his 
servants  and  all  the  Egyptians,  and  there  was  a 
great  cry  throughout  all  the  land  of  Egypt,  such 
as  there  was  none  like  it,  nor  shall  be  like  it  any 
more."  (Schaff,  Bib.  Diet.)  (See  Magi;  Magic; 
Moses;  Pharaoh,) 

PLAIN  (plan).  Several  Hebrew  words  are  thus 
translated: 

1.  Aw'baie'  (Heb.  ^??).     This  word  perhaps 

answers  more  nearly  to  our  word  "meadow"  than 
any  other.  It  occurs  in  the  names  of  Abel-maim, 
Abel-meholah,  Abel-shittim,  and  is  rendered 
"plain;"  in  Judg.  xi:33,  "plain  of  vineyards." 

2.  Shef-ay-laiv  (Heb.  '"l^?^),  the  invariable  desig- 
nation of  the  depressed,  flat  or  gently  undulating  re- 
gion which  intervened  between  the  highlands  of 
Judah  and  the  Mediterranean. 

8.  Bik-aiv'  (Heb.  ^?|??).  We  are  able  to  identify 

the  most  remarkable  of  the  Bik-aws'  of  the  Bible, 
and  thus  to  ascertain  the  force  of  the  term.  The 
great  plain  or  valley  of  Coele-Syria,  the  "hollow 
land"  of  the  Greeks,  which  separates  the  two 
ranges  of  Lebanon  and  Antilebanon,  is  the  most 
remarkable  of  them  all.  Out  of  Palestine  we  find 
denoted  by  the  word  Bik-aw'  the  "plain  of  the 
land  of  Shmar"  (Gen.  xi:2),  the  "plain  of  Mesopo- 
tamia" (Ezek,  iii:22,  23;  viii:4;  xxxviiri,  2), 
and  the  "plain  in  the  province  of  Dura"  (Dan. 
iii:i). 

4.  Ay-lone' {^^.  P^^),  this  is  properly  "oak"  or 

"grove  of  oaks."  The  passages  in  which  the  word 
occurs  erroneously  translated  "plain"  are  Gen. 
xii:6;  Deut.  xi:30;  "Plain  of  Mamre,"  Gen.  xiii: 
18;  xiv:i3;  xviiiri;  "Plain  of  Zaanaim,"  Judg.  iv: 
11;  "Plain  of  the  Pillar,"  Judg.  ix:6;  "Plain  of 
Mconenim,"  Judg.  ix:37;  "Plain  of  Tabor,"  i 
Sam.  x:3. 

5.  AV>&-i^«a/r  (Heb.^l?).    This  seems  to   mean 

"a  region  round  about"  (Gen.  xiiirio,  11,  12;  xix: 
17;  2  Chron.  iv:i7;  Neh.  iii:22;  xii:28). 

6  Mee-shore*  (Heb.  Tir?")?),  a  level  country  (Ps. 
XXT':I2;  xxvii:ii;  Deut.  iii:io;  iv:43;  Josh,  xiii  19, 


16,    17,    21;    xx:8;    i  Kings  xx:23,  25;  2  Chron 
xxvi:io;  Jer.  xlviii:8,  21). 

7.  Ar^aw-baw'  (Heb.  •^??^:),    an    arid   region 

(Deut.  i:i,  7;  xi:30;  Ezek.  xlvii:8). 

Figurative,  (i)  "Plain"  words  or  speeches 
are  such  as  are  easily  understood  (Mark  vii:35). 
(2)  A  "plain  path"  or  way  is  one  without  hin- 
drances, temptations,  stumbling,  inconsistency 
(Ps.  xxvii:ii;  Prov.  xviig).  (3)  A  "plain" 
man  (Heb.  Qp,  tome)  is  one  candid,  kind,  hon- 
est and  simple  (Gen.  xxv:27). 

PLAINS  OF  PALESTINE  (plans  dv  pil'es- 
tine).   See  Palestine. 

PLAITING  (plat'-!ng),  braiding  the  hair  (i  Pet. 
ni:3). 

The  business  of  dressing  the  hair  is  mentioned 
by  Jewish  writers  as  an  art  by  itself,  practiced  by 
women.  The  hair  was  folded  up  in  curls,  tied  up 
in  knots,  and  put  into  the  form  of  horns  and 
towers,  made  with  their  cauls  and  ornamental 
round  tires,  'like  the  moon'  (Is.  iii:i8-22).  (See 
Hair.) 

PLANE  (plan),  (Heb.  •"'??fi?^,  mak-tsoo-aw',  a 

scraper),  a  carpenter's  tool,  perhaps  a  carving  tool 
or  chisel  (Is.  xiiv:i3). 

PLANE-TBEE  (plan'-tre).    See  Armon. 

PLANK  (piank),  (Heb.  Y?,   ates),   something 

made  of  wood,  as  a  plank  (i  Kings  vi:i5  ;  Ezek. 
xli:25,  26). 

PLANT  (pl&nt).  See  Agriculture;  Garden, 
etc. 

Figurative*  (i)  Jesus  Christ,  in  his  humilia- 
tion, was  a  tender  plant;  his  condition  was  low; 
he  was  compassed  with  infirmity,  and  exposed  to 
extreme  suffering  (Is.  liii:2).  (2)  He  is  a  plant 
of  renown;  great  are  his  excellence  and  tame, 
as  our  Mediator  and  elder  brother  (Ezek. 
xxxiv:29).  (3)  To  mark  their  pleasant  growth, 
and  promising  usefulness,  children,  and  the  in- 
habitants of  a  country,  are  called  plants  (Ps. 
cxliv:i2;  Jer.  xlviii:32).  (4)  The  Jews  were 
God's  pleasant  plants;  he  placed  them  in  the  vine- 
yard of  his  church,  that  they  might  increase  and 
bring  forth  fruits  of  holy  obedience  (Is.  v:7). 
(5)  They  became  degenerate  plants  of  a  strange 
vine,  when  they  apostatized  from  God  and  his 
way,  and  became  fruitful  in  idolatry  and  wicked- 
ness (Jer.  ii:2i).  (6)  They  planted  strange  slips 
and  plants;  introduced  foreign  trees  .and  herbs, 
and  false  and  foreign  doctrines  and  customs, 
idolatry,  superstition,  profaneness  (Is.  xvii:io, 
11).  (7)  But  the  plants  not  of  God's  planting, 
that  shall  be  plucked  up,  are  wicked  professors, 
and  their  errors  and  evil  courses  (Matt.  xv:i3). 
(Brown,  Bib.  Diet.) 

PLASTER  (plas'ter),  (Heb.  TT?,  seed).  See 
Mortar. 

PLASTER,  MASON'S  (plis'-ter.  ma-s*n's). 

1.  Gheer  (Heb.  TJ),  from  its  effervescence;, 
lime  (Dan.  v:5). 

2.  Seed  (Heb.  T^),  boiling,  as  slacking  lime 
(Deut.  xxvii:2,  4);  rendered  "time"  in  Is.  xxxiii: 
12;  Amos  ii:i. 

8.  Too'akh  (Heb.  G'^^),  to  smear  (Lev.  xiT:42, 

43. 48),  elsewhere  "daub." 

Plaster  in  its  specific  uses  is  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture as  follows: 

(i)  When  a  house  was  infected  with  "leprosy," 
the  priest  was  to  take  away  the  part  of  the  wall 
infected,  and,  putting  in  other  stones,  to  plaster 
the  house  with  fresh  mortar  (Lev.  xiv:42,  48). 

(2)  The  words  of  the  law  were  ordered  te  be 


PLASTER.  MEDICINAL 


1354 


POETRY,  HEBREW 


engn'aved  on  Mount  Ebal  on  stones  which  had 
been  previously  coated  with  plaster  (Deut.  xxvii: 
2,  4;  Josh.  viii:32). 

(3)  It  was  probably  a  similar  coating  of  cement 
on  which  the  fatal  letters  were  traced  by  the 
mystic  hand  "on  the  plaster  of  the  wall"  of  Bel- 
shazzar*s  palace  at  Babylon  (Dan.  v:5).  (Mc.  & 
Str.  Bib,  Cyc.)     (See  Lime;  Mortar.) 

PLASTER,  MEDICINAL  (pl^s'-ter.  m^dYs'r- 

n<il),  (Heb.  '^^V,  maw-rakh* ,  to  render  soft   by 

rubbing),  to  anoint  with  healing  salve  or  similar 
substance  (Is.  xxxviii:2i). 

PLAT  (plat),  (Heb.  •"'5('",  khel-kaw'),  a  portion 
of  land,  a  plot  of  ground  (2  Kings  ix:26). 

PLATE  (plat). 

1.  Pakh  (Heb.  '"•S),  a  sheet  of  metal,  or  thin 
lamina  (Exod.  xxxix:3;  Num.  xvi:38,  39). 

2.  Seh'ren  (Heb.  P?),  an  axle  (i  Kings  vii:3o). 

8.  Tseets  (Heb.  Y^V)»  glistening,  a  burnished 
plate  of  metal  (Exod.  xxviii:36;  xxxixno;  Lev. 
vni:9).  . 

4.  Loo*akh  (Heb.  O^*'},  a  board,  or  table,  or  the 
heavy  plates  of  laver  (i  Kings  vii:36). 

PLATTEB(piat'ter),  a  large  vessel  for  the  boil- 
ing of  meat,  or  for  bringing  it  to  the  table  (Matt. 
xxiii:5X 

Figurative.  'To  make  clean  the  outside  of 
the  cup  or  platter"  while  it  remained  unclean 
within  (Matt.  xxiii:25,  26;  Luke  xi:39)  is  a 
symbol  of  hypocrisy. 

PLAY  (pla).    See  Games. 

PLEDGE  (plSj),  (Heb.  ^^q^  Ma-dor).  See  Loan. 

PLEIADES  (ple'ya-dez),  (Heb.  ^T^,  keemaw, 

heap,  cluster),  seven  stars;  anciently  in  the  Bull's 
tail,  but  on  modem  globes  in  the  shoulder,  and 
which  appear  at  the  beginning  of  spring. 

Job  speaks  of  the  Pleiades  (ch.  xxxviii  :3i ; 
ixig)  and  of  the  Hyades,  which  are  seven  other 
stars  in  the  Bull's  head.  Jerome  has  translated 
kee-maw,  by  Hyades  (Job  ixig)  and  by  Pleiades 
(Job  xxxviii  :3i)  and  by  Arcturus,  the  Bear's  tail 
(Amos  v:8). 

PLOW  (plou),  (Heb.  ^^Q,  khaw-rash*.  to  plow, 

to  scratch;  Gr.  Aporpov,  ar'ot-ron).  See  Agri- 
culture. 

Figurative,  (i)  To  "put  one's  hand  to  the 
plow  and  look  hack"  signifies  to  engage  in 
Christ's  service,  particularly  that  of  the  ministry, 
and  afterwards  turn  away  to  a  worldly  or  wicked 
course  (Luke  ix:62).  (2)  **Judah  shall  ploWj 
and  Jacob  shall  break  his  clods;"  the  Hebrews 
were  subjected  to  hard  and  servile,  though  useful, 
labor  in  their  Assyrian  or  Chaldaean  captivity; 
that  is,  made  active  in  the  arduous  performance 
of  good  works  (Hos.  x:ii).  (3)  Samson's  com- 
panions "plozved  with  his  heifer"  when  they 
dealt  with  his  wife,  to  get  the  meaning  of  his 
riddle  (Judg.  xiv:i8).  (4)  To  "plow  wicked- 
ness" and  "reap"  it,  is  to  devise  and  practice  it, 
and  at  last  suffer  the  punishment  of  it  (Job  iv: 
8;  Hos.  x:i3).  (5)  to  "plow  on  the  back"  is  to 
scourge  severely,  till  the  lashes  make  as  it  were 
furrows  in  the  flesh;  to  persecute  and  torment 
grievously  (Ps.  cxxix:3).  (6)  Zion  was  "plowed 
as  a  Held,"  when  the  temple  was  destroyed:  (7) 
Turnus  Rufus,  the  Roman,  it  is  said,  caused  to 
be  plowed  up  the  foundations  of  it  (Jer.  xxvi:i8; 
Mic  (ii:i2). 


PLOWMAK  (plou'man),  (Heb.  "^|?,  ik-kawr , 

husbandman),  is  used  not  only  of  one  who  held  tho 
plow,  but  of  the  husbandman  in  general  (Is. 
lxi:5;  i  Sam.  xi:7;  i  Kings  xIx'.iq). 

PLOWSHABE  (plou'shdr'),    (Heb.  JW»    ayth. 

Is.  ii:4;  Mic.  iv:3),  the  iron  tip  of  the  plow  where 
it  enters  the  earth.  To  beat  a  plowshare  into  a 
sword  is  symbolic  of  war;  the  opposite,  of  peace 
(Joel  iii:io). 

PLT7MB    LINE    (pliim'  lin),    (Heb.   ^K  an- 

awk'),  or  PLUMMET  (Heb.  ^^•i?.?'?,  mish-keh'- 
ieth). 

These  terms  refer  to  a  line  at  the  end  of  which 
a  weight  is  suspended  used  by  masons  and  car- 
penters for  discovering  the  exactness  of  their 
work;  also  to  a  cord  used  for  determining  plane 
surfaces  (Is.  xxviii:i7;  Amos  vii:7;  2  Kings  xxi: 
13;  Zech.  iv:io).  It  was  used  early  by  the  Egyp- 
tians and  was  ascribed  to  their  king  Menes. 

Figurative,  (i)  The  Lord  sets  a  plumb  line  in 
the  midst  of  his  people,  and  lays  judgment  to  the 
line,  and  righteousness  to  the  plummet;  vfhtn  he 
manifests  how  opposite  their  conduct  is  to  the 
rule  of  his  word,  and  executes  just  judgments 
upon  them  (Amos  vii:7,  8;  Is.  xxviii:i7).  (2) 
The  Jews  saw  the  plummet  in  the  hands  of  Zerub- 
bahel,  when  they  beheld  the  second  temple  founded 
and  built  by  his  direction  (Zech.  iv:io).  (3) 
But  the  plummet  of  the  house  of  Ahab,  signifies 
terrible,  and  almost  universal  ruin,  like  that  of 
the  family  of  Ahab  (2  Kings  xxi:  13). 

POCHEBETH  (p5k'e-r6th),  (Heb.  ^li^^po-kek'- 
reth,  binding  or  ensnarmg). 

A  man  whose  descendants  were  numbered  with 
the  Nethinim  who  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii:57;  Neh.  vii-.SQ).  (B.  C. 
before   540.) 

POET  (p5'€t),  (Gr.  toiijtiJs,  poy-ay-tace',  a  per- 
former. Acts  xvii:28). 

In  this  passage,  St.  Paul  quotes  from  the  Greek 
poet  Aratus,  who  was  a  native  of  Cilicia,  as  well 
as  himself,  "We  are  also  his  offspring,"  or  "We 
are  the  children,"  (the  race)  "of  (jod."  From 
this  he  argues  the  absurdity  of  worshiping  idols. 

POETRY,  HEBBEW  (p6-gt-ry.  bS'bru),  the 
poetry  which  is  found  in  the  Bible,  rich  and  multi- 
farious as  it  is,  appears  to  be  only  a  remnant  of  a 
still  wider  and  fuller  sphere  of  Semitic  literature. 

The  New  Testament  is  intended  to  be  com- 
prised in  our  definition,  for,  besides  scattered 
portions,  disjecti  membra  poeta,  which,  under  a 
prosaic  form,  convey  a  poetic  thought,  the  en- 
tire book  of  the  Apocalypse  abounds  in  poetry. 

/.  Poetry  of  the  Bible.  The  term  'Biblical 
poetry'  may  find  little  acceptance  in  the  ears  of 
those  who  have  identified  poetry  with  fiction,  fa- 
ble, and  profane  delights,  under  the  impression 
that  as  such  things  are  of  the  earth  earthy,  so 
religion  is  too  high  in  its  character,  and  too  truth- 
ful in  its  spirit,  to  admit  into  its  province  mere 
creations  of  the  human  fancy.  But  whatever 
opinion  may  be  entertained  of  th€  character  and 
tendency  of  poetry  in  general,  the  poetry  of  the 
Hebrews  is  both  deeply  truthful  and  earnestly 
religious.  In  one  sense  the  Bible  is  full  of  poetry ; 
for  very  much  of  its  contents  which  is  merely 
prosaic  in  forni  rises,  by  force  of  the  noble  senti- 
ments which  it  enunciates,  and  the  striking  or 
splendid  imagery  with  which  these  sentiments  are 
adorned,  into  the  sphere  of  real  poetiy.  Inde- 
pendently of  this  poetic  prose,  there  is  in  the 
Bible  much  writing  which  has  all  the  ordinary 


POETRY,  HEBREW 


1355 


POETRY,  HEBREW 


characteristics  of  poetry.  And  it  is  no  slight  at- 
testation to  the  essentially  poetic  character  of 
Hebrew  poetry  that  its  qualities  shine  through 
the  distorting  coverings  of  a  prose  translation. 
If,  however,  the  reader  would  at  once  satisfy  him- 
self that  there  is  poetry  in  the  Bible,  let  him 
turn  to  the  book  of  Job,  and  after  having  exam- 
ined its  prose  introduction,  begin  to  read  the 
poetry  itself,  as  it  commences  at  the  third  verse 
of  the  third  chapter. 

(1)  In  the  Pentateuch.  Much  of  the  Bibli- 
cal poetry  is,  indeed,  hidden  from  the  ordinary 
reader  by  its  prose  accompaniments,  standing,  as 
it  does,  undistinguished  in  the  midst  of  histor- 
ical narrations.  This  is  the  case  with  some  of  the 
earliest  specimens  of  Hebrew  poetry.  Snatches 
of  poetry  are  discovered  in  the  oldest  prose  com- 
positions. Even  in  Gen.  iv:23,  sq.,  are  found  a 
few  lines  of  poetry,  which  Herder  incorrectly 
terms  'the  song  of  the  sword,'  thinking  it  com- 
memorative of  the  first  formation  of  that  weapon. 
To  us  it  appears  to  be  a  fragment  of  a  longer 
poem,  uttered  in  lamentation  for  a  homicide  com- 
mitted by  Lamech,  probably  in  self-defense.  It 
has  been  already  cited  in  this  work.  (See  La- 
mech.) Herder  finds  in  this  piece  all  the  char- 
acteristics of  Hebrew  poetry.  It  is,  he  thinks, 
lyrical,  has  a  proportion  between  its  several  lines, 
and  even  assonance;  in  the  original  the  first  four 
lines  terminate  with  the  same  letter,  making  a 
single  or  semi-rhyme. 

Another  poetic  scrap  is  found  in  Exod.  xxxii: 
i8.  Being  told  by  Joshua,  on  occasion  of  de- 
scending from  the  mount,  when  the  people  had 
made  the  golden  calf,  and  were  tumultuously  of- 
fering it  their  worship — 

The  sound  of  war  is  in  the  camp,' 
Moses  said: 

*Not  the  sound  of  a  shout  for  victory, 
Nor  the  sound  of  a  shout  for  falling; 
The  sound  of  a  shout  for  rejoicing 

do  I  hear. 

The  correspondence  in  form  in  the  original  is 
here  very  exact  and  striking,  so  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  deny  that  the  piece  is  poetic.  If  so,  are 
we  to  conclude  that  the  temperament  of  the  Is- 
raelites was  so  deeply  poetic  that  Moses  and 
Joshua  should  find  the  excitement  of  this  occa- 
sion sufficient  to  strike  improvisatore  verses  from 
iheir  lips?  Or  have  we  here  a  quotation  from 
some  still  older  song,  which  occurred  to  the 
ninds  of  the  speaker  by  the  force  of  resemblance  ? 
Uther  instances  of  scattered  poetic  productions 
may  be  found  in  Num.  xxi:i4,  15;  also  v:i8;  and 
v:27;  in  which  passages  evidence  may  be  found 
ihat  we  are  not  in  possession  of  the  entire  mass 
of  Hebrew,  or,  at  least,  Semitic  literature.  Fur- 
iher  specimens  of  very  early  poetry  are  found  in 
iVum.  xxiii:7,  sq.;  xviii.  sq.;  xxiv:3,  15. 

(2)  Sentiment  of  Hebrew  Poetry.  The  or- 
dinary train  of  thought  and  feeling  presented  in  He- 
brew poetry  is  entirely  of  a  moral  or  religious  kind; 
but  there  are  occasions  when  other  topics  are  in- 
troduced. The  entire  Song  of  Solomon  the  pres- 
ent writer  is  disposed  to  regard,  on  high  author- 
ity, as  purely  an  erotic  idyl,  and  considered  as 
such  it  possesses  excellencies  of  a  very  high  de- 
scription. (See  Canticles.)  In  Amos  vi  :3,  sq., 
may  be  seen  a  fine  passage  of  satire  in  a  denuncia- 
tion of  the  luxurious  and  oppressive  aristocracy 
of  Israel.  Subjects  of  a  similar  secular  kind  may 
be  found  treated,  yet  never  without  a  moral  or 
religious  aim,  in  Is.  ix:3;  Jer.  xxviio;  xlviii:33; 
Rev.  xviii  :22,  sq.  But,  independently  of  the  Song 
of  Solomon,  the  most  worldly  ode  is  perhaps  the 


forty-fifth  Psalm,  which  Herder  and  Ewald  con- 
sider an  epithalamium.  The  latter  critic,  in  the 
account  which  he  gives  of  it,  states  that  it  was 
sung  during  the  time  when  the  new  queen  was 
led  in  pomp  to  take  her  seat  in  her  husband's 
palace. 

(8)  Beasons  for  Lack  of  Appreciation.    The 

literature  of  the  Bible,  as  such,  is  by  no  means 
adequately  appreciated  in  the  minds  of  many.  Ow- 
ing, in  part,  to  the  higher  claims  of  inspiration, 
its  literary  merits  have  not  received  generally  the 
attention  .which  they  deserve,  while  the  critical 
world,  whose  office  it  is  to  take  cogfnizance  of  lit- 
erary productions,  have  nearly  confined  their  at- 
tention to  works  of  profane  authors,  and  left  the 
biblical  writings  to  the  exclusive  possession  of 
the  religious  public.  This  severance  of  interests 
is  to  be  regretted  as  much  for  the  sake  of  litera- 
ture as  of  religion.  The  Bible  is  a  book — a  lit- 
erary production — as  well  as  a  religious  reposi- 
tory and  charter;  and  ought,  in  consequence,  to 
be  regarded  in  its  literary  as  well  as  in  its  relig- 
ious bearings,  alike  by  those  who  cultivate  litera- 
ture and  by  those  who  study  religion.  And  when 
men  regard  and  contemplate  it  as  it  is,  rather 
than  as  fancy  or  igfnorance  makes  it,  then  will  it 
be  found  to  present  the  loftiest  and  most  precious 
truths  enshrined  in  the  noblest  language.  Its 
poetry  is  one  continued  illustration  of  this  fact. 
Indeed,  but  for  the  vicious  education  which  the 
first  and  most  influential  minds  in  this  country 
receive,  biblical  literature  would  long  ere  now 
have  held  the  rank  to  which  it  is  entitled.  What 
is  the  course  of  reading  through  which  our  di- 
vines, our  lawyers,  our  statesmen,  our  philos- 
ophers, are  conducted?  From  early  youth  up  to 
manhood  it  is  almost  entirely  of  a  heathen  com- 
plexion. Greek  and  Latin,  not  Hebrew,  engage 
the  attention ;  Homer  and  Horace,  not  Moses  and 
Isaiah,  are  our  class-books,  skill  in  understanding 
which  is  made  the  passport  to  wealth  and  distinc- 
tion. Hence  Hebrew  literature  is  little  known, 
and  falls  into  a  secondary  position.  Nor  can  a 
due  appreciation  of  this  priceless  book  become 
prevalent  until,  with  a  revival  and  general  spread 
of  Hebrew  studies,  the  Bible  shall  become  to  us, 
what  it  was  originally  among  the  Israelites,  a 
literary  treasure,  as  well  as  a  religious  guide. 
Nor,  in  our  belief,  can  a  higher  service  be  ren- 
dered either  to  literature  or  religion  than  to 
make  the  literary  claims  of  the  Bible  understood 
at  the  same  time  that  its  religious  worth  is  duly 
and  impressively  set  forth.  The  union  of  litera- 
ture and  religion  is  found  in  the  Bible,  and  has, 
therefore,  a  divine  origin  and  sanction.  Those 
who  love  the  Bible  as  a  source  of  religious  truth, 
should  manifest  their  regard  both  towards  the 
book  and  towards  Him  whose  name  and  impress 
it  bears,  by  carefully  preserving  that  union,  and 
causing  its  nature,  requirements,  and  applications 
to  be  generally  understood.  No  better  instrument 
can  be  chosen  for  this  purpose  than  its  rich,  va- 
ried and  lofty  poetry. 

There  is  no  poetic  cyclus  that  can  be  put  into 
comparison  with  that  of  Hebrew  but  the  cyclus 
of  the  two  classic  nations,  Greece  and  Rome,  and 
that  of  India.  In  form  and  variety  we  grant  that 
the  poetry  of  these  nations  surpasses  that  of  the 
Hebrews.  Epic  poetry  and  the  drama,  the  two 
highest  styles  so  far  as  mere  art  is  concerned, 
were  cultivated  successfully  by  them,  whilst 
among  the  Israelites  we  find  only  their  germs  and 
first  rudiments.  So  in  execution  we  may  also  ad- 
mit that,  in  the  higher  qualities  of  style,  the  He- 
brew literature  is  somewhat  inferior.*  But  the 
thought  is  more  than  the  expression;  the  kernel 


POETRY,  HEBREW 


1356 


POETRY,  HEBREW 


than  the  shell;  and  in  substance,  the  Hebrew  po- 
etry far  surpasses  every  other.  In  truth,  it  dwells 
in  a  region  to  which  other  ancient  literatures 
did  not,  and  could  not,  attain,  a  pure,  serene, 
moral,  and  religious  atmosphere — thus  dealing 
with  man  in  his  highest  relations,  first  anticipating, 
and  then  leading  onwards,  mere  civilization.  This, 
as  we  shall  presently  see  more  fully,  is  the  great 
characteristic  of  Hebrew  poetry;  it  is  also  the 
highest  merit  of  any  literature,  a  merit  in  which 
that  of  the  Hebrews  is  unapproached. 

(4)  A  Source  of  Inspiration  for  Poets  and 
Painters.  To  this  high  quality  it  is  owing  that 
the  poetry  of  the  Bible  has  exerted  on  the  loft- 
iest interests  and  productions  of  the  human  mind, 
for  now  above  two  thousand  years,  the  most  de- 
cided and  the  most  beneficial  influence.  Moral 
and  religious  truth  is  deathless  and  undecaying; 
and  so  the  griefs  and  the  joys  of  David,  or  the 
far-seeing  warnings  and  brilliant  portrayings  of 
Isaiah,  repeat  themselves  in  the  heart  of  each 
successive  generation,  and  become  coexistent  with 
the  race  of  man.  Thus  of  all  moral  treasuries 
the  Bible  is  incomparably  the  richest.  Even  for 
forms  of  poetry,  in  which  it  is  defective,  or  al- 
together fails,  it  presents  the  richest  materials. 
Moses  has  not,  as  some  have  dreamed,  left  us  an 
epic  poem,  but  he  has  supplied  the  materials  out 
of  which  the  Paradise  Lost  was  created.  The 
sternly  sublime  drama  of  Samson  Agonistes  is 
constructed  from  a  few  materials  found  in  a  chap- 
ter or  two  which  relate  to  the  least  cultivated 
period  of  the  Hebrew  republic.  Indeed,  most  of 
the  great  poets,  even  of  modern  days,  from  Tasso 
down  to  Byron,  all  the  great  musicians,  and  nearly 
all  the  great  painters  have  drawn  their  best  and 
highest  inspiration  from  the  Bible.  This  is  a  fact 
as  creditable  to  religion  as  it  is  important  to  lit- 
erature, of  which  he  who  is  fully  aware  will  not 
easily  be  turned  aside  from  faith  to  infidelity  by 
the  shallow  sarcasms  of  a  Voltaire,  or  the  low 
ribaldry  of  a  Paine.  That  book  which  has  led 
civilization,  and  formed  the  noblest  minds  of  our 
race,  is  not  destined  to  be  disowned  because  it 
presents  states  of  society  and  modes  of  thought 
the  very  existence  of  which,  however  half-witted 
unbelief  may  object,  is  the  best  pledge  of  its  real- 
ity and  truth.  The  complete  establishment  of  the 
moral  and  spiritual  preeminence  of  the  Bible, 
considered  merely  as  a  book,  would  require  a  vol- 
ume, so  abundant  are  the  materials. 

(5)  Loss  by  Translation.  It  may  have  struck 
the  reader  as  somewhat  curious  that  the  poetical 
productions  should,  in  the  common  version  of 
the  Bible,  be  scarcely,  if  at  all,  distinguishable 
from  prose.  Much  of  classical  poetry,  however, 
if  turned  into  English  prose,  would  lose  most  of 
its  poetic  characteristics ;  and,  in  general,  the  He- 
brew poetry  suffers  less  than  perhaps  any  other 
by  transfusion  into  a  prosaic  element:  to  which 
fact  it  is  owing  that  the  Book  of  Psalms,  in  the 
English  version,  is,  notwithstanding  its  form,  emi- 
nently poetic.  There  are,  however,  cases  in  which 
only  the  experienced  eye  can  trace  the  poetic  in 
and  under  the  prosaic  attire  in  which  it  appears  in 
the  vulgar  translation.  Nor,  until  the  subject  of 
Hebrew  poetry  had  been  long  and  well  studied* 
did  the  learned  succeed  in  detecting  many  a  po- 
etic gem  contained  in  the  Bible.  In  truth,  poetry 
and  prose,  from  their  very  nature,  stand  near  to 
each  other,  and,  in  the  earlier  stages  of  their  ex- 
istence, are  discriminated  only  by  faint  and  van- 
ishing lines.  If  we  regard  the  thought,  prose 
sometimes  even  now  rises  to  the  loftiness  of  po- 
etry. If  we  regard  the  clothing,  the  simpler  form 
of  poetry  is  scarcely  more  than  prose;  and  rhet- 


orical or  measured  prose  passes  into  the  domain 
of  poetry.  A  sonnet  of  Wordsworth  could  be 
converted  into  prose  with  a  very  few  changes; 
a  fable  of  Krummacher  requires  only  to  be  dis- 
tributed into  lines  in  order  to  make  blank  verse, 
which  might  be  compared  even  with  that  of  Mil- 
ton. Now  in  translations,  the  form  is  for  the 
most  part  lost;  there  remains  only  the  substance, 
and  poetic  sentiment  ranges  from  the  humblest 
to  the  loftiest  topics.  So  with  the  Hebrew  poetry 
in  its  original  and  native  state.  Whether  in  its 
case  poetry  sprang  from  prose,  or  prose  from 
poetry,  they  are  both  branches  of  one  tree,  and 
bear  in  their  earlier  stages  a  very  close  resem- 
blance. The  similarity  is  the  greater  in  the  litera- 
ture of  the  Hebrews,  because  their  poetic  forms 
are  less  determinate  than  those  of  some  other  na- 
tions: they  had,  indeed,  a  rhythm;  but  so  had 
their  prose,  and  their  poetic  rhythm  was  more 
like  that  of  our  blank  verse  than  of  our  rhymed 
meter. 

2.  General  Characteristics  of  Hebrew 
Poetrp.  Of  poetical  feet  they  appear  to  have 
known  nothing,  and,  in  consequence,  their  verse 
must  be  less  measured  and  less  strict.  Its  melody 
was  rather  that  of  thought  than  of  art  and  skill— 
spontaneous,  like  their  religious  feelings,  and  there- 
fore deep  and  impressive,  but  less  subject  to  law, 
and  escaping  from  the  hard  limits  of  exact  defini- 
tion. Rhyme  properly  so  called,  is  disowned  as  well 
as  meter.  Yet  Hebrew  verse,  as  it  had  a  kind  of 
measured  tread,  so  had  it  a  jingle  in  its  feet,  for 
several  lines  are  sometimes  found  terminating 
with  the  same  letter.  In  the  main,  however,  its 
essential  form  was  in  the  thought.  Ideas  are 
made  to  recur  under  such  relations  that  the  sub- 
stance itself  marks  the  form,  and  the  two  are  so 
blended  into  one  that  their  union  is  essential  to 
constitute  poetry.  It  is,  indeed,  incorrect  to  say 
that  'the  Hebrew  poetry  is  characterized  by  the 
recurrence  of  similar  ideas'  (Latham's  English 
Language,  p.  372),  if  by  this  it  is  intended  to  in- 
timate that  such  a  peculiarity  is  the  sole  char- 
acteristic of  Hebrew  poetry.  One,  and  that  the 
chief,  characteristic  of  that  poetry,  such  recur- 
rence is ;  but  there  are  also  characteristics  in  form 
as  well  as  in  thought.  Of  these  it  may  be  suffi- 
cient to  mention  the  following : 

(1)  Verbal  Bhythm.  There  is  a  verbal 
rhythm,  in  which  a  harmony  is  found  beyond  what 
prose  ordinarily  presents ;  but  as  the  true  pronun- 
ciation of  the  Hebrew  has  been  long  lost,  this 
quality  can  be  only  imperfectly  appreciated. 

(2)  Correspondence  of  Words.  There  is  a 
correspondence  of  words,  i.  e.  the  words  in  one 
verse,  or  member,  answer  to  the  words  in  an- 
other ;  for  as  the  sense  in  the  one  echoes  the  sense 
in  the  other,  so  also  form  corresponds  with  form, 
and  word  with  word.  This  correspondence  in 
form  will  fully  appear  when  we  give  instances  of 
the  parallelism  in  sentiment;  meanwhile,  an  idea 
of  it  may  be  formed  from  these  specimens: 

•Why  art  thou  cast  down,  O  my  soul? 
And  why  art  thou  disquieted  in  me?* 

Ps.  xliii:5. 
The  memory  of  the  just  is  a  blessing; 
But  the  name  of  the  wicked  shall  rot.' 

Prov.  x:7. 
'He  turneth  rivers  into  a  desert, 
And  water-springs  into  dry  ground.' 

Ps.  cvii  :33. 

In  the  original  this  similarity  in  construction  is 
more  exact  and  more  apparent.  At  the  same 
time  it  is  a  free,  and  not  a  strict  correspondence 


POETRY,  HEBREW 


1367 


POETRY,  HEBREW 


that  prevails;  a  correspondence  to  be  caught  and 
recognized  by  the  ear  in  the  general  progress  of 
the  poem,  or  the  general  structure  of  a  couplet  or 
a  triplet,  but  which  is  not  of  a  nature  to  be  ex- 
actly measured  or  set  forth  by  such  aids  as  count- 
ing with  the  fingers  will  afford. 

(3)  Inversion.  Inversion  holds  a  distinguished 
place  in  the  structure  of  Hebrew  poetry,  as  in 
that  of  every  other ;  yet  here  ag^in  the  remark  al- 
ready made  holds  good;  it  is  only  a  modified  in- 
version that  prevails,  by  no  means  (in  general) 
equalling  that  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  bold- 
ness, decision,  and  prevalence.  Every  one  will 
however,  recognize  this  inversion  in  the  following 
instances,  as  distinguishing  the  passages  from 
ordinary  prose: 

'Amid  thought  in  visions  of  the  night, 
When  deep  sleep  falleth  upon  men, 
Fear  and  horror  came  upon  me.' 

Job  iv:i3. 

To  me  men  gave  ear  and  waited, 
To  my  words  they  made  no  reply.* 

Job  xxix:2i. 

'For  three  transgressions  of  Damascus, 
And  for  four  will  I  not  turn  away  its  punish- 
ment.* Amos  i:3. 

'His  grave  was  appointed  with  the  wicked, 
And  with  the  rich  man  was  his  sepulcher.' 

Is.  liiirQ. 

(4)  Archaic.  The  last  verbal  peculiarity  of 
Hebrew  poetry  which  we  notice  is,  that  its  lan- 
guage betrays  an  archaical  character,  a  license, 
and,  in  general,  a  poetic  hue  and  coloring  which 
cannot  be  confounded  with  the  simple,  lowly,  and 
unrhythmical  diction  of  prose.  The  formation  of 
a  poetic  diction  is,  in  any  nation,  dependent  on 
the  possession,  by  that  nation,  of  a  poetical  tem- 
perament, as  much  as  of  a  poetical  history.  Wher- 
ever these  two  elements  are  found,  the  birth  of 
poetry  and  the  formation  of  a  poetical  language 
are  certain.  Great  events  give  rise  to  strong  pas- 
sions, and  strong  passions  are  the  parents  of  no- 
ble truths;  which,  when  they  spring  from  and 
nestle  in  a  poetic  temperament,  cannot  fail  to 
create  for  themselves  an  appropriate  phraseol- 
ogy, in  which  the  tame  and  quiet  march  of  prose 
is  avoided,  and  all  the  loftier  figures  of  speech 
are  put  into  requisition.  For  a  time,  indeed,  the 
line  of  demarcation  between  the  diction  of  prose 
and  that  of  poetry  will  not  be  very  distinct;  for 
poetry  will  predominate,  as  in  men's  deeds  so  in 
their  words,  and,  if  they  as  yet  have  any,  in  their 
literature.  Soon,  however,  the  passions  grow 
cool,  enthusiasm  wanes,  a  great  gulf  opens  be- 
tween the  actual  and  the  ideal — ^the  ideal  having 
ceased  to  be  actual  in  ceasing  to  be  possible, — ^and 
a  separate  style  of  language  for  prose  and  poetry 
becomes  as  inevitable  as  the  diversity  of  attire 
in  which  holy  and  ordinary  days  have  their  r^ 
spective  duties  discharged. 

In  no  nation  was  the  union  of  the  two  requisites 
of  which  we  have  spoken  found  in  fuller  measure 
than  among  the  Hebrews.  Theirs  was  eminently 
a  poetic  temperament;  their  earliest  history  was 
a  heroic  without  ceasing  to  be  a  historic  age, 
whilst  the  loftiest  of  all  truths  circulated  in  their 
souls,  and  glowed  on  and  started  from  their  lips. 
Hence  their  language,  in  its  earliest  stages,  is 
surpassingly  poetic.  Let  the  reader  peruse,  even 
in  our  translation,  the  first  chapters  of  Genesis,  or 
parts  oi  the  Book  of  Job,  and  he  can  but  perceive 
the  poetic  element  in  which  these  noble  compo- 
sitions have  almost  their  essence.  And  hence  the 
difficulty  of  determining,  with  accuracy,  the  time 


when  a  poetic  diction,  strictly  so  termed,  began 
to  make  its  appearance.  Partially,  such  a  diction 
must  be  recognized  in  the  earliest  specimens  we 
have  of  Hebrew  poetry,  nor  is  it  hard  to  trace,  if 
not  in  words,  yet  in  coloring  and  manner,  signs 
of  this  imaginative  dress;  but  the  process  was 
not  completed,  the  diction  was  not  thoroughly 
formed,  until  the  Hebrew  bard  had  produced  his 
highest  strains,  and  tried  his  powers  on  various 
species  of  composition.  The  period  when  this 
excellence  was  reached  was  the  age  of  Solomon, 
when  the  rest,  peace,  opulence,  and  culture  which 
were  the  fruits  of  the  lofty  mind  and  proud 
achievements  of  David,  had  had  time  to  bring 
their  best  fruits  to  maturity — ^a  ripeness  to  which 
the  Israelite  history  had  in  various  ways  contrib- 
uted during  many  successive  generations. 

(5)  ParalleUsms.  The  chief  characteristics, 
however,  of  Hebrew  poetry  are  found  in  the  pe- 
culiar form  in  which  it  gives  utterance  to  its 
ideas.  This  form  has  received  the  name  of  'par- 
allelism.* Ewald  justly  prefers  the  term  'thought- 
rhythm,'  since  the  rhythm,  the  music,  the  pe- 
culiar flow  and  harmony  of  the  verse  and  of  the 
poem,  lie  in  the  distribution  of  the  sentiment  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  full  import  does  not  come 
out  in  less  than  a  distich.  It  is  to  this  peculiarity, 
which  is  obviously  in  the  substance  and  not  the 
mere  form  of  the  poetry,  that  the  translation  of 
the  Psalms  in  our  Bibles  owes  much  of  its  re- 
markable character,  and  is  distinguished  from 
prose  by  terms  clearly  and  decidedly  poetic;  and 
many  though  the  imperfections  are  which  attach, 
some  almost  necessarily,  to  that  version,  still  it 
retains  so  much  of  the  form  and  substance,  of 
the  simple  beauty,  and  fine  harmony  of  the  orig- 
inal Hebrew,  that  we  give  it  a  preference  over 
most  poetic  translations,  and  always  feel  disposed 
to  warn  away  from  this  holy  ground  the  rash 
hands  that  often  attempt,  with  no  fit  preparation, 
to  touch  the  sacred  harp  of  Zion. 

Those  who  wish  to  enter  thoroughly  into  the 
subject  of  Hebrew  rhythm  are  referred  to  the 
most  recent  and  best  work  on  the  subject,  by  the 
learned  Hebrew  scholar,  Ewald,  who  has  trans- 
lated into  German  all  the  poetical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  (Die  Poet.  Backer  des  Alien 
Bundes,  1835-9,  4  vols,  8vo,  vol.  i,  pp.  57-92).  A 
shorter  and  more  simple  account  will  better  suit 
these  pages;  which  we  take  in  substance  from 
Gesenius  (Hebrdisches  Lesebuch,  17th  edit,  by 
De  Wette,  Leipzig,  1844).  The  leading  principle 
is  that  a  simple  verse  or  distich  consists,  both 
in  regard  to  form  and  substance,  of  two  corre- 
sponding members :  this  has  been  termed  Hebrew 
rh)rthm  or  Parallelismus  membrorum.  Three 
kinds  may  be  specified. 

(i)  There  is  first  the  synonymous  parallelism; 
which  consists  in  this,  that  the  two  members  ex- 
press the  same  thought  in  different  words,  so  that 
sometimes  word  answers  to  word:  for  example — 

'What  is  man  that  thou  art  mindful  of  him. 
And  the  son  of  man  that  thou  carest  for  him  I' 

Ps.  viii:4. 

There  is  in  some  cases  an  inversion  in  the  second 
line — 

'The  heavens  relate  the  glory  of  God, 
And  the  work  of  his  hands  the  firmament  de- 
clares.' Ps.  xix:2. 
*He  maketh  his  messengers  the  winds. 
His  mrinisters  the  flaming  lightning.' 

Ps.  civ:4. 

Very  often  the  second  member  repeats  only  a  part 
of   the   first— 


POETRY,  HEBREW 


1358 


POETRY,  HEBREW 


'Woe  to  them  that  join  house  to  house, 
That  field  to  field  unite/  Is.  v  :8. 

Sometimes  the  verb    which    stands  in  the  first 
member  is  omitted  in  the  second — 

*0  God,  thy  justice  give  the  king, 
And  thy  righteousness  to  the  king's  son.' 

Ps.  lxxii:i. 

Or  the  verb  may  be  in  the    second  member — 

'With  the  jawbone  of  an  ass  heaps  upon  heaps, 
With  the  jawbone  of  an  ass  have  I  slain  a  thou- 
sand men.'  Judg.  xv:i6. 

The  second  member  may  contain  an  expansion  of 
the  first — 

'Give  to  Jehovah,  ye  sons  of  God, 
Give  to  Jehovah  glory  and  praise.' 

Ps.  xxix:i. 

Indeed  the  varieties    are    numerous,    since    the 
synonymous  parallelism  is  very  frequent. 

(2)  The  second  kind  is  the  antithetic,  in  which 
the  first  member  is  illustrated  by  some  opposition 
of  thought  contained  in  the  second.  This  less 
customary  kind  of  parallelism  is  found  mostly  in 
the  Proverbs — 

The  full  man  treadeth  the  honeycomi)  under 

foot. 
To  the  hungry  every  bitter  thing  is  sweet.' 

Prov.  xxvii:7. 

Under  this  head  comes  the  following,  with  other 
similar  examples — 

*Day  to  day  uttereth  instruction, 

And  night  to  night  sheweth  knowledge.' 

(3)  The  third  kind  is  denominated  the  syn- 
thetic: probably  the  term  epithetic  would  be  more 
appropriate,  since  the  second  member,  not  being 
a  mere  echo  of  the  first,  subjoins  something  new 
to  it,  while  the  same  structure  of  the  verse  is  pre- 
served; thus — 

'He  appointed  the  moon  for  seasons; 
The  sun  knoweth  his  going  down.* 

Ps.  civ:  19. 

'The  law  of  Jehovah  is  perfect,  reviving  the 

soul ; 
The  precepts  of  Jehovah  are  sure,  instructing 

the  simple.'  Ps.  xix:7. 

This  correspondence  of  thought  is  occasionally 
found  in  Greek  and  Latin  poetry,  particularly  in 
the  interlocutions  of  the  eclogues  of  Theocritus 
and  Virgil.  The  two  following  distichs  are  sped- 
mens  oithe  antithetic  parallelism: 

*Dam,    Triste  lupus  stabulis^  maturis  frugibut 
imber, 
Arboribus  venti;  nobis  Amaryllidis  ira. 

Men,      Duke   satis   humor,   cUfiulsis   arbutus 
hadis, 
Lenta  salix  fceto  pecori;  tnihi  solus 
Amyntas* 

Pope's  writings  present  specimens  which  may  be* 
compared  with  the  antithetical  parallelism.  In  his 
Rape  of  the  Lock,  passages  of  the  kind  abound. 
We  opened  his  Essay  on  Criticism,  and  the  first 
lines  our  eye  fell  on  were  these — 

*A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing: 
Drink  deep,  or  taste  not  the  Pierian  spring : 
There  shallow  draughts  intoxicate  the  brain 
And  drinking  largely  sobers  us  again.* 


So  in  his  Messiah,  where  he  was  likely  to  copy 
the  form  in  imitating  the  spirit  of  the  original— 

*rhe  lambs  with  wolves  shall  graze  the  verdant 

mead, 
And  boys  in  flow'ry  bands  the  tiger  lead. 
The  steer  and  lion  at  one  crib  shall  meet. 
And  harmless  serpents  lick  the  pilgrim's  feet.* 

This  correspondence  in  thought  is  not,  however, 
of  universal  occurrence.  We  find  a  merely  rhyth- 
mical parallelism  in  which  the  thought  is  not  re- 
peated, but  goes  forward,  throughout  the  verse, 
which  is  divided  midway  into  two  halves  or  a 
distich — 

'The  word  is  not  upon  the  tongue, 
Jehovah  thou  knowest  it  altogether.* 

Ps.  cxxxviii:4. 
'Gird  as  a  man  thy  loins, 
I  will  ask  thee;  inform  thou  me.' 

Job  xl*4^. 

Here  poetry  distinguishes  itself  from  prose  chiefly 
by  the  division  into  two  short  equal  parts.  This 
peculiarity  of  poetic  diction  is  expressed  by  divid- 
ing the  matter,  and  so  speaking  or  singing  in  sep- 
arated portions.  Among  the  Arabians,  who,  how- 
ever, have  syllabic  measure,  each  verse  is  divided 
into  two  hemistichs  by  a  caesura  in  the  middle. 
What  is  termed  'service  meter'  in  English  versi- 
fication is  not  unlike  this  in  the  main :  it  is  the 
'common  meter'  of  the  Psalm-versions,  and  of  or- 
dinary hymn  books,  though  in  the  latter  it  is  ar- 
ranged  in   four  lines — 

'But  one  request  I  make  to  him  |  that  sits  the 

skies  above, 

That  I  were  fairly  out  of  debt  |  as  I  were  out 

of  love.'  Suckling. 

The  simple  two-membered  rhythm  hitherto  de- 
scribed prevails,  especially  in  the  book  of  Job, 
the  Proverbs,  and  a  portion  of  the  Psalms;  but 
in  the  last,  and  still  more  in  the  Prophets,  there 
are  numerous  verses  with  three,  four,  or  yet  more 
members. 

In  verses  consisting  of   three  members   (tris- 
ticha)  sometimes  all  three  are  parallel — 

'Happy  the  man  who  walketh  not  in  the  paths 

of  the  unrighteous. 
Nor  standeth  in  the  way  of  sinners. 
Nor  sitteth  in  the  seat  of  scoffers.'        Ps.  i:i. 

Sometimes  two  of  the  members  stand  opposed  to 
the  third— 

'To  all  the  world  goes  forth  their  sound. 
To  the  end  of  the  world  their  words ; 
For  the  sun  he  places  a  tabernacle  in  them.' 

Ps.  xix:4. 

Verses  of  four  members  contain  either  two  sim- 
ple parallels — 

'With  righteousness  shall  he  judge  the  poor. 
And  decide  with  equity  for  the  afflicted  of  the 

people ; 
He  shall  smite  the  earth  with  the  rod  of  his 

mouth ; 
With  the  breath  of  his  lips  shall  he  slay  the 

wicked.'  Is.  xi:4. 

Or  the  first  and  third  answer  to  each  other;  also 
the  second  and  fourth — 

'That  smote  the  people  in  anger 

With  a  continual  stroke; 
That  lorded  it  over  the  nations  in  wrath 

With  unremitted  oppression.'  Is.  xiv:6. 

If  the  members  are  more  numerous  or  dispropor- 
tionate (Is.  xi:ii),  or  if  the  parallelism  is  im- 


POETRY.  HEBREW 


1359 


POETRY,  HEBREW 


perfect  or  irregular,  the  diction  of  poetry  is  lost 
and  prose  ensues;  as  is  the  case  in  Is.  v:i-6,  and 
frequently  in  the  later  prophets,  as  Jeremiah  and 
Ezekiel. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  each  poem  con- 
sists exclusively  of  one  sort  of  verse ;  for  though 
this  feature  does  present  itself,  yet  frequently  sev- 
eral kinds  are  found  together  in  one  composi- 
tion, so  as  to  give  great  ease,  freedom,  and  capa- 
bility to  the  style.  We  select  the  following  beau- 
tiful specimen,  because  a  chorus  is  introduced — 

David's  lament  over  saul  and  Jonathan. 

The  Gazelle,  O  Israel,  has  been  cut  down  on 
thy  heights! 

Chorus.  How  are  the  mighty  fallen! 

Tell  it  not  in  Gath,  publish  it  not  in  the  streets 
of  Ascalon, 
Lest  the  daughters  of  the  Philistines  rejoice, 
Lest  the  daughters  of  the  uncircumcised  exult. 

Hills  of  Gilboa,  no  dew  nor  rain  come  upon 
you,  devoted  fields! 
For  there  is  stained  the  heroes'  bow, 
Saul's  bow,  never  anointed  with  oil. 

From  the  blood  of  the  slain,  from  the  fat  of  the 
mighty, 
The  bow  of  Jonathan  turned  not  back, 
And  the  sword  of  Saul  came  not  idly  home. 

Saul  and  Jonathan !  lovely  and  pleasant  in  life  I 
And  in  death  ye  were  not  divided; 
Swifter  than  eagles,  stronger  than  lions! 

Ye  daughters  of  Israel !  Weep  for  Saul ; 
He  clothed  you  delicately  in  purple, 
He  put  ornaments  of  gold  on  your  apparel. 

Chorus,  How  are  the  mighty  fallen  in  the  midst 

of  the  battle ! 
O  Jonathan,  slain  in  thy  high  places! 

I  am  distressed  for  thee,  brother  Jonathan, 
Very  pleasant  wast  thou  to  me, 
Wonderful  was  thy  love,  more  than  the  love 
of  woman. 

Chorus.  How  are  the  mighty  fallen. 

And  the  weapons  of  war  perished ! 

3.    Lpricat  and  Dramatic  Hebrew  Poetrp. 

Lyrical  poetry  so  abounds  in  the  Bible  that  we 
almost  forget  that  it  contains  any  other  species. 
Doubtless  lyrical  poetry  is  the  earliest,  nc  less 
than  the  most  varied  and  most  abundant.  Yet 
the  lyrical  poetry  of  the  Israelites  contains  tokens 
of  proceeding  from  an  earlier  kind.  It  is  emi- 
nently sententious— brief,  pithy,  and  striking  in 
the  forms  of  language,  and  invariably  moral  or 
religious  in  its  tone.  Whence  we  infer  that  it 
had  its  rise  in  a  species  of  poetry  analogous  to 
that  which  we  find  in  the  book  of  Proverbs.  It 
embraced  a  great  variety  of  topics,  from  the 
shortest  and  most  fleeting  effusion,  as  found  in 
specimens  already  given,  and  in  Ps.  xv,  cxxxi, 
cxxxiii,  to  the  loftiest  subjects  treated  in  a  full 
and  detailed  manner;  for  instance, Deborah's  sonjg 
(Judg.  v),  and  Ps.  xviii  and  Ixviii.  It  ran  equally 
through  all  the  moods  of  the  human  soul,  noth- 
ing being  too  lowly,  too  deep,  or  too  high  for 
the  Hebrew  lyre.  It  told  how  the  horse  and  his 
Egyptian  rider  were  sunk  in  the  depths  of  the 
sea;  it  softly  and  sweetly  sang  of  the  benign  ef- 
fects of  brotherly  love.  It  uttered  its  wail  over 
the  corpse  of  a  friend,  and  threw  its  graceful 
imagery  around  the  royal  nuptial  couch.  Song 
was  its  essence.    Whatever  its  subject,  it  fore- 


went neither  the  lyre  nor  the  voice.  Indeed  its 
most  general  name  signifies  *song;*  song  and 
poetry  were  the  same.  Another  name  for  lyrical 
poetry  is  that  which  the  Seventy  render  saZ-mos, 
fa\fi6s,  'psalm,*  and  which  from  its  etvmology  seems 
to  have  a  reference  not  so  moich  to  song  as  to  the 
numbers  into  which  the  poet  by  his  art  wrought 
his  thoughts  and  emotions.  The  latter  word  de- 
scribes the  making  of  an  ode,  the  former  its  per- 
formance on  the  lyre.  Another  general  name  for 
lyrical  poetry  is  mas-keeV,  which  is  applied  to 
poems  of  a  certain  kind  (Ps.  xxxii;  xlii;  xlv;  lii; 
Iv;  Ixxiv;  Ixxviii;  Ixxxviii;  cxlii),  and  appears 
to  denote  an  ode  lofty  in  its  sentiments  and  ex- 
quisite in  its  execution.  Under  these  general 
heads  there  were  several  species,  whose  specific  dif- 
ferences it  is  not  easy  to  determine. 

Dramatic  poetry  in  the  sense  in  which  the 
phrase  is  applicable  to  productions  such  as  those 
of  Euripides,  Shakspeare,  or  Schiller,  had  no 
place  in  the  literature  of  the  Hebrews.  This  de- 
fect may  be  owing  to  a  want  of  the  requisite  lit- 
erary cultivation.  Yet  we  are  not  willing  to  as- 
sign this  as  the  cause,  when  we  call  to  mind  the 
high  intellectual  culture  which  the  Hebrews 
evinced  in  lyric  and  didactic  poetry,  out  of  which 
the  drama  seems  naturally  to  spring.  We  rather 
look  for  the  cause  of  this  in  the  earnest  nature 
of  the  Hebrews,  and  in  the  solemnity  of  the  sub- 
jects with  which  they  had  to  do  in  their  literary 
productions.  Nor  is  it  any  objection  to  this  hy- 
pothesis that  the  drama  of  modern  times  had  its 
birth  in  the  religious  mysteries  of  the  middle 
ages,  since  those  ages  were  only  secondary  in  re- 
gard to  religious  truth,  stood  at  a  distance  from 
the  great  realities  which  they  believed  and  dram- 
atized; whereas  the  objects  of  faith  with  the 
Israelites  were  held  in  all  the  fresh  vividness  of 
primitive  facts  and  newly-recognized  truths.  Ele- 
ments, however,  for  dramatic  poetry  and  first  rudi- 
mental  efforts  are  found  in  Hebrew;  as  in  the 
Song  of  Solomon,  in  which  several  dramatis  per- 
sofKF  will  be  discovered  speaking  and  acting,  by 
the  diligent  and  unprejudiced  reader.  Ewald  as- 
serts that  the  poem  is  divisible  into  four  acts. 

In  the  book  of  Job,  however,  the  dramatic  ele- 
ment of  the  Hebrew  muse  is  developed  in  a  more 
marked  form,  and  a  more  decided  degree.  Here 
the  machinery  and  contrivances  of  the  drama, 
even  to  the  plot  and  the  Deus  Vindex,  are  patent 
to  a  reader  of  ordinary  attention.  For  epic  poetry 
the  constituent  elements  do  not  appear  to  have 
existed  during  the  classic  period  of  the  Hebrew 
muse,  since  epic  poetry  requires  a  heroic  age, 
an  age,  that  is,  of  fabulous  wonders  and  falsely 
so  called  divine  interpositions.  But  among  the 
Israelites  the  patriarchal,  which  might  have  been 
the  heroic  age,  was  an  age  of  truth  and  reality; 
and  it  much  raises  the  religious  and  historical 
value  of  the  biblical  literature,  that  neither  the 
singular  events  of  the  age  of  the  patriarchs,  nor 
the  wonderful  events  of  the  age  of  Moses,  nor 
the  confused  and  somewhat  legendary  events  of 
the  age  of  the  Judges,  ever  degenerated  into 
mythology,  nor  passed  from  the  reality  which  was 
their  essence,  into  the  noble  fictions  into  which 
the  imagination,  if  unchastened  and  unchecked  by 
religion,  might  have  wrought  them;  but  they  re- 
tained through  all  periods  their  own  essentiaC 
character  of  earnest,  lofty,  and  impressive  realities. 

4.  Originatiip  of  Hebrew  f^oetrp.  Its  origi- 
nality is  also  a  marked  characteristic  of  Hebrew 
poetry.  Were  it  a  matter  to  be  determined  by 
authority,  we  could  easily  prove  that  the  Hebrew 
poetry  is  written  in  hexameters  and  pentameters. 
Josephus  more  than    once  asserts  that  the  tri- 


POISON  13< 

umphal  ode  of  Moses  was  written  in  hexameter 
verse  (Antig.  ii,  16,  4:  iv,  8,  44) ;  and  in  Aniiq, 
vii.  12.  3,  he  expressly  says,  'And  now  David,  be- 
ing freed  from  wars  and  dangers,  composed  songs 
and  hymns  to  God,  of  several  sorts  of  meter ; 
sotne  of  those  which  he  made  were  trimeters  and 
some  were  pentameters ;'  in   which   statement   he 
is  as  much  in  error  iu  regard  to  the  verse  as  he  is 
in  regard  to  his  implication  that  David  wrote  his 
Psalms  at  some  one  set  period  of  his  life.     Not 
improbably  Josephus  was  influenced  in  this  rep- 
resentation regarding  the  alleged  meters  by  his 
Grxcising  propensities,  by  which  he  was  led  to 
assimilate  the  Hebrew  laws  and  institutions  to 
Grecian  models,  with  a  false  view  o£  thus  gain- 
ing honor   to   his  country,   and,   by   reflection,   to 
himself  as  well.     Even  in  his  day  the  true  pro- 
nuncialion  of  the  Hebrew  was  lost,  so  thai  it  was 
easy  to  make  this  or  that  assertion  on  the  subject 
of  its  versification.     Certainly  all  the  attempts  to 
which  these  misstatements  of  Josephus  chiefly  led 
have  utterly  failed ;  and  whatever  the  fact  may 
be,  whether  or  not  these  poems  were  written  in 
stricter  measure  than  the  doctrine  of  this  article 
supposes,  we  are  little  likely  to  form  an  exact  idea 
of  the   Hebrew   measures   unless   we  could   raise 
David  from  the  sleep  of  centuries;  and  at  a  time 
when,  like  the  present,  it  is  beginning  to  be  felt 
that  there  has  been    far    too  much   dogmatizing 
about   even  the  classical    versification,    and    that 
speculation  and  fancy  have  outstripped  knowledge, 
we  do  not  expect  to  find  old  attempts  to  discover 
the  Hebrew  hexameters  and  pentameters  revived. 
Those  who  may  wish  to  pursue  the  subject  in  its 
details  are  referred  to  the  following  Vforks :  Carp- 
zov,  Inlrod.  in  V.  T.  it.    England  has  the  credit 
of  opening  a  new  path  in  this  branch  by  the  pub- 
lication of    Bishop  Lowth's  elegant  and  leamf-* 
PrtBkctiones  de  Sacra  Poesi  Hebrigorutn,  Oxo 
1753;  that  of  Oxon.  1810,  is  good:  the  work  w; 
translated  into  English  by  Gregory.   But  the  woi 
which   has,   next   to   that   of  Lowih,   exerted   tl 
greatest  influence,  is  a  posthumous  and  unfinisht 
piece  of  the  celebrated  Herder,  who  has  treatc 
the    subject    with    extraordinary    eloquence    an 
learning:    F(J«   Geist  der  Ebraiicktn  Poesie,  178 
to  be  found  in  his  collected  writings.     Much  usi 
ful  information  may  be  found  in  De  Wctte's  £11 
UituHg  in  d.  A.  Test.,  Berlin,  1840,  translated  inl 
English    by  Theodore    Parker,  Boston  (U.  S. 
1843-    In  Wellbeloved's  Bible,  translations  of  tl 
poetical  portions  may  be  found,  in  which  regai 
IS  paid  to  rhythm  and  poetical  form;  a  very  vali 
able  guide  in  Hebrew  poetry,  both  for  form  an 
substance,  may  be  found  in  Noyes'  Translation  1 
Job,  Cambridge  (U.  S.),    1827;  of   the  Psalm 
Boston,    (U.    S-),     1831;    and    of    the    Propi 
ets,  Boston  (U.  S.),i833;  but  the  best,  fuUest.ar 
most  satisfactory  work  on  the  subject  is  byEwali 
Die  Poet.  Backer  des  Alien  Bundes,  4  vols.,  8v 
Goltingen,  1835-9.     (See  also  Taylor,   The  Spit 
of  Hebrew  Poetry,  iSiSa ;  Professor  Hichard  Mou 
ton's  various  Books  of  the  Bible.)  J,  R.  B. 

POISON  (poi'i'n),     1.  ICiay-maw'  (Heb.  "?^ 
heat,  Hos,  vii :  $.  marg.),  anger  (Deut.  xxix:27). 

2.  Bosie  (Heb.    tfVl),  venom  of  serpents  <P 
lviii:4;jobxx:l6}. 


venom  of  a  serpent. 

POL  {p6l),  (Heb.  Yt.  ftpt),  occura  twice  in  Scrip, 
ture,  and  no  doubt  signifies 'beans,' as  translated 
In  the  Auth.  Version. 

The  first  occasion  is  in  2  Sam.  xvii  :28,  where 
beans  are  described  as  being  brought  to  David,  as 


0  POMEGRANATE 

well  as  wheat,  barley,  lentils,  etc.,  as  is  the  cus- 
tom at  the  present  day  in  many  parts  of  the  East 
when  a  traveler  arrives  at  a  village.  So  in  Ezek- 
iel  iv:9,  the  prophet  is  directed  to  take  wheal,  bar- 
ley, beans,  lentils,  etc.,  and  make  bread  thereof. 
This  meaning  of  pol  is  confirmed  by  the  Arabic 
fool,  which  is  the  same  word  (there  being  no 
pe  in  Arabic),  and  is  applied  to  the  bean  in  mod- 
ern times,  as  ascertained  by  Forskal  in  Egypt,  and 
as  we  find  in  old  Arabic  works.  The  common 
bean,  or  at  leaM  one  of  its  varieties,  has  been  em- 
ployed as  an  article  of  diet  from  the  most  an- 
cient times.     (See  Beans.)  J.  F.  R. 

POLE  (p6l),  (Heb.  ^t,  nace,  sign,  banner,  Num. 
xxi:8, 9},  a  flagstaff,  or  the  flag  itself. 

POLL  (p6]),  (Heb.  ^'^\,  gulgo'Utk.  a  skdl), 
the  head  (Num.  i:a,  18,  20,  22;  iii:47;  i  Chron. 
xxiii:3,  24;  x:io);  "skull"  (Judg.  ix:S3;  3  Kings, 
'x:35). 

FOLLTTTION  (p61-lu'-shQn),  (Gr.  aiayt^a,  ai-is'- 
ghem-ah,  contamination),  a  Hellenistic  word  (Acts 
xv:20).  Jt  refers  to  meat  offered  in  sacrifice  to 
idols  (comp.  I  Cor.  x:25;  see  also  viii:l,  sg.). 

POLLTIX  (pol'lQks).  See  Castor  and  Pollux. 

POLYGAMY  (p6-irg'a-my).     See  MARRIAGE. 

POLYOLOT  (pdl'I-giat),   See  Versions. 

POMBOBAKATE  (pQm'gria'aie),  (Heb.  1^1. 

(1)  "The  graceful  shape  of  the  pomegranate  was 
selected  for  one  of  the  ornaments  on  the  skirt  of 
the  high-priest's  blue  robe  and  ephod,  alternating 
with  Ihe  golden  bells  (Exod.  xxviii:33,  34; 
xxxix  :24-2(3),  and  hence  was  adopted  as  one  of 


PameitinaH. 

the  favorite  devices  in  the  decoration  of  Solo- 
mon's temple,  being  carved  on  the  capitals  of  the 
pillars  (I  Kings  vii:i8,  etc.).  Whether  the  de- 
sign was  taken  from  the  fruit  or  the  flower,  it 
would  form  a  graceful  ornameiK.  We  have  fre- 
quently noticed  the    pomegranate  sculptured  on 


POMMEL 


1361 


POOR 


fragments  of  columns  among  the  ruins  of  Ori- 
ental temples. 

(2)  "The  Syrian  deity  Rimmon  has  been  sup- 
posed by  some  to  have  been  a  personification  of 
the  pomegranate,  as  the  emblem  of  the  fructify- 
ing principle  of  nature,  the  fruit  being  sacred  to 
Venus,  who  was  worshiped  under  this  title.  Ha- 
dad-rimmon  is  mentioned  in  Zech.  xii:ii,  Hadad 
being  the  Sun-god  of  the  Syrians ;  and  when  com- 
bined with  the  symbol  of  the  pomegranate,  he 
stands  for  the  Sun-god,  who  ripened  the  fruits, 
and  then,  dying  with  the  departing  summer,  is 
mourned  'with  the  mourning  ofHadad-rimmon.'" 
(See  Rimmon.)  Tristram. 

Figurative.   To  the  liquid  ruby  color  of  the 

Eulp  of  this  fruit  the  beautiful  complexion  of  the 
ride  is  compared  (Cant.  iv:3). 
POMMEL   (ptim'mSl),    (Heb    ^%    gool'law\ 

round),  a  bowl  (£ccl.xii:6;  i  Kings  vii:4i, 42;  Zech. 
iv:3),  a  round  ornament  (2  Chron.  iv:i2, 13). 

POND  (p6nd). 

1.  Ag-awtn'  (Heb.  ^^^  collection  of  water),  the 

swampy  lakes  left  by  the  Nile  when  it  subsided 
(£xoa.  vii;i9;  viii:5). 

2.  Aw'game'  (Heb.  ^3$),  in  Is.  xix:xo,  where  it 
is  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  "  ponds  for  fish." 

PONDEB  (p6n'der),  (Gr.  cvfjLpdWta,  soom-dar/d, 
Luke  ii.19),  to  weigh  carefully  in  the  mind ;  to 
consider  thoughtfully. 

PONTIUS  PILATE  (pdn'shl-us  pi'late),  (Gr. 
UbvTun.pon'tee'Os).  See  Pilate,  Pontius. 

P0NTT7S  (p6n'tus),  (Gr.  H^vrof,  fon'tos,  the  sea^, 
the  northeastern  province  of  Asia  Minor,  which 
took  its  name  from  the  sea  (Pontus  Euxinus)  that 
formed  its  northern  frontier. 

On  the  east  it  was  bounded  by  Colchis,  on  the 
south  by  C^ppadocia  and  part  of  Armenia,  and 
on  the  west  by  Paphlagonia  and  Galatia.  Ptol- 
emy {Geog,  V.  5)  and  Pliny  (Hist,  Nat.  vi.  4) 
regard  Pontus  and  Cappadocia  as  one  province; 
but  Strabo  (Geo^.  xh.  p.  541)  rightly  distin- 
guishes them,  seemg  that  each  formed  a  distinct 
government  with  its  own  ruler  or  prince.  The 
family  of  Mithridates  reigned  in  Pontus,  and  that 
of  Ariarathes  in  Cappadocia.  The  two  countries 
were  also  separated  naturally  from  each  other  by 
the  Lithrus  and  Ophlimus  mountains.  The  king- 
dom of  Pontus  became  celebrated  under  Mithri- 
dates the  Great,  who  waged  a  long  war  with  the 
Romans,  in  which  he  was  at  length  defeated,  and 
his  kingdom  annexed  to  the  Roman  empire  by 
Pompey.  That  Jews  had  settled  in  Pontus,  previ- 
ous to  the  time  of  Christ,  is  evident  from  the  fact 
that  strangers  from  Pontus  were  among  those  as- 
sembled at  Jerusalem  at  the  Feast  of  Pentecost 
(Acts  ii:9).  Christianity  also  became  early 
known  in  this  country,  as  the  strangers  'in  Pon- 
tus* are  among  those  to  whom  Peter  addressed 
his  first  epistle  (i^  Pet.  i:i).  Of  this  province 
Paul's  friend,  Aquila,  was  a  native  (Acts  xviii: 
2).  The  principal  towns  of  Pontus  were  Amasia, 
the  ancient  metropolis,  and  the  birthplace  of  the 
geographer  Strabo,  Themiscyra,  Cerasus,  and 
Trapezus;  which  last  is  still  an  important  town 
under  the  name  of  Trebizond  (Cellarius,  Notit 
ii.  287;  Mannert.  vi.  350;  RosenmQller,  Bid/,  Geog, 
iii.  5-9;  Encyclop,  Method,  Sect  Geog,  Ancienne, 
art,  Tontos'). 

POOL  (p5ol).  1.  Ag-awm'  (Heb.  B}«,  a  pond,  a 
pooJ). 

2.  Ber'aw^kaw*  (Heb.   •^J??,  benediction  an4 

so  prosperity)*  a  gift  or  favor  sent  from  (k>d  (Pb. 
lxxxiv:o). 


8.  Mik'Veh'  (Heb.   •l}i?'2,  collection  of   water 

Exod.  viiiiQ),  a  gathering  of  water,  and  so  trans 
lated  in  Gen.  i:io. 

4.  Kol'Oom-bay' thrah  (Gr.  KoKvfi^^Opa,  a  diving 
place,  found  only  in  John  v:2,  4,  7;  iJiij^  11). 

In  general  it  denotes  a  reservoir  for  water,  from 
which  it  was  often  conducted  by  pipes  into  towns 
(2  Kings  xx:2o;  Eccles.  ii:6).  The  pools  of  Si- 
loam,  Bethesda,  and  Gihon  were  in  Jerusalem. 
There  were  also  pools  at  Hebron,  Gibeon,  Sa- 
maria and  Heshbon  (2  Sam.  ii:i3;  iv:i2;  i  Kings 
xxii:38). 

The  following  are  the  principal  pools  {reser- 
voirs)  mentioned  in  Scripture: 

(1)  Pool  of  Hezekiah  (2  Kings  xx:2o).  It 
was  a  pond  opened  by  King  Hezekiah  in  the  city 
and  fed  by  a  watercourse.  In  2  Chron.  xxxii: 
30  it  is  stated  that  ''this  same  Hezekiah  also 
stopped  the  upper  watercourse  of  Gihon,  and 
brought  it  straight  down  to  the  west  side  of  the 
city  of  David." 

(2)  The  Upper  and  Lower  Pool.  The  "up- 
per" pool  (Is.  vii:3;  xxxvi:2;  2  Kings  xviii  :i7) 
lying  near  the  fuller's  field,  and  on  the  road  to 
it,  outside  the  city.  The  lower  pool  is  mentioned 
in  Is.  xxii  :9.  They  are  usually  known  as  the  up- 
per and  lower  pools  of  Gihon. 

(3)  The  Old  Pool  (Is.  xxiirii),  not  far  from 
the  double  wall  ("two  walls").  This  double  wall 
was  contiguous  to  the  royal  garden  (2  Kings  xxv : 
4;  Jer.  xxxix:4),  somewhere  near  the  southeast  of 
the  city,  close  by  the  fountain  of  Siloam  (Neh. 
iii:i5). 

(^  The  King's  Pool  (Neh.  ii:i4)  is  perhaps 
to  be  found  in  the  fountain  of  the  virgin  Mary 
on  the  east  of  Ophel  (Robinson,  ii.  102,  149), 
and  is  perhaps  the  same  as  the  pool  of  Solomon. 
(Mc  &  Str.  Bib,  Cyc)  (See  Gibeon,  Hebron, 
Samaria,  Solomon,  Bethesda^  and  Siloam  for 
the  pools  under  those  names.) 

Figurative,  (i)  Nineveh  was  of  old  like  a 
fool  of  water;  her  bustling  inhabitants  swarmed 
m  her  like  multitudes  of  fish,  nor,  for  a  long 
time,  was  she  troubled  with  distress  and  com- 
motions (Nah.  ii:8).  (2)  God  dried  up  the 
herbs  and  pools,  and  made  the  rivers  islands, 
when  Cyrus  diverted  the  stream  of  the  Euphrates, 
and  marching  his  army  along  the  channel,  entered 
Babylon ;  or  when  he  cut  off  the  common  people, 
and  their  supporters ;  or  when  he  removed  every 
hindrance  of  the  return  of  the  Jews  to  their  own 
country  (Is.  xliitis;  Jer.  1:38).  (3)  Babylon  was 
made  like  a  pool  of  water,  when  the  very  place 
where  the  city  stood  was  partly  turned  into  a 
fen  or  marsh  (Is.  xiv:23).  (4)  He  makes  the 
parched  ground,  or  wilderness,  pools  of  water, 
when  the  Gentile  world,  so  long  barren  of  good- 
ness, are  abundantly  blessed  with  the  doctrines 
and  influences  of  the  gospel  (Is.  xxxv  :7,  and  xli : 
18). 

POOLS  OF  SOLOMON  (pools  6v  sdl'o-mon). 
(Eccl.  ii:6).    (See  Solomon's  Pool;  Jerusalem.) 

POOLS  OF  WATEB  (Eccl.  ii:6).  See  Cis- 
tern; Water. 

POOB  (poor),  (Heb.  V"??,  ebyoru^^  desirous, 
needy,  poor). 

This  word  often  denotes  the  humble,  afflicted, 
mean  in  itheir  own  eyes,  low  in  the  eyes  of  God. 
Not  so  much  a  man  destitute  of  the  good  things 
of  the  earth  as  a  man  sensible  of  his  spiritual 
misery  and  indigence,  who  applies  for  succor  to 
the  mercy  of  (Sod.  In  this  sense  the  greatest 
and  richest  men  of  the  world  are  level  with  the 
poorest,  in  the  eyes  of  God. 


In  Exod.  : 


POPLAR 


Kiii:3,  Moses  forbids  ttie  judges  "to 
a  poor  man  in  his  cause;"  or  as 
in  Lev.  xixus,  "Thou  shall  not  respect  the  per- 
son of  the  poor,  nor  honor  [lie  person  of  the 
mighty;  but  in  righteousness  shalt  thou  judge 
tby  neighbor."  In  a  word,  judge  without  re- 
spect of  persons;  have  only  truth  and  justice 
before  your  eyes;  consider  that  you  Stand  in  the 
place  of  God  on  the  earth. 

One  of  the  characters  of  the  Messiah  was,  to 
judge  the  poor  (Ps.  Ixxiits,  4),  and  to  preach 
the  gospel  to  them  (Is.  xi:4;  Matt.  xi:5>.  Hence, 
Jesus  chose  disciples  that  were  poor,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  first  believers  were  really  poor 
men,  as  we  may  see  in  their  history. 

Solomon  says  (Prov.  xxii:z),  "The  rich  and 
poor  meet  together ;"  they  are  like  each  other 
in  one  thing — God  created  them  both ;  and  both 
riches  and  poverty  are  of  his  bestowing.  Hence 
the  rich  should  not  be  supercilious,  nor  the  poor 
despondent;  both  are  equal  in  the  eyes  of  God 
(Prov.  xxix:i3).  Amos  (viii;6)  reproaches  the 
Israelites  with  having  sold  the  poor  for  a  con- 
temptible price ;  as  for  shoes  and  sandats.  Prob- 
ably the  rich  actually  thus  sold  their  poor  debtors 
for  things  of  no  value,  James  ii:i  seems  to 
carry  the  obligation  of  not  respecting  persons  so 
far  as  to  allow  no  mark  of  distinction  to  persons 
in  power,  or  in  civil  dignities,  in  the  public  as- 
semblies of  religion.  But  this  ought  to  be  under- 
stood of  an  inward  preference,  and  of  the  senti- 
ments of  the  heart,  rather  than  of  externa]  marks 
of  respect. 

Figurative.  Poverty  was  considered  by  the 
Jews  as  a  great  evil  and  a  punishment  from  God. 

(1)  Job  speaks  of  it  as  of  a  prison,  and  a  state 
of  bondage  (ch.  xxxvi:8). 

(2)  Isaiah  (xlviiirio)  compares  it  to  a  furnace 
or  crucible  wherein  metals  are  purified. 

(3)  Poor  in  spiritual  estate  are  those  who,  how- 
ever full  they  may  be  of  self-conceit,  and  abound- 
ing in  outward  wealth  and  honor,  are  destitute  of 
Jesus'  righteousness  and  grace,  and  have  no  saving 
interest  in  the  favor  of  God  (Rev.  iii:i7). 

(*)  A  Jew  was  poorer  than  Che  priest's 
tion  when  he  could  not  pay  the  price  a 
the  priest  valued  his  redemption  (Lev.  x 

(B)  Poar  in  spirit  (Or. , 

iAos'  Id  pnyoo'mah-tee,  destitute),  denotes  those 
who,  though  poaseaga^-qf'an  interest  tn  the  new 
:nsible  of  their 
n  sinfulness  and  emptiness,  and  humblv  suppl»> 
cate  every  gracious  supply  from  our  all-liberal 
Redeemer  (Malt.  v:3). 

POPLAB  (pfip'ler),  (Heb.'l???./**'*^^,  white). 

The  storax  (see  Stacte),  being  ordinarily  only 
A  bush,  does  not  meet  the  conditions  of  Hos.  iv; 
13.  Four  or  more  species  of  poplar  are  found 
in  the  Holy  Land,  and  this  fact,  with  ihe  white 
appearance  of  some  kinds — t.  g.,  Popului  alba — 
warrants  ua  in  preferring  the  A,  V.  Gen.  xxx; 
37.     (See  LiiNEH.) 

FOBATHA   (par'a-th4),   (Heb.  «P3^E,  pef-raw. 
. .      haps 
of   Haman,   til 
Ahasuerua  (Esih.  ix:8 

FOBCH  (pOrch),  the  rendering  of  the  following 
words;  1.  (5o./aw»(' (Heb.  D^'"' or  O^!*.  vestibule, 
or  hall,  1  Chron.  xxviii:!!). 

2.  Mis-der-ohn'  (Heb.  l^'^^O,  Judg.  iii;23), 
strictly  a  vestibule, 

8.  Poo-lone'  (Gr  tv\^*\  ihe  porch  (Matt,  xxvi: 
71),  may  have  been  the  passage  from  the  street 
mto  the  first  court  of  the  house  (Smith  Bib.  Did.). 


4.  Sto-ah'  (Gr.  ffrad),  Ihe  colonnade  or  porticu  of 
Bethesda,  and  that  of  the  temple  called  Sotcmoo's 
porch  (John  v:2;  x:23;  Acts  iii:ii,  v.iz). 


thaw',  perhaps  given  by  lot),  one  ot  the  ten    1 
'   "  killed   by   the   Jew 

-  ■   ■   "     3.(^.4: 


POBT  (port),  (Heb.  1?*  skah'ar.  gate,  Neh, 
ii:i3l- 

POBTEB  (por'ter),  (Heb.  "H^ll*  or  "'P^,  sho'are'. 
from  ^y^,  skah'ar,  a  gate;  Gr.  Svpupit,  tkoo-ro- 
ros'),  not  a  carrier  of  burdens,  but  a  gatekeeper 
(iChron,  ix:22;  xvi;38,  2  Sam.  xviii:26;  2  Kings 
viiuo). 

POBTIOH  (pOr'shUn),  (Heb.  PJO,  iAay'/^k). 

1.  An  allowance,  as  of  food,  clothing,  etc.  (Gen. 
xiv:24;  xlviiija;  Neh.  xi:23,;  i  Sam.  1:5;  Ps. 
xvii:i4;  Prov.  xxxi:is;  Is.  Iiii:l2;  Dan.  i:8,  li}.) 

2.  One's  lot,  destiny,  etc.  (Job  iii;22;  xxiog: 
xxvii:i3;  Ps.  xi:6;  Is,  xvii:i4);  the  result  of 
effort  (Eccles.  ii:io). 

3.  Part  of  an  estate,  one's  inheritance  (Ps.  xvi : 
S;  exix:s7;  Lam.  iii:24). 

Figurative.  (1)  God  is  the  portion  of  his  peo 
pie;  he  freely  gives  himself  to  them  to  supply 
all  their  need;  and  enriches  them  with  every 
thing  great  and  useful  (Ps.  Ixxiii:26;  Jer.  x: 
16).  (2)  The  Jewish  nation,  the  church,  and 
her  true  members,  are  God's  portion;  he  claimed, 
or  claims  a  special  right  to  them,  and  did  or  does 
show  a  peculiar  regard  to  Ihem  (Deut.  xxxii; 
9;  Ps.  cxxxv:4).  (3)  Christ  has  a  portion  with 
the  great,  and  divides  the  spoil  with  the  strong, 
when,  notwithstanding  all  opposition  from  sin, 
Satan,  and  the  world,  he  obtains  a  Rlorious 
church,  and  great  honor  among  men  (Is.  liii : 
12).  (4)  The  portion  of  incorrigible  sinners  is 
punishment  (Job  xxxi;2;  xx:29;  Ps.  xi:6).  (5) 
The  portion  of  goods  given  to  prodigal  sinners, 
is  their  natural  abiliiics,  and  worldly  enjoyments 
which  they  consume  in  llie  service  of  sin  (Luke 
xv:i2).      (6)   Men  give  a  portion   to  seven,  and 


POSSESS 


1363 


POTIPHERAH 


also  to  eight,  when  they  abound  more  and  more 
in  relieving  the  necessities  of  the  poor  (Eccl. 
xi:2).  (7)  They  have  their  portion  amon^  smooth 
stones,  when  they  are  wholly  taken  with  idols 
formed  out  of  stones,  or  metal,  or  the  like,  and 
the  worshiping  of  them  (Is.  lvii:6).  (8)  God's 
portion  of  the  lawgiver,  was  an  inheritance  as- 
signed to  that  tribe  by  Moses  (Deut.  xxxiii  :2i). 

POSSESS  (p6z-zgs),  (Heb.  ^X,  yaw-raysA,  Num. 
xiii:30). 

1.  To  have  or  to  hold  in  one's  own  keeping. 

2.  To  have  a  legal  right  to  certain  property. 

3.  To  obtain  occupation  or  possession  of  any- 
thing. The  old  signification  is  to  take  forcible 
possession  of,  not  merely  to  have  in  keeping.  "Re- 
member, first,  to  possess  his  books."  —  Shakes- 
peare. 

POSSESSED  WITH  DEVILS  (pdz-z^t'  with 
dSv'lz).    See  Demoniac. 

POSSESSION  (p6z-z5sh'-iin),  (Heb.  •"'^T.  yer- 

ay-shaw\  occupancy,  possession).  It  is  either  (i) 
the  actual  enjoyment  of  things  (i  Kings  xxirip) 
or  (2)  the  thing  enjoyed,  whether  lands,  houses, 
goods,  or  servants  (Eccl.  ii:7;  Matt.  xix:22). 

Figurative*  (i)  God  is  the  possession  of 
Ezekiel's  priests;  saints  have  a  right  to  and  do 
derive  their  help  and  comfort  from  God:  and  on 
what  is  devoted  to  him,  ministers  ought  to  live 
(Ezek.  xliv:^).  (2)  The  church,  or  heaven,  is 
a  purchased  possession;  the  saints  are  redeemed 
by  the  blood  of  Christ,  and  God  is  united  to,  and 
delights  in  them;  and  the  heavenly  glory  which 
the  saints  forever  enjoy  is  the  reward  of  Qirist's 
obedience  and  suffering  (Eph.  i:i4). 

POST  (p5st),  (Heb.  '??,  aAyi/,  strong,  or  a  post, 

door  or  side),  an  upright  timber  or  pillar  of  stone 
at  the  side  of  the  door  (i  Kings  vi:33). 

POT  (p5t),  a  term  applicable  to  many  sorts  of 
vessels: 

1.  Aw'sook'  (Heb.  ^'®^?,  2  Kings  iv:2),  an  earth- 
en jar,  deep  and  narrow,  without  handles,  prob- 
ably like  the  Roman  and  Egyptian  ampnora, 
inserted  in  a  stand  of  wood  or  stone. 

2.  Khek'res  (Heb.  *^?,  "potsherd,"  Job  ii:8; 

Ps.  xxii:i5;  Prov.  xxvi:23;  Is.  xlv:9),  an  earthen 
vessel  for  stewing  or  seething. 

3.  Gheb-ee'-ah  (Heb.  T??).  The  "pots'*  set  be- 
fore the  Rechabites  (Jer.  xxxv:5)  were  probably 
bulging  jars  or  bowls, 

4.  ^^^^(Heb.  11"),  a  vessel  for  culinary  pur- 
poses, perhaps  of  smaller  size  than  a  "  caldron,  or 
Kettle,  mentioned  in  conjunction  with  them  (Job 
xli:2o;  Ps.  lxxxi:6). 

6.  Kel-ee*  (Heb.  ^??,  Lev.  vi:28),  a  vessel  of  any 
kind,  and  generally  so  rendered. 

6.  Tsin-tsek'neth  (Heb.  ^?J¥),  a  covered  ves- 
sel for  preserving  things  (Exod.  xvi:33;  comp. 
Heb.  ix  :4). 

7.  Keer  (Heb.  ^''J,  only  in  Lev.  xi:35),  a  vessel 

for  boiling  or  roasting  (i  Sam.  ii:i4).  "  In  the  dual 
it  can  only  signify  a  vessel  consisting  of  ♦wo  partSj 
I.  e.,  a  pan  or  pot  with  a  lid" 

8.  Paw-roor'  (Heb.  '^'^'^f),  probably    an  open, 

flat  vessel  (Judg.  vi:i9;  i  Sam.  ii:i4);  "pan"(NunL 
xi:8). 

9.  Seer  (Heb.  ^''P),  the  most  usual  and  appro- 
priate word  (Exod.  xxxviii:3;  2  Kings  iv  .38-41; 
xxv:i4;  2  Chron.  iv:ii,  16;  xxxv:i3,  etc.).  It  is 
combined  with  other  words  to  denote  special  uses 


(Exod.  xvi:3;    Ps.  Ix:8;  Prov.  xxvii:2i).    McC.  & 
Str.  Bib,  Cyc.)    (See  Basin;  Ojp.) 

POTENTATE  (p5'ten-tit),  (Gr.  hvvd<rTnt,  doo- 
nas'tace,  of  great  authority),  the  title  applied  to 
God  (i  Tim.  vi:i5,  "the  only  potentate; '  comp. 
Rom.  xvi:27). 

(p6t'i-phar),  (Heb.  "»BVlB,  pot^e- 


far',  contraction  of  ^^^  ^^"^"^ , po^tee-feh' rah.  Pox- 

IPHERAH,  which  see;  Sept.  Here^pijf ^^-/</^raj?^'),  an 
officer  of  Pharaoh,  probably  the  chief  of  his  body- 
guard (Gen.  xxxix:i). 

Of  the  Midianitish  merchants  he  purchased  Jo- 
seph, whose  treatment  by  him  is  described  else- 
where. (See  Joseph.)  The  keeper  of  the  prison 
into  which  the  son  of  Jacob  was  eventually  cast 
treated  him  with  kindness,  and  confided  to  him 
the  management  of  the  prison;  and  this  confi- 
dence was  afterwards  sanctioned  by  the  'captain 
of  the  guard'  himself,  as  the  officer  responsible  for 
the  safe  custody  of  prisoners  of  state.  It  is  some- 
times denied,  but  more  usually  maintained,  that 
this  'captain  of  the  guard'  was  the  same  with 
the  Potiphar  who  is  before  designated  by  the 
same  title.  We  believe  that  this  'captain  of  the 
guard'  and  Joseph's  master  were  the  same  per- 
son. It  would  be  in  accordance  with  Oriental 
usage  that  offenders  against  the  court,  and  the 
officers  of  the  court,  should  be  in  custody  of  the 
captain  of  the  guard;  and  that  Potiphar  should 
have  treated  Joseph  well  after  having  cast  him 
into  prison,  is  not  irreconcilable  with  the  facts 
of  the  case.  After  having  imprisoned  Joseph  in 
the  first  transport  of  his  anger,  he  might  possibly 
discover  circumstances  which  led  him  to  doubt 
his  guilt,  if  not  to  be  convinced  of  his  innocence. 
The  mantle  left  in  the  hands  of  his  mistress,  and 
so  triumphantly  produced  against  him,  would, 
when  calmly  considered,  seem  a  stronger  proof  of 
guilt  against  her  than  against  him:  yet  still,  to 
avoid  bringing  dishonor  upon  his  wife,  and  ex- 
posing her  to  new  temptation,  he  may  have 
deemed  it  more  prudent  to  bestow  upon  his  slave 
the  command  of  the  state  prison  than  to  restore 
him  to  his  former  employment. 

POTIPHEBAH  (po-tlph'e-rah  or  pot'vphS-rah), 

(Heb.  3??&  ^V^,  po'Uefeh'rah),  the  priest  of  On,  or 

Heliopolis,  whose  daughter  Asenath  became  the 
wife  of  Joseph.  (See  Asenath.)  The  name  is 
Egyptian  and  is  in  the  Septuagint  accommodated 
to  the  analogy  of  the  Egyptian  language. 

The  marriage  of  Joseph  to  Asenath  and  her 
conversion  to  faith  in  the  one  God  form  the  sub- 
ject of  an  old  romance  which  exists  in  a  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Syriac  version.  It  is  chiefly  made 
up  of  Jewish  legends,  but  belongs,  nevertheless, 
to  the  Christian  era.  The  title  is  The  Life  and 
Confession  of  Asenath,  Daughter  of  Pentephres 
(Potipherah)  of  Heliopolis,  a  narrative  (of  what 
happened)  when  the  beautiful  Joseph  took  her  to 
wife.  The  story  is  thus  summarized  (Schaff, 
Through  Bible  Lands,  pp.  57,  58)  :  Asenath  was 
a  proud  beauty,  living[  in  ^reat  splendor  with 
seven  attendants,  and  disdainmg  all  lovers  except 
Pharaoh's  eldest  son,  who  loved  her,  but  was 
forbidden  by  his  father  to  marry  her.  When 
she  saw  Joseph  from  her  window  as  he  entered 
Heliopolis  to  collect  corn  in  the  first  year  of 
plenty,  she  was  captivated  by  his  beauty,  ran 
down,  hailed  him  as  "My  Lord,  blessed  of  the 
most  high  God,"  and  at  her  father's  bidding 
went  forward  to  kiss  him.  Joseph  refused  to  kiss 
an  idolatrous  woman,  but,  seeing  her  tears,  he 
laid  his  hand  upon  her  head  and  prayed  God 
to  convert  her  to  the  true  faith,  and  then  de- 


POTSHERD  13 

parted.  She  threw  her  idols  out  of  the  window, 
repented  seven  days,  saw  an  angel  of  comfort, 
and  was  married  to  Joseph  by  Pharaoh  with  great 

POTSHERD  (p8t'shSrd).  (Heb.  '^^.  khtUres). 
a  piece  or  fragment  of  an  earthen  vessel  or  pot* 
tery. 

The  sites  of  ancient  towns  are  often  covered  at 
the  surface  with  great  quantities  of  broken  pot- 
tery. The  present  writer  has  usually  found  this 
pottery  10  be  of  coarse  texture,  but  coated  and 
protected  with  a  strong  and  bright -colored  glaze, 
mostly  bluish-green,  and  sometimes  yellow.  These 
fragments  give  to  some  of  the  most  venerable 
sites  in  the  world,  the  appearance  of  a  deserted 
pottery  rather  than  of  a  town.  The  fact  is,  how- 
ever, that  they  occur  only  upon  the  sites  of  towns 
which  were  built  with  crude  brick;  and  ibis  sug- 
gests that  the  heaps  of  ruin  into  which  these  had 


A  POTTER'S  GATE 

like  beans  wilb  oil  and  garlic,  and  make  a  disti 
of  a  chocolate  color,  which  is  eaten  as  pottage. 

POTTER  (pOt'ier),  (Heb.  1?',  yaiu-Uar",  to 
mold;  Gr.  «>Hi;utii,  ker-am-yooce' ,  fashioner,  pot- 
ter). 

The  potter,  and  ibe  produce  of  his  labors,  are 
often  alluded  lo  in  the  Scriptures.  The  first  dis- 
tinct mention  of  earthenware  vessels  is  in  tht  case 
of  the  pitchers  in  which  Gideon's  men  concealed 
their  lamps,  and  which  ihey  broke  in  pieces  when 
they  withdrew  their  lamps  from  ihem  ( Judg.  vii : 
i6,  ip).  Pitchers  and  bottles  are  indeed  mentioned 
earlier ;  but  the  'bottle'  which  contained  Hagar's 
water  (Gen.  xxi:i4,  15)  was  undoubtedly  of  skin; 
and  although  Rebekab's  pitcher  was  possibly  of 
earthenware  (Gen.  xxiv:i4,  15),  we  cannot  be 
certain  that  il  was  so. 

The  potter's  wheel  is  mentioned  only  once  in 
the  Bible  (Jer.  xviii:2);  but  it  must  have  been 


EgyplilDS  MikiDg  Poll 


hllen  being  disintegrated,  and  worn  at  the  sur- 
face by  Ibe  action  of  the  weather,  bring  to  view 
and  leave  exposed  the  broken  pottery,  which  is 
not  liable  to  be  thus  dissolved  and  washed  away. 
This  explanation  was  suggested  by  the  actual 
survey  of  such  ruins;  and  we  know  not  that  a 
better  has  yet  been  offered  in  any  other  quarter. 
It  is  certainly  remarkable  thai  of  the  more  mighty 
cities  of  old  time,  nothing  but  potsherds  now  re- 
main visible  at  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Towns  built  wilb  stone,  or  kiln-burnt  bricks, 
do  not  exhibit  this  form  of  ruin,  which  is,  there- 
fore, not  usually  mel  with  in  Palestine, 

Scraping  the  boil  (see  Job  ii  :8)  wilb  a  potsherd 
will  not  only  relieve  the  intolerable  itching,  but 
also  remove  the  matter. 

Figurative.  Potsherd  is  figuratively  used  in 
Scripture  to  denote  a  thing  worthless  and  in- 
significant (Ps.  xxii:is;  Is.  xlvig).  Hypocritical 
professions  of  friendship  are  likened  to  "a  pots- 
herd covered  with  silver  dross"  (Prov.  xxvi:23). 
It  is  worthless  pretense. 


(Heb.   '^U,    naw-ieed', 
v:2i),  31),  a  dish   pre- 


FOTTAaS  (pCt'lSi). 
something  boiled.  Gen. 
pared  by  boiling  lentils. 

Commonly  it  was  made  by  cutting  meat  into 
small  pieces  and  stewing  il  with  rice,  flour,  or 
parsley  (2  Kings  iv:39)-  At  this  day.  in  many 
parts  of  the  East,  lentils  are  boiled  or  stewed 


in  use  among  the  Hebrews  long  before  the  time  of 
that  allusion ;  for  we  now  know  that  it  existed  in 
Egypt  before  the  Israelites  took  refuge  in  that 
country  (Wilkinson,  Anc.  Esypt.  iii,  165).  The 
processes  employed  by  the  Hebrews  were  prob- 
ably not  in  any  way  dissimilar  to  those  of  the 
^yptians,  from  whom  the  use  of  the  wheel  may 
be  supposed  to  have  been  adopted. 

figurative.  The  fragility  of  the  potter's  wares, 
and  the  ease  with  which  they  are  destroyed,  sup- 
ply apt  emblems  of  the  facility  with  which  human 
life  and  power  may  be  broken  and  destroyed.  It 
is  in  this  figurative  use  that  bis  vessels  are  most 
frequently  noticed  in  Scripture  ( Ps.  ii  19 ;  Is. 
xxx:i4;  Jer.  xixill;  Rev.  h  :27).  In  one  place, 
the  power  of  the  potter  to  form  with  his  clay,  by 
the  impulse  of  his  will  and  hand,  vessels  either  for 
honorable  or  for  mean  uses,  is  employed  with 
great  force  by  the  apostle  to  illustrate  the  abso- 
lute power  of  God  in  molding  the  destinies  of 
men  according  to  his  pleasure  (Rom.  ix;2l). 

POTTER'S  PTELD  (Gr.  i.ypi,  roh  xtpaiUm, 
ag-ros'  too   ker-am-eh'oce.    Matt,   xjtvii:?).      Sec 

ACELDAUA. 

POTTER'S  GATE,  a  gate  of  Jerusalem  (Jer. 
xixr2)  not  metMioned  elsewhere  by  this  name. 
Il  is  probably  the  Valley  Gale  which  led  to  the 
valley  of  HfNNOM  (which  see),  if  not  with  the 
Dung-gate  (Neh.  ii:i3;  iiiiij  sq.;  xii:3i). 


POUND 


1365 


PRAYER 


POITND   (pound),   (Heb.   '"'^V,  maw-neh'\  Gr. 

X/rptt',  Ue'trah,  weight),  properly  a  fixed  weight  or 
measured  amount,  i.  e.  (technically)  a  maneh  or 
mina,  pound  (i  Kings  x:i7;  Ezra  ii:69;  Neh.  vii: 
71:72;  Luke  xix:i2:27);  the  sixtieth  part  of  a 
talent.    (See  Money;  Weights  and  Measures.) 

POWDEBS  (pou'ders),  (Heb.  "^^^..ab-awkaw'^ 

dust),  powdered  spices  used  for  incense  and  per- 
fumes (Cant.  iii:6). 

POWEB  (pou'er),  (Heb.  •  V?^9,  mem-shaw-law', 

specially)  (2  Chron,  xxxii:9),  a  military  force. 

In  general  power  denotes  ability,  force,  strength. 
It  includes  a  particular  relation  to  the  subor- 
dinate execution  of  superior  orders.  In  the  word 
authority  we  find  a  sufficient  energy  to  niake  us 
perceive  a  right.  Dominion  carries  with  it  an  idea 
of  empire. 

Figurative,  (i)  The  "powers  of  the  world" 
to  come  are  the  mighty  influences  and  miraculous 
operations  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (Heb.  vi:5).  (2) 
The  "powers  of  heaven"  shaken  before  Christ's 
coming,  may  denote  the  fearful  tokens  in  the 
sky,  and  the  overturning  of  the  governors  of  the 
Jewish  church  and  state ;  and  the  celestial 
luminaries  of  heaven  shaken  and  darkened  before 
the  last  judgment  (Matt.  xxiv:29).  (Brown, 
Bih.  Diet.) 

PBiETOBIXTM  (prd-t5'rT-iim),  (Gr.  UpatTibpiov, 
prahee-to' ree-out  belonging  to  a  rraetor). 

This  word  denotes  the  general's  tent  in  the 
field,  and  also  the  house  or  palace  of  the  gov- 
ernor of  a  province,  whether  a  praetor  or  not.  In 
the  (Gospels  it  is  applied  to  three  places: 

1.  At  Jerusalem  (Mark  xv:i6).  The  same 
Greek  word  is  rendered  "common  hall"  and,  mar- 
gin, "governor's  house"  (Matt.  xxvii:27)  ;"hall  of 
judgment"  and  "judgment-hall"  (John  xviii:28, 
Zy^  xix:9).  It  occupied  a  vast  rectangular  space 
and  contained  barracks  for  the  soldiers  by  whom 
Jerusalem  was  kept  in  subjection.  This  praetori- 
um  communicated  with  the  temple,  which  was  sit- 
uated on  the  eastern  hill,  by  a  causeway  crossing 
the  Tyropoeon  valley.  It  was  in  this  praetorium 
that  Jesus  was  tried  before  Pilate.  Some,  how- 
ever, would  identify  the  praetorium  with  the 
fortress  Antonia,  at  the  northwest  corner  of  the 
temple-area  (see  Lange  on  Matt.  xxvii:27). 

2.  At  Cisarea  (Acts  xxiii:3s);  translated 
"Herod's  judgment-hall."  This  was  the  gorgeous 
palace  in  which  Herod  the  Great  resided  during 
his  latter  days.  It  probably  stood  on  the  com- 
manding eminence  near  the  middle  of  the  city. 
There  Paul  was  kept  a  prisoner  for  two  years. 

3.  At  Rome  (Phil.  i:i3);  translated  "palace," 
and  in  the  margin  "Caesar's  court."  This  has 
been  interpreted — (i)  As  in  the  A.  V.,  "the  pal- 
ace"— k  c.  the  palace  of  the  Caesars,  on  the  Mount 
Palatine,  which  was  garrisoned  by  a  bodyguard 
of  soldiers  called  Praetorians.  (2)  As  the  gen- 
eral camp  of  the  Praetorian  guard,  situated  just 
without  the  city  walls,  before  reaching  the  fourth 
milestone.  It  was  established  by  the  emperor 
Tiberius. 

Ramsey  (5*/.  Paul  the  Traveler,  p.  357)  says: 
"The  pretorium  is  the  whole  body  of  persons  con- 
nected with  sitting  in  judgment,  the  supreme  im- 
perial court,  doubtless  in  this  case  the  prefect  or 
both  prefects  of  the  Pretorian  Guard,  represent- 
ing the  emperor  in  his  capacity  as  the  fountain  of 
jtistice,  together  with  the  assessors  and  high  offi- 
cers of  the  court." 

PRAISE  (praz).  Several  Hebrew  and  Greek 
words  are  thus  rendered. 


It  means:  (i)  A  confession  of  the  wonderful 
excellencies  of  God  (Ps.  cxxxviiiii ;  Rev.  xix:5). 
(2)  A  declaring  of  the  good  qualifications  of  men 
(Ps.  xxxvii:2);  and  the  fancied  excellencies  of 
idols  (Dan.  v:4).  (3)  The  person  or  good  deeds 
commended  (Deut.  x:2o;  Ps.  cxviii:i4,  and  cvi: 
2).  So  God  is  the  praise  of  his  people,  1.  e,  the 
object  whom  they  praise  (Jer.  xvii:i4).  Magis- 
trates are  for  the  praise,  comnrendation,  and  en- 
couragement of  them  that  do  well  (Rom.  xiii:3). 

PBAYEB.  (prdr). 

(1)  Scriptural  Terms.  Among  the  many  terms 
in  the  original  Scriptures  to  express  prayer  are 
the  Hebrew  words: 

(i)  Tef-illaw'  (' v?^),  in  general,  supplication 

to  God  (Ps.  lxv:2;  lxxx:4;  Is.  i:i5;  Tob  xvi:i7, 
etc.);  also  intercession,  supplication  (ox  another 
(2  Kings  xix:4;  Is.  xxxvii:4;  Jer.  vii:i6;  xi:i4). 

(2)  Paw-loT  ('5f ),  io  judge,  and  then  to  interpose 

as  umpire,  mediator  (Gen.  xx:j\  Deut.  ix:2o;  1 
Sam.  vii  :5;  Job  xlii:8),  with  the  general  sense  of 
prajrer  (Ps.  v:2;  i  Sam.  i:26;  2  Sam.  vii:27,  etc.). 
The  following  Greek  terms  are  rendered  prayer: 
(i)  Deh'ay-sis  (ihtaa),  prayer  for  particular 
benefits. 

(2)  Pros-yoo'kkay'  (xpwFhtxh)*  prayer  in  general, 
not  restricted  as  respects  its  contents. 

(3)  Enfyook-sis  (Irrevfit,  I  Tim.  iv:5),  confiding, 
access  to  God.    (Barnes*  Bib.  Cyc) 

Our  prayer  to  God  lies  in  offering  our  hearty 
requests  to  him,  either  with  or  without  words, 
with  confession  of  our  sins,  and  thankful  ac- 
knowledgment of  his  mercies.  It  is  either  private 
or  public,  and  either  relates  to  the  bestowing  of 
good  things  or  the  preventing  of  evil  things 
(Dan.  ix).  It  is  to  be  made  for  all  sorts  of  men 
living,  but  not  for  the  dead,  whose  state  can- 
not be  changed  (i  Tim.  ii:i,  2).  It  is  to  be  for 
things  agreeable  to  the  will  of  God,  revealed  in 
his  precept  or  promise  (i  John  v:i4).  It  is  to  be 
performed  in  Christ's  name,  with  knowledge, 
faith,  repentance,  sincerity,  fervency,  and  persever- 
ance (Ps.  xvii:i;  lxvi:i9;  Col.  iv:i2;  James  v: 
I5»  16;  I  John  v:i4). 

(2)  Forms  of  Prayer.  If  persons  have  the 
knowledge  of  God  and  themselves,  forms  are  not 
absolutely  necessary,  although  they  may  be  help- 
ful; nor  is  there  any  evidence  of  confinen^nt  to 
forms  of  words  in  prayer  to  be  found  in  Scrip- 
ture. Our  Savior's  pattern  is  not  expressed  m 
the  same  words  in  both  places  where  it  is  found; 
and  where  it  is  most  full,  he  only  requires  us  to 
pray  "after  this  manner"  (Matt,  vi  19-13;  Luke 
xi:2-4). 

The  apostles  may  have  used  it  as  a  form,  in  a 
variety  of  instances  of  their  prayers  mentioned  in 
the  Acts,  or  in  their  epistles,  but  no  specific  use 
of  set  terms  is  mentioned. 

It  is  very  likely,  however,  that  the  prayers  of 
the  first  Christians  were  formed  on  the  model 
of  those  of  the  Jews. 

"The  main  arguments  for  forms  of  prayer  arc 
that  they  have  been  of  almost  universal  use; 
that  they  guide  the  worshipers  without  forcing 
them  to  depend  on  the  moods  of  the  leader ;  where 
they  are  used,  all  know  what  is  to  be  said  and 
done;  they  secure  provision  for  unlearned  minis- 
ters ;  secure  dignity,  decency,  harmony,  and  guard 
against  excessive  show,  arbitrary  freedom,  im- 
proper, absurd,  extravagant,  confused,  and  im- 
pious utterance,  and  against  weariness  and  inat- 
tention; they  unite  the  hearts  and  tongues  of  all 
worshipers,  so  that  they  do  not  worship  by  proxy ; 
they  unite  different  ages  of  the  Church  and  pre- 
serve true  doctrine  and  discipline. 


PRAYER 


1366   PREACH.  PREACHER.  PREACHING 


"Extemporaneous  (though  not  rash  and  un- 
studied) prayer  is  claimed  to  be  more  particular 
than  general  forms  can  be.  It  secures  freedom, 
fervor,  spontaneity,  and  adaptation  to  the  circum-  ^ 
stances;  it  is  less  formal  and  monotonous;  suits 
itself  to  changes  in  language  and  opinion/' 

The  Wending  of  fixed  forms  for  the  worship  of 
the  congregation  with  the  freedom  of  extempo- 
raneous prayer  would  seem  to  be  most  desirable. 

(3)  Nature  of  Prayer.  To  represent  the 
nature  of  prayer,  it  is  called  an  asking  (John  xv: 
i6) ;  a  seeking  and  knocking  (Matt.  vii:7);  a 
lifting  up  of  the  soul,  pouring  out  of  the  heart 
(Ps.  XXV :i;  lxii:8)  ;  a  looking  up  to,  and  talking 
with  God  (Job  xv  .-4 ;  Ps.  v  13)  ;  a  wrestling  with 
God  (Rom.  XV 130);  a  taking  hold  of  God  (Is. 
lxiv:7);  meditation  (Ps.  v:i);  inquiring  (Gen. 
XXV  :22)  ;  crying  ( i  Sam.  vii  :8)  ;  sighing,  mourn- 
ing, groaning,  weeping  (Ps.  vi:6;  xii:5;  lv:2; 
Joel  ii:i7)  ;  breathing  (Lam.  iii:56)  ;  supplication, 
entreaty  (Exod.  viii:8;  Zech.  xii:io). 

(4)  Postures.  Sometimes  prayer  is  expressed 
by  the  postures  used  in  it,  as  standing,  falling 
down  (Deut.  ix:i8);  bowing  the  knee  (Eph. 
iii:i4);  spreading,  stretching  forth,  or  lifting  up 
the  hands  (Exod.  ix:29;  xvii:ii;  Job  xi:i3). 

The  main  thing  is  the  reverential  frame  of 
mind,  which  will  naturally  express  itself  in  one 
form  or  other,  according  to  the  state  of  feeling 
and  the  customs  of  the  age  and  country. 

(5)  Length.  The  length  of  prayer  is  likewise 
unessential.  God  looks  to  the  heart.  Better  few 
words  and  much  devotion  than  many  words 
and  little  devotion  (see  Matt.  vi.7).  The  prayer 
of  the  publican  in  the  temple  (Luke  xviii: 
13),  and  the  petition  of  the  penitent  thief  (Luke 
xxiii:42),  were  very  short  and  very  effective. 

(6)  Saints  in  Prayer.  All  the  great  saints 
of  God  were  fervent  and  mighty  in  prayer — ^Abra- 
ham (Gen.  xx:i7);  Jacob  ((jen.  xxxii:26-3i) ; 
Moses  (Num.  xi:2;  Deut.  ix:i9,  20);  Joshua 
(Josh.  X  :i2)  ;  Samuel  (i  Sam.  xii  :i8)  ;  David  (all 
his  Psalms)  ;  Elijah  (i  Kings  viii  :22;  2  Kings  iv: 
33;  xix:i5;  Jonah  ii:2;  iv:2;  Dan.  vi:io,  sq.; 
jx:3,  sq.,  etc.).  We  find  also  that  wherever  the 
patriarchs  erected  an  altar  for  worship,  they  did 
so  with  the  view  of  calling  upon  the  name  of  the 
Lord  (Gen.  xii:8;  xiii:4;  xxi:33). 

(7)  Example  of  Christ.  Our  Savior  himself 
often  withdrew  into  a  solitary  place  to  pray  (Mark 
1:35;  Luke  v:i6;  Matt.  xiv:23;  xxvi:39). 

(8)  Prayer  at  All  Times  and  in  All  Places. 
St.  Paul  (Eph.  vi:i8;  i  Thess.  v:i7;  i  Tim.  ii:8) 
directs  that  believers  should  pray  in  all  places, 
and  at  all  times,  lifting  up  pure  hands  towards 
heaven,  and  blessing  God  for  all  things,  whether 
(n  eating,  drinking,  or  any  other  action ;  and  that 
everything  be  done  to  the  glory  of  God  (i  Cor. 
x:3i). 

(9)  Objections.  The  objections  to  prayer  pro- 
ceed from  atheistic  and  fatalistic  theories.  Prayer 
Implies  the  existence  of  God  and  the  responsi- 
bility of  man,  and  has  no  meaning  for  those  who 
deny  either.  It  is  more  natural  that  God,  who  is 
infinitely  merciful,  should  answer  the  prayer  of 
his  children  than  that  earthly  parents  should 
grant  the  requests  of  their  children.  (See  Matt. 
vii:ii.)  Yet  our  prayers  were  foreseen  by  him, 
like  all  other  free  acts,  and  included  in  his  eternal 

Elan.  ^  "In  spite  of  all  objections,  men  pray  on  as 
y  universal  instinct.  The  reply  to  the  objections 
is  that  we  pray  to  a  living,  loving  Person,  near 
at  hand,  knowing  our  thoughts,  able  to  control  all 
things—One  who  has  declared  himself  a  hearer 
of  prayer,  and  who  has  made  it  a  condition  on 


which  it  seems  good  to  him  to  put  forth  his  power. 
The  essence  of  belief  in  prayer  is  that  the  divine 
mind  is  accessible  to  supplication,  and  that  the 
divine  will  is  capable  of  being  moved.  Prayer 
depends  on  God's  will,  but  does  not  determine  it 
Man  applies,  God  complies;  man  asks,  God 
grants. 

"Prayer  has  a  subjective  value.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  individual  piety,  produces  solemnity,  en- 
lightens and  quickens  the  conscience,  teaches  de- 
pendence, gives  true  views  of  God,  and  pro- 
duces such  a  change  in  us  as  renders  it  con- 
sistent for  him  to  change  his  course  toward  us. 
In  the  family,  prayer  intensifies  and  exacts  de- 
votion, secures  domestic  order,  strengthens  par- 
ental government,  and  promotes  religion.  And 
objectively  the  Bible  and  (Christian  history  abound 
in  examples  of  answered  prayer."  (SchaflF,  Bib. 
Diet. 

PBAYEB,  H0T7BS  OF  (prdr.  ours  dv). 

Prayer  is  no  more  confined  to  a  particular  hour 
than  to  a  particular  place  (comp.  John  iv:24). 
We  may  pray  anywhere  and  at  all  times,  and 
should  pray  without  ceasing  (i  Thess.  v. -17). 
Nevertheless,  it  is  good  to  observe  special  hours 
of  prayer.  The  Jews  prayed  at  9  a.  m.,  12  m., 
and  3  p.  M.  To  these  were  added  the  beginning 
and  end  of  night  and  the  time  of  meals  (Ps.  Iv: 
17;  Dan.  vino;  Luke  xviii :i;  Acts  iii:i;  x:3,  9, 
30).    <See  Prayer.) 

PBAYEB,  LOBD'S  (prdr.  Idrd's).  See  Lord's 
Prayer. 

PBAYEBS  OF  CHBIST  (pr^rz  dv  krlst). 

There  are  several  prayers  of  Jesus  recorded  in  the 
New  Testament :  the  model  prayer  for  his  disciples 
(Matt.vi:9,  13;  Luke  xi:2-4)  ;  brief  thanksgivings 
(Matt,  xi  :25,  2(5;  John  vi  :ii ;  xi  :4i,  42)  ;  the  peti- 
tion in  Gethsemane  (Matt.  xxvi:39) ;  compare  the 
similar  petition  (John  xvii:i,  2);  and  the  ex- 
clamations on  the  cross,  "Father,  forgive  them," 
"Eli,  Eli,"  "Father,  into  thy  hands."  The  Lord's 
Prayer,  so-called,  is  intended  for  his  disciples, 
who  need  often  to  pray  for  the  forgiveness  of 
their  sins. 

FBEACH,   PBEACHEB,   FBEACHING 

(prech,  prech'er,  prgch'ing).  By  preaching  is  gen- 
erally understood  the  delivering  of  a  religious 
discourse  based  upon  a  text  of  Scripture. 

.1.    Scripture  Berms. 

1.  Baw'sar'  (Heb.  "^iP?,  to  be  cheerful,  joyfui, 
Ps.  xl:9;  Is.  lxi:i). 

2.  Kaw-raw'  (Heb.  ^7i?»  to  call  out,  to  pro- 
claim, Neh.  vi:/;  viii:8;  comp.  Jonah  iii:2). 

8.  Ko'fiek'leth  (Heb.  ^?dp,  an  assembler. 
Eccles.  1:2). 

4.  Ang'gheV lo  (Gr.  d77AXw,  to  announce),  in 
several  combinations,  as :  fi)a77eX/^  {yoo-ang-ghel- 
id 20^  to  announce  good  tidings,  evangelize.  Matt- 
xi:5;  Luke  vii:22;  Heb.  iv:2,  6). 

In  general  "to  preach,"  is  loudly  to  proclaim  the 
will  of  (jod,  as  his  appointed  heralds  (Eph.  iii: 
8).  The  gospel  "is  preached  to  the  dead,"  etc., 
to  mortal  men,  that  they,  through  the  power  of 
God  attending  it,  may,  by  the  quickening  influ- 
ence of  the  Holy  Ghost,  live  conformably  to  the 
image  and  will  of  God,  in  fellowship  with  him, 
and  to  his  glory  (i  Pet.  iv:6). 

2.  Old  Testament  Preachers.    In  the  Old 

Testament  Enoch  prophesied  (Jude  14,  15).  We 
have  a  very  short  account  of  this  prophet  and 
his  doctrine;  enough,  however,  to  convince  us 
that  he  taught  the  principal  truths  of  natural  and 


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1367 


PREDESTINATION 


revealed  religion.  Conviction  of  sin  was  in  his 
doctrine,  and  communion  with  God  was  exempli- 
fied in  his  conduct  (Gen.  v:24;  Heb.  xi:5,  6). 
From  the  days  of  Enoch  to  the  time  of  Moses, 
each  patriarch  worshiped  God  with  his  family; 
probably  several  assembled  at  new  moons,  and 
alternately  instructed  the  whole  company. — Noah, 
it  is  said,  was  a  preacher  of  righteousness  (2  Pet. 
ii:5;  i  Pet.  iiiiiQ,  20).  Abraham  commanded 
his  household  after  him  to  keep  the  way  of 
the  Lord,  and  to  do  justice  and  judgment 
(Gen.  xviiiiig);  and  Jacob,  when  his  house 
lapsed  to  idolatry,  remonstrated  against  it,  and 
exhorted  them  and  all  that  were  with  him  to  put 
away  strange  gods,  and  go  up '  with  him  to 
Bethel  (Gen.  x;  xxv:2,  3).  Melchisedek,  also 
we  may  consider  as  the  father,  the  prince,  and 
the  priest  of  his  people,  publishing  the  glad  tidings 
of  peace  and  salvation  (Gen.  xviii;  Heb.  vii). 

Moses  was  a  most  eminent  prophet  and 
preacher,  raised  up  by  the  authority  of  God,  and 
by  whom,  it  is  said,  came  the  law  (John  i:i7). 
This  great  man  had  much  at  heart  the  promulga- 
tion of  his  doctrine ;  he  directed  it  to  be  inscribed 
on  pillars,  to  be  transcribed  in  books,  and  to  be 
taught  both  in  public  and  private  by  word  of 
mouth  (Deut.xi :  19;  viig;  xxxiiig;  xvii:i8;  Num. 
v:23;  Deut.  ivrp).  He  himself  set  the  example 
of  each;  and  how  he  and  Aaron  sermonized,  we 
may  see  by  several  parts  of  his  writings.  The 
first  discourse  was  heard  with  profound  reverence 
and  attention ;  the  last  was  both  uttered  and  re* 
ceived  in  raptures  (Exod.  iv:3i;  Deut.  xxxiii:7, 
8).  Public  preaching  does  not  appear  under  this 
economy  to  have  been  attached  to  the  priesthood : 
priests  were  not  officially  preachers ;  and  we  have 
innumerable  instances  of  discourses  delivered  in 
religious  assemblies  by  men  of  other  tribes  besides 
that  of  Levi  (Ps.  lxviii:ii).  Joshua  was  an  Eph- 
raimite ;  but  being  full  of  the  spirit  of  wisdom,  "he 
gathered  the  tribes  of  Shechem,  and  harangued  tho 
people  of  God  (Deut.  xxxiv:9;  Joshua  xxiv). 
Solomon  was  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Judah, 
Amos  a  herdsman  of  Tekoa;  yet  both  were 
preachers,  and  one  at  least  was  a  prophet  (i 
Kings  ii;  Amos  vii:i4,  15).  Shemaiah  preached 
to  Rehoboam,  etc.  (2  (Thron.  xii:5).  Azariah  and 
Hanani  preached  to  Asa  and  his  army  (2  Chron. 
XV :  I,  sq.;  xvi:7.  Solomon,  or  the  writer  of  Ec- 
clesiastes,  is  called  a  "preacher,"  as  being  one 
qualified  and  appointed  to  expound  and  enforce 
divine  truth  (Eccl.  in;  xii:io). 

3.  yeW  Testament  Examples.  Our  Lord  im- 
proved the  opportunities  afforded  him  by  the 
synagogue  discourses  to  set  forth  the  kingdom. 
(See  Synagogue.)  The  apostles  were  preach- 
ers. So  was  Apollos,  Timothy,  Titus,  and  others 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.  A  preacher's 
life,  too,  must  be  correspondent  with  his  instruc- 
tions, otherwise  he  becomes  guilty  of  attempting 
to  make  his  hearers  believe  that  all  he  says  is  but 
a  "cunningly-devised  fable;"  nor  can  he  deserve 
the  name  of  a  preacher,  who  does  not,  by  frequent 
and  effectual  fervent  prayer,  cry  for  the  blessing 
of  God  on  his  labors;  for  "Paul  may  plant,  and 
Apollos  may  water,  but  it  is  God  alone  that 
giveth  the  increase"  (i  Cor.  iii:7).  Since  the  full 
establishment  of  the  Christian  Church  preaching 
has  been  regarded  as  a  sacred  profession,  and  has, 
for  the  most  part,  been  confined  to  an  appointed 
and  specially  trained  order  of  men. 

FBECEFT  (prg'sgpt),  (Heb.  '"^JVP,  mitS'Vaw\ 
command,  divine  or  human;  "^'^P?,  fiik-kooct,  ap- 
pointed, I.  ^.,  mandate;  ^^,  tsav^  or  ''V,  tsawv,  in- 


junction; Gr.  irrokii,  en-toi-ay\  injunction),  a  direc- 
tion, command,  rule  enjoined  by  a  superior. 

PBEOIOTJS  (prSsh'iis). 

1.  Khaw-mad'  (Heb.  "^^'?,  to  delight  in),  ex- 

f>ressive  of  that  which  is  pleasant  and  desirable 
Dan.  xi:8).    In  Gen.  xxvii:i5;  2  Chron.  xxxvi:io  it 
IS  rendered  goodly. 

2.  Khane  (Heb.  W,  grace,  beauty,  Prov.  xvii:8). 

8.  Yaw'kar*  (Heb.  ^K,  to  be  heavy,  costly;  in- 
dicative of  that  which  is  highly  esteemed,  1  Sam. 
xxvi:2i;  2  Kings  i  113,  14;  Ps.  Ixxii:i4;  cxxxix:i7). 

4.  Tobe  (Heb.  3i^),  is  used  in  the  broad  sense  of 
good,  both  in  feeling  and  action,  as  joyful,  pleas- 
ant, gracious,  upright,  etc. 

5.  Meh'ghed   (Heb.  "^9)    or    mig-daw-naw* 

(•"l^^??),  expresses  what  is  excellent   in  nature, 

as  the  dew,  the  rain,  the  fruits  of  the  field,  etc 
(Deut.  xxxiii:i3;  i  Sam.  iii:i;  comp.  Cant.iv:i6). 

6.  Tee-may'  (Gr.  Tt/*iJ,  value,  price),  in  various 
forms,  as:  pap&rtfwt  {bar-oo' tim-os),  disposing  at  a 
high  price  (Matt.  xxvi:7);  Ivri/xof  (en' tee-mos),  held 
in  nigh  esteem,  (i  Pet.  ii;4);  lff6rtfu>s  (ee-sot'ee-mos)^ 
"like  precious,"  /.  e.,  equally  efficient,  faith  (2  Pet. 
i:i  only);  rliuot  {tim'ee-os,  valuable)  is  used  to  de- 
note costliness,  value,  ^.j^.,  "precious  stones"  (i 
Cor.  iii:i2,  R.  V.  "costly"),  fruit  of  the  earth 
(James  v:/),  faith  (i  Pet.  1:7),  blood  of  Christ  (v:i9 
and  ii  7).    (McC.  &  Str.  and  Barnes'  Bib,  Diet), 

PBECIOUS  STOKES  (pr^sh'iis  st5ns).  See 
Amethyst;  Ruby;  Sapphire;  etc. 

PREDESTINATION  (pre-des'tl-na-shiin).  No 
doctrine  of  the  Bible  has  been  a  more  fruitful 
theme  of  controversy  than  that  of  Predestina- 
tion. The  fiercest  and  most  relentless  battles  of 
polemics  have  been  waged  in  defense  of  the  ten- 
ets of  those  holding  opposite  views.  Dr.  McClin- 
tock  says,  "The  word  election  in  the  Scriptures  has 
three  distinct  applications:  (i)  To  the  divine 
choice  of  nations  or  communities  for  the  posses- 
sion of  such  privileges  with  reference  to  the  per- 
formance of  special  services.  Thus  the  Jews 
were  a  'chosen  nation,*  *the  elect.*  (2)  The  di- 
vine choice  of  individuals  to  a  particular  office 
or  work.  Thus  Cyrus  was  elected  of  God  to 
bring  about  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple.  (3) 
The  divine  choice  of  individuals  to  be  the  chil- 
dren of  (jod  and  therefore  heirs  of  heaven.** 

Inasmuch  as  a  statement  of  this  doctrine,  satis- 
factory to  those  holding  to  the  various  teachings 
on  this  subject,  cannot  be  consistently  made, 
separate  articles  fairly  covering  the  Calvinistic 
and  Arminian  views  will  be  found  below. 

i.  Predestination  as  Taught  in  the  Con' 
fession  of  Faith  of  the  Presbpterian 
Church,  The  statement  of  the  doctrine  of  Predes- 
tination belongs  rightly  to  the  Confession  A  Faith. 
The  defense  of  the  doctrine  must  be  found  in  the 
Word  of  God.  Unless  the  truth  is  to  be  found 
there,  any  attempted  defense  will  be  wholly  use- 
less. But  if  the  doctrine  be  established  by  the 
Word  no  other  argument  is  needed. 

(1)  The  Confession  of  Faith.  The  doctrine 
is  stated  in  chapter  iii,  of  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession and  is:  "God  from  all  eternity  did  by 
the  most  wise  and  holy  counsel  of  his  own  will, 
freely,  and  unchangeably  ordain  whatsoever  conies 
to  pass."  The  doctrine  thus  stated  is  guarded  by 
certain  declarations  which  go  with  it,  and  are 
professed  on  the  same  authority  as  the  doctrine 
itself.  These  guarding  statements  are,  (i)  "God 
is  not  the  author  of  sin.**  (2)  "Violence  is  not 
offered  to  the  will  of  the  creature,  nor  is  the 


PREDESTINATION 


1368 


PREDESTINATION 


liberty  or  contingency  of  second  causes  taken 
away  but  rather  established."  Many  passages 
from  different  parts  of  the  Bible  arc  brought  for- 
ward in  proof  of  the  doctrine,  as  Ephesians  i:ii. 
"In  whom  also  we  have  obtained  an  inheritance, 
being  predestinated  according  to  the  purpose  of 
him  who  worketh  all  things  after  the  counsel 
of  his  own  will:"  The  decree  of  God,  in  rela- 
tion to  angels  and  men,  is  considered  in  different 
articles  of  the  same  general  chapter.  For  fallen 
angels  no  redemption  has  been  provided  and  to 
them  no  Savior  is  offered.  "The  angels  which 
kept  not  their  first  estate,  but  left  their  own  habi- 
tation he  hath  reserved  in  everlasting  chains,  un- 
der darkness,  unto  the  judgment  of  the  gfreat 
day.''  God  magnifies  his  justice,  and  judgment, 
in  their  everlasting  condemnation. 

(2)  Scripture  Teachings.  The  proof  of  the 
predestination  of  the  redeemed  to  glory  is  be- 
lieved to  be  found  in  Ephesians  i:4,  "According 
as  he  hath  chosen  us  in  him,  before  the  founda- 
tion of  the  world,  that  we  should  be  holy  and 
without  blame  before  him  in  love,  having  pre- 
destinated us  unto  the  adoption  of  children,  by 
Jesus  Christ  to  himself,  according  to  the  good 
pleasure  of  his  will." 

As  the  elect  have  been  appointed  to  glory  so 
hath  he  by  the  eternal  and  most  free  purpose  of 
his  will  foreordained  all  the  means  thereunto.  God 
is  wholly  free  and  sovereign  in  predestination, 
magnifying  his  grace,  goodness  and  justice.  Men 
love  God  because  they  were  first  loved  by  him. 
They  will  be  saved  only  in  the  way  that  he  has 
appointed.  2  Thess.  ii:i3,  "God  hath  from  the 
beginning  chosen  you  to  salvation  through  sanc- 
tification  of  the  Spirit  and  belief  of  the  truth." 

The  part  of  Predestination  which  has  respect  to 
the  lost  is  generally  called  Reprobation.  The 
Confession  deals  with  it  thus :  "The  rest  of  man- 
kind, God  was  pleased  according  to  the  unsearch- 
able counsel  of  his  own  will,  whereby  he  extend- 
eth  or  withholdeth  mercy  as  he  pleaseth,  for  the 
glory  of  his  sovereign  power  over  his  creatures, 
to  pass  by,  and  to  ordain  them  to  dishonor  and 
wrath  for  their  sin,  to  the  praise  of  his  glorious 
justice."  It  is  here  that  the  severest  battles  have 
been  fought.  This  doctrine  is  upheld  by  the  ad- 
vocates of  it  in  the  use  of  such  Scriptures  as 
Matthew  xi:2S,  26,  "I  thank  thee  O  Father,  Lord 
of  heaven  and  earth,  because  thou  hast  hid  these 
things  from  the  wise  and  prudent  and  hast  re- 
vealed them  unto  babes.  Even  so  Father,  for  so 
it  seemed  good  in  thy  sight;"  and  Romans  ix: 
17-22,  "For  the  Scripture  saith  unto  Pharaoh, 
even  for  this  same  purpose  have  I  raised  thee  up, 
that  I  might  show  my  power  in  thee  and  that 
my  name  might  be  declared  throughout  all  the 
earth.  Therefore  hath  he  mercy  on  whom  he  will 
have  mercy,  and  whom/  he  will  he  hardeneth. 
Thou  wilt  say  then  unto  me.  Why  doth  he  yet 
find  fault,  for  who  hath  resisted  his  will?  Nay, 
but  O  man,  who  art  thou  that  repliest  against 
God?  Shall  the  thing  formed  say  to  him  that 
formed  it  why  hast  thou  made  me  thus?  Hath 
not  the  potter  power  over  the  clay  of  the  same 
lump  to  make  one  vessel  unto  honor  and  another 
unto  dishonor?  What  if  God  willing  to  show, 
and  to  make  his  power  known,  endured  with 
much  long  suffering  the  vessels  of  wrath  fitted 
to  destruction,  and  that  he  might  make  known 
the  riches  of  his  glory  on  the  vessels  of  mercy 
which  he  had  afore  prepared  unto  glory."  In 
I  Peter  ii:^  referring  to  those  who  rejected  Je- 
sus, the  Spirit  adds,  "whereunto  also  they  were 
appointed. 


The  Confession  makes  no  attempt  to  reconcile 
God's  sovereignly  with  man's  free  agency,  yet 
both  doctrines  are  emphatically  stated.  In  Ro- 
mans ix:ii,  it  is  said  "That  the  purpose  of  God, 
according  to  election  might  stand,  it  was  said 
unto  her  the  elder  shall  serve  the  younger." 

(8)  Summary.  The  foreknowledge  of  God 
implies  predetermination.  Nothing  can  be  pos- 
sibly known,  unless  it  is  fixed,  or  determined. 
But  who  is  it  that  predetermines,  unless  it  be 
God? 

At  the  time  the  Confession  was  framed  there 
was  emphasis  laid  on  God's  sovereignty.  In  later 
times  there  has  been  emphasis  laid  on  the  free 
agency  of  man.  Attempts  at  revision  of  the  Con- 
fession are  now  being  made,  to  do  away  with 
misunderstandings  and  to  end  bitter  controver- 
sies. How  far  these  efforts  will  succeed  cannot 
now  be  determined  by  any  of  us.         W.  T.  M. 

2.  Arminians  Maintain  the  Following:  (1) 
Predestination  or  Election  is  not  Arbitrary  or 

absolute,  but  dependent  upon  the  foreknowledge 
of  God.  "Whom  he  did  foreknow,  them  did  he 
also  predestinate  to  be  conformed  to  the  image  of 
His  Son,  that  he  might  be  the  firstborn  among 
many  brethren."  The  passage  is  to  be  read  for- 
wards, and  not  backwards.  Arminius  denied  nei- 
ther the  omnipotence  of  God  nor  his  free  grace; 
but  he  maintained  that  the  honor  of  God  was  im- 
peached by  the  doctrine  of  decrees.  He  strove, 
therefore,  to  establish  the  free-will  of  man  and 
the  reality  of  individual  guilt. 

(2)  The  Atonement  Is  Not  Limited.  It  is 
available  for  all,  even  though  not  applied  to  all. 
A  restricted  atonement  is  logically  involved  in 
the  notion  of  "a  definite  number  which  can 
neither  be  increased  nor  diminished."  Christ  cer- 
tainly could  not  die  for  those  whom  God  intended 
from  all  eternity  to  damn,  or  at  any  rate,  not 
to  save. 

(8)  All  Are  Sought  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  The 
Holy  Spirit  operates  in  man  that  he  may  have  a 
good  will.  Without  this  aid,  he  is  unable  to  be- 
lieve or  do  that  which  pleases  God,  but  this 
aid  is  offered  to  all  and  urged  upon  all.  And 
no  one  has  been  rendered  by  a  divine  decree  im- 
potent to  receive  it.  Total  inability,  a  divinely 
created  total  inability  to  accept  grace  is  denied  by 
Arminians. 

(4)  Salvation  of  Free  Will.  Grace  although 
indispensable  is  not  compulsory.  Christ  stands 
at  the  door  and  knocks.  He  breaks  into  no  man's 
soul  either  violently  or  by  stealth.  Augustine 
taught  that  grace  was  irresistible ;  so  did  Calvin 
and  his  followers.  The  Dutch  demonstrants  in- 
sisted that  this  involved  coercion;  to  which  their 
antagonists  replied  that  the  mode  of  this  opera- 
tion was  inscrutable.  To  say,  however,  that  an 
operation  is  irresistible  is  to  describe  the  mode 
of  it.  A  frequent  device  of  theologians  when  two 
propositions  are  seen  to  be  incompatible  is  to  term 
this  incompatibility  inscrutable. 

(5)  Final  Perseverance  of  Saints  Questioned. 
Arminians,  consequently,  regard  the  final  perse- 
verance of  all  believers  as  doubtful.  If  grace  is 
not  irresistible,  there  may  be,  of  course,  degrees 
of  faith.  Nevertheless  faith  may  become  so  pow- 
erful through  grace,  as  to  make  the  believers  per- 
fect in  this  life.  Wesley's  Arminianism  differed 
from  that  of  Holland  in  two  respects:  (i)  It 
was  never  involved  in  the  fortunes  of  a  political 
party.  Oldenbarnveld  and  Grotius,  the  Dutch 
leaders,  identified  their  creed  with  their  policy. 
Again,  (2)  it  was  a  religious  rather  than  an 
ethical  doctrine.    Wesley  desired  life.    This  he 


PREFER 


1369 


PRESBYTER 


saw  must  come  from  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  be  con- 
tinued by  him.  Hence  Luther's  views  of  assur- 
ance and  of  a  union  with  the  Living  Christ  were 
constantly  proclaimed  by  the  Wesleys  in  sermon 
and  in  hymn.  Christian  perfection  was  the  re- 
sult of  this  union;  a  result  which  might  be  has- 
tened through  intenser  faith.  Wesley's  blending 
of  Luther's  earliest  views  with  the  doctrine  of 
iree-will  is  frequently  decried  as  illogical.  But  it 
is  certainly  not  more  illogical  than  Calvin's  ascrib- 
ing a  "horrible  decree"  to  a  loving  God,  or  than 
the  declaration  at  Dort,  that  the  Atonement  of 
Christ  had  "value"  for  those  who  could  not  pos- 
sibly be  included  in  its  "infinite"  benefits;  the 
other  declaration,  that  grace  could  be  "irresisti- 
ble" without  "coercing"  the  will,  Calvinistic  writ- 
ers are  prone  to  assert  as  a  logical  perfection 
for  their  system  which  is  by  no  means  demon- 
strable. 
(6)  Arminlanism   and   Aug^ustinlsm.      Ar- 

minianism  does  not  differ  from  Augustinism  in 
affirming  the  possibility  of  a  free  will.  For  Au- 
gustine accorded  this  to  Adam,  although  he  de- 
nied it  finally  to  Adam's  posterity.  Nor  does  it 
differ  from  certain  forms  of  Calvinism  in  assert- 
ing the  existence  of  a  human  will.  And  yet  here 
lies  its  only  and  its  fundamental  difficulty.  Au- 
gustinism and  Calvinism  have  numerous  perplex- 
ities from  which  Arminianism  is  entirely  free, 
while  sharing  with  it  this  great  problem.  When, 
however,  the  freedom  of  the  will  is  denied,  as  it 
is  sometimes,  in  Calvinistic  expositions,  then 
sach  ideas  as  guilt,  sin,  responsibility,  blame,  be- 
come mere  superstitions:  terrible  as  ghosts  and 
evil  spirits  to  those  that  hold  them,  but  delusions 
nevertheless.  For  them  the  proper  thing  to  say 
is  this:  Human  creatures  are  defective.  Suffer- 
ing is  never  meant  as  punishment ;  it  is  the  glar- 
ing imperfection  of  creation.  The  potter  may  de- 
plore and  destroy  his  work;  but  blame  it  justly, 
never.  Its  defects  are  due  to  the  clay,  the  wheel 
or  the  potter.  To  all  three  perhaps,  unless  the 
potter  made  both  clay  and  wheel;  in  that  case  to 
him  only.  The  worship  of  Calvinism  as  "the  log- 
ical system"  seems  to  the  reasoning  Arminian  the 
survival  of  an  idolatry.  For  it  unites  in  the  same 
system  ideas  that  are  utterly  incompatible;  as  for 
instance,  divine  goodness  with  "a  horrible  decree," 
individual  guilt  with  total  inability  to  do  right, 
personal  righteousness  with  compulsory  holiness, 
a  merited  eternity  of  suffering  with  an  irresistible 
decree  of  damnation,  an  enduring  mercy  with  a 
decree  "to  pass  over,"  or  in  plain  words,  with 
an  obdurate  purpose  not  to  save  a  multitude  eas- 
ily within  reach  of  the  almighty  arm.    C.  J.  L. 

PBEFEB  (pr*-fer'),  (Heb.  ^i^,  shawnaw'. 
Esth.  11:9),  to  promote  a  person,  to  honor. 

PBEPABATION  (prSp'-d-ra'shfin),  (Gr.  irapeurir- 
€wi^,  far-ask-yoo-ay' ,  a  making  ready),  is  the  term 
usea  for  Friday,  because  on  that  day  preparation 
was  made  and  meals  cooked  for  the  saobath. 

It  might  be  rendered  "fore-Sabbath"  (comp. 
the  Greek  in  Mark  xv:42)  or  "Sabbath-eve" 
(comp.  the  German  Sonnabend  for  "Saturday") 
(Matt.  xxvii:62;  Mark  xv:42;  Ltike  xxlii:54; 
John  xix:i4,  31,  42). 

The  "preparation  of  the  Passover,"  in  John 
xix:i4j  means  the  Paschal  Friday,  or  the  Friday 
occurrmg  during  the  week  of  the  Passover  (as 
in  verses  31  and  42).  On  that  Friday  (the  15th 
of  Nisan)  Christ  was  crucified. 


(prSz'M-ter),    (Gr.    wp€ffp&r€pas, 

Pres-boo'ter-os),  usually  occurs  in  the  plural  and  is 
universally  translated  "elders"  throughout  the 
New  Testament. 


(1)  Sig^niflcance.  Its  primary  signification  is 
"advanced  in  life,"  "older  than  others/'  a  "senior." 
Originally  therefore  the  word  indicates  age,  but  it 
came  to  be  used  as  a  term  of  rank  or  office.    The 

Hebrew  word  zaw-kane,  1i?i,  which  is  trans- 
lated j^r^j6iif^roj  in  the  Septuagint,  and  elders  in 
our  English  text,  had  an  official  signification, 
certainly  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Moses  (Num. 
xi:i6).  There  is  no  historical  fact  better  estab- 
lished than  that  the  elders  or  presbyters  were  an 
official  class  among  the  Jews.  Luke  calls  the  g^eat 
council,  "the  assembly  of  the  elders  of  the  peo- 
ple" (Luke  xxii:66).  Wherever  there  was  a 
synagogue  of  any  importance  there  was  a  bench 
of  elders — a  kind  of  local  sanhedrim  who  were 
rulers  over  these  religious  assemblies.  The  serv- 
ices of  these  synagogues  were  the  reading  of 
Scripture,  prayer  and  praise,  homily  and  benedic- 
tion— virtually  identical  with  the  services  of  the 
Christian  churches  which  succeeded  them,  indeed 
the  earliest  Christian  congregations  were  for 
some  time  known  as  Christian  synagogues. 

(2)  Early  Organization.  When  the  disciples 
multiplied,  new  organizations  became  necessary 
and  it  was  niost  natural  that  the  apostles  should 
transfer  and  adopt  the  office  of  rule  with  which 
they  were  familiar,  just  as  they  transferred  and 
continued  the  worship  with  which  they  were 
familiar,  adding  of  course  the  new  truth  concern- 
ing Christ,  and  the  Lord's  Supper  that  embodied 
it.  So  in  "The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,"  the  inspired 
and  only  reliable  history  of  this  early  period — 
when  the  Jews  are  the  subject  of  history,  we 
read  of  "the  elders  and  scribes,"  of  "the  chief 
priests  and  elders,"  of  "stirring  up  the  elders," 
etc.  But  in  the  same  inspired  history,  in  the  im- 
mediate connection,  when  the  Christian  Church  is 
the  subject  of  history,  we  read  of  "ordaining 
elders  in  every  church,"  of  "the  apostles  and 
elders,"  and  of  "the  elders  of  the  church." 

Paul,  in  his  first  inspired  epistle  (i  Thess. 
v:i2)  makes  it  clear  that  over  and  above  the 
apostles,  there  were  authorized  officers  of  rule  in 
the  early  Church.  (See  also  Rom.  xii:8;  Heb. 
xiii:7-i7).  Those  ruling  were  "set  over  the 
Church  in  the  Lord;"  they  were  enjoined  to  "rule 
with  diligence ;"  and  the  members  of  the  churches 
were  commanded  to  "remember,"  and  "obey,"  and 
"submit  to"  those  who  "had  the  rule  over  them." 

These  rulers,  exercising  government  in  the  early 
(Hiurch  by  clear  apostolic  warrant  were  presbyters, 
presbutcroi  or  elders  (i  Tim.  v:  17-35).  Paul,  in 
his  letter  to  Timothy  is  not  writing  of  a  par- 
ticular church,  but  of  church  government  in  gen- 
eral. He  is  not  speaking  of  the  elders  of  a  par- 
ticular church,  but  of  elders  in  general,  and  he 
refers  to  them  as  men  that  rule,  and  counts  those 
"worthy  of  double  honor"  that  "rule  well."  At 
Miletus  Paul  charges  the  elders  of  the  Ephesian 
Church  to  "take  heed  to  all  the  flock  in  which  the 
Holy  Ghost  has  made  them  overseers" — ^a  clear 
reference  to  an  office  of  rule. 

(3)  Origin  of  Office.  That  no  New  Testa- 
ment account  is  given  of  the  origin  or  institu- 
tion of  this  office  of  eldership  is  not  strange,  for 
the  office  was  no  novelty.  "Elder,"  presbuteros, 
in  its  official  sense  was  a  familiar  household  word 
with  these  early  disciples.  It  did  not  need  to  be 
created.  As  Jews  they  had  been  accustomed  to 
ruling  elders,  or  presbyters  in  their  religious  as- 
semblies, I.  e.  they  "ordained  elders  in  every 
church." 

(4)  Elders  and  Bishops  Identical.  A  fur- 
ther fact  is  disclosed  in  the  inspired  record  of  the 
early  church,  viz.,  that  elders  and  bishops  were 


PRESBYTERY 


1370 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 


identical.  Bishops  and  presbyters  or  elders  are 
often  mentioned  in  Scripture,  byt  never  together; 
if  they  were  distinct  officers,  that  they  were  never 
named  together  would  be  well  nigh  incredible. 
The  supposition  of  the  identity  of  bishops  and 
elders  suits  the  whole  situation,  accounts  for  the 
silences  and  the  utterances,  and  makes  a  strong 
case  of  probability. 

But  we  are  not  left  to  probability.  Paul  charges 
Titus  to  ordain  presbyters  in  every  city,  and  says 
they  should  be  "without  reproach"  in  life  and 
character,  "for,"  he  adds,  "the  bishops  must  be 
blameless  as  God's  stewards"  (Titus  1:5-7)- 

Again,  Peter  exhorts  the  elders  to  "tend  the 
flock  of  God,  exercising  the  oversight"  (i  Pet. 
v:i-2).  But  "the  oversight"  is  the  bishopric, 
episcopontes,  is  the  word  pointing  unmistakably 
to  a  bishop's  functions.  Again  Paul  charees  the 
Ephesian  elders  to  "take  heed  to  all  the  flock  in 
which  the  Holy  Ghost  made  them  bishops."  The 
two  terms  apply  to  the  same  persons,  presbyters 
and  bishops  are  identical. 

There  was  a  plurality  of  elders  in  every  church. 
Titus  was  charged  to  "ordain  elders  in  every 
city."  We  read  of  "the  elders  of  the  Church  at 
Ephesus  (Acts  xx:i7),  and  the  elders  of  the 
church  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv:4).  and  of  the 
bishops  of  the  church  at  Philippi  (Phil.  i:i). 

Paul  and  Barnabas  on  returning  from  their 
first  missionary  journey  were  "appointing  elders 
in  every  church"  (Acts  xiv:23).  These  were  not 
diocesan  charges,  each  extending  over  wide  areas, 
but  individual  churches,  in  some  cases  infant 
missionary  churches,  and  over  each  a  plurality 
of  bishops  were  ordained. 

(5)  Functions  of  tiie  Presbyters.  The  func- 
tions of  the  presbyters  or  elders  were  varied. 
They  were  to  exercise  the  functions  of  govern- 
ment (Heb.  xiii:7-i7;  Rom.  xii:8;  Acts  xx:28). 
But  over  and  above  this  function  of  rule,  they 
were  to  "take  heed  to  the  flock,"  "to  feed  the 
Church  of  God"  (Acts  xx:28),  to  "watch  for 
souls,"  "speak  the  Word  of  God"  (Heb.  xiii:7- 
17),  and  "to  labor  in  the  Word  and  in  teaching" 
(i  Tim.  v:i7).  in  short  they  were  to  exercise 
every  function  of  spiritual  oversight :  Tpesp&repos, 
Pres-buter-os^  indicated  dignity,  character;  hei^' 
KOTOS,  eP'is' kop'Os,  indicated  authority,  oversight; 
but  the  terms  were  used  interchangeably  for  the 
same  office. 

The  presbyters,  or  elders,  or  bishops  were  of 
equal  rank,  having  a  just  and  true  parity.  In 
New  Testament  teaching  there  is  no  trace  of  of- 
ficial disparity. 

(6)  Early  Distinctions.  Unquestionably  a  dis- 
tinction was  early  made  between  elders.  The 
ever-growing  need  of  the  church  for  a  distinctly 
qualified  and  recognized  body  of  teachers  who 
should  give  themselves  wholly  to  "laboring  in 
the  Word,"  soon  led  to  this  distinction.  But 
at  the  first  it  was  simply  a  distinction  of  gifts 
and  qualifications  and  not  of  office  and  appoint- 
ment (i  Tim.  v:i7). 

(7)  Method  of  Choosing.  There  is  no  dis- 
tinct New  Testament  record  of  the  method  by 
which  these  presbyters  were  chosen  to  official 
place.  But  as  the  elders  of  the  synagogues  were 
chosen  by  the  people,  and  as  the  apostles  them- 
selves directed  the  Church  at  Jerusalem  to  choose 
seven  men  for  another  spiritual  office  whom  they 
(the  apostles)  might  appoint  over  the  business, 
it  is  fair  to  infer  that  the  presbyters  were  first 
chosen  by  the  church,  and  then  officially  appointed 
and  set  apart  by  the  apostles.  H.  J. 

FBESBYTEBY.  An  assembly  of  presbyters. 
Timothy  was  set  apart  by  the  laying  on  of  hands 


of  the  presbytery  (i  Tim.  iv:i4),  doubtless  this 
was  simply  a  local  bench  of  elders,  resident  in 
the  town  or  vicinity. 

FBESBYTEBIAN  CHX7BCH  (prgz-bT-te-rr 
an).  A  church  whose  government  is  by  elders  or 
presbyters,  as  representatives  of  the  people.  This 
is  the  first  and  fundamental  feature  of  Presby- 
terianism.  Two  other  features  mark  the  Presby- 
terian form  of  church  government,  viz.,  the  parity 
of  all  her  officers  of  rule  and  the  unity  of  the 
church.  These  three  are  regarded  as  essential 
to  the  integrity  of  her  governmental  system. 

The  first  is  based  upon  the  right  of  the  people 
to  a  substantial  part  m  the  determination  of  all 
questions  of  doctrine,  discipline,  order  and  wor- 
ship. 

The  second  is  based  upon  the  New  Testament 
parity  of  all  officers  of  rule  in  the  early  church, 
and  the  third  is  based  upon  the  oneness  of  the 
body  of  Christ,  which  unity  is  made  visible  by 
the  Presbyterian  system  of  graded  church  courts, 
passing  from  the  local  session  to  the  Presbytery, 
and  thence  to  the  Synod,  and  thence  to  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  in  which  latter  body  the  entire 
church  is  represented.  (See  Elder;  Episcopacy; 
Bishop;  Ordination.)  H.  J. 

FBESBYTEBIAN  CHX7B0H  IN  THE  UNI- 
TED STATES. 

In  dealing  with  the  history  of  the  Presbyterian 
Churches  in  America,  it  will  be  helpful  to  note 
first,  the  constituent  principles  of  the  Presbyterian 
system  of  theology,  worship  and  government,  the 
relation  of  these  principles  to  the  formation  of 
the  American  Republic,  and  the  several  Churches 
which  are  the  exponents  of  the  system. 

(1)  The  Presbyterian  System.  The  doctrine 
of  the  divine  sovereignty  is  the  controlling  idea  of 
the  Presbyterian  System.  By  this  is  meant  the 
absolute  control  of  the  universe,  with  all  that 
it  has  contained,  does  and  will  contain,  whether 
visible  things  or  invisible  things  by  the  one  su- 
preme, omniscient,  omnipresent  and  omnipotent 
Spirit,  for  wise,  just,  holy  and  loving  ends.  This 
sovereignty,  however,  does  not  make  God  "the 
author  of  sin,  neither  is  violence  offered  to  the 
will  of  the  creatures,  nor  is  the  liberty  or  con- 
tingency of  second  causes  taken  away,  but  rather 
established." — Westminster  Confession,  Chapter 
III,  Section  i. 

The  divine  sovereignty  finds  expression  in  the 
Presbyterian  System  in  the  statement  of  cer- 
tain great  principles,  four  of  the  most  important 
of  which  are  as  follows :  (a)  The  sovereignty  of 
the  Word  of  God  over  creed  and  life.  Neither 
the  human  reason  nor  the  Church  have  been 
vested  with  power  to  dictate  to  men  either  what 
they  are  to  believe  or  how  they  are  to  act;  this 
high  prerogative  belongs  alone  to  God,  and  his 
will  in  all  essential  matters  of  belief  and  practice 
is  contained  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  in  them 
alone,  (b)  The  sovereignty  of  God  in  salvation ; 
salvation  is  not  of  works  but  of  grace;  it  is  not 
through  character  but  by  faith.  Faith  is  the  root 
of  character,  and  works  are  the  outcome  of  grpcc. 
"The  principal  acts  of  saving  faith  are  accepting, 
receiving,  and  resting  upon  Christ  alone  for  justi- 
fication, sanctification,  and  eternal  life,  by  virtue 
of  the  covenant  of  grace." — Westminster  Confes- 
sion,  Chapter  XIV,  Section  2,  (c)  The  sover- 
eignty under  God  of  the  individual  conscience  in 
matters  of  religion,  as  expressed  in  the  historic 
declaration,  "God  alone  is  Lord  of  the  conscience, 
and  hath  left  it  free  from  the  doctrines  and  com- 
mandments of  men  which  are  in  anything  con- 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 


1371 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 


trary  to  his  Word,  or  beside  it,  in  matters  of  faith 
or  worship." — Westminster  Confession,  Chapter 
XX,  Section  2.  (d)  The  sovereignty  of  Christ 
in  his  Church,  "There  is  no  other  head  of  the 
Church,  but  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ." — Westmin- 
ster Confession,  Chapter  XXV,  Section  6.  This 
sovereignty  of  Christ  involves  the  right  of  all  be- 
lievers to  recognition  as  members  of  his  body, 
and  as  entitled  to  an  active  share  in  all  Church 
privileges.  As  a  result  of  the  principles  just 
stated,  the  Presbyterian  Church  has  formulated 
what  it  believes  to  be  a  system  of  theology,  church 
government,  ethics  and  worship,  in  full  narmony 
with  the  will  of  God  as  revealed  in  Holy  Scrip- 
ture. 

(2)  Presbyterian  Principles  and  the  Ameri- 
can Bepublic.  The  predominant  influence  in  the 
history  of  mankind  has  always  been  that  resident 
in  ideas.  It  is  this  fact  which  gives  to  truth  its 
supreme  worth.  The  ideas  above  referred  to, 
and  which  are  of  the  essence  of  the  Presbyterian 
System,  were  the  controlling  ideas  of  the  Protes- 
tant Reformation,  and  found  expression  in  the 
documents  known  as  the  Westminster  Standards. 
These  Standards  were  framed  by  the  worlds 
famous  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines,  at  Lon- 
don, Great  Britain,  in  1647.  Doctrinally,  the  sys- 
tem of  thought  found  in  them  bears  the  name  of 
Calvinism,  from  its  chief  theologian,  John  Calvin 
of  Geneva.  Politically,  the  system  is  the  chief 
source  of  modern  republican  government.  Ban- 
croft speaks  of  "the  political  character  of  Calvin- 
ism, which,  with  one  consent,  and  with  instinctive 
judgment,  the  monarchs  of  the  day  feared  as 
republicanism."  The  English  Calvinists,  com- 
monly known  as  Puritans,  early  found  a  home  on 
American  shores,  and  immigrants  of  the  Protes- 
tant faith  of  other  nationalities,  were  their  natural 
allies.  The  majority  of  the  early  Colonists  were 
Calvinists.  They  brought  with  them  to  the  new 
land  those  doctrinal  ideas  which  exalt  in  the  hu- 
man mind  the  sovereignty  of  God,  which  bring 
all  lives  and  institutions  to  the  test  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  which  teach  that  the  divine  being  is 
no  respecter  of  persons,  and  which  lead  logically 
to  the  conclusion  that  "all  men  are  born  free  and 
equal."  Further,  the  early  British  settlers,  whether 
Presbyterians  or  Puritans,  were  all  believers  in 
the  Westminster  Confession,  for  that  creed  was 
adopted  by  the  Congregational ists  in  1648,  and 
by  the  Baptists,  except  as  to  Baptist  peculiarities, 
in  1677.  The  German  and  Dutch  Calvinists  in 
the  Colonies  were  also  in  full  sympathy  with  its 
doctrines.  These  facts  made  the  principles  of 
the  Confession  dominant  in  the  formation  of  the 
American  Republic.  Those  who  maintained  them,  * 
for  one  thing,  demanded  and  provided  for  popular 
education.  The  first  two  European  countries  to 
establish  free  schools  were  Calvinistic  Scotland 
and  Holland,  and  the  first  organizers  of  the  public 
school  system  in  the  United  States  were  Calvin- 
ists, as  they  were  also  the  founders  of  Har- 
vard, Yale,  and  Princeton  Universities.  Further, 
Baptists  and  ^  Presb)rterians,  laboring  together, 
aided  greatly  in  securing  the  absolute  separation 
of  Church  and  State,  and  that  untrammeled  rC; 
ligious  liberty  which  is  the  peculiar  glory  ol 
American  institutions. 

Again,  Presbyterians  fostered  and  maintained 
popular  representative  government.  It  was  the 
privilege  of  the  American  Presbyterian  Church, 
through  its  General  Synod,  to  be  the  first  body, 
either  ecclesiastical  or  political,  to  organize  on 
the  American  continent  a  federal  Republic.  Sev- 
eral of  the  early  American  colonies  were  sub- 
stantially democracies,  but  they  were  independent 


each  of  the  other.  Until  the  meeting  of  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  in  1774,  the  only  body  which 
exercised  control  in  the  majority  of  the  Colonies, 
and  which  was  a  definite  American  bond  of  un- 
ion, was  the  General  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States  of  America.  This 
Church  is  the  oldest  of  American  Republics,  and 
the  federal  principles  which  characterize  its  gov- 
ernment are  practically  the  same  as  those  which 
control  the  government  of  the  United  States.  In 
brief,  it  can  be  said  with  Bancroft,  the  historian, 
that  "The  Revolution  of  1776,  so  far  as  it  was 
affected  by  religion,  was  a  Presbyterian  measure. 
It  was  the  natural  outgrowth  of  the  principles 
which  the  Presbyterianism  of  the  Old  World 
planted  in  her  sons,  the  English  Puritans,  the 
Scotch  Covenanters,  the  French  Huguenots,  the 
Dutch  Calvinists,  and  the  Presbyterians  of  Ulster.** 
This  statement  finds  support  in  the  claim  that  of 
the  three  millions  of  American  Colonists  in  1776, 
nine  hundred  thousand  were  of  Scotch  or  Scotch- 
Irish  descent;  four  hundred  thousand  were  Ger- 
man or  Dutch  Calvinists.  and  six  hundred  thou- 
sand were  English  Puritans. 

(3)  The  Several  Presbyterian  Churches  in 
the  United  States.  American  Presbyterianism 
as  a  whole  is  as  diverse  in  its  origin  as  are  the 
peoples  who  have  blended  to  form  the  American 
nation.  There  are  eleven  important  denominational 
Churches  in  the  United  States,  whether  designated 
as  Presbyterian  or  Reformed,  which  stand  for 
Presbyterian  principles.  Of  these  three  are  trace- 
able to  the  influence  of  immigration  from  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe;  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church, 
and  the  Christian  Reformed  Church,  both  of 
which  originated  in  Holland ;  and  the  German  Re- 
formed Church  whose  beginnings  were  in  Switzer- 
land and  Germany.  Four  Churches  are  directly 
connected  with  the  Secession  and  Relief  move- 
ments in  the  Church  of  Scotland  during  the 
eighteenth  century,  viz.,  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church,  the  Synod  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church,  the  General  Synod  of  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Church,  and  the  Associate  Reformed 
Synod  of  the  South.  Whatever  of  English  Pres- 
byterianism there  was  in  the  Colonies,  and  in  ad- 
dition the  few  French  Protestant  or  Huguenot 
churches,  combined  at  an  early  day  with  Scotch 
and  Scotch-Irish  elements  to  form  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States,  the  largest  of  the 
Churches.  The  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church 
and  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
(South)  are  branches  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  United  States,  the  first  separating  in  1810, 
and  the  second  in  1861.  The  youngest  of  the  Pres- 
b)rterian  Churches,  the  Welsh,  originated  in  the 
Principality  of  Wales,  where  the  denomination 
is  known  as  the  Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist 
Church.  However  these  Churches  may  differ  in 
matters  of  practice  and  worship,  they  are  sub- 
stantially one  in  government,  and  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian,  main- 
tain unmodified  the  principles  of  the  Presbyterian 
System,  as  contained  either  in  the  Canons  of  the 
Synod  of  Dort,  the  Westminster  Confession,  or 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism.  The  largest  of  the 
American  Presbyterian  Churches  is  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  the  United  States  of  America, 
and  its  history  concisely  stated,  is  given  under  the 
following  heads: 

(4)  The  Period  of  Isolated  Churches.  The 
earliest  American  Presbyterian  churches  were  es- 
tablished in  New  England,  Maryland,  Delaware 
and  Virginia.  John  Robinson,  the  pastor  of  the 
Plymouth  Pilgrims  while  in  Holland,  has  left  on 
record  the  following  declaration  of  Church  prin 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 


1372 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 


ciples — "Touching  the  ecclesiastical  ministry,  viz^ 
of  pastors  for  teaching,  elders  for  ruling,  deacons 
for  distributing  the  church's  contributions,  we  do 
wholly  and  in  all  points  agree  with  the  French 
Reformed  Churches."  The  Virginia  Puritans 
were  driven  out  by  persecution  between  1642  and 
1649.  The  English  Presbyterian  element  in  Mary- 
land and  the  colonies  to  the  northward  was 
strengthened  by  the  advent,  from  1660  to  1690,  of 
a  large  element  of  Scotch  Covenanters.  The 
earliest  Presbyterians  in  New  York  were  the 
Dutch  Calvinists,  who  founded  a  church  in  1628; 
English-speaking  Presbyterians  being  first  found 
there  in  1643,  with  the  Rev.  Francis  Doughty  as 
their  minister.  In  1680,  the  Presbytery  of  Lag- 
gan,  Ireland,  in  response  to  a  letter  from  William 
Stevens,  a  member  of  the  Council  of  the  Colony 
of  Maryland,  sent  to  the  United  States  the  Rev. 
Francis  Makemie  as  a  missionary.  His  arrival  in 
1683  was  an  epoch  in  the  ecclesiastical  history  of 
the  Colonies.  Mr.  Makemie  became  the  apostle 
of  American  Presbyterianism,  giving  himself  un- 
reservedly to  the  work  of  ecclesiastical  organiza- 
tion, enduring  persecution  and  daring  imprison- 
ment in  behalf  of  the  cause  which  he  most  worth- 
ily represented,  and  at  last  succeeding  in  bringing 
into  organic  unity  the  scattered  churches  in  the 
Colonies. 

(5)  The  Colonial  Presbyterian  Church..  The 
first  Presbytery  of  the  Church  was  organized  in 
the  year  1705  or  1706.  The  exact  date  cannot  be 
determined,  owing  to  the  loss  of  the  first  pages  of 
the  records.  The  ministers  of  the  judicatory  were 
six  in  number  representing  about  twenty-two 
congregations,  not  including  the  Presbyterians  of 
Virginia,  the  Carolinas,  and  Georgia.  The  place 
of  meeting  was  Freehold,  N.  J.  The  growth  of 
the  country,  and  especially  the  increasing  number 
of  immigrants  from  Ireland  and  Scotland,  so 
added  to  the  numbers  of  the  churches,  that  in 
September.  17 16,  the  Presbytery  constituted  itself 
into  a  Synod,  with  four  Presbyteries.  In  1729, 
this  General  Synod  passed  what  is  called  the 
Adopting  Act,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that  all 
the  ministers  under  its  jurisdiction  should  de- 
clare "their  agreement  in  and  approbation  of  the 
Confession  of  Faith,  with  the  Larger  and  Shorter 
Catechisms  of  the  Assembly  of  divines  at  West- 
minster," and  also  "adopt  the  said  Confession  as 
the  Confession  of  their  faith.**  In  the  same  year 
the  "Synod  denied  to  the  civil  magistrate  power 
over  the  Church,"  and  also  the  "power  to  perse- 
cute any  for  their  religion."  It  was  the  Presby- 
terian and  not  the  Congregationalist  who  gave 
definite  ecclesiastical  form  to  the  distinctively 
American  and  true  doctrine  of  the  independence 
of  the  Church  from  control  by  the  state.  In  1745 
questions  of  policy  as  to  revivals  and  education, 
produced  a  division  in  the  Church.  The  "Log 
College,"  founded  by  the  Rev.  William  Tennent, 
Sr.,  for  the  training  of  ministers,  was  one  of  the 
causes  of  the  contention,  and  his  son,  the  Rev. 
Gilbert  Tennent,  with  the  celebrated  evangelist, 
the  Rev.  George  Whitefield,  were  prominent  in 
the  controversy.  The  parties  were  known  as  "Old 
Side"  and  "New  Side,"  which  terms  are  not  in 
any  manner  equivalent  to  the  terms  "Old  School" 
an^  "New  School"  in  use  a  century  later.  In  1758 
the  divided  bodies  reunited  upon  the  basis  of  the 
Westminster  Standards  pure  and  simple,  and  at 
the  date  of  reunion,  the  Church  consisted  of  nine- 
ty-eight ministers,  about  two  hundred  congrega- 
tions and  some  ten  thousand  communicants.  It 
was  during  the  period  of  this  division  that  the 
"New  Side"  established  the  institution  now  known 
as  Princeton  University,  for  the  purpose  of  secur- 


ing an  educated  ministry.  In  17C8,  John  Wither- 
spoon  was  called  from  Scotland  and  installed  as 
president  of  Princeton,  and  also  as  Professor  of 
Divinity.  This  remarkable  man  exercised  an  in- 
creasing and  powerful  influence  not  only  in  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  but  through  the  Middle  and 
Southern  colonies.  Though  Scotch  of  birth,  he 
wa«  American  at  heart,  and  never  hesitated  to 
do  what  he  regarded  as  his  duty  in  political  as 
well  as  religious  affairs.  He  was  one  of  the  lead- 
ers in  the  joint  movement  of  Presbyterians  and 
Congregational ists,  effected  in  1766,  to  resist  the 
establishment  of  the  English  Episcopal  Church  as 
the  State  Church  of  the  Colonies.  He  was  also 
a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress,  and  the 
only  clerical  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. Religious  forces  were  among  the  chief 
influences  operating  to  secure  separation  from 
Great  Britain,  and  the  opening  of  the  Revolution- 
ary struggle  found  the  Presbyterian  Churches  to 
a  man  on  the  side  of  the  colonies.  The  General 
Synod  called  upon  the  churches  to  "uphold  firmly 
the  resolutions"  of  Congress,  and  let  it  be  seen 
that  they  were  "able  to  bring  out  the  whole 
strength  of  this  vast  country  to  carry  them  into 
execution."  At  the  close  of  the  war,  the  Synod 
congratulated  the  churches  on  "the  general  and 
almost  universal  attachment  of  the  Presbyterian 
body  to  the  cause  of  liberty  and  the  rights  of 
mankind."  No  body  of  Christians  has  a  more 
honorable  record  in  the  development  of  American 
institutions,  or  is  more  in  sympathy  with  them, 
than  the  Presbyterian. 

(6)  The  Constitution  of  1788.  With  the 
restoration  of  peace  in  1783,  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  gradually  recovered  from  the  evils 
wrought  by  war.  The  need  of  further  organiza- 
tion was  deeply  felt.  The  Church  had  always 
been  independent,  having  no  organic  connection 
with  European  and  British  churches  of  like  faith. 
The  independence  of  the  United  States,  however, 
had  created  new  conditions  for  the  Christian 
churches  as  well  as  for  the  American  people. 
Presbyterians  were  no  longer  merely  tolerated, 
they  were  entitled  equally  with  Episcopalians  to 
full  civil  and  religious  rights.  In  view,  there- 
fore, of  the  new  conditions,  the  Synod  in  May, 
1788,  adopted  a  Constitution  for  the  Church  con- 
taining the  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith,  the 
Larger  and  Shorter  Catechisms,  the  Form  of 
Government,  the  Book  of  Discipline,  and  the  Di- 
rectory for  Worship.  Certain  changes  were  made 
in  the  Confession,  the  Catechisms,  and  the  Di- 
rectory, concerning  which  it  is  sufficient  to  say 
that  they  were  in  the  direction  of  liberty, — of  lib- 
erty in  worship,  of  freedom  in  prayer,  and  above 
all,  of  the  liberty  of  the  Church  from  any  control 
by  the  state.  The  Form  of  Government  was  al- 
together a  new  instrument,  and  established  the 
General  Assembly  as  the  governing  body  in  the 
Church. 

The  Presbyterian  form  of  government  is  in  all 
essential  things  similar  to  that  of  the  government 
of  the  United  States  of  America.  Where,  in  civil 
government,  Americans  have  the  township  com- 
mittee, the  county  board,  the  state  legislature,  and 
the  congress  of  the  United  States,  the  Presby- 
terian Church  has  the  session  of  the  particular 
church,  the  Presbytery,  the  Synod  and  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly.  These  judicatories  further,  are 
representative  in  the  fullest  sense,  their  members 
being  chosen  to  office  by  the  people.  Concerning 
the  Presbyterian  Government,  one  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Archbishops  of  New  York,  the  Rev. 
John  Hughes,  wrote;  "that  for  the  purposes  of 
popular  and  political  government  its  organization 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 


1373 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 


is  little  inferior  to  that  of  Congress  itself.  It 
acts  on  the  principle  of  a  radiating  center,  and  is 
without  equal  or  rival  among  the  other  denomina- 
tions of  the  country."  Further,  this  form  of  gov- 
ernment, as  a  system  of  rules,  has  the  privilege  of 
possessing  in  the  Westminster  Confession,  a  state- 
ment of  the  principles  for  which  the  Church 
stands,  in  which  it  has  the  advantage  of  the  na- 
tion, the  latter  possessing  no  such  document.  The 
national  constitution  is  simply  a  body  of  regula- 
tions, the  Presbyterian,  Constitution  contains  both 
principles  and  regulations. 

(7)  The  Period  of  the  Plan  of  Union.  The 
first  important  movement  in  the  Church,  after  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution,  was  the  formation 
of  the  Plan  of  Union  with  the  Congregational 
Associations  of  New  England,  which  began  with 
correspondence  in  1792,  and  reached  its  consum- 
mation in  the  agreements  made  from  1801  to  1810 
between  the  General  Assembly  and  the  Associa- 
tions of  Connecticut  and  other  states.  This  plan 
allowed  Congregational  ministers  to  serve  Pres- 
byterian Churches,  and  znce  versa;  and  also  per- 
mitted mixed  churches  and  members  of  both 
denominations,  with  the  right  of  representation  in 
Presbytery.  It  remained  in  force  until  1837,  and 
was  useful  to  both  Churches,  in  relation  to  the 
results  flowing  from  the  great  revivals  of  religion 
throughout  the  country  from  1799  to  1802;  and 
also  in  connection  with  the  cause  of  both  Home 
and  Foreign  Missions. 

What  is  known  as  the  Cumberland  separation 
took  place  during  this  period.  The  Presbytery 
of  Cumberland  ordained  to  the  ministry  persons 
who,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Synod  of  Kentucky, 
were  not  qualified  for  the  office  either  by  learning 
or  by  sound  doctrine.  The  controversies  between 
the  two  judicatories  resulted  in  the  dissolution  of 
the  Presbytery  by  the  Synod  in  1806,  and  finally 
in  1810,  in  the  initial  steps  in  the  establishment  of 
what  is  now  known  as  the  Cumberland  Presby- 
terian Church.  The  growth  of  the  Church  dur- 
ing the  period  (1790  to  1837)  was  very  decided, 
the  membership  increasing  from  eighteen  thou- 
sand to  two  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  five 
hundred  and  fifty-seven.  Further,  in  it,  the  first 
Theological  Seminary  of  the  Church  was  founded 
at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  (1812),  with  Archibald  Alex- 
ander as  first  professor;  the  Boards  of  Home 
Missions  (1816)  and  of  Education  (1819)  were 
established,  and  at  its  close  the  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions  came  into  existence. 

(8)  The  Period  of  Division.  About  the  year 
1825,  the  peace  of  the  Church  began  seriously  to 
be  disturbed  by  controversy  respecting  the  Plan 
of  Union,  and  the  establishment  of  denomina- 
tional agencies  for  missionary  and  evangelistie 
work.  The  Pittsburgh  Synod,  as  early  as  1831, 
founded  the  Western  Foreign  Missionary  Society, 
The  Foreign  Mission  work  of  the  Church  had 
previously  been  accomplished  mainly  through  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions,  located  at  Boston,  Mass.,  and  much  of 
the  Home  Mission  work  was  done  through  the 
American  Home  Missionary  and  the  American 
Education  Societies.  The  party  standing  for  de- 
nominational agencies  and  opposed  to  the  Plan  of 
Union,  was  known  as  the  "Old  School"  and  that 
favoring  the  continuance  of  the  Plan  as  the  "New 
School."  Questions  of  doctrine  were  also  in- 
volved in  the  controversy,  though  not  to  so  large 
an  extent  as  those  of  denominational  policy,  and 
led  to  the  trial  for  heresy  of  the  celebrated  Al- 
bert Barnes.  The  "Old  School"  majority  in  the 
Assembly  of  1837  brought  the  matters  at  issue  to 
a  head,  by  abrogating  the  Plan  of  Union,  by  reso- 


lutions against  the  interdenominational  societies, 
by  the  excision  of  the  Synods  of  Utica,  Geneva, 
Genesee  and  the  Western  Reserve,  and  by  the 
establishment  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  For- 
eign Missions.  When  the  Assembly  of  1838  met, 
the  "New  School"  Commissioners  protested 
against  the  exclusion  of  the  delegates  from  the 
four  exscinded  Synods,  organized  an  Assembly 
of  their  own  in  the  presence  of  the  sitting  Assem- 
bly, and  then  withdrew.  The  controversy  came 
before  the  civil  courts  through  a  suit,  on  the  part 
of  the  "New  School,"  to  determine  whether  the 
persons  chosen  by  its  Assembly  were  the  legal 
"trustees  of  the  General  Assembly."  The  final 
decision  in  the  case  was  in  favor  of  the  "Old 
School." 

From  1838  onward,  both  branches  of  the  Church 
grew  slowly  but  steadily,  and  both  made  progress 
in  the  organization  of  their  benevolent  and  mission- 
ary work.  The  growth  of  both  was  checked,  how- 
ever, by  disruption.  The  New  School  Assembly  of 
1857  took  strong  ground  in  opposition  to  slavery, 
with  the  result  that  several  Southern  Presbyteries 
withdrew  and  organized  the  United  Synod  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church.  In  May,  1861,  the  Old 
School  Assembly  met  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  with 
but  thirteen  commissioners  present  from  the  states 
which  had  seceded  from  the  Union.  Dr.  Gar- 
diner Spring  of  New  York  offered  in  the  judi- 
catory, resolutions  professing  loyalty  to  the  fed- 
eral government,  which  were  passed  by  a  decided 
majority.  The  minority  of  the  Assembly,  how- 
ever, while  to  a  large  degree  in  favor  of  the 
Union,  were  actuated  by  the  feeling  that  an  ec- 
clesiastical judicatory  had  no  right  to  determine 
questions  of  civil  allegiance.  The  "Spring  Reso- 
lutions" were  the  alleged  reason  for  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  Confeder- 
ate States  of  America,  which  met  in  General  As- 
sembly at  Augusta.  Georgia,  in  December,  1861, 
was  enlarged  by  union  in  1863,  with  the  United 
Synod  above  referred  to,  and  upon  the  cessation 
of  hostilities  in  1865  took  the  name  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  the  United  States.  Its  members 
were  increased  in  1869  and  1874,  by  the  adhe- 
rence of  those  portions  of  the  Synods  of  Kentucky 
and  Missouri,  which  protested  by  "declaration 
and  testimony"  against  the  action  of  the  Old 
School  Assembly  in  the  matter  of  the  Christian 
character  of  the  ministers  and  members  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  South. 

(9)  The  Period  of  Beunion.  The  first  step 
towards  the  reunion  of  the  "Old  School"  and 
"New  School"  was  taken  in  1862  by  the  establish- 
ment of  fraternal  correspondence  between  the  two 
Assemblies.  A  second  step  was  the  organization 
by  the  "New  School"  in  1863  of  its  own  Home 
Mission  Work.  In  1866,  committees  of  confer- 
ence with  a  view  to  union,  were  appointed,  and 
on  Nov.  12,  1869,  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  reunion  was 
consummated  on  the  basis  of  the  "Standards  pure 
and  simple."  In  connection  with  the  movement, 
a  memorial  fund  was  raised,  which  amounted  to 
$7,883,5^3.  From  the  year  1870  the  Church  has 
made  steady  progress  along  all  lines,  and  its  har- 
mony has  been  seriously  broken  only  by  the  con- 
troversy (1891-1894)  as  to  the  "authority  and 
credibility  of  Holy  Scripture^"  as  a  consequence 
of  which  Prof.  Charles  A.  Briggs  of  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  New  York  City,  and  Prof. 
Henry  P.  Smith,  of  Lane  Theological  Semi- 
nary. Cincinnati.  Ohio,  were  suspended  from 
the  ministry,  after  formal  process  in  Presby- 
tery and  final  judgment  by  the  General  As- 
sembly. Despite  this  controversy,  the  Church 
has  doubled  membership  during  the  past  thirty 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  SOUTH       1374       PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  SOUTH 


years,  and  numbers  now  nearly  one  million  com- 
municants. Its  contributions  for  all  purposes  for 
the  year  ending  March  31,  1898,  were  $13,938.- 
561,  of  which  the  sum  of  $3,158,991  was  contrib- 
uted for  missionary  and  benevolent  work.  The 
organised  work  of  the  Church  is  conducted 
throtigh  eight  Boards:  Home  Missions,  Foreign 
Missions,  Education,  Publication  and  Sabbath- 
school  work.  Ministerial  Relief,  Missions  for 
Freedmen,  Church  Erection,  and  Aid  for  Colleges 
and  Academies. 

There  have  been  established  two  Women's  Mis- 
sionary organizations,  the  one  for  Home,  the 
other  for  Foreign  missions,  which  have  been 
greatly  prospered.  There  are  also  thirteen  The- 
ological Seminaries,  located  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  and  under  the  supervision  of  the 
General  Assembly.  The  future  of  the  Church, 
judging  from  the  past,  will  be  one  of  constant 
progress,  and  of  enlarging  membership,  influence, 
resources,  and  missionary  activity. 

The  Church  reports  (190 1)  seven  thousand  three 
hundred  and  eighty-six  ministers  and  nine  hun- 
dred and  sixty-one  thousand  three  hundred  and 
thirty-four  communicants. 

The  denomination  stands  for  great  and  abiding 
theologica  truths,  for  the  rights  of  the  people  in 
church  g')vernment,  and  for  that  true  catholicity, 
which  cheerfully  accords  to  others,  whatever 
opinions  they  may  cherish,  their  full  rights  of 
conscience.  It  illustrates  the  fact  that  strength 
of  conviction  and  true  liberality  are  co-ordinate, 
not  antagonistic  things;  and  that  Calvinism  is  a 
living  power  in  Christendom.  W.  H.  R. 


PBEBBYTEB.IAN   OHUBOH    S0T7TH  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  America  had,  owing  to  the  prevalence  of  lati- 
tudinarian  views  in  theology  and  ecclesiastical 
polity,  been  divided,  in  1838,  into  the  Old  School, 
and  the  New  School  Churches.  The  New  School 
Church  suffered  another  divison  in  1857,  the 
Southern  department,  which  refused  to  regard 
slaveholding  as  a  sin,  establishing  the  Synod  of 
the  South. 

(1)  Organization.  The  Old  School  retained 
its  integrity  and  conservative  tone  till  1861.  But 
in  that  year  the  Assembly,  sitting  at  Philadelphia, 
was  overcome  by  the  prevailing  secular  and  war 
spirit.  It  subordinated  the  kingdom  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  to  political  ends,  and  thus  violated 
the  constitution  of  the  Church  and  usurped  the 
prerogatives  of  the  Divine  Master.  It  adopted 
the  Spring  Resolutions,  wherein  it  attempted,  as 
Dr.  Charles  Hodge  and  his  fifty -seven  fellow- 
protestants  said.  **to  decide  the  political  question, 
to  what  government  the  allegiance  of  Presby- 
terianism  was  due,"  and  "to  make  that  decision 
a  condition  of  membership  in  the  Church." 

In  consequence  of  this  course,  forty-seven  Pres- 
byteries in  the  then  Confederate  States  of  America, 
each  for  itself,  dissolved  connection  with  the  As- 
sembly during  the  summer  of  1861.  On  Decem- 
ber 4,  1861,  their  representatives  met  in  Augusta, 
Ga.,  and  formed  the  first  General  Assembly  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  South. 

(2)  Constitntion.  This  constituting  Assembly 
adopted  the  constitution  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States  of  America  as  its 
own  constitution ;  but  sloughed  off  the  un-Presby- 
terian  machinery  with  which  the  old  church  con- 
ducted its  missionary  and  other  operations.  For 
the  cumbrous  and  irresponsible  boards  of  the 
mother  church  it  substituted  the  Church  itself. 
God's  appointed  instrumentality  for  evangelizing 


the  world,  and  established  the  necessary  executive 
committees  to  carry  out  ihe  will  of  the  church— v 
small  bodies  immediately  responsible  to  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly. 

(3)  General  Address.  In  a  letter  "to  all  the 
churches  of  Jesus  Christ  throughout  the  earth," 
this  Assembly  asserted  that  the  consequences  of 
the  proceedings  on  the  part  of  the  recent  Phila- 
delphia Assembly — its  opening  "the  door  for  the 
worst  passions  of  human  nature  in  the  delibera- 
tion of  church  courts" — had  justified  separation, 
as  had  also  the  de  facto  existence  of  the  Confed' 
erate  States  of  America  within  whose  bounds 
they  were.  This  Assembly  also  claimed  as  dis- 
tinguishing features  of  its  Church,  "Witnessing 
for  the  non-secular  character  of  the  Church  and 
its  headship  of  Christ,  or,  in  other  words,  for  a 
strict  adherence  to  the  constitution,"  and  'the 
complete  organization  of  the  Church,  obviating 
the  necessity  of  boards  and  societies." 

(4)  Growth.  The  numerical  growth  of  the 
Church  has  been  very  rapid.  Its  seven  hundred 
ministers  have  become  one  thousand  four  hun- 
dred and  seventy-one,  and  its  seventy  thousand 
communicants  two  hundred  and  twenty-one  thou- 
sand and  twenty-two  as  reported  (1901). 

Its  contributions  to  home  and  foreign  missions 
are  more  than  four  times  as  large;  and  it  has 
kept  pace  in  developing  other  branches  of  enter- 
prise. This  advance  has  been  made,  too,  in  spite 
of  the  exodus  of  about  ten  thousand  colored  com- 
municants, who  went,  for  the  most  part,  to  the 
Northern  Presbyterian  Church. 

This  growth  is  explained  by :  ( i )  The  Church 
having  taken  into  organic  union  with  itself  man^ 
smaller  bodies  of  sound  Presbyterians.  Thus  it 
took  in  "the  Independent  Presbyterian  Church 
(1863),  the  United  Synod  of  the  South  (1864), 
the  Presbytenr  of  Patopsco  (1867),  the  Alabama 
Presbytery  of  the  Associated  Reformed  Church 
about  the  same  time,  the  Synod  of  Kentucky 
(1869),  the  Associated  Reformed  Presbytery  of 
Kentucky  (1870),  and  the  Synod  of  Missouri 
(1874).  The  union  with  these  churches  brought 
in  about  two  hundred  and  eighty-two  ministers, 
four  hundred  and  eighty  churches,  and  thirty-five 
thousand  six  hundred  communicants.  (2)  The  en- 
ergetic use  of  the  evangelistic  arm  of  the  Church's 
service.  Particularly,  since  1866,  presbyterial  evan- 
gelists have  been,  in  increasing  numbers,  preach- 
ing to  the  weak  and  destitute. 

In  1880  the  Synod  of  Kentucky  entered  upon 
the  pioneer  enterprise  of  synodical  evangelism. 
Not  less  than  eight  or  ten  synods  have  subse- 
quently inaugurated  some  form  of  synodical  work. 
Pastors  and  people  have  been  generally  faithful 
and  so  preached  Christ. 

(6)  Missions  of  the  Church.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  Church's  agencies  has  also  been  grati- 
fying. Foreign  Missions  have  had  a  large  place 
in  the  heart  of  the  Church.  It  has  planted  sta- 
tions in  China,  Italy,  the  United  States  of  Colom- 
bia, Brazil,  Mexico,  Greece,  Japan,  the  Congo 
Free  State,  Cuba,  and  Corea.  In  its  several  mis- 
sions it  has  to-day  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
ordained  and  unordained  missionaries,  and  can 
look  on  a  total  of  three  thousand  one  hundred  and 
fifty-six  communicants  and  an  immense  effect  of 
a  genera]  kind  predisposing  heathendom  to  re- 
ceive Christianity. 

Home  Missions  have  also  had  a  large  place. 
The  general  objects  for  which  the  Assembly's 
Executive  Committee  has  labored,  are:  (i)  To 
aid  feeble  churches  in  support  of  their  pastors  and 
to  secure  a  competency  to  every  laboring  min- 
ister.    (2)  To  aid  in  the  support  of  missionaries 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  SOUTH 


1375 


PRESUMPTION 


and  evangelists.  (3)  To  assist  weak  churches  in 
obtaining  suitable  edifices  in  which  to  worship. 
(4)  To  assist  laborers  in  getting  from  one  field  to 
another  when  they  are  without  the  means  of  do- 
ing this  of  themselves.  (5)  To  raise  and  disburse 
an  invalid  fund.  This  committee  took  oversight 
also  of  the  work  among  the  negroes  till  1891 
when  the  Executive  Committee  of  Colored  Evan- 
gelization was  established. 

(6)  The  Ministry.  The  Church  has  main- 
tained a  highly  educated  ministry.  Its  plan  for 
securing  such  a  ministry,  styled  variously  as  "a 
beneficiary  or  eleemosynary,"  or  "stipendiary" 
plan,  is  a  good  scheme  if  faithfully  carried  out 
by  the  presbyteries ;  but  seems  to  be  tolerated  only 
because  of  the  necessity  for  some  such  scheme. 
The  Church  has  five  good  theological  schools  un- 
der its  care,  one  being  the  Tuscaloosa  Institute 
for  negroes,  a  still  greater  number  of  colleges  and 
universities,  besides  academies. 

(7)  Publishing  Agencies.  The  Publication 
Committee,  located  at  Richmond,  Va.,  has  done  a 
most  important  work.  A  number  of  able  jour- 
nals advocate  the  principles  and  give  informa- 
tion concerning  the  work  of  the  Church. 

(8)  Adherence  to  Principles.  So  much  for 
the  growth  of  the  Church.  A  word  now  with  ref- 
erence to  the  way  in  which  it  has  stood  by  its 
principles.  The  Church  has  remained  true  to  the 
Calvinism  of  its  creed.  It  is,  perhaps,  more  thor- 
oughly Calvinistic  than  in  i860.  The  changes  in 
polity  have  been  considerable.  They  have  sprung 
from  a  more  solid  conviction  of  jure  divino  Pres- 
byterianism,  and  have  resulted  in  a  clearer  state- 
ment of  the  ruling  elder's  rights  and  duties,  and 
a  more  adequate  and  Scriptural  exposition  of  the 
deacon's  duties  and  relations.  It  has  given  a  n> 
ble  testimony  to  the  independence  of  Church  and 
State.  In  all  its  formal  and  well-considered  views  of 
the  subject  from  i86itoi870,it  testified  to  the  non- 
secular  character  of  the  Church  and  the  headship 
of  Jesus  in  Zion.  During  the  war  it  did,  indeed, 
falter  in  its  testimony  to  the  non-secular  char- 
acter of  the  Church ;  but  its  falterings  were  tran- 
sient inconsistencies,  as  formal  testimonies  of  the 
time  show  and  as  sorrow  for  these  missteps, 
evinced  by  its  implicit  and  explicit  confessions  in 
1866,  1870  and  1876,  show.  This  Church  still 
holds  to  an  inerrant  Bible,  and  to  the  approva- 
bleness  of  Bible  morals,  and  opposes  womanism 
in  the  official  work  of  the  Church. 

How  far  these  principles  shall  prevail  in  the 
future  a  prophet  is  needed  to  tell.  The  principle 
of  Church  and  State  ought  to  prevail ;  and  so,  ac- 
cording to  the  common  judgment  of  our  Church, 
every  other  one  of  its  principles.  Hence  it  does 
not  ask  whether  they  shall  prevail,  but  whether 
they  ought  to  prevail.  Its  action  should  be  guided 
by  the  right  rather  than  by  the  achievable. 

(0)  Condition  of  Amily.  This  Church  would 
unite  with  others  in  federal  union  on  condition 
of  their  receiving  evidently  con  amore  its  own 
standards.  The  Assemblies  of  1893  and  1894  de- 
clined to  enter  the  "Federal  Union  between  the 
Reformed  Churches  in  the  United  States  holding 
the  Presbyterian  system."  It  has  maintained  fra- 
ternal correspondence  with  several  ecclesiastical 
bodies  of  like  faith  and  polity.  Owing  to  the 
non-secular  character  of  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church,  its  thoroughly  Calvinistic  theology  and 
Presbyterian  polity,  this  correspondence  devel- 
oped, in  1875,  into  a  "plan  of  active  co-operation," 
in  publication,  home  missions,  foreign  missions 
and  education.  In  1889  the  Northern  Presbyterian 
Church  entered  into  a  similar  plan  of  co-operation 
with  ours.    The  great  body  of  Southern  Presby- 


terians is  profoundly  attached  to  its  own  princi- 
ples, and  while  unchurching  no  evangelical  body, 
seeks  formal  external  union  only  on  the  basis  of 
its  own  creed.  T.  C.  J. 

PBESENOE  (prSz'^s),  (Heb.  H^f,  paw-nek, 

face).  Jehovah's  promise  to  Moses  was  "  My  pres- 
ence shall  go  with  thee,  and  I  will  give  thee  rest** 
(£xod.  xxxiii:i4). 

The  presence  is  equivalent  to  the  face  of  Je- 
hovah. In  Is.  lxiii:9  we  have  the  term  the  angel 
of  his  presence.  Thus  the  presence  meant  God's 
angel  in  whom  he  tabernacled. 

PRESENT  (pr^z'^t).    See  Gift. 

FBESENTLT  (prSz'^t-lj^),  (Gr.  wapl^miiii,  par- 
is' tay-mee^  Matt.  xxvi:53,  ^'c.),  instantly,  immedi- 
ately. 

FBESIDEKT   (prgz'I-d^mt),  (Chald.  1!)?,  saw 

rake\  for  the  Heb.  *^??^,  sho-tare*,  and  used  only 

in  Dan.,  ch.  vi).  The  three  chief  rulers  placed  over 
the  satraps  of  Belshazzar  (Dan.  vi:7)  and  continued 
under  Darius.    Daniel  was  one  of  the  three. 


(pr^).  1.  (Mark  ii:4;  v:27,  30;  Luke 
viii:i9,  45;  xix:3,  signifies  a  crowd).  To  press  is  to 
crowd,  or  throng  closely  together. 

2.  (Heb.  ^^,  gath,  wine  press  or  vat),  a  large 

trough  hewn  out  of  stone,  or  dug  in  the  earth  and 
walled  up  (Is.  v:2;  Matt.  xxi:33). 

In  this  the  grapes  were  trodden  by  men,  usually 
five  in  number  (Job  xxiv:ii;  Lam.  i:i5;  Is.  Ixiii: 
2).  As  it  was  hard  labor  slaves  were  employed 
in  this  work  (Is.  Ixiiiri;  xvi:io;  Jer.  xxv:3o; 
xlviii  :33).    (See  Wine  Press.) 

PRESSPAT  (pr«s-fat),  (Heb.  '^Vr:,ye'kebAro\xgh), 

the  vat  or  large  trough  into  which  the  juice  flowed 
when  pressed  out  of  the  grapes  (Hag.  ii:i6). 

PBESTJMPTION  (pre-ziimp'shiln)  as  it  relates 
to  the  mind,  is  a  supposition  formed  before  exam- 
ination. As  it  relates  to  the  conduct  or  moral  ac- 
tion, it  implies  arrogance  and  irreverence.  As  it 
relates  to  religion  m  general,  it  is  a  bold  and 
daring  confidence  in  the  goodness  of  God,  without 
obedience  to  his  will. 

(1)  Presumptuous  Sins.  Presumptuous  sins 
must  be  distinguished  from  sins  of  infirmity,  or 
those  failings  peculiar  to  human  nature  (Eccles. 
vii:20;  i  John  i:8,  9);  from  sins  done  through 
ignorance  (Luke  xii:48);  and  from  sins  into 
which  m^n  are  hurried  by  sudden  and  violent 
temptation  (Gal.  vi:i).  The  ingredients  which 
render  sin  presumptuous  are  knowledge  (John 
xv:22);  deliberation  and  contrivance  (Prov.  vi: 
14;  Ps.  xxxvi:4);  obstinacy  (Jer.  xliv:i6;  Deut. 
i:i3);  inattention  to  the  remonstrances  of  con- 
science (Acts  vii:5i)  ;  opposition  to  the  dispensa- 
tions of  Providence  (2  Chron.  xxviii  :22)  ;  and 
repeated  commission  of  the  same  sin  (Ps.  Ixxviii: 
17).  Presumptuous  sins  are  numerous;  such  as 
profane  swearing,  perjury,  theft,  adultery,  drunk- 
enness. Sabbath-breaking,  etc.  These  may  be 
more  particularly  considered  as  presumptuous 
sins,  because  they  are  generally  committed  against 
a  known  law,  and  so  often  repeated.  Such  sins 
are  most  heinous  in  their  nature,  and  most  per- 
nicious in  their  effects.  They  are  said  to  be  a 
reproach  to  the  Lord  (Num.  xv:3)  ;  they  harden 
the  heart  (i  Tim.  iv:2);  draw  down  judgments 
from  heaven  (Num.  xv:3i)  ;  even  when  repented 
of,  are  seldom  pardoned  without  some  visible  tes- 
timony of  God's  displeasure  (2  Sam.  xii:io). 

(2)  Sinning  Presumptuously.  As  it  respects 
professors  of  religion,  as  one  observes,  they  sio 


PRESUMPTUOUS,  PRESUMPTUOUSLY    1376         PRIEST.  HEBREW  PRIESTHOOD 


presumptuously,  (i)  when  ihey  lake  up  a  profes- 
sion of  religion  without  principle;  (3)  when  they 
profess  to  ask  the  blessing  of  God.  and  yet  go  on 
in  forbidden  courses;  (3)  when  they  do  not  take 
religion  as  they  find  it  in  the  Scriptures;  {4) 
when  the^  make  their  feelings  the  test  of  their  re- 
ligion, without  considering  the  difference  between 
animal  passions  and  the  operations  of  the  Spirit 
of  God;  (s)  when  they  run  into  temptation;  (6) 
when  Ihey  indulge  in  self-confidence  and  self- 
complacency;  (7)  when  they  bring  the  spirit  of 
the  world  into  the  church;  (8)  when  ihey  form 
apologies  for  that  in  some  which  they  condemn  in 
others;  (9)  when  professing  10  believe  in  the 
doctrines  of  the  Gospel,  ihey  live  licentiously; 
(10)  when  they  create,  magnify,  and  pervert  their 
troubles;  (11)  when  Ihey  arraign  the  conduct  of 
God  as  unkind  and  unjust  (Buck.  Theol.  Diet.) 

FREBUKFTUOire,  PBESUUFTUOUSLT 
(prA-zUnip'lCt-iis,  pr£-xi3mp-tfi'lis-IV),  Undue  boldness 
or  overconfidence,  the  taking  of  liberties,  etc. 

Several  words  in  the  original  are  so  rendered: 

1.  Zood  (Heb.  -fH,  to  seethe),  in  Ihe  sense  of  in- 
solence (Exod.  xxi:i4;  Deut.  1:43;  xvii:i3). 

2.  Zade  (Heb.  1.'.,  arrogaut;  Vl,  zawdone'.  arro. 
gance;  Ps.  xix:l3}, 

3.  Vawd  {Heh.  '^,\\3nd).  In  Num.  xv:30  "pre- 
Bumpiuously." 

4.  Tol-may-lace'  (Gr.  ToXinp^,  daring),  spoken 
(2  Pet.  ii:io)  of  those  who  were  self  willed,  obsti- 
nate, licentious  and  despising  authority.  (See 
Presumption). 

PItKTENCK  (prS-iiSns),  (Or.  wpb^'^i.i.firofas-is, 
»how),  under  color  as  though  they  would,  etc. 
(Matt.  xxiii:M;  Mark  xii:4o;  Phil.  i;8). 

It  is  translated  cloak  (l  Thess.  ii:S).  where 
Paul  says  that  he  never  "at  any  time  used  flatter- 
ing words,  .  .  .  nor  a  cloak  of  covetousness" 
by  which  he  means  he  had  not  used  his  high  office 
tor  selfish  purposes. 

PBETOBITTH  (prS-tCrt-Qra),  (Gr.  rpaiT<4p«w, 
^raA«-AjV«-(7n,Marltxv:l6).   See  PriETORIUM. 

PBBVEST  (pr6-vSnt),  (Heb.  =^B,  iaiii-dam', 
Ps.  xviii:;.  cxixiijS),  to  anticipate,  to  go  before, 
to  precede, 

(Gr.  iiBiya.ftkan'o,  Matt,  xviiias;  i  Thess.  iv:i5). 
The  word  later  came  to  have   the  meaning  of 

PBET  (pra).     See  SPOIL. 

FRIOE  (prfk),  (Gr.  Wrrpot,  ken'tron.  Acta  ix:5; 
xxvi:i4|,  to  incite,  spur,  goad. 

FiguratiVm.  To  be  pricked  in  the  heart  and 
reins  is  to  be  inwardly  convinced  of  and  dis- 
tressed for  sin  (Acts  ii:37;  Ps.  Ixxiii:2i). 

PRZEBT,  HEBKEW  PRIESTHOOD  (prest, 
he'brQ  prEst'bood),  (Heb,  P^,  i(j' Ann*',  priest;  Sept. 
'Upiit,  hee-eh-rooct' ;  Vul.  iocerdoi). 

The  English  word  is  generally  derived  from  the 
New  Testament  term  presbyter  (elder),  the  mean- 
ing of  which,  is,  however,  essentially  different 
from  that  which  was  intended  by  the  ancient 
terms.  It  would  come  nearer,  if  derived  from 
■■pofarijfu  or  »piif«To/i«i,  'to  preside,'  etc.  It  would 
then  correspond  to  Aristotle  s  definition  of  a  priest, 
rutv  nfkt  rovi  PtsAt  tAfiot,  'presiding  over  things  re- 
lating to  the  gods'  (Polit.  iii,  14),  and  with  ihc  very 
similar  one  in  Heb.  v:i,  "every  high-priest  taken 
from  among  men,  is  constituted  on  ihe  behalf  of 
men,  witii  respect  to  ihetr  concerns  ivilh  God  (r4 
rpit  Tht  Qtir),  that  he  may  present  both  gifts  and 
•acrifices  lor  sins.' 


The  primitive  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word  is 
not  easily  deterntned,  because  the  verb,  in  its 

radical  form,  nowhere  occurs.  Gesenius  observes; 
'In  Arabic  it  denotes  to  prophesy,  to  foretell  as  a 
soothsayer,  and  among  ihe  heathen  Arabs  ihe  sub- 
stantive bore  the  latter  signification ;  also  that  of 
a  mediator  or  middle  person,  who  interposed  m 
any  business,  which  seems  to  be  its  radical  mean- 
ing, as  prophets  and  priests  were  regarded  as 
mediators  between  men  and  the  Deity.  In  the 
earliest  families  of  the  race  of  Shem,  the  offices 
of  priest  and  prophet  were  undoubtedly  united; 
so  that  the  word  originally  denoted  both,  and  at 
last  the  Hebrew  idiom  kept  one  part  of  the  idea, 
and  the  Arabic  another'  (Hebraiiches  und  Chal- 
daisckes  IlandwdrUriuch,  Leipz.,  1823).  It  is 
worthy  of  remark,  that  all  the  persons  who  are 
recorded  in  Scripture  as  having  legally  performed 
priestly  acts,  bul  who  were  not  stirctly  sacerdotal, 
come  under  Ihe  definition  of  a  prophet,  vii.,  per- 
sons who  received  supernatural  communications 
of  knowledge  generally,  as  Adam,  Abraham  (Gen. 
XX  :7),  Isaac,  Jacob,  Moses.  Job,  Samuel,  Elijah 
(comp.  Luke  i:70).  The  primary  meaning  of  the 
Hebrew  word  is  regarded  by  Kimchi,  Castell,  Gig- 
geius,  Ernesti,  Simonis,  Tittmann,  and  Eichhom, 
to  he,  the  rendering  of  honorable  and  dignified 
service,  like  that  of  ministers  of  state  t«i  their 
sovereign.  Nearly  similar  is  the  idea  adopted  by 
Cocceius  and  Schultens,  viz.,  drawing  near,  as  to 
a  king  or  any  supreme  authority.  The  following 
definition  of  a  priest  may  be  found  sufficiently 
comprehensive; — A  manwhoofficiates  or  transacts 
with  God  on  behalf  of  others,  statedly,  or  for  the 


I,  Garmants  of  Priesthood.    The  designation 

and  call  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  to  the  priesthood 
are  commanded  in  Exod.  xxviii:i ;  and  holy  gar- 


ments to  be  made  for  Aaron,  'for  glory  and  for 
beauty'  (verse  2),  and  for  his  sons  (verse  40), 
by  persons  originally  skillful,  and  now  also  in- 
spired for  the  purpose  (verse  3),  the  chief  of 
whom  were  Bezaleel  and  Aholiab  (xxxi:2-6).  As 
there  were  some  garments  common  both  to  the 
priests  and  the  high-priest,  we  shall  begin  with 
those  of  the  former,  taking  them  in  the  ordnr  in 
which  they  would  be  put  on. 


PRIEST,  HEBREW  PRIESTHOOD 

(1)  Fine  Lriuen.  The  first  was 'linen  breeches,' 
or  drawers  (Exod.  xxvui:42).  These  were  ic 
be  of  line  twined-linen,  and  to  reach  from  the 
loins  to  the  middle  of  the  thighs.  According  to 
Josephus,  whose  testimonj-,  however,  of  course. 
relates  only  to  his  own  time,  they  reached  only 
to  the  middle  of  the  thigh,  where  they  were  lied 
fast  (Aniiq.  iii,  7,  i).  Such  drawers  were  worn 
universally  in  Egypt.  In  the  sculptures  and  paint- 
ings of  that  country,  the  figures  of  workmen  and 
servants  have  no  other  dress  than  a  short  kilt 
or  apron,  sometimes  simply  bound  about  the  loins 
and  lapping  over  in  front :  other  figures  have  short 
loose  drawers;  while  a  third  variety  of  this  ar- 
ticle was  closely  fitted,  and  extending  to  the 
knees.  This  last  sort  of  drawers  seems  to  have 
been  peculiar  in  Egypt  to  the  gods,  and  to  the 
priests,  whose  attire  was  often  adapted  to  that  of 
the  idols  on  which  Ihey  attended.  The  priests, 
in  common  with  other  persons  of  the  upper 
classes,  wore  the  drawers  under  other  robes.  No 
mention  occurs  of  the  use  of  drawers  by  any  other 
class  of  persons  in  Israel  except  the  priests,  on 
whom  it  was  enjoined  for  the  sake  of  decency. 

(2)  Woven  Coat.  The  coat  of  line  linen  or 
tolton    (Exod.   xxxix:27)    which    was   worn  by 


PRIEST,  HEBREW  PRIESTHOOD 


of  needlework' (Exod.  xxxixiag).  Josephus  de- 
scribes it  as  often  going  round,  four  fingers  broad, 
but  so  loosely  woven  that  it  mi^ht  be  taken  for  the 
skin  of  a  serpent;  and  thai  it  was  embroidered 
irith  flowers  of  scarlet,  and  purple,  and  blue,  but 


that  the  warp  was  nothing  but  linen.  The  be- 
ginning of  its  circumvolution  was  at  the  breast; 
and  when  it  had  gone  often  round,  it  was  there 
lied,  and  hung  loosely  down  to  the  ankles  while 
the  priest  was  not  engaged  in  any  laborious  serv- 
ice, for  in  that  position  it  appeared  in  the  moat 


"  Broideiod  Coat"  Worn  by  Pciesls. 

men  in  general  (Gen.  xxxvii  13) ;  also  by  women 
(a  Sam.  xiii:i8;  Cant,  vtj),  next  to  the  skin.  It 
was  to  be  of  wcven  work.  Josephus  states  that 
it  reached  down  to  the  feet,  and  sat  close  to  the 
body;  and  had  sleeves,  which  were  tied  fast  to 
the  arms;  and  was  girded  to  the  breast  a  little 
above  the  elbows  by  a  girdle.  It  had  a  narrow 
aperture  about  the  neck,  and  was  tied  with  certain 
strings  hanging  down  from  the  edge  over  the 
breast  and  back,  and  was  fastened  above  each 
shoulder  {Antiq.  iii,  7,  2).  But  this  garment,  in 
the  case  of  the  priests  and  high-priest,  was  to 
be  broidered  (Exod.  xxviii  :4).  A  broidered  coat, 
by  which  Gesenius  understands  a  coat  of  cloth 
worked  in  checkers  or  cells. 

(3)  The  Girdle.  (Exod.  xxviii:4o;  Lev,  xvi: 
4).  This  was  also  worn  by  magistrates  (Is.  xxii : 
21).  The  girdle  for  the  priests  was  to  be  made  'of 
fine  twined  linen,  and  blue,  and  purple,  and  scarlet. 


Form  otTurbBii  Worn  by  Hebrew  Piiealt. 

agreeable  manner  to  the  spectators ;  but  when  be 
was  obliged  to  assist  at  the  offering  of  sacrifices, 
and  to  do  the  appointed  service,  in  order  that  he 
might  not  he  hindered  in  his  operations  by  its 
motion,  he  threw  it  to  the  left  hand,  and  bore  it 
on  his  right  shoulder  QAntiq.  iii,  7,  a). 


PRIEST,  HEBREW  PRIESTHOOD         13 

(4)  The  Cap,  The  bonnet,  cap,  or  lurban 
(Exod.  xxviii  :40;  Eiek.  xliv  :i8)  was  to  be  of  fine 
linen  (xxxix:28).  In  the  time  of  Josephus  it  was 
circular,  covering  about  half  the  head,  somethinc 
like  a  crown  made  of  thick  linen  swathes  doubled 
round  many  times,  and  sewed  together,  sur- 
rounded by  a  linen  cover  to  hide  the  seams  of  the 
swathes,  and  sat  so  close  that  it  would  not  fall 
off  when  the  body  was  bent  down  (,Aniiq.  iii, 
7.3). 

2.  Unss  of  tht  High-'Pri«at.  The  dress  of 
the  high-priest  was  precisely  the  same  with  that 
of  the  common  priests  in  all  the  foregoing  par- 
ticulars. 

(1)  The  Bobe.  In  addition  to  the  above  he  had 
arobe,or  tunu  (ExoA.  Kxviii:4).  This  was  not  a 
mantle,  but  a  second  and    larger  coat  without 


;h-Prieat'*  Roba  wiih  Pod 


id  Coldeo  Bell 


sleeves ;  a  kind  of  surlout  worn  by  the  laity,  es- 

fecially  persons  of  distinction  {Job  i:2o;  ii:i2,  by 
ings;  I  Sam.  xv:27;  xviii:^;  xxiv:5.  la).  This 
garment,  when  intended  for  the  high-priest,  and 
then  called  'the  robe  of  the  epkod,'  was  to  be  of 
one  entire  piece  of  woven  work,  all  of  blue,  with 
an  aperture  for  the  neck  in  the  middle  of  the 
upper  part,  having  its  rim  strengthened  and 
adorned  with  a  border.  The  hem  had  a  kind  of 
fringe,  composed  of  tassels,  made  of  blue,  purple, 
and  scarlet,  in  the  form  of  pomegranates;  and  be- 
tween every  two  pomegranates  there  was  a  small 
golden  bell,  so  that  there  was  a  bell  and  a 
pomegranate  alternately  all  round  (Exod.  xxviii: 
31-35)-  The  use  of  ihe^e  helh  may  have  partly 
been,  that  by  the  high-priest  shaking  his  garment 
at  the  time  of  his  offering  incense  on  the  great  day 
of  expiation,  etc.,  the  people  without  might  be 
apprised  of  it,  and  unite  their  prayers  with  it 


8         PRIEST,  HEBREW  PRIESTHOOD 

(comp.  Ecclus.  xlvig;  Luke  i:io;  Acts  x:4; 
Rev.  viii:3,  4).  Josephus  describes  this  robe  of 
the  ephod  as  reaching  to  the  feet,  and  consist- 
ing of  one  entire  piece  of  woven-worl^  and  parted 
where  the  hands  came  out  (John  xix:a3).  He 
also  states  that  it  was  tied  round  with  a  girdle, 
embroidered  with  the  same  colors  as  the  former, 
wiih  a  mixture  of  gold  interwoven  (Anliq.  iii, 
7,  4).  It  is  highly  probable  that  this  garment 
was  also  derivecTfrom  Egyptian  usa{;e.  There  are 
instances  at  Thebes  of  priests  wcarmg  over  the 
coat  a  loose  sleeveless  robe,  and  which  exposes 
the  sleeves  of  the  inner  tunic.  The  fringe  o( 
bells  and  pomegranates  seems  to  have  been  the 
priestly  substitute  for  the  fringe  bound  with  a 
blue  riband,  which  all  the  Israelites  were  com- 
manded to  wear.  Many  traces  of  this  fringe  occur 
in  the  E^rptian  remains.  The  use  assigned  to  it, 
'that  looking  on  this  fringe  they  should  remember 
the  Lord's  commandments,'  seems  best  explicable 
by  the  supposition  that  the  Egyptians  had  con- 
nected some  superstitious  ideas  with  it  (Num. 
xv:37-40). 

(2)  Th«  Epbod.  This  is  mentioned  in  Exod. 
xxviii  :4.  It  was  a  short  cloak  covering  the 
shoulders  and  breast.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
worn  by  Samuel  while  a  youth  ministering  before 
the  Lord  (i  Sam.  ii:i8);  by  David,  while  en- 
gaged in  religious  service  (2  Sam,  vi:i4};  and 
by  inferior  priests  (i  Sam.  xxii:i8).  But  in  all 
these  instances  it  is  distinguished  as  a  linen  ephod, 
but  the  ephod  of  the  high-priest  was  to  be  made 
of  gold,  of  blue,  of  purple,  of  scarlet,  and  fine 
twined  linen,  with  cunning  work.  Though  it  prob- 
ably consisted  of  one  piece,  woven  throughout,  it 
had  a  back  part  and  a  front  part,  united  by 
shoulder- pieces.  It  had  also  a  girdle ;  or  rather 
strings  went  out  from  each  side  and  tied  it  to  the 
body.  On  the  lop  of  each  shoulder  was  to  be 
an  onyx  stone,  set  in  sockets  of  gold,  each  hav- 
ing engraven  upon  it  six  of  the  names  of  the 
children  of  Israel,  according  to  the  precedence 
of  birth,  to  memorialize  the  Lord  of  the  prom- 
ises made  to  them  (Exod.  xxviii  :6-i2,  2<)). 
Josephus  gives  sleeves  to  the  ephod  (Anltq.  iii, 
7,  s)-  It  may  be  considered  as  a  substitute  for 
the  leopard-skin  worn  by  the  Egyptian  high- 
priests  in  their  most  sacred  duties. 

(3)  The  Breastplate.  Then  came  the  breatt- 
plate,  a  goiget,  ten  inches  square,  made  of  the 
same  sort  of  cloth  as  the  ephod,  and  doubled  so 
as  to  form  a  kind  of  pouch  or  bag  (Exod.  xxxix: 
9),  in  which  was  to  be  put  the  Ubiu  and  Thum- 
MIM,  which  are  also  mentioned  as  if  already 
known  (xxviii  :3o).  The  external  part  of  this 
gorget  was  set  wiih  four  rows  of  precious  stones; 
the  first  row,  a  sardius,  a  topaz,  and  a  carbuncle; 
the  second,  an  emerald,  a  sapphire,  and  a  dia- 
mond; the  third,  a  ligure,  an  agate,  and  an 
amethyst ;  and  the  fourth,  a  beryl,  an  onyx,  and  a 
jasper,— set  in  a  golden  socket.  Upon  each  of 
these  stones  was  to  be  engraven  the  name  of  one 
of  the  sons  of  Jacob.  In  the  ephod,  in  which  there 
was  a  space  left  open  sufficiently  large  for  the  ad- 
mission of  this  pectoral,  were  four  rings  of  gold, 
to  which  four  others  at  the  four  comers  of  the 
breastplate  corresponded ;  the  two  lower  rings  of 
the  latter  being  fixed  inside.  It  was  confined  to 
the  ephod  by  means  of  dark  blue  ribands,  which 
passed  through  these  rings;  and  it  was  also  sus- 
pended from  the  onyx  stones  on  the  shoulder  by 
chains  of  gold,  or  rather  cords  of  twisted  gold 
threads,  which  were  fastened  at  one  end  to  two 
Other  larger  rings  fixed  in  the  upper  corners  of 
the  pectoral,  and  by  the  other  end  going  round 
the  onyx  stones  on  the  shoulders,  and  returning 


PRIEST.  HEBREW  PRIESTHOOD        1; 

and  b«iDg  fixed  In  the  larger  ring.  The  breast- 
plate was  further  kepi  in  its  place  by  a  girdle, 
made  of  (he  same  stuff,  which  Josephus  says  was 
sewed  to  the  breastplate,  and  which,  when  it  had 
Kone  once  rinn'l  w"  lied  aeain  upon  the  seam 
and  hung  down.  (S«e  Breastplate  of  the 
High- Priest.) 

(4)  Tlie  Uitr*.  The  remaining  portion  of  dress 
peculiar  to  the  bigh-priest  was  the  mitre  (Exod. 
zxviii:4).    The  Bible  says   nothing   of    the    Aii- 


Higb-PrtMt  In  hi*  RoIms  on  tha  Day  of  Bi^alion. 

ference  beween  this  and  the  turban  of  the  com- 
mon priests.    It  is,  however,  called  by  a  different 
name.    It  was  to  be  of  fine  linen  (verse  39).    Jo- 
sephus says  it  was  the  same  in  construction  and 
figure  with  that  of  the  common  priest,  but  that 
above  it  there  was  another,  with  swathes  of  blue, 
embroidered,  and  round  it  was  a  golden  crown, 
polished,  of  three  rows,  one  above  another,  out  of 
which    rose    a    cup    of    gold, 
which  resembled   the   calyx  of 
the  herb  called  by  Greek  bota- 
nists, hyoscyamus.     He  ettds  a 
most    labored    description    by 
comparing  the  shape  of  it  to  a 
poppy  (iu,  ?.  6)-    Upon  eom- 
panng  his  account  of  the  bon- 
net   of    the    priests    with    the 
mitre   of  the    high-priests,    it 
would  appear  that  the  latter 
was  conical.    Tlie  mitres  worn 
by  the  ancient  priests  of  Egypt 
afford  a  substantial  resemblance 
of  that  prescribed  to  the  Jews, 
divested  of  idolatrous  symbols, 
but   which    were   displaced   to 
make  way  for  a  simple  plate  of 
gold,    bearing    the    inscription, 
holiness    to    Jehovah.'      This 
lamina,  extended  from  one  ear 
to  the  other,  being  bound  to 
the  forehead  by  strings  tied  be- 
hind, and  further  secured  in  its 
position  by  a  blue  riband  at- 
tached   to    the    mitre     (Exod. 
xxv!ii:36-39;    xxxix:30;     Lev. 
viii  :9) ,      Josephus    says    this 
nlale  was  preserved  to  his  own 
day  (Anttg.  viii.  3-8;  see  Re- 
land,  De  Spol.  Templi,  p.  132). 
Such    was    the    dress    of    the  , 
high-priest ;    see    a    description 
of   its  magnificence   in   corre- 


79         PRIEST,  HEBREW  PRIESTHOOD 

sponding  terms  in  Ecclus.  l:5-i6;  Josephus  had  an 
idea  of  the  symbolical  import  of  the  several  parts 
of  it.  He  says,  thai  being  made  of  linen  signified 
the  earth;  the  blue  denoted  the  sk^,  being  like 
lightning  in  its  pomegranates,  and  m  the  ncHM 
of  its  bells  resembling  thundef  The  ephod  showed 
that  God  had  made  the  universe  of  four  elements, 
the  gold  relating  to  the  splendor  by  which  all 
things  are  enlightened.  The  breastplate  in  the 
middle  of  the  ephod  resembled  the  earth,  which 
has  the  middle  place  of  the  world.  The  girdle 
signified  the  sea,  which  goes  round  the  world. 
The  sardonyxes  declare  the  sun  and  moon  The 
twelve  stones  are  the  twelve  months  or  signs  of 
the  zodiac.  The  mitre  is  heaven,  because  blue 
(iii.  7,  7).  He  appears,  however,  to  have  had  two 
explanations  of  some  things,  one  for  the  Gentiles, 
and  another  for  the  Jews.  Thus  in  this  section, 
he  tells  his  Gentile  readers  that  the  seven  lamps 
upon  the  golden  candlesticks  referred  to  the  seven 
planets ;  but  to  the  Jews  he  represents  them  as 
an  emblem  of  the  seven  days  of  the  week  (De 
Bell.  Jud.  vii,  5,  5;  Whiston's  notes  in  he).  The 
magnificent  dress  of  the  high-priest  was  not  al- 
ways worn  by  him.  It  was  exchanged  for  one 
wholly  of  linen,  and  therefore  white,  though  of 
similar  construction,  when  on  the  day  of  expiation 
he  entered  into  the  Holy  of  Holies  (Lev.  xvi:4, 
33)  1  and  neither  he  nor  the  common  priests  wore 
their  appropriate  dress,  except  when  officiating. 
It  was  lor  this  reason,  according  to  some,  that 
Paul,  who  had  been  long  absent  from  Jerusalem, 
did  not  know  that  Ananias  was  the  high-priest 
(Acts  xxiii:s).  In  Ezek.  xlii:i4;  xliv:i7-i9, 
there  are  directions  that  the  priests  should  talce 
off  their  garments  when  thn  had  ministered,  and 
lay  them  up  in  the  holy  chambers,  and  put  on 
other  garments;  but  these  directions  occur  in  a 
visionary  representation  of  a  temple,  which  all 
agree  has  never  been  realized,  the  particulars  of 
which,  though  sometimes  derived  from  known 
customs,  yet  at  other  times  differ  from  them 
widely.    The  garments  of  the  inferior  priests  ap- 


PRIEST,  HEBREW  PRIESTHOOD        1380         PRIEST,  HEBREW  PRIESTHOOD 


pnr  to  have  been  kept  in  the  sacred  treainry 
<Eira  11:69;  Neh.  viiiTo). 

3.  Consecration.  The  nest  incident  in  the 
hUlory  is,  that  Moses  receives  a  command  to  con- 
secrate Aaron  and  his  sons  to  the  priests'  office 
(Exod.  xxviii:4i),  in  the  manner  and  for  the 
succession  betow  described : 

(1)  CanmonlM.  They  were  to  be  washed  at 
the  door  of  the  tabernacle  of  the  con^egation 
(xxix.'4},  where  the  altar  of  burnt  offering  stood 
(xl;6,  sg).  Aaron  was  then  robed  in  his  pontifical 

graients  (versea  4-6),  and  anointed  with  a  pro- 
sion  of  oil  (verse  y) ;  whence  he  was  called 
■the  priest  that  is  anointed'  (Lev.  iv:3,  etc.: 
Pi.  cxxxiii  -.3) .  This  last  act  was  the  peculiar  and 
only  distinguishing  part  of  Aaron's  consecration; 
for  the  anointing  of  his  sons  (Exod.  xxx-.ya)  re- 
lates Bnly  to  the  unction  (xxix:2i),  by  a  mixture 
made  of  the  blood  of  the  sacrifice  and  of  tho 
anoinli>g  oil,  which  was  sprinkled  upon  both 
Aaron  and  his  sons,  and  upon  tlieir  garments,  as 
part  of  their  consecration.  Hence  then  Aaron  re- 
ceived  two  unctions.  In  after  times  the  high-priest 
took  an  oath  (Heb.  vii:23)  to  bind  him, 
Jews  say,  to  a  strict  adherence 
toms  (Mishna,  tit.  Voma,  i,  5). 
of  this  ceremony  of  consecratio 
in  one  chapter  (Exod.  xxix), 
be  content  to  refer  the  reader, 
mony  lasted  seven  days,  on  each  of  which,  all 
the  sacrifices  were  repeated  (Lev.  vi)i:33},  to 
which  a  promise  was  added,  that  God  would  sanc- 
tify Aaron  and  his  sons,  that  is,  declare  them  to 
be  sanctified,  which  he  did,  by  the  appearance 
of  his  glory  at  their  first  sacrifice,  and  by  the  fire 
which  descended  and  consumed  their  bumt-oSer- 
ings  (Lev.  ix:23,  24). 

(2)  Bocceaalva  Frissthood.  Thus  were  Aaron 
and  his  sons  and  their  descendants  separated  for- 
ever, to  the  office  of  the  priesthood,  from  all  other 
Israelites.  There  was  consequently  no  need  of 
any  further  consecration  for  them  or  their  de- 


Hl|b-Prleil  Id  hli  RobM. 

atendants.  The  firstborn  son  of  Aaron  succeeded 
him  in  the  oflice,  and  the  elder  son  among  all  his 
descendants;  a  rule  which,  though  deviated  from 
in  after  times,  was  ultimately  resumed.  The  next 
sticcessor  was  to  be  anointed  and  consecrated  in 
his  father's  holy  garments  (Exod.  xxix:29),  which 
he  must  wear  seven  days  when  he  went  into  the 
Ubernacle  of  the  coogrcption  to  nunister  (verse 


30;  comp.  Num.  xx:26-28;  xxxv:25),  and  make 
an  atonement  for  all  things  and  persons  (Lev. 
xvt:32-34),  and  for  himself  (comp.  verse  11), 
besides  the  offering  (vi;20-22).  The  common 
priests  were  required  to  prove  their  descent  from 
Aaron.  No  age  was  prescribed  for  their  entrance 
on  their  ministry,  or  retirement  from  it. 

4.  Outtes  0/  the  UIgh-Vriest.  We  shall 
now  give  a  summary  of  the  duties  and  emolm- 
mtntt  of  the  high-priest  and  common  priests  r^ 


established  cus- 
The  other  details 
are  all  contained 
3  which  we  must 
The  entire  cere- 


ConnDoo  PiieU. 

MKctively.  Besides  his  lineal  descent  from  Aaroi^ 
the  high-priest  was  required  to  be  free  from  ev- 
ery  bodily  blemish  or  defect  (Lev.  xxi:i6-23); 
but  though  thus  incapacitated,  yet,  his  other  quali- 
fications being  sufficient,  he  might  eat  of  the  food 
appropriated  to  the  priests  (verse  22).  He  must 
not  marry  a  widow,   nor  a  divorced  woman,  or 

{rofane,  or  that  had  been  a  harlot,  but  a  virgin 
sraelitess  (verse  14J.  In  Ezekiel's  vision  a  gen- 
eral ^rmission  is  given  to  the  priests  to  marry 
a  priest's  widow  (xliv:22).  The  high-priest 
might  not  observe  the  external  signs  of  mourning 
(or  any  person,  or  leave  the  sanctuary  upon  re- 
ceiving intelligence  of  the  death  of  even  father  or 
mother  (verses  io-i2;comp.x:7).  Public  calamities 
seem  to  have  been  an  exception,  for  joacim  the 
high -priest,  and  the  priests,  in  such  circum- 
stances ministered  in  sackcloth  with  ashes  on 
their  mitres  (Judith  iv:i4,  15;  comp,  Joel  i:i3). 
He  must  not  eat  anything  that  died  of  itself,  or 
was  torn  of  beasts  (Lev,  xxii  ;8) ;  must  wash  his 
hands  and  feet  when  he  went  into  the  tabernacle 
of  the  congregation,  and  when  he  approached  the 
altar  to  minister  (Exod,  xxx:ii)-2I,  sq.).  Al  first 
Aaron  was  to  burn  incense  on  the  golden  altar 
every  morning  when  he  dressed  the  lamps,  and 
eyety  evening  when  he  lighted  them,  but  in  later 
times  the  common  priest  performed  this  duty 
(Luke  i:8,  9) ;  to  offer,  as  the  Jews  understand 
it,  daily  morning  and  evening,  the  peculiar  meat- 
offering he  offered  on  the  day  of  his  consecration 
(Exod.  xxix)  ;  to  perform  the  ceremonies  of  the 
great  day  of  expiation  (Lev.  xvi)  ;  to  arrange 
the  shew-bread  every  Sabbath,  and  to  eat  it  in  the 
holy  place  (xxiv  rg)  ;  must  abstain  from  the  holy 
things  during  his  uncleanness  (xxii:i-3);  also 
if  he  became  leprous,  or  contracted  uncleanness 
(verses  4-7).   If  be  committed  a  sin  of  ignorance 


PRIEST,  HEBREW  PRIESTHOOD         1381         PRIEST,  HEBREW  PRIESTHOOD 


he  must  offer  a  sin-offering  for  it  (iv:3-i3); 
and  so  for  the  people  (verses  12-22)  ;  was  to  eat 
the  remainder  of  the  people's  meat-offerings  with 
the  inferior  priests  in  the  holy  place  (vi:i6);  to 
judge  of  the  leprosy  in  the  human  body  or  gar- 
ments (xiii:2-59);  to  adjudicate  legal  questions 
(Deut.  xvii:i2).  Indeed  when  there  was  no  di- 
vinely inspired  judge,  the  high-priest  was  the  su- 
preme ruler  till  the  time  of  David,  and  again 
after  the  captivity.  He  must  be  present  at  the 
appointment  of  a  new  ruler  or  leader  (Num. 
xxvii.'ig),  and  ask  counsel  of  the  Lord  for  the 
ruler  (verse  21).  Eleazar  with  others  distributes 
the  spoils  taken  from  the  Midianites  (Num.  xxxi: 
21,  26).  To  the  high-priest  also  belonged  the  ap* 
pointment  of  a  maintenance  from  the  fund^  of 
the  sanctuary  to  an  incapacitated  priest  (i  Sam. 
ii:36,  margin).  Besides  these  duties,  peculiar  to 
himself,  he  had  others  in  common  with  the  in- 
ferior priests.  Thus,  when  the  camp  set  forward, 
'Aaron  and  his  sons'  were  to  take  the  tabernacle 
to  pieces,  to  cover  the  various  portions  of  it  in 
cloths  of  various  colors  (iv:5-i5),  and  to  appoint 
the  Levites  to  their  services  in  carrying  them; 
to  bless  the  people  in  the  form  prescribed  (vi: 
23-27),  to  be  responsible  for  all  official  errors 
and  negligences  (xviiiri),  and  to  have  the  gen- 
eral charge  of  the  sanctuary  (verse  5). 

5.  Emoluments  of  the  High'Vriest.  Neither 
the  high-priest  nor  common  priests  received  'any 
inheritance'  at  the  distribution  of  Canaan  among 
the  several  tribes  (Num.  xviii:2o;  Deut.  xviii: 
I,  2),  but  were  maintained,  with  their  families, 
upon  certain  fees,  dues,  perquisites,  etc.,  arising 
from  the  public  services,  which  they  enjoyed  as 
a  common  fund.  Perhaps  the  only  distinct  prerog- 
ative of  the  high-priest  was  a  tenth  part  of  the 
tithes  assigned  to  the  Levites  (Num.  xviii  :28; 
comp.  Neh.  x  138) ;  but  Josephus  represents  this 
also  as  a  common  fund  (Antiq,  iv,  4,  4). 

6.  General  Duties  of  the  Priests,  (i)  Be- 
sides those  duties  already  mentioned  as  com- 
mon to  them  and  the  high-priests,  they  were  re- 

?iUired  to  prove  their  descent  from  Aaron,  to  be 
ree  from  all  bodily  defect  or  blemish  (Lev.  xxi: 
16-23) ;  (2)  must  not  observe  mourning,  except 
for  near  relatives  (xxi:i-5);  must  not  marry  a 
woman  that  had  been  a  harlot,  or  divorced,  or 
profane.  (3)  The  priest's  daughter  who  commit- 
ted whoredom  was  to  be  burnt,  as  profaning  her 
father  (xxi  .-9).  (4)  The  priests  were  to  have 
the  charge  of  the  sanctuary  and  altar  (Num. 
xviii  :5).  (5)  The  fire  upon  the  altar  being  once 
kindled  (Lev.  1:7),  the  priests  were  always  to 
keep  it  burning  (vi:i3).  (6)  In  later  times,  and 
upon  extraordinary  occasions,  at  least,  they  flayed 
the  burnt-offerings  (2  Chron.  xxix:34),  and  killed 
the  Passover  (Ezra  vi:^).  (7)  They  were  to 
receive  the  blood  of  the  burnt-offerings  in  basins 
(Exod.  xxiv:6),  and  sprinkle  it  round  about  the 
altar,  arrange  the  wood  and  the  fire,  and  to  burn 
the  parts  of  the  sacrifices  (Lev.  i  15-10).  (8)  If 
the  burnt  sacrifice  were  of  doves,  the  priest  was 
to  nip  off  the  head  with  his  finger-nail,  squeeze 
out  the  blood  on  the  edge  of  the  altar,  pluck  off 
the  feathers,  and  throw  them  with  the  crop  into 
the  ash  pit,  divide  it  down  the  wings,  and  then 
completely  burn  it  (verses  15-17).  (9)  He  was 
to  offer  a  lamb  every  morning  and  evening  (Num. 
xxviii:3),  and  a  double  number  on  the  Sabbath 
(verse  9),  and  the  burnt-offerings  ordered  at  the 
beginning  of  months  (verse  11),  and  the  same  on 
the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  (verse  19),  and  on 
the  day  of  the  First  Fruits  (verse  26)  ;  (10)  to 
receive  the  meat-offering  of  the  offerer,  bring  it  to 
the  altar,  take  of  it  a  memorial,  and  bum  it  upon 


the  altar  (Lev.  ii) ;  (11)  to  sprinkle  the  Mood  of 
the  peace-offerings  upon  the  altar  round  about, 
and  then  to  offer  of  it  a  burnt-offering  (iii)  ; 
(12)  to  offer  the  sin-offering  for  a  sin  of  ignor- 
ance in  a  ruler  or  any  of  the  common  people 
(iv  .-22-25)  ;  (13)  to  eat  the  sin-offering  in  the  holy- 
place  (vi:26;  comp.  x:i6-i8);  (14)  to  offer  the 
trespass-offering  (verses  6-19;  vi:6,  7),  to  sprinlde 
its  blood  round  about  the  altar  (vii:2),  to  eat  of 
it,  etc.  (verse  6) ;  (15)  to  eat  of  the  shew-bread 
in  the  holy  place  (xxiv:9);  (16)  to  offer  for 
the  purification  of  women  after  childbirth  (xii: 
6>  7) ;  (17)  to  judge  of  the  leprosy  in  the  human 
body  or  garments;  to  decide  when  the  leper  was 
cleansed,  and  to  order  a  sacrifice  for  him  (xiv: 
3,  4) ;  to  administer  the  rites  used  at  pronounc- 
ing him  clean  (verses  6,  7) ;  to  present  him  and 
his  offering  before  the  Lord,  and  to  make  an 
atonement  for  him  (verses  10-32) ;  to  judge  of 
the  leprosy  in  a  hcjuse  (xiv  .-33-47),  to  decide 
when  it  was  clean  (verse  48),  and  to  make  an 
atonement  for  it  (verses  49-53)  ;  (18)  to  make 
an  atonement  for  men  cleansed  Irom  an  issue  of 
uncleanness  (xv:i4,  15),* and  for  women  (verses 
29»  30) ;  (19)  to  offer  the  sheaf  of  First  Fruits 
(xxiii.'io,  11)  ;  (20)  to  estimate  the  commutation 
in  money  for  persons  in  cases  of  a  singtdar  or 
extraordinary  vow  (xxvii:8),  or  for  any  devoted 
unclean  beast  (verses  11, 12), or  for  a  house  (verse 
14),  or  field  (xviii  :23)  ;  (21)  to  conduct  the  or- 
deal of  the  bitter  water  (Num.  v:i2-3i).  (See 
Jealousy,  Water  of)  ;  (22)  to  make  an  atone- 
ment for  a  Nazarite  who  had  accidentallv  con- 
tracted uncleanness  (vi:i3);  (23)  to  offer  l^s 
offering  when  the  days  of  his  separation  were 
fulfilled  (verses  14,  16) ;  (24)  to  blow  with  the 
silver  trumpets  on  all  occasions  appointed  (vi: 
^3-^7) I  and  ultimately  at  morning  and  evening 
service  (i  Chron.  xvi:6)  ;  ^25)  to  make  an  atone- 
ment for  the  people  and  individuals  in  case  of 
erroneous  worship  (Num.  xv:is,  24,  25,  27); 
(26)  to  make  the  ointment  of  spices  (i  C^ron. 
ix  :3o) ;  (27)  to  prepare  the  water  of  separation 
(Num.  xix:i-ii);  (28)  to  act  as  assessors  in 
judicial  proceedings  (Deut.  xvii:9;  xix:7);  (29) 
to  encourage  the  army  when  going  to  battle,  and 
probably  to  furnish  the  officers  with  the  speech 
(verses  5-9) ;  (30)  to  superintend  the  expiation 
of  an  uncertain  murder  (xxi:5),  and  to  have 
charge  of  the  law  (xxxi  .-9). 

^  The  student  will  observe  the  important  distinc- 
tion, that  the  term  UpeOs,  hee-eh-rooce^  Priest^ 
is  never  applied  to  the  pastor  of  the  Christian 
church;  with  which  term  the  idea  of  a  sacrifice 
was  always  connected  in  ancient  times.  For  the 
theology  of  the  subject,  Dr.  J.  P.  Smith's  DiS' 
courses  on  the  Sacrifice  and  Priesthood  of  Christ, 
London,  1842;  Wilson  on  the  same  subject;  Stan- 
ley, Lectures  on  Jewish  Hist.,  ii.  448-477. 

J.  F.  D. 

Figurative*  (i)  Did  these  priests  typify  our 
adored  Priest  of  ^ood  things  to  comef  How 
fully  attested  his  divine  generation,  and  his  royal 
descent  I  How  perfect  are  his  person  and  nature ! 
How  free  from  every  corruption  and  every  weak- 
ness tending  to  disqualify  him  for  his  work  I  How 
solemn  his  call  and  consecration  by  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  by  his  own  blood!  How  sacred  his 
robes  of  manhood,  mediatorial  office,  and  com- 
plete righteousness!  How  extensive  his  charge 
to  atone  for  his  people;  to  illuminate,  nourish, 
order,  judge,  bless,  encourage,  and  purify  his 
church!  (2)  Were  not  these  priests  emblems  of 
gospel  ministers?  They  must  be  divinely  called 
to  their  work,  and  qualified  with  gifts  and  graces 
for  it,  richly  furnish'^.d  with  spiritual  knowledge. 


PRIESTHOOD 


1382 


PRINCE 


blameless,  sober,  temperate,  holy,  and  prudent, 
wholly  given  to  their  work  (Ezek.  xiii-xiv). 
(3)  Were  they  not  emblems  of  the  saints f  Their 
spiritual  descent  from  Jesus  is  certain  and  it 
ought  to  be  evident  that  they  are  filled  with  love 
for  Christ.  It  is  theirs  daily  to  present  the  in- 
cense of  prayer  and  praise,  and  to  present  their 
good  works,  as  shew-bread,  accepted  in  Christ; 
and  to  grow  in  grace  and  spiritual  knowledge, 
and  shine  as  lights  in  the  world  (i  Pet.  ii:5,  9; 
Rev.  i:6). 

FBIESTHOOD  (pr6st-hdod). 

It  denotes  (i)  the  office  of  a  priest  (Num.  xvi: 
10).  The  anointing  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  was 
an  "everlasting  priesthood;''  it  secured  to  them 
and  their  seed  the  office  of  priest  for  many  genera- 
tions (Exod.  xl:i5;  Num.  xxv:i3).  Christ's 
"priesthood  is  unchangeable,"  as  it  never  passeth 
from  him  to  another  (Heb.  vii:24).  (2)  The  ex- 
ecution of  this  office ;  and  the  "iniquity  of  the 
priesthood"  is  what  was  committed  in  perform- 
ing the  work  of  that  office  (Num.  xviiiri).  (3) 
A  class  of  priests :  so  the  saints  are  a  "holy  and 
royal  priesttiood;"  a  company  of  spiritual  priests, 
washed  in  Jesus'  blood,  sanctified  by  his  word  and 
Spirit,  and  all  of  them  kings  and  priests  to  God 
(I  Pet.  ii:5,  9).  (See  Priest,  Hebrew  Priest- 
hood.) 


PBIMOOENrnTBE    (pri  md-jen  ^-tAr),    (Heb. 

•^1^?,  bek-o-raw'^  primogeniture,  Gfji.  xxv:3i,  34; 

xxvii:36,  Deut.  xxi:i7;  i  Chron.  v:i).  (See  Birth- 
right). It  occurs  in  the  New  Test? jtient  only  in 
Heb.  xii:i6. 

PBINCE    (prfnce),   (Heb.   TP^^    na'Sik%    the 

translation  of  several  Hebrew  and  Greek  words, 

1.  The  fathers  who  were  the  heads  of  the 
tribes  (Exod.  xxxiv;3i;  xxxv:27). 

2.  Princes  of  provinces  (i  Kings  xx:i4). 

3.  Princes  mentioned  in  Dan.  vi:i  (see  Esth.i: 
i)  who  were  succeeded  by  the  officers  of  Darius 
Hystaspis. 

4.  A  prince  in  general  is  one  who,  whether  as 
the  son  of  a  king  or  otherwise,  is  possessed  of 
high  rule  and  authority,  (i)  When  the  Hebrews 
came  out  of  Egypt,  they  had  twelve  princes,  as 
referred  to  above,  to  govern  their  twelve  tribes. 
These  princes,  on  twelve  several  days,  offered 
their  oblations  for  the  dedication  of  the  taber- 
nacle. The  offering  of  each  was  one  silver  charger 
of  130  shekels  weight,  one  silver  bowl  of  70 
shekels,  both  of  them  full  of  fine  flour  mingled 
with  oil,  for  a  meat-offering ;  one  golden  spoon  of 
ten  shdcels,  full  of  incense;  one  bullock,  one 
ram,  and  one  lamb^  for  a  meat-offering;  one  kid 


COURSES  OP  PRIESTS. 
From  Ayre's  Trttuury  ^ Bible  KnawUd^, 


In  David's  reign. 
I  Chron.  xziv. 

In  List  in  Ezra  ii; 
Neh.  viL 

In  Nehemiah*s  time. 
Neh.  1. 

In  Zembbabert  time. 
Neh.xii. 

I.  ]ehoiarib.     i  Chron.  ix: 
xo:  Neh.  si :  lo 

Joiarib 

Children  of  Jedaiah 

Children  of  Harim 

s.  Jedaiah 

3.  rlarim  ■,  r ■,  ^  ■, 

Jedaiah 

Harim 

Maichijah.v.v.*.v.v..*;;; ;..; 

Mijamin 

Meremoth,  son  of  Hakkoz. 
Neh.iii:4 

Rehum  (Harim,  15) 

4.  Seorim 

5.  Malchijah 

Children     of     Pashnr,     i 
Chron.  ix :  12. 

••  Miiamin 

Miamin  (Miniamin,  17).... 
Meremoth 

7.  Hakkos 

8.  Abiiah. 

Abijah 

Abijah 

9.  JesDoah 

10.  Shecaniah  t  ....*.....**  ^  ^ 

House  of  leshua  (?)    Ezra 
ii:36;  Neh.  vit;39. 

Shebaniah 

Shechaniah      (Shebaniab, 
14) 

11.  Bllashib 

14.  lakim. .« t.t...tr--t- 

xx,    Inppah.... 

14.  lesLebeab 

i5.Bilgah 

ifi.  ImmAr. .............  ••.... 

Bilgai 

Amariah •••. 

Bilgah 

Amariah _    .    

Children  of  Immer 

17.  Hezir. ..............  1 . .... 

18.  Aphses 

iQ.  Pathahiah.. 

- 

9ol  lehezekel 

91.  lachln.       Neh.    xiiio:     i 

Chron.  Ix :  xou. 

22.  Gamul 

2%.  Delaiah 

.... ...... .... ....  #. 

^.  MAaztah 

Maaziah 

Maadiah  (Moadiah,  17).... 

PGST-BXILIAN  COURSES 
Which  cannot  be  identiled  with  original  ones. 


Neh  X. 

Neh.  xii. 

Neh.  xij 
z  Chron.  ix. 

Neh.x. 

Neh.ziL 

Neh.  xi;  i  Chron.  ix. 

Saraiah 

Seraiah 

R*ra 

Seraiah  (?).... 
Azariah 

Ginnethon 

Bamch 

Mesbullam  .... 
Shemaiah. 

Ginnetho 

AxariAh  «....    ^^    .... 

Jeremiah 

'aahnr. ...... .... 

Jeremiah 

iiattusiiV.!'.!'... 

Malluch 

Iddo 

Shemaiah 

Sallu 

Hattnah.. ........ ..r. 

Malluch 

Amok 

Obadiah 

Adaiah(7) 

Hilkiah 

Jedaiah  (s).... 

Daniel 



PRINCESS 


1383 


PRISON,  PRISONER 


for  a  sin-offering;  and  two  oxen,  five  rams,  five 
he-goats,  and  as  many  Iambs,  for  a  peace-offering 
(Num.  i:5-i6;  vii:  12-89).  (2)  Ten  princes  of  the 
congregation,  along  with  Joshua  and  Eleazar, 
were  appointed  to  divide  the  land  of  Canaan  west- 
ward of  Jordan  (Num.  xxxiv:i7-i9).  David  had 
twelve  princes,  who  commanded  the  standing 
militia  m  their  respective  months;  and  Solomon 
had  twelve  princes,  who  provided  for  his  family. 
(3)  David's  princes  contributed  largely  towards 
the  expenses  of  building  the  temple.  Jehoshaphat's 
were  active  in  reforming  the  country;  and  those 
of  Joash  active  in  corrupting  it  with  idolatry. 
Hezekiah's  princes  were  active  in  his  reforma- 
tion, and  gave  to  the  people  for  offerings  at  the 
sdemn  pas«over,  1,000  bullocks  and  10,000  sheep. 
Josiah's  princes  did  much  the  same  (i  Chron. 
xxix:6-8;  2  Chron.  xvii,  xix,  xxiv:i7,  18;  xxx, 
xxxiv,  xxxv).  After  Josiah's  death,  some  of  the 
princes  were  furious  persecutors  of  Jeremiah  and 
other  prophets ;  and  some  of  them  were  not  ( Jer. 
xxvi,  xxxvi-xxxviii). 

Figurative,  (i)  The  "princes"  and  "thou* 
sands  of  Judah"  denote  the  same  thing,  the  gov- 
ernor being  put  for  the  governed,  or  whole  body 
(Mic.  v:2;  Matt.  ii:6).  (2)  God  is  called  the 
"Prince  of  the  host,"  and  "Prince  of  princes ;"  he 
rules  over  all,  and  in  a  peculiar  manner  was  the 
governor  of  the  Jewish  nation  (Dan.  viiiiii, 
25).  (3)  Jesus  Christ  is  the  "Prince  of  the  kings 
of  the  earth;"  in  his  person  he  surpasseth  every 
creature  in  excellency;  and  he  bestows  rule  and 
authority  on  men  as  he  sees  meet  (Rev.  1:5).  (4) 
He  is  the  "Prince  of  life:"  as  God,  he  is  the  au- 
thor and  disposer  of  all  life,  temporal,  spiritual, 
and  eternal;  as  Mediator,  he  purchases,  bestows, 
and  brings  men  to  everlasting  happiness  (Acts 
iii:iS).  (5)  He  is  the  "Prince  of  peace;"  he  is 
the  God  of  peace;"  he  purchased  peace  between 
God  and  men;  made  peace  between  Jews  and 
Gentiles;  he  left  peace  to  his  disciples  and  people; 
and  he  governs  his  church  in  the  most  peaceable 
manner  (Is.  ix:6).  (6)  Angels  are  called  "chief 
princes,"  and  "principalities ;"  how  excellent  their 
nature!  how  high  their  station!  and  how  great 
their  influence  in  ruling  the  world!  (Dan.  x:i3). 
(7)  The  devil  is  called  a  "principality,"  the 
"prince  of  this  world,"  and  of  the  power  of  the 
air;  he  is  the  head  of  such  angels  as  rove  about 
in  the  air  to  do  mischief  (John  xii:3i;  Eph.  ii: 
2).  (8)  The  apostles,  ministers,  and  saints,  are 
called  "princes;  spiritually  descended  from,  and 
authorized  by  Jesus,  the  King  of  saints,  and  who 
is  over  his  holy  hill  of  Zion:  how  dignified  their 
state,  and  how  great  their  influence  on  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  world,  especially  in  what  relates  to 
the  church!  (Ps.  xlv:i6).  (9)  The  Hebrew  priests 
are  called  the  "princes  of  the  sanctuary,"  because 
they  ruled  in  and  managed  the  affairs  of  it  (Is. 
xliii:28). 

PBINCESS  (prtn'sgs),  the  wife  or  daughter  of 
a  king.  Jerusalem  is  so  called,  because  the  capital 
city  of  Judea,  and  a  principal  city  in  that  part  of 
the  world  (Lam.  i:i). 

FaiNCIPALITIES  (prYn'sT-p^'I-tYz),  (Gr.dpxi^, 
ar-khay',  first,  and  so  rule,  magistracy). 

The  term  denotes  (i)  Royal  state,  or  the  at- 
tire of  the  head  marking  the  same  (Jer.  xiii:i8). 
(2)  Chief  rulers  (Tit.  iii:i).  (3)  Good  angels 
(Eph.  i:2i;  iii:io).  (4)  Bad  angels  (Eph.  vi: 
12;  Col.  ii:is). 

FBINOIPLES  (prfn'sf-pUz),  the  rudiments  of 
any  art  or  science  (Gr.  tfroixefov,  sioy-kht'on,  Heb. 
v:i2).    In  Heb.  Ti:i  (Gr.  i^»x^t  ar-khay'). 


(i)  The  "first  principles  of  the  oracles  of 
Christ"  are  such  truths  as  must  be  understood  and 
believed,  in  order  to  introduce  us  into  a  further 
acquaintance  with  divine  truth;  such  as,  that  in 
everything  we  ought  to  make  the  glory  of  God, 
and  the  enjoyment  of  him,  our  chief  end,  and 
make  his  word  the  standard  of  all  we  believe  and  do 
in  religion.  (2)  This  includes  the  belief  that  there 
is  one  Crod  who  has  purposed,  created,  and  does 
preserve  and  govern  all  things;  that  man  having 
fallen  from  his  happy  state  of  holiness  and  cove- 
nant friendship  with  God,  is  absolutely  incapable 
of  recovering  himself,  but  his  salvation  must  be 
purchased  with  Jesus'  blood,  and  graciously  ap- 
plied by  his  Holy  Spirit:  that  being  united  to 
Christ,  and  justified,  adopted,  and  sanctified,  we 
must  perfect  holiness  in  the  fear  of  God,  walking 
in  all  the  commandments  and  ordinances  of  the 
Lord  blameless  (Heb.  v:i2). 

FBINT  (prfnt).    1.  (Heb.  ^^^.  khaw-fcaw*,  to 

carve,  delineate),  used  in  the  expression,  "Thou 
settest  a  print  upon  the  heels  of  my  feet"  (Job  xiii* 
27). 

2.  (Gr.  Ti^of,  too'PoSt2iin2iT\i\2L  figure  formed  by 
a  blow,  a  scar  Qohn  xx:25).   See  Mark. 

In  general  it  denotes  a  deep  and  observable 
mark  (John  xx:25).  According  to  the  Jews,  the 
markfi  upon  men's  bodies,  prohibited  in  the  law, 
were  made  by  cutting  the  flesh,  and  filling  the 
incision  with  stibium,  ink,  or  other  colors  (Lev. 
xix  :28) . 

FBINTED  (prInt'Sd),  (Job  xix  .23),  i.  e.,  recorded 
in  a  roll  or  book.    (See*  Writing). 

F&ISCA  (prls'k4).    See  Priscilla. 

FBISCIIJ:iA(prissn'lA),  (Gr.  npUrKiXKa^pris'Jkti* 
lahy  little  old  woman),  or  Prisca,  wife  of  Aquila. 
and  probably  like  Phoebe,  a  deaconess. 

She  shared  the  travels,  labors,  and  dangers  of 
her  husband,  and  is  always  named  alon^  with 
him  (Rom.  xvi:3;  I  Cor.  xvi:i9;  2  Tim.  ivrig). 
(See  Aquila.) 

FBISON,  PBISONEB  (prfz'n.  piYz'ner).  As, 
according  to  the  Mosaic  Law^  trial  followed  im- 
mediately after  apprehension,  and  imprisonment 
was  not  used  as  a  punishment,  we  hear  very  little 
of  prisons  among  the  Hebrews  until  the  times  of 
the  kings. 

During  the  passage  through  the  wilderness  two 
persons  were  put  "in  ward"  (Lev.  xxiv:i2;  Num. 
xv:34),  and  from  (jen.  xxxvii:24  and  Jer. 
xxxviii:6-ii,  it  appears  that  the  dry  well  or  pit 
was  used  as  a  place  of  confinement  or  detention. 
Under  the  kings  the  prison  formed  a  part  of  the 
palace  (i  Kin^s  xxii}27;  2  Chron.  xvi:io;  jer. 
xxxii:2),  and  &e  same  was  the  case  under  the 
Herods,  (Luke  iii:2o;  Acts  xii:4).  The  Romans 
used  the  tower  of  Antonia,  in  Jerusalem,  and  the 
praetorium,  in  Caesarea,  as  prisons  (Acts  xxiii: 
10,  35).  Also  the  sacerdotal  authorities  had  a 
prison  in  Jerusalem  (Acts  v:i8-23;  viii:3;  xxvi: 

10).     (See  PUNISHMENTS.) 

Figurative.  To  a  prison  is  compared  what- 
ever tends  to  restrict  liberty,  and  renaer  one  dis- 
graced and  wretched,  as  (i)  A  low,  obscure,  and 
afflicted  condition  (Eccles.  iv:i4).  (2)  The  state' 
of  restraint  wherein  Crod  keeps  Satan  from  se- 
ducing mankind  (Rev.  xxiy).  (3)  The  state  of 
spiritual  thraldom  in  which  sinners  are  placed 
(Is.  xlii:7).  (4)  The  grave,  out  of  which  men 
cannot  move,  and  in  which  they  are  shut  up  as 
evil-doers  (Is.  liii:8).  Perhaps,  in  allusion  to 
this,  David  calls  the  cave  in  which  he  was  as  if 
one  buried  alive,  "a  prison"  (Ps.  cxlii:7).  (5) 
Hell,  where  sinners  are  confined  (i  Pet.  iii:i9). 


PRIVILY,  TO  PUT  AWAY 


1384 


PROGNOSTICATORS 


Such  as  are  shut  up  in  any  of  these,  or  are  in  a 
captive  condition,  are  callea  "prisoners"  (Job  iii: 
i8;  Ps.  Ixix  :33;  Is.  xlixig).  (6)  Paul  was  a 
"prisoner  of  Christ,"  in  bonds  and  imprisonment 
for  his  adherence  to  Christ's  truths  (Eph.  iii: 
i),  (7)  The  Jews  in  Babylon  and  those  sinners 
invited  to  Jesus  Christ,  are  "prisoners  of  hope;" 
the  promise  secured  deliverance  to  the  former;  it 
offers  deliverance  to  the  latter  (Zech.  ix;i2). 

PBIVILY,  TO  PUT  AWAY  (prIv'Wy),  (Matt 
i:i9).    See  Divorce. 

PRIVY  (Heb.  '^^C',  khawdar'.  Ezek.  xxl:i4), 

informed  of  a  secret  matter  (Gr.oi/wi^,  sun-i^do^ 
Acts  v:2),  cognizant  of  a  secret. 

F&I2SE  (priz),  (Gr.  fipapelop,  drad-i'on,  award),  a 
reward  bestowed  on  victors  (i  Cor.  ix'^4;  Phil,  iii: 
14)  in  the  public  games  of  the  Greeks.  (See 
Games). 

EiguratWe.  The  **prise'*  of  the  high  calling 
of  God  in  Christ  Jesus,  is  everlasting  happiness 
in  heaven.  It  is  the  reward  that  God  in  Christ 
promises  graciously  to  g^ve  to  his  people,  to  en- 
courage them  in  their  spiritual  race  and  warfare; 
and  which  he  for  Jesus'  sake  gives  them,  after 
they  have  finished  their  course  (Phil,  iii:  14). 

PROBATION  (pr6-ba'shiin).  A  term  used  in 
Christian  morals  and  theology  to  denote  that 
state  of  man  in  this  life  in  which  his  character  is 
formed  and  developed  in  action  preparatory  to 
judgment. 

For  developed  views  bearing  upon  this  subject, 
see  articles  on  Predestination;  Perseverance; 
Eschatology;  Intermediate  State. 

FBOCHOBUS  (pr6k'o-rus),  (Gr.  Tip6xoptn,prokk'' 
OT'OS,  chorus  leader),  one  of  the  seven  first 
deacons  of  the  Christian  church  (Acts  vi  :$).  Notb* 
ing  is  known  of  him. 

moOLAlCATION  (prdk'lii-ma'shun),  the  ren- 
dering of  several  Hebrew  words,  all  meaning  io 
call,  to  cry  aloud  (Jer.  xxxiv:8, 9;  Jonah  iii :$,  7); 

giving  public  notice  of  the  will  of  a  superior^by  a 
erald,  or  crier  (Dan.  v:29). 

FBOCONSXTIi  (pr6.kdn'sul). 

A  Roman  officer  appointed  to  the  government 
of  a  province  with  consular  authority.  He  was 
chosen  out  of  the  body  of  the  senate;  and  it 
was  customary,  when  any  one's  consulate  ex- 
pired, to  send  him  as  a  proconsul  into  some  prov- 
mce.  He  enjoyed  the  same  honor  with  the  con- 
suls, but  was  allowed  only  six  lictors  with  the 
fasces  before  him.  The  proconsuls  decided  cases 
of  equity  and  justice,  either  privately  in  their 
palaces,  where  they  received  petitions,  heard  com- 
plaints, and  granted  writs  under  their  seals,  or 
publiclv  in  the  common  hall,  with  the  formalities 
generally  observed  in  the  courts  at  Rome.  These 
duties  were,  however,  more  frequently  delegated 
to  their  assessors,  or  other  judges  of  their  own 
appointment.  As  the  proconsuls  had  also  the  di- 
rection of  justice,  of  war,  and  of  the  revenues, 
these  departments  were  administered  by  their  lieu- 
tenants, or  i^gjfti,  who  were  usually  nominated  by 
the  senate.  The  office  of  the  proconsuls  lasted 
generally  for  one  year  only,  and  the  expense  of 
their  journeys  to  and  from  their  provinces  was 
defrayed  by  the  public.  After  the  partition  of  the 
provinces  between  Augustus  and  the  people,  those 
who  presided  over  the  provinces  of  the  latter 
were  especially  designated  proconsuls,  for  whom  it 
appears  to  have  been  customary  to  decree  temples 
(Suet.  Aug,),  Livy  (viii  and  xxvi)  mentions 
two  other  classes  of  proconsuls :  those  who,  being 
c  jnsuls,  had  their  office  continued  beyond  the  time 
appointed  by  law;   and  those  who,  being  pre« 


viously  in  a  private  station,  were  invested  with 
this  honor  either  for  the  government  of  provinces, 
or  to  command  in  war.  Some  were  created  pro- 
consuls by  the  senate  without  being  appointed  to 
any  provmce,  merely  to  command  in  the  army, 
and  to  take  charge  of  the  military  discipline ;  oth- 
ers were  allowed  to  enter  upon  their  proconsular 
office  before  being  admitted  to  the  consulship, 
but  having  that  honor  in  reserve. 

When  the  Apostle  Paul  was  at  Corinth,  he 
was  brought  before  Gallio,  the  proconsul  of 
Achaia,  one  of  the  provinces  of  Greece,  of  which 
Corinth  was  the  chief  city,  and  arraigned  by  the 
Jews  as  one  who  'persuadeth  men  to  worship 
God  contrary  to  the  law'  (Acts  xviii:i3);  but 
Gallio  refused  to  act  as  a  judge  of  such  matters, 
and  'drave  them  from  the  judgment-seat'  (verse 
16).  G.  M.  B. 

mOFANE  (prd-fan),  (Heb.  from  ^^9,  JtAaw 
laf,  to  open,  give  access  to;  Gr.  ^e/3i7X6«,  beb-ay- 
Id'o,  to  desecrate).  To  profane  is  to  make  common, 
to  defile.    It  has  various  shades  of  meanings. 

(i)  Profane  persons  are  such  as  defile  them- 
selves by  shameful  actions,  particularly  a  con- 
tempt of  things  sacred  (Lev.  xxi:;;  Ezek.  xxi: 
25).  (2)  Esau  rendered  himself  profane  by 
despising  his  birthright,  and  the  promise  of  the 
Messiah  annexed  thereto  (Heb.  xii:i6).  (3)  To 
pollute  things  is  to  defile  them;  and  to  profane 
IS  to  use  them  as  base  or  common  (Lev.  xxii: 
IS;  Ezek.  xxiv:2i).  (4)  God  and  his  name  are 
profaned,  or  polluted,  when  anything  by  which 
he  makes  himself  known,  as  his  authority,  or- 
dinances, etc.,  are  used  in  an  irreverent  manner, 
and  to  promote  some  sinful  end  of  error  or 
wickedness  (Lev.  xviii:2i;  Ezek.  xiiirg).  (5) 
God's  sabbaths,  sanctuary,  ordinances  and  statutes 
are  profaned  when  not  used  in  the  manner  he  re- 
quires, but  to  promote  sinful  or  idolatrous  pur- 
poses (Lev.  xxi:  12  and  xxii  17;  Neh.  xiii:i7;  Ps. 
lxxxix:39;  Ezek.  xx:i3;  Zeph.  iii:4;  Jer.  vii:3o). 

(6)  The  Jewish  priests  profaned  the  Sabbath, 
and  were  blameless;  they  killed  their  sacrifices 
on  it,  as  if  it  were  a  common  day  (Matt.  xii:6). 

(7)  The  Jews  profaned  their  fruit  trees  when  on 
the  fifth  year  they  ate  their  fruit  as  a  common 
food  (Deut.  XX  :6;  Jer.  xxxirs).  (8)  The  high 
priest  profaned  himself  when,  by  defiling  himself 
for  his  deceased  relations,  he  degraded  his  char- 
acter and  made  himself  appear  as  a  common  per- 
son (Lev.  xxi:4).  (9)  A  womfan  profaned  her- 
self, when,  by  becoming  a  prostitute,  she  rendered 
herself  common,  base,  and  contemptible  (Lev. 
xix:7).  (10)  A  priest's  daughter  profaned  her 
father,  when  by  her  lubricity  she  brought  a  stain 
on  his  character. 

PBOFESS  (prd-fSs),  to  declare  openly  and  sol- 
emnly (Deut.  xxvi  :3;  Matt.  vii:23). 

PROFESSION  (pr6-fgsh'iin). 

The  act  of  openly  and  boldly  avowing  belief  in 
and  adherence  to  the  truths  of  the  gospel  (Heb.  iii: 
I ,  and  iv :  1 4,  and  x  :23).  Timothy  professed  a  good 
Profession ;  in  his  baptism  and  ordination,  and  in 
has  preaching  of  the  gospel,  he  solemnly  avowed 
his  belief  of,  and  resolved  adherence  to,  the 
precious  and  useful  truths  of  God.  (i  Tim.  vi:i2). 

FBOONOSTICATOBS    (pr6g  -  nds '  tY  -  ka'  ters), 

(Heb.  D^*?P.^  D^rii'3,  making  known  as  to  the 
months). 

The  phrase  'monthly  prognosticators'  occurs  in 
the  Autherized  Version  of  Is.  xlvii:i3,  where  the 
prophet  is  enumerating  the  astrological  supersti- 
tions of  the  Chaldaeans.  In  the  later  Hebrew  the 
word  denotes  a  *seer,'  or  'prophet ;'  and  to  express 


PROLONG 


1385 


PROPHECY 


the  sense  in  which  it  is  employed  in  this  text,  a 
better  word  than  prognosticator  could  not  well 
be  chosen.  The  original,  Hebrew,  might  perhaps 
be  more  exactly  rendered,  as  by  Dr.  Henderson, 
'prognosticators  at  the  new  moons.'  It  is  known 
that  the  Chaldsean  astrologers  professed  to  divine 
future  events  by  the  positions,  aspects,  and  ap- 
pearances of  the  stars,  which  they  regarded  as 
having  great  influence  on  the  affairs  of  men  and 
kingdoms;  and  it  would  seem,  from  the  present 
text,  that  they  put  forth  accounts  of  the  events 
which  might  be  expected  to  occur  from  month 
to  month,  like  our  old  almanac  makers.  Some 
carry  the  analogy  further,  and  suppose  that  they 
also  gave  monthly  tables  of  the  weather;  but 
such  prognostications  are  only  cared  for  in  cli- 
mates where  the  weather  is  uncertain  and  varia- 
ble; while  in  Chaldxa,  where  (as  we  know  from 
actual  experience)  the  seasons  are  remarkably 
regular  in  their  duration  and  recurrence,  and 
where  variations  of  the  usual  course  of  the 
weather  are  all  but  unknown,  no  prognosticator 
would  gain  much  honor  by  foretelling  what  every 
peasant  knows. 

FBOLONO  (pr6.16ng').  (Heb.  1^.  maw-shak', 
£zek.  xii:25),  to  continue,  to  postpone. 

PBOMISE  (prdm'is),  (Hebrew,  some  form  of 
3B^,  aw-mar*,  to  say,  or  *^3^,  daw-bar,  to  speak; 
Gr.  iwayiOda,  efhang-el-ee' ah,  announcement). 

1.  An  engagement  to  bestow  some  benefit  (2 
Pet.  ii:i9);  so  God's  promise  is  his  declaration 
of  his  readiness  to  bestow  his  favors  on  men  (i 
Kings  viii:56). 

2.  The  good  thing  promised;  so  the  Holy 
Ghost,  in  his  saving  and  miraculous  operations,  is 
the  promise  of  the  Father  (Acts  i:4).  Eternal 
life  in  heaven  is  called  the  promises;  it  is  the 
thing  promised  in  many  of  them  (Heb.  vi:i2). 
The  promise  to  the  Jews  and  their  seed,  and 
everyone  called  by  the  gospel,  is  God's  offer  and 
engagement  to  be  their  God,  and  to  make  them 
his  people  (Acts  ii:39). 

(1)  How  Made.  The  promises  of  God  arc 
either  absolute,  t.^.  their  fulfillment  depends  on  no 
condition  to  be  performed  by  us ;  and,  to  manifest 
the  exceeding  riches  of  God's  grace,  these  are  gener- 
ally directed  to  men,  as  sinful,  guilty,  polluted, 
hard-hearted,  poor,  ungodly,  etc.  (i  Tim.  i:i5;  Is. 
i:i8;  xliii:25  and  lv:6,  7;  Zech.  xiii:i,  8,  9;  Ezek. 
xxxvi:25-29;  Is.  xlvi:i2,  13;  Ps.  Ixxii:i2-I4;  Jer. 
XXX  :22  and  xxxi  133)  ;  and  some  of  them,  as  the 
promises  of  Christ's  incarnation  and  death,  have 
properly  no  condition  at  all ;  or  condittonai  when 
the  fulfillment  depends  on  some  act  or  quality 
in  us. 

(2)  To  What  They  Pertaiii.  Some  promises 
relate  to  outward  things;  as  health,  strength, 
food,  raiment,  peace,  comfort,  success  to  men  and 
to  their  seed  (Prov.  iii  7,  8 ;  Ps.  ciii  -.5  and  xxxvii : 
3;  Job  xi:i8,  19;  Prov.  iii:24;  Ps.  cxxviii:2,  3; 
Deut.  x:i8;  Job  v:24;  Ps.  xci:io  and  cxxi:8; 
Deut.  xxviii  :4,  5,  12 ;  Ps.  i  :3 ;  ciii  :i7 ;  cii  :28 ;  xlv : 
16  and  xxxiv:i2,  13;  Is.  lvii:i;  Prov.  x:7,  22; 
Ps.  xxiii:5,  6;  Job  xxii:24-26;  Deut.  viiiiio;  Joel 
11:26;  Gen.  xii:2;  Deut.  xxvi:ii).  Some  prom- 
ises relate  to  Giod's  preventing,  moderating,  and 
shortening  afflictions,  supporting  them  under,  and 
delivering  them  from  afflictions,  and  bringing  good 
out  of  them  (Ps.  cxxi:7;  Job  v:i9;  Is.  xxvi:8; 
Jer.  xlvi:28;  Ps.  xxv:3;  Mark  xiii:i9,  20;  (jcn. 
XV :i;  Ezek.  xi:i6;  Ps.  xxxvii  124;  i  Cor.  xii:g; 
Is.  xliii:2;  Ps.  xli:3;  Deut.  vii:i5;  Exod.  xxiii: 


25;  Matt.  xix:29;  x:39;  and  v:ii,  12;  i  Pet.  iv: 
19;  Ps.xii  :5  and  Ixviii  :5 ;  Jer.  xxxiii  13 ;  Is.  xxvii : 
9;  Ps.  xcviirif;  Zech.  xiii:9).  But  the  principal 
promises  relate  to  spiritual  good  things ;  as,  union 
to  Christ  (Hos.  ii:i9.  20;  Is.  Iiv:5)  ;  of  the  Spirit 
(Ezek.  xxxvii  127;  Prov.  i:25);  justification  (Is. 
i:i8;  xlii:25;  xliv:22)  and  (xlv  124,  25)  ;  adoption 
(Jer.  iii:  19;  2  Cor.  vi:i8);  sanctification,  change 
of  heart,  and  life  (Ezek.  xi:i9,  20)  and  (xxxvi: 
26,  2y)  ;  spiritual  knowledge  (Prov.  ii:3-6;  Jas. 
i:5);  faith  (John  vi:37;  Eph.  ii:8);  repentance 
(Rom.  xi:26;  Ezek.  xvi:62,  63)  and  (xx:43); 
love  to  God  (2  Thess.  iii  :5 ;  Deut.  xxx  :6) ;  filial 
fear  of  God  (Hos.  iii:5;  Jer.  xxxii:39,  40)  ;  new 
obedience  (Deut.  xxx:8);  hope  (2  Thess.  ii:i6; 
Rom.  XV :4)  ;  peace  and  joy  (Is.  Ivii:i8,  19)  and 
(xxvi:3;  Ps.  lxiv:io)  and  (xcvii:ii,  12);  and 
unfailing  perseverance  in  a  state  of  grace  (Jer. 
xxxii:39,  40;  John  iv:ii ;  xvi:i9)  and  (x:27,  28)  ; 
a  happy  death  (Rev.  xiv:i3)  ;  and  eternal  happi- 
ness (Is.  XXXV :  10;  2  Tim.  iv:8).  Some  promises 
are  permanent,  fulfilling  in  every  age ;  and  others 
are  periodic^il,  fulfilled  in  certain  particular  pe- 
riods :  and  thus  are  prophecies,  as  they  foretell 
what  is  future;  but  promises,  as  they  secure  the 
bestowal  of  good. 

PBOPEB  (pr«p'er),  (Heb.   ^^?P,  seg-ool'law\ 

I  Chron.  xxix:3),  (\.2ii,  profrius,  one's  own,  hence 
possessions,  property);  (or.  d<rre/ot,  as-ii'os,  Acts 
1:19),  peculiarly  fit,  becoming,  or  characteristic. 

PBOPEBTY  (pr6p'er-ty),  (Lev.  xxv.23,  28,  34; 
Deut.  xxiv:i9-2i).    See  Law  of  Moses. 

FBOFHECY  (prdfe-sj),  (Gr.  irpo^iyre/a,  pro-fa- 
ti'ah,  an  interpretation,  a  foretelling). 

Prophecy  is  a  foretelling  of  such  events  as 
could  be  known  only  to  God.  It  is  beyond  dis- 
pute that  there  is  a  Power  which  governs  the 
world  by  the  exercise  of  his  will;  governments 
are  born  and  nations  rise  to  supremacy,  and  when 
they  have  answered  the  purpose  for  which  they 
were  permitted  to  exist,  their  authority  is  trans- 
ferred to  others  who,  in  their  order,  have  missions 
to  perform.  This  will  explain  the  rise  and  fall 
of  kingdoms  and  governments  in  all  ages.  The 
nature  of  prophecy  and  its  bearing  upon  this  ex- 
ercise of  divine  authority  is  considered  below. 
The  fulfillment  of  prophecy  is  an  unimpeacha- 
ble evidence  of  the  divine  inspiration  of  the 
prophet.  It  is  an  unquestionable  proof  of  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  Holy  Scripture.  "We  have  also 
a  more  sure  word  of  prophecy"  (i  Pet.  i:i9).  H 
we  find  events  predicted  long  before  they  oc- 
curred; if  they  were  so  clearly  described  that, 
when  completed,  the  description  applies  deter- 
minately  to  the  subject;  and  if  they  were  related 
by  persons  entirely  unconcerned  in  the  events,  and 
who  at  the  time  of  uttering  such  predictions  rea- 
sonably expected  to  be  removed  from  the  stage 
of  human  activity  prior  to  the  time  of  the  fulfill- 
ment, it  is  thereby  clearly  demonstrated  that  a 
Power  superior  to  humanity  has  been  pleased  to 
impart  the  counsels,  which  are  referred  to  in 
such  predictions.  One  clear  instance  will  justify 
this  conclusion,  and  this  one  has  been  selected 
from  the  prophet  Daniel,  because  its  coincidence 
with  history  is  unquestionable;  but  other  prophe- 
cies are  capable  of  similar  enumerative  demon- 
stration. The  events,  cited  in  the  following  table, 
are  prefigured  by  different  emblems,  though  to 
the  same  purpose,  in  other  parts  of  this  prophet; 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  thev  refer  to  the 
heraldic  insignia  of  the  nations  which  they  con* 
cerii. 


PROPHECY 


1386 


PROPHECY 


INSTANCES  OF  PROPHECY  COMPARED  WITH  HISTORY. 

ur   Kingdoms 
Four  Beasts, 


Prophecy   of   Four   Kingdoms   Represented    by      Corresponding  Events  in  Their  Historical  Order. 

Bei 


THB  FIRST  BEAST. 

1.  A  lion, 

2.  having  eagle  wings ; 

3.  the  wmgs  were  plucked; 

4.  it  was  raised  from  th^  ground, 

5.  and  made  to  stand  on  the  feet,  as  a  man; 

6.  and  a  man's  heart   [intellect]  was  given  to 

it. — Dante/,  ch.  iv. 

THE  SECOND  BEAST. 

1.  A  ram 

2.  which  had  two  horns, 

3.  both  high, 

4.  but  one  higher  than  the  other. 

5.  The  highest  came  up  last; 

6.  the  ram  pushed  north,  west,  and  south, 

7.  did  as  he  pleased,  and  became  great. 

THE  THIRD  BEAST. 

1.  A  he-goat 

2.  came  from  the  west, 

3.  gliding  swiftly  over  the  earth; 

4.  ran  unto  the  ram  in  the  fury  of  his  power, 

5.  smote  him, 

6.  brake  his  two  horns, 

7.  cast  him  on  the  ground, 

8.  stamped  on  him,  and 

9.  waxed  very  great ; 

10.  when  he  was  strong  his  great  horn  was  broken, 

and 

11.  instead  of  it  came  up  four  notable  ones 


12.  toward  the  four  winds  of  heaven; 

13.  out  of  one  of  them  a  little  horn  waxed  great 

14.  toward  the  south  and  east, 

15.  which  took  away  the  daily  sacrifice,  and  cast 

down  the  sanctuary,  tic—Daniel,  ch,  viw: 
3-12. 

The  principal  considerations  involved  in  this 
important  subject  may  be  arranged  under  the  fol- 
lowing heads: 

1.  The  fiature  of  Prophecp,  and  its  Posi» 
Hon  in  the  Economp  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Divme  inspiration  is  only  the  genera!  basis  of  the 
prophetic  office,  to  which  two  more  elements  must 
be  added: 

Inspiration  was  imparted  to  the  prophets  m 
a  peculiar  form.  This  appears  decisively  from 
Num.  xii  :6,  sq,,  which  states  it  as  characteristic 
of  the  prophet,  that  he  obtained  divine  inspiration 
in  visions  and  dreams,  consequently  in  a  state 
extraordinary  and  distinguished  from  the  gen- 
eral one.  This  mode  was  different  from  that  in 
which  inspirations  were  conveyed  to  Moses  and 
the  apostles. 

Generally  speaking,  everyone  was  a  prophet  to 
whom  God  communicated  his  mind  in  this  pe- 
culiar manner.  Thus  e.  g,  Abraham  is  called  a 
prophet  (Gen.  xx:7),not,  as  is  commonly  thought, 
on  account  of  general  revelations  granted  him  by 


ASSYRIAN  EMPIRE. 

I.  The  Babylonian  empire; 

3.  Nineveh,  etc.,  added  to  it— but 

3.  Nineveh  was  almost  destroyed  at  the  fall  of 

Sardanapalus. 

4.  Yet  this  empire  was  again  elevated  to  power, 

5.  and  seemed  to  acquire  stability  under  Nebu- 

chadnezzar, 

6.  who  laid  the  foundation    of    its    subsequent 

policy  and  authority. 

PERSIAN  EMPIRE. 

1.  Darius,  or  the  Persian  power, 

2.  composed  of  Media  and  Persia, 

3.  both  considerable  provinces, 

4.  Media  the  most  powerful ;  yet  this  most  power- 

ful 

5.  Median  empire,  under  Dejoces,  rose  after  the 

other ; 

6.  and  extended  its  conquests  under  Cyrus  over 

Lydia,  etc,  west,  over  Asia,  north,  over 
Babylon,  etc.,  south,  and 

7.  ruling  over  such  an  extent  of  country  was 

a  great  empire. 

GRECIAN  EMPIRE. 

I.  Alexander,  or  the  Greek  power, 
3.  came  from  Europe  (west  of  Asia) 

3.  with  unexampled  rapidity  of  success; 

4.  attacked  Darms  furiously,  and 

5.  beat  him — ^at  the  Granicus,  Issus,  etc; 

6.  conquered  Persia,  Media,  etc.; 

7.  ruined  the  power  of  Darius, 

8.  insomuch  that  Darius  was  murdered,  etc 

9.  Alexander  overran  Bactriana  to  India, 

10.  but  died  at  Babylon  in  the  zenith  of  his  fame 

and  power ; 

11.  his  dominions  were  parceled  among  Seleucus, 

Antigonus,  Ptolemy,  Cassander   (who  had 
been  his  officers) ; 

12.  in  Babylon,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  Greece. 

13.  Antiochus  the  Great,  succeeded  by  Antiochus 

Epiphanes, 

14.  conquered  Egypt,  etc., 

15.  and  endeavored  utterly  to  subvert  the  Jewish 

polity;  polluting  their  temple- worship  and 
sacrifices  to  the  utmost  of  his  power. 

(jod,  but  because  such  as  he  received  were  in  the 
special  form  described;  as  indeed  in  ch.  rxv  it 
is  expressly  stated  that  divine  communications 
were  made  to  him  in  visions  and  dreams.  The 
body  of  the  patriarchs  are  in  the  same  manner 
called  prophets  (Ps.  cv:is).  When  the  Mosaic 
economy  had  been  established,  a  new  element  was 
added ;  the  prophetic  gift  was  after  that  time  reg- 
ularlv  connected  with  the  prophetic  office,  so  that 
the  latter  came  to  form  part  of  the  idea  of  a 
prophet.  Thus  Daniel's  work  was  not  placed  in 
the  collection  of  prophetical  books,  because  though 
eminently  endowed  with  prophetic  gifts,  he  still 
had  not  filled  the  prophetic  office.  Speaking  of 
office,  we  do  not  of  course  mean  one  conferred 
by  men,  but  by  God ;  the  mission  to  Israel,  with 
which  the  certainty  of  a  continued,  not  temporary, 
grant  of  tht  gift  of  prophecy  was  connected. 
That  the  Lord  would  send  such  prophets  was 

f>romised  to  the  people  by  Moses,  who  by  a  special 
aw  (Deut.  xviii:i)  secured  them  authority  and 
safety.  As  his  ordinary  servants  and  teachers, 
God    appointed    the    priests:    the    characteristic 


PROPHECY 


1387 


PROPHECY 


niark  which  distinguished  the  prophets  from  them 
was  inspiration;  and  this  explains  the  circum- 
stance that,  in  times  of  great  moral  and  religious 
corruption,  when  the  ordinary  means  no  longer 
sufficed  to  reclaim  the  people,  the  number  of 
prophets  increased.  The  regular  religious  in- 
struction of  the  people  was  no  part  of  the  business 
of  the  prophets;  their  proper  duty  was  only  tQ 
rouse  and  excite.  The  contrary,  viz.,  that  part  of 
the  regular  duty  of  the  prophets  was  to  instruct  the 
people,  is  often  argued  from  2  Kings  iv  123,  where 
It  is  said  that  the  Shunammite  on  the  Sabbaths 
and  days  of  new  moon  used  to  go  to  the  prophet 
Elisha ;  but  this  passage  applies  only  to  the  kmg- 
dom  of  Israel,  and  admits  of  no  inference  with 
respect  to  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  As  regards  the 
latter,  there  is  no  proof  that  prophets  held  meet- 
ings for  instruction  and  edification  on  sacred  days. 
Their  position  was  here  quite  different  from  that 
of  the  prophets  in  the  kmgdom  of  Israel  The 
agency  of  the  prophets  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
was  only  of  a  subsidiary  kind. 

On  the  contrary,  the  priesthood  in  the  kingdom 
of  Israel  had  no  divine  sanction,  no  promise;  it 
was  corrupt  in  its  very  source;  to  reform  itself 
would  have  been  to  dissolve  itself;  the  priests 
there  were  the  mercenary  servants  of  the  king, 
and  hnd  a  brand  upon  their  own  consciences. 
Hence  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel  the  prophets  were 
the  regular  ministers  of  God ;  with  their  office  all 
stood  or  fell,  and  hence  they  were  required  to  do 
many  things  besides  what  the  original  conception 
of  the  office  of  a  prophet  implied. 

In  their  labors,  as  respected  their  own  times, 
the  prophets  were  strictly  bound  to  the  Mosaic 
law,  and  not  allowed  to  add  to  it  or  to  diminish 
aught  from  it;  what  was  said  in  this  respect  to 
the  whole  people  (Deut.  iv:2;  xiiiri)  applied  also 
to  them.  We  find,  therefore,  prophecy  always 
takes  its  ground  on  the  Mosaic  law,  to  which  it 
refers,  from  which  it  derives  its  sanction,  and 
with  which  it  is  fully  impressed  and  saturated. 
There  is  no  chapter  in  the  prophets  in  which 
there  are  not  several  references  to  the  law.  The 
business  of  the  prophets  was  to  explain  it,  to 
lay  it  to  the  hearts  of  the  people,  to  evidence  its 
divine  sanction,  and  to  preserve  vital  its  spirit.  It 
was,  indeed,  also  their  duty  to  point  to  future  re- 
forms, when  the  ever-living  spirit  of  the  law 
would  break  its  hitherto  imperfect  form,  and  make 
for  itself  another:  thus  Jeremiah  (iii:i6)  foretells 
days  when  the  ark  of  the  covenant  shall  be  no 
more,  and  (ch.  xxxi:3i)  days  when  a  new  cove- 
nant will  be  made  with  the  house  of  Israel  and 
with  the  house  of  Judah.  But  for  their  own  times 
they  never  once  dreamed  of  altering  any,  even  the 
minutest  and  least  essential  precept,  even  as  to 
its  form;  how  much  less  as  to  its  spirit,  which  even 
the  Lord  himself  declares  (Matt.  v:i8)  to  be  im- 
mutable and  eternal. 

As  to  prophecy  in  its  circumscribed  sense,  or 
the  foretelling  of  future  events  by  the  prophets, 
some  expositors  would  explain  all  predictions  01 
special  events ;  while  others  assert  that  no  predic- 
tion contains  anything  but  general  promises  or 
threatenings,  and  that  the  prophets  knew  nothing 
of  the  particular  manner  in  which  their  predictions 
might  be  realized.  Both  these  classes  deviate 
from  the  correct  view  of  prophecy ;  the  former  re- 
sort often  to  the  most  arbitrary  interpretations, 
and  the  latter  are  opposed  by  a  mass  of  facts 
against  which  they  are  unable  successfully  to  con- 
tend; e.  g,,  when  Ezekiel  foretells  (xii:i2)  that 
Zedekiah  would  try  to  break  through  the  walls  of 
the  city  and  to  escape,  but  that  he  would  be  seized, 
blinded,  and  taken  to  Babylon.  (See  also  the  fore- 


going table  showing  instances  of  fulfillment  of 
prophecy  in  history.) 

Some  interpreters  misunderstanding  passages 
like  Jer.  xviii;8;  xxvi:i3,  have  asserted  with  Dr. 
Koster  (p.  226,  sq.)  that  all  prophecies  were  con- 
ditional; and  have  even  maintained  that  their 
revocability  distinguished  the  true  predictions 
from  soothsaying.  But  beyond  all  doubt  when 
the  prophet  pronounces  the  divine  judgments  he 
proceeds  on  the  assumption  that  the  people  will 
not  repent,  an  assumption  which  he  knows  from 
Giod  to  be  true.  Were  the  people  to  repent  the 
prediction  would  fail ;  but  because  they  will  not,  it 
is  uttered  absolutely.  It  does  not  follow,  how- 
ever, that  the  prophet's  warnings  and  exhorta- 
tions are  useless.  These  serve  'for  a  witness 
against  them;'  and  besides,  amid  the  ruin  of  the 
mass,  individuals  might  be  saved.  Viewing  proph- 
ecies as  conditional  predictions  nullifies  them. 
The  sphere  of  action  of  the  prophets  was  abso- 
lutely limited  to  Israel. 

2.  Duration  of  Prophetic  Office.  Although 
we  meet  with  cases  of  prophesying  as  early  as  the 
age  of  the  patriarchs,  still  the  roots  of  prophetism 
amon^  the  Israelites  are  properly  fixed  in  the 
Mosaic  economy.  Moses  instilled  into  the  congre- 
gation of  Israel  those  truths  which  form  the 
foundation  of  prophecy,  and  thus  prepared  the 
ground  from  which  it  could  spring  up.  In  the 
time  of  Moses  himself  we  find  prophesying  grow- 
ing out  of  those  things  which  through  him  were 
conveyed  to  the  minds  of  the  people.  The  main 
business  of  Moses  was  not  that  of  a  prophet ;  but 
sometimes  he  was  in  the  state  of  prophetic  eleva- 
tion. In  such  a  state  originated  his  celebrated 
song  (Deut.  xxxii),  which  Eichhorn  justly  calls 
the  Magna  Charta  of  prophecy ;  and  his  blessings 
(Deut.  xxxiii).  Miriam,  the  sister  of  Aaron,  is 
called  a  prophetess  (Exod.  xv:2o;  comp.  Num. 
xii  12,  6),  when  she  took  a  timbrel  and  sang  to  the 
Lord,  who  had  overthrown  the  enemy  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel.  The  seventy  elders  are  expressly 
stated  to  have  been  impelled  by  the  spirit  of  God 
to  prophesy.  In  the  a^e  of  the  Judges,  prophecy, 
though  existing  only  in  scattered  instances,  ex- 
erted a  powerful  influence.  Those  who  would 
deny  this,  in  spite  of  the  plain  evidence  of  his- 
tory, do  not  consider  that  the  influential  operation 
of  prophets,  flourishing  in  later  times,  requires 
preparatory  steps.  *Now  only,'  says  Ewald  justly, 
we  are  able  to  perceive  how  full  of  strength  and 
life  was  the  ground  in  which  prophecy,  to  attain 
such  an  eminence,  must  have  sprung  up.'  The 
more  conspicuous  prophetic  agency  begins  with 
Samuel,  and  the  prophets'  schools  which  he 
founded.  From  this  time  to  the  Babylonian  Ex- 
ile, there  happened  hardly  any  important  event  in 
which  the  prophets  did  not  appear  as  performing 
the  leading  part.  About  a  hundred  years  after 
the  return  from  the  Babylonian  Exile,  the  pro- 
phetic profession  ceased.  The  Jewish  tradition 
uniformly  states  that  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Mal- 
achi  were  the  last  prc^hets. 

J.  Manner  of  Life  of  the  Prophets.  The 
prophets  went  aoout  poorly  and  coarsely  dressed 
(2  Kings  i:8),  not  as  a  mere  piece  of  asceticism, 
but  that  their  very  apparel  might  teach  what  the 
people  ouj^ht  to  do;  it  was  a  [sermo  propheticus 
realis/  CTompare  i  Kings  xxi:27,  where  Ahab 
does  penance  in  the  manner  figured  by  the 
prophet :  'And  it  came  to  pass,  when  Ahab  heard 
these  words,  that  he  rent  his  clothes,  and  put  sack- 
cloth upon  his  flesh,  and  fasted.' 

(1)  TTnostentatious.  Generally  the  prophets 
were  not  anxious  to  attract  notice  by  ostenta- 
tious display;  nor  did  they  seek  worl(fly  wealth, 


PROPHECY 


1388 


PROPHECY 


most  of  them  living  in  poverty  and  even  want  (i 
Kings  xiv  :3 ;  2  Kings  iv  :i,  38,  42).  The  decay  of 
the  congregation  of  God  deeply  chagrined  them 
(comp.  Micah  vii:i,  and  many  passages  in  Jere- 
miah). 

(2)  Persecution.  Insult,  persecution,  impris- 
onment, and  death,  were  often  the  reward  of  their 
godly  life.  The  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews says  (ch.  xi  lyj)  :  'They  were  stoned,  they 
were  sawn  asunder,  were  tempted,  were  slain 
with  the  sword:  they  wandered  about  in  sheep- 
skins and  goat-skins,  being  destitute,  afflicted, 
tormented'  (comp.  Christ's  speech.  Matt,  xxiii: 
29,  sq.;  2  Chron.  xxiv:i7,  sq.).  The  condition 
of  the  prophets,  in  their  temporal  humiliation,  is 
vividly  represented  in  the  lives  of  Elijah  and 
Elisha  in  the  books  of  the  Kings;  and  Jeremiah 
concludes  the  description  of  his  sufferings  in  the 
20th  chapter,  by  cursing  the  day  of  his  birth. 

(3)  Type  of  Christ.  Repudiated  by  the  world 
in  which  they  were  aliens,  they  typified  the  life 
of  him  whose  appearance  they  announced,  and 
whose  spirit  dwelt  in  them.  They  figured  him, 
however,  not  only  in  his  lowness,  but  in  his  ele- 
vation. The  Lord  stood  by  them,  gave  evidence 
in  their  favor  by  fulfilling  their  predictions,  fre- 
quently proved  by  miracles  that  they  were  his 
own  messengers,  or  retaliated  on  their  enemies 
the  injury  done  them.  The  prophets  addressed 
the  people  of  both  kingdoms :  they  were  not  con- 
fined to  particular  places,  but  prophesied  where 
it  was  required.  For  this  reason  they  were  most 
numerous  in  capital  towns,  especially  in  Jerusa- 
lem, where  they  generally  spoke  in  the  temple. 

(4)  Themes.  Sometimes  their  advice  was 
asked,  and  then  their  prophecies  take  the  form  of 
answers  to  questions  submitted  to  them  (Is. 
xxxvii;  Ezek.  xx;  Zech.  vii).  But  much  more 
frequently  they  felt  themselves  inwardly  moved 
to  address  the  people  without  their  advice  having 
been  asked,  and  they  were  not  afraid  to  stand  for- 
ward in  places  where  their  appearance,  perhaps, 
produced  indignation  and  terror.  Whatever  fay 
within  or  around  the  sphere  of  religion  and 
morals,  formed  the  object  of  their  care.  They 
strenuously  opposed  the  worship  of  false  gods 
(Is.  i:io,  sq.),  as  well  as  the  finery  of  women 
(Is.  iii:i6,  sq.).  Priests,  princes,  kings,  all  must 
hear  them — must,  however,  reluctantly,  allow 
them  to  perform  their  calling  as  long  as  they 
spoke  in  the  name  of  the  true  God,  and  as  long 
as  the  result  did  not  disprove  their  pretensions 
to  be  the  servants  of  the  invisible  king  of  Israel 
(Jer.  xxxvii:  15-21). 

(6)  Schools  of  the  Prophets.  There  were  in- 
stitutions for  training  prophets;  the  senior  mem- 
bers instructed  a  number  of  pupils  and  directed 
them.  These  schools  had  been  first  established 
by  Samuel  (i  Sam.  x:8;  xixiip)  ;  and  at  a  later 
time  there  were  such  institutions  in  different 
places,  as  Bethel  and  Gilgal  (2  Kings  ii:3;  iv: 
38;  vi:i).  The  pupils  of  the  prophets  lived  in 
fellowship  united,  and  were  called  'sons  of  the 
prophets :'  whilst  the  senior  or  experienced  proph- 
ets were  considered  as  their  spiritual  parents,  and 
were  styled  fathers  (comp.  2  Kings  ii:i2;  vi:2i). 
Samuel,  Elijah,  and  Elisha  are  mentioned  as 
principals  of  such  institutions.  From  them  the 
Lord  generally  chose  his  instruments.  Amos  re- 
lates of  himself  (vii:  14,  15),  as  a  thing  uncom- 
mon, that  he  had  been  trained  in  no  school  of 
prophets,  but  was  a  herdsman,  when  the  Lord 
took  him  to  prophesy  unto  the  people  of  Israel. 
At  the  same  time,  this  example  shows  that  the 
bestowal  of  prophetic  gifts  was  not  limited  to  the 
fchool  of  the  prophets.    Women  also  might  come 


forward  as  prophetesses,  as  instanced  in  Miriam, 
Deborah,  and  fiuldah,  though  such  cases  are  of 
comparatively  rare  occurrence.  We  should  also 
observe  that  only  as  regards  the  kingdom  o<f 
Israel  we  have  express  accounts  of  the  continu- 
ance of  the  schools  of  prophets.  What  is  re- 
corded of  them  is  not  directly  applicable  to  the 
kingdom  of  Judah,  especially  smce,  as  stated 
above,  prophecy  had  in  it  an  essentially  different 
position.  We  cannot  assume  that  the  organiza- 
tion and  regulations  of  the  schools  of  the  prophets 
in  the  kingdom  of  Judah  should  have  been  as 
settled  and  established  as  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 
In  the  latter,  the  schools  of  the  prophets  had  a 
kind  of  monastic  constitution:  they  were  not  in- 
stitutions of  general  education,  but  missionary 
stations;  which  explains  the  circumstance  that 
they  were  established  exactly  in  places  which 
were  the  chief  seats  of  superstition.  The  spir- 
itual fathers  traveled  about  to  visit  the  training 
schools;  the  pupils  had  their  common  board  and 
dwelling,  and  those  who  married  and  left,  ceased 
not  on  that  account  to  be  connected  with  their 
colleges,  but  remained  members  of  thenu  The 
widow  of  such  a  pupil  of  the  schools  of  prophets, 
who  is  mentioned  in  2  Kings  iv:i,  sq.,  considered 
Elisha  as  the  person  bound  to  care  for  her.  The 
offerings  which,  by  the  Mosaic  law,  were  to  be 
given  to  the  Levites,  were  by  the  pious  of  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  brought  to  the  schools  of  the 
prophets  (2  Kings  iv:42).  The  prophets  of  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  stood  in  a  hostile  position  to 
the  priests.  These  points  of  difference  in  the 
situation  of  the  prophets  of  the  two  kingdoms 
must  not  be  lost  sight  of;  and  we  further  add, 
that  prophecy  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel  was  much 
more  connected  with  extraordinary  events  than  in 
the  kingdom  of  Judah:  the  history  of  the  latter 
offers  no  prophetical  deeds  equaling  those  of 
Elijah  and  Elisha. 

4.  Spmboiic  Actions  of  the  Prophets.  In  the 

midst  of  the  prophetic  declarations  symbolic  ac- 
tions are  often  mentioned,  which  the  prophets 
had  to  perform.  The  opinions  of  interpreters  on 
these  are  divided.  Some  assert  that  they  always, 
at  least  generally,  were  really  done;  others  assert 
that  they  had  existence  only  in  the  mind  of  the 
prophets,  and  formed  part  of  their  visions.  The 
latter  view,  which  was  espoused  by  Calvin,  is 
proved  to  be  correct  by  a  considerable  number  of 
such  symbolic  actions  as  are  either  impossible,  or 
inconsistent  with  decorum. 

Thus  Hosea  relates  (i:2-ii)  of  himself  'that 
the  Lord  had  ordered  him  to  take  a  wife  of 
whoredoms,  for  the  land  had  committed  g^eat 
whoredom,  departing  from  the  Lord ;'  and  that  he 
then  had  taken  Gomer,  by  whom  he  had  several 
children.  That  this  is  not  to  be  taken  as  a  real 
fact  is  proved  by  Hengstenberg's  Christologie, 
(vol.  iii),  where  it  is  shown  that  the  prophet  in- 
tended only  symbolically  to  depict  the  idolatrous 
disposition  of  his  nation.  Another  s)rmbolic  ac- 
tion of  Jeremiah  prefigures  the  people's  destruc- 
tion. He  says  (xiii:i-io)  he  had  been  by  the 
Lord  directed  to  get  a  linen  girdle,  to  put  it  on 
his  loins,  to  undertake  a  long  tour  to  the  Eu- 
phrates, and  to  hide  the  girdle  there  in  a  hole  of 
the  rode.  He  does  so,  returns,  and  after  many 
days  the  Lord  again  orders  him  to  take  the  gir- 
dle from  the  place  where  it  was  hidden,  but  ^he 
girdle  was  marred  and  good  for  nothing.'  In 
predicting  the  destruction  of  Babylon  and  a  gen- 
eral war  (xxv:  12-38),  he  receives  from  the  Lord 
a  wine-cup,  to  cause  a  number  of  kings  of  various 
nations,  among  whom  the  sword  would  be  sent, 
to  drink  from  it  till  they  should  be  overcome.  He 


PROPHECY 


1389 


PROPHECY 


then  goes  with  this  cup  to  the  kings  of  Eg3rpt, 
Arabia,  Persia,  Media,  and  many  other  countries. 
When  the  prophet  Ezekiel  receives  his  commis- 
sion and  instructions  to  prophesy  against  the  re- 
bellious people  of  Israel,  a  roll  of  a  book  is  pre- 
sented to  him,  which  he  eats  by  the  direetion  of 
the  Lord  (Ezek.  ii:9;  iii:2,  3).  He  is  next  or- 
dered to  lie  before  the  city  of  Jerusalem  on  his 
left  side  three  hundred  and  ninety  days;  and 
when  he  had  accomplished  them,  on  his  right  side 
forty  days.  He  must  not  turn  from  one  side  to 
the  other,  and  he  is  ordered  to  bake  with  dung 
of  man  the  bread  which  he  eats  during  this  time 
(Ezek.  iv:4,  8,  12).  Isaiah  is  ordered  to  walk 
naked  and  barefoot,  for  a  sign  upon  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia  (Is.  xx:2,  3).  Many  other  passages  of 
this  kind  might  be  adduced  from  the  books  of 
the  prophets,  which  compel  us  to  admit  that  they 
state  internal,  not  external  facts.  This  may  also 
further  be  supported  by  other  reason.  In  the  rec- 
ords of  the  prophets,  their  seeing  the  Lord,  hear- 
ing him  speak,  and  addressing  him,  are,  no  doubt, 
inward  acts.  Why,  then,  not  likewise  their  sym- 
bolic representations?  The  world  in  which  the 
prophets  moved  was  quite  different  from  the  or- 
dinary one;  it  was  not  the  sensible,  but  the  spir- 
itual world.  Vision  and  symbolic  action  are  not 
opposed;  the  former  is  the  general  class,  compre- 
hending the  latter  as  a  species.  We  must,  how- 
ever, not  refer  all  symbolic  actions  to  internal  in- 
tuition ;  at  least  of  a  false  prophet  we  have  a  sure 
example  of  an  externally  performed  symbolic  ac- 
tion (i  Kings  xxii:ii),  and  the  false  prophets  al- 
ways aped  the  true  ones  (comp.  Jer.  xix:i,  sq.). 
Inward  actions  were  sometimes,  when  it  was  pos- 
sible and  proper,  materialized  by  external  per- 
formance; they  are  always  at  the  bottom,  and 
form  the  regular,  natural  explanation  of  the  sym- 
bolic actions  of  the  prophets.  To  attain  the  in- 
tended object,  external  performance  was  not  al- 
ways required;  the  internal  action  was  narrated, 
and  committed  to  writing.  It  made  a  naked  state- 
ment more  intuitive  and  impressive,  and  by  pre- 
senting the  subject  in  a  concentrated  form,  it  was 
preferable  to  external  performance,  which  could 
only  take  place  when  the  sphere  of  internal  ac- 
tion was  circumscribed  and  did  not  extend  over 
long  periods  of  time. 

5.  Faise  Prophets  Distinguished.  As  Moses 
had  foretold,  a  host  of  false  prophets  arose  in 
later  times  among  the  people,  who  promised  pros- 
perity without  repentance,  and  preached  the  gos- 
pel without  the  law.  The  writings  of  the  proph- 
ets are  full  of  complaints  of  the  mischief  done  by 
these  impostors.  Jeremiah  significantly  calls  them 
'prophets  of  the  deceit  of  their  own  heart;'  i.  e, 
men  who  followed  the  suggestions  of  their  own 
fancy  in  prophesying  (Jer.  xxiii:26;  comp.  verse 
16,  and  ch.  xiv:i4).  All  their  practices  prove  the 
great  influence  which  true  prophetism  had  ac- 
quired among  the  people  of  Israel.  But  how  were 
the  people  to  distinguish  true  and  false  proph- 
ets? In  the  law  concerning  prophets  (Deut.  xviii: 
20;  comp.  xiii:7-9),  the  following  enactments 
are  contained: 

(1)  In  the  Name  of  Other  Qods.  The  prophet 
who  speaks  in  the  name  of  other  gods—i.  ^.pro- 
fesses to  have  his  revelations  from  a  God  differ- 
ent from  Jehovah — is  to  be  considered  as  false, 
and  to  be  punished  capitally;  and  this  even  though 
his  predictions  should  come  to  pass. 

(2)  Failure  of  Predictions.  The  same  pun- 
ishment is  to  be  inflicted  on  him  who  speaks  in  the 
name  of  the  true  God,  but  whose  predictions  are 
not  accomplished.  These  enactments  established 
a  peculiar  right  of  the  prophets.    He  who  prophe- 


sied in  the  name  of  the  true  God  was,  even  when 
he  foretold  calamity,  entitled  to  be  tolerated,  un- 
til it  happened  that  a  prediction  of  his  failed  of 
accomplishment.  He  might  then  be  imprisoned, 
but  could  not  be  put  to  death,  as  instanced  in 
Jeremiah  (xxvi:8-i6),  who  is  apprehended  and 
arraigned,  but  acquitted:  'Then  said  the  princes 
and  the  people  unto  the  priests  and  the  prophets. 
This  man  is  not  worthy  to  die,  for  he  has  spoken 
to  us  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  our  God.'  Ahab 
is  by  false  prophets  encouraged  to  attack 'Ramoth- 
gilead,  but  Micaiah  prophesied  him  no  good;  on 
which  the  king  becomes  angry,  and  orders  the 
prophet  to  be  confined  (i  Kings  xxii:i-27)  :  Take 
Micaiah  and  put  him  in  prison,  and  feed  him  with 
bread  of  affliction,  and  with  water  of  affliction, 
until  I  come  in  peace.*  Micaiah  answers  (verse 
28)  *If  thou  return  at  all  in  peace,  the  Lord  has 
not  spoken  by  me.'  Until  the  safe  return  of  the 
king,  Micaiah  is  to  remain  in  prison;  after  that, 
he  shall  be  put  to  death.  The  prophet  agrees  to 
it,  and  the  king  goes  up  to  Ramoth-gilead,  but  is 
slain  in  the  battle. 

(3)  In  Accordance  with  Law.  From  the 
above  two  criteria  of  a  true  prophet  flows  the 
third,  that  his  addresses  must  he  in  strict  accord- 
ance with  the  law.  Whoever  departs  from  it  can- 
not be  a  true  prophet,  for  it  is  impossible  that  the 
Lord  should  contradict  himself. 

(4)  No  Pro8i>erity  without  Bei>entance.  In 
the  above  is  also  founded  the  fourth  criterion, 
that  a  true  prophet  must  not  promise  prosperity 
without  repentance;  and  that  he  is  a  false  prophet, 
*of  the  deceit  of  his  own  heart,  who  does  not  re- 
prove the  sins  of  the  people,  and  who  does  not 
mculcate  on  them  the  doctrines  of  Divine  justice 
and  retribution.* 

In  addition  to  these  negative  criteria,  there 
were  positive  ones  to  procure  authority  to  true 
prophets.  First  of  all,  it  must  be  assumed  that 
the  prophets  themselves  received,  along  with  the 
divine  revelations,  assurance  that  these  were 
really  divine.  Any  true  communion  with  the  Holy 
Spirit  affords  the  assurance  of  its  divine  nature; 
and  the  prophets  could,  therefore,  satisfy  them- 
selves of  their  divine  mission.  There  was  noth- 
ing to  mislead  and  delude  them  in  this  respect, 
for  temporal  goods  were  not  bestowed  upon  them 
with  the  gift  of  prophesying.  Their  own  native 
disposition  was  often  much  averse  to  this  calling, 
and  could  be  only  conquered  by  the  Lord  forcibly 
impelling  them,  as  appears  from  Jer.  xx:8,  9; 
'Since  I  spake,  the  word  of  the  Lord  was  made 
a  reproach  unto  me,  and  a  derision  daily.  Then 
I  said,  I  will  not  make  mention  of  him,  nor  speak 
any  more  in  his  name :  but  his  word  was  in  mine 
heart  as  a  burning  Are  shut  up  in  my  bones,  and 
I  was  weary  with  forbearing,  and  I  could  not 
stay.*  Now,  when  the  prophets  themselves  were 
convinced  of  their  divine  mission,  they  could  in 
various  ways  prove  it  to  others,  whom  they  were 
called  on  to  enlighten. 

S.  True  Prophets  Distinguished.  (1)  Evir 
dence  of  the  Spirit  To  those  who  had  any 
sense  of  truth,  -the  Spirit  of  God  gave  evidence 
that  the  prophecies  were  divinely  inspired. 

(2)  Personal  Conviction.  The  prophets  them- 
selves utter  their  firm  conviction  that  they  act 
and  speak  by  divine  authority,  not  of  their  own 
accord  (comp.  Jer.  xxvi:i2,  etc.).  Their  pious 
life  bore  testimony  to  their  being  worthy  of  a 
ntarer  communion  with  God,  and  defended  them 
from  the  suspicion  of  intentional  deception ;  their 
sobriety  of  mind  distinguished  them  from  all  fa- 
natics, and  defended  them  from  the  suspicion  of 
self-delusion ;  their  fortitude  in  suffering  for  truth 


PROPHECY 


1390 


PROPHECY 


proved  that  they  had  their  commission  from  no 
human  authority. 

(3)  Fulfillment.  Part  of  the  predictions  of 
the  prophets  referred  to  proximate  events,  and 
their  accomplishment  was  divine  evidence  of  their 
divine  origin.  Whoever  had  been  once  favored 
with  such  a  testimonial,  his  authority  was  estab- 
lished for  his  whole  life,  as  instanced  in  Samuel. 
Of  him  it  is  said  (i  Sam.  iiirip)  :  'The  Lord  was 
with  him,  and  let  none  of  his  words  fall  to  the 
ground  (t.  e,  fulfilled  them) ;  and  all  Israel  knew 
(from  this)  that  Samuel  was  established  to  be  a 
prophet  of  the  Lord.*  Of  the  divine  mission  of 
Isaiah  no  doubt  could  be  entertained  after,  for 
instance,  his  prophecies  of  the  overthrow  of  Sen- 
nacherib before  Jerusalem  had  been  fulfilled.  The 
credentials  of  the  divine  mission  of  Ezekiel  were 
certified  when  his  prediction  was  accomplished, 
that  Zedekiah  should  be  brought  to  Babylon,  but 
should  not  see  it,  for  the  king  was  made  prisoner 
and  blinded  (Ezek.  xii:i2,  13)  ;  they  were  further 
confirmed  by  the  fulfillment  of  his  prediction  con- 
cerning the  destruction  of  the  city  (Ezek.  xxiv). 
Jeremiah's  claims  were  authenticated  by  the  ful- 
fillment of  his  prediction  that  Shallum,  the  son  of 
Josiah  king  of  Judah,  should  die  in  his  prison, 
and  see  his  native  country  no  more  (Jer.  xxii: 
II,  12). 

(4)  Attested  by  Miracles.  Sometimes  the 
divine  mission  of  the  prophets  was  also  proved 
by  miracles,  but  this  occurred  only  at  important 
crises,  when  the  existence  of  the  kingdom  of  Is- 
rael was  in  jeopardy,  as  in  the  age  of  Elijah  and 
Elisha. 

(5)  Testimony  to  Divine  Hission  of  Other 
Prophets.  Those  prophets  whose  divine  com- 
mission had  been  sufficiently  proved,  bore  testi- 
mony to  the  divine  mission  of  others.  It  has 
been  observed  above,  that  there  was  a  certain 
gradation  among  the  prophets;  the  principals  of 
the  colleges  of  prophets  procured  authority  to 
the  *sons*  of  prophets.  Thus  the  deeds  of  Elijah 
and  Elisha  at  the  same  time  authenticated  the 
hundreds  of  prophets  whose  superiors  they  were. 
Concerning  the  relation  of  the  true  prophets  to 
each  other,  the  passage  2  Kings  iiip  is  remarka- 
ble; Elisha  says  to  Elijah.  'I  pray  thee,  let  a  double 
portion  of  thy  spirit  be  upon  me.*  Here  Elisha, 
as  the  firstborn  of  Elijah  in  a  spiritual  sense,  and 
standing  to  him  in  the  same  relation  as  Joshua  to 
Moses,  asks  for  a  double  portion  of  his  spiritual 
inheritance,  alluding  to  the  law  concerning  the 
hereditary  right  of  the  lawfully  begotten  first- 
born son  (Deut.  xxi:i7).  This  case  supposes 
that  other  prophets  also  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
took  portions  of  the  fullness  of  the  spirit  of  Eli- 
jah. It  is  plain,  then,  that  only  a  few  prophets 
stood  in  immediate  communion  with  God, 
while  that  of  the  remaining  was  formed  by  medi- 
ation. The  latter  were  spiritually  incorporated  in 
the  former,  and  on  the  ground  of  this  relation,  ac- 
tions performed  by  Elisha,  or  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  one  of  his  pupils,  are  at  once  ascribed 
to  Elijah,  e.  g.  the  anointing  of  Hazael  to  be  king 
over  Syria  (i  Kings  xix:i5;  comp.  2  Kings  viii: 
13) ;  the  anointing  of  Jehu  to  be  king  over  Israel 
(i  Kings  xix:i6;  comp.  2  Kings  ix:i,  sq.)  ;  the 
writing  of  the  letter  to  Joram,  etc.  Thus  in  a 
certain  sense  it  may  be  affirmed  that  Elijah  was 
in  his  time  the  only  prophet  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel.  Similarly  of  Moses  it  is  recorded,  dur- 
ing his  passage  through  the  desert,  that  a  portion 
of  his  spirit  was  conveyed  to  the  seventy  elders. 
The  history  of  the  Christian  church  itself  offers 
analogies;  ^.^.,  look  at  the  relation  of  the  second- 
class  reformers  to  Luther  and  Calvin. 


7.  Promotgation  ofVropheticDectarations. 

(1)  Before  the  People.  Usually  the  prophets 
promulgated  their  visions  in  public  places  before 
the  congregated  people.  Still  some  portions  of 
the  prophetic  books,  as  the  entire  second  part  of 
Isaiah  and  the  description  of  the  new  temple 
(Ezek.  xl-xlviii),  probably  were  never  communi- 
cated orally.  In  other  cases  the  prophetic  ad- 
dresses first  delivered  orally  were  next,  when 
committed  to  writing,  revised  and  improved. 

(2)  Written  in  Books.  Especially  the  books 
of  the  lesser  prophets  consist,  for  the  greater 
part,  not  of  separate  predictions,  independent  of 
each  other,  but  form,  as  they  now  are,  a  whole, 
that  is,  give  the  quintessence  of  the  prophetic  la- 
bors of  their  authors. 

(3)  Reference  to  Earlier  Works.  There  is 
evidence  to  prove  that  the  later  prophets  sedu- 
lously read  the  writings  of  the  earlier,  and  that 
a  prophetic  canon  existed  before  the  present  was 
formed.  The  predictions  of  Jeremiah  through- 
out rest  on  the  writings  of  earlier  prophets,  as 
Kuper  has  established  in  his  Jeremias  librorum 
sacrorum  interpres  atque  vindex,  Berlin,  1837. 
Zechariah  explicitly  alludes  to  writings  of  former 
prophets;  *to  the  words  which  the  Lord  has 
spoken  to  earlier  prophets,  when  Jerusalem  was 
inhabited  and  in  prosperity'  (Zech.  i  14 ;  vii  17,  12) . 

(4)  Preservation  of  Books.  In  consequence 
of  the  prophets  being  considered  as  organs  of 
God,  much  care  was  bestowed  on  the  preservation 
of  their  publications.  Ewald  himself  cannot  re- 
frain from  observing  (p.  56),  *We  have  in  Jer. 
xxvi:i-i9  a  clear  proof  of  the  exact  knowledge 
which  the  better  classes  of  the  people  had  of  all 
that  had,  a  hundred  years  before,  happened  to  a 
prophet,  of  his  words,  misfortunes,  and  acci- 
dents.* 

The  collectors  of  the  Canon  arranged  the  proph- 
ets chronologically,  biit  considered  the  whole  of 
the  twelve  lesser  prophets  as  one  work,  which  they 
placed  after  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  inasmuch  as 
the  three  last  lesser  prophets  lived  later  than 
they.  Daniel  was  placed  in  the  Hagiog^apha,  be- 
cause he  had  not  filled  the  prophetic  office.  The 
collection  of  the  lesser  prophets  themselves  was 
again  chronologically  disposed;  still  Rosea  is, 
on  account  of  the  extent  of  his  work,  allowed 
precedence  of  those  lesser  prophets,  who,  gen- 
erally, were  his  contemporaries,  and  also  before 
those  who  flourished  at  a  somewhat  earlier  pe- 
riod. 

8.  Literature.  Of  considerable  eminence  is 
the  treatise  by  Ewald  on  prophecy,  which  pre- 
cedes his  work  on  the  prophets,  published  in  1840 
at  Stuttgart.  But  to  the  important  question 
whether  the  prophets^  enjoyed  supernatural  as- 
sistance or  not,  an  e>tplicit  answer  will  here  be 
sought  for  in  vain.  His  view  of  the  subject  is  in 
the  main  that  of  the  Rationalists,  though  he  en- 
deavors to  veil  it:  the  Spirit  of  God  influencing 
the  prophets  is  in  fact  only  their  own  mind 
worked  up  by  circumstances;  their  enthusiasm 
and  ecstasy  are  made  to  explain  all.  Sherlock, 
Discourses  on  the  Use  and  Intent  of  Prophecy, 
8vo,  1755;  Hurd,  Introd.  to  the  Study  of  tiie 
Prophecies,  etc.,  8vo,  1772;  Apthorp,  Discourses 
on  Prophecy,  2  vols.  8vo,  1786;  Davidson,  Dis- 
courses on  Prophecy  (in  which  are  considered  its 
Structure,  Use,  and  Inspiration) ,  8vo,  1824 :  Smith. 
(J.  Pye),  Principles  of  Interpretation  as  Applied 
to  the  Prophecies  of  Holy  Scripture,  8vo,  1829; 
Brooks,  Elements  of  Prophetical  Interpretation, 
i2mo,  1837;  Home,  Introduction,  vol.  ii,  p.  5341 
iv,  p.  140;  Alexander,  Connection  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  Lect.  iv-vii,  pp.   168-382,  8vo. 


PROPHECY  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT    1391    PROPHECY  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 


1841 ;  F.  D.  Maurice,  Prophets  and  Kings  of  the 
O.  r..  1853;  Taylor,  The  Spirit  of  Heh.  Poetry, 
1862;  Thomas  Arnold,  Arnold's  Works,  i.  373- 
456;  Stanley,  Lectures  on  the  Jewish  Ch.,  1863; 
R.  P.  Smith,  Messianic  Interpretation,  1862.  (See 
Prophecy  in  the  Old  Testament.) 

E.  W.  H. 

FEOPHEOY  nr  THB  OLD  TBSTAKEHT. 

"Profhecy  came  not  in  old  time  by  the  will  of 
man:  but  holy  men  of  God  spake  as  they  were 
moved  by  the  Holy  Ghosf*  (2  P©t.  i:2i). 

The 'importance  of  this  subject  cannot  well  be 
overestimated,  for  a  proper  conception  of  it  is 
necessary  to  a  clear  understanding  of  the  very 
basis  of  Christianity. 

This  faot  has  been  so  fully  recognized  that 
Cliristian  scholars  in  all  ages  have  found  this  a 
profitable  and  an  almost  inexhaustible  field  for 
research.  It  was  to  the  prophecies  concerning  the 
Messiah  that  the  apostles  appealed  in  presenting 
the  claims  of  the  Christ  to  the  Jewish  world. 
It  was  to  "the  law  and  the  prophets"  that  the 
Master  himself  often  referred. 

In  both  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament  the 
prophet  is  the  divine  messenger  who  communi- 
cates to  man  the  revelation  which  he  has  received 
from  God.  Peter  and  Paul  and  John  are  "among 
the  prophets"  as  well  as  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and 
Ezekiel,  while  our  Lord  himself  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  glorious  company. 

(1)  The  Claim  of  Inspiration.  Every  believer 
of  God's  word  must  admit  the  claim  to  inspiration 
which  is  made  by  the  prophets  of  both  the  Old 
and  the  New  Covenants.  They  stood  as  did  Mo- 
ses of  old  between  God  and  humanity.  Thepr 
were  not  in  this  position  "by  will  of  man"  but  it 
was  a  duty  which  was  laid  upon  them  by  the 
Most  High. 

Amos  says :  '7  was  no  prophet,  neither  was  I 
a  prophet's  son;  but  I  was  an  herdman,  and  a 
gatherer  of  sycamore  fruit.  And  the  Lord  took 
me  as  I  followed  the  Hock,  and  the  Lord  said 
unto  me,  Go,  prophesy  unto  my  people  Israel" 
(Amos  vii:i4). 

Often  the  message  given  them  was  in  direct 
opposition  to  their  own  wishes;  often  they  were 
compelled  to  utter  denunciations  upon  their  own 
people. 

It  is  true  that  the  mission  of  God's  messengers 
is  not  limited  to  the  foretelling  of  events.  The 
broad,  original  meaning  of  the  word  makes  the 
prophet  a  man  of  the  times  whose  primary  ob- 
ject was  religious  instruction,  —  the  moral  and 
spiritual  culture  of  his  fellowmen;  he  was  a  re- 
former, a  preacher  of  righteousness,  and  the 
stern  reprover  of  sin.  He  was  also  the  inter- 
preter of  history,  but  nevertheless  the  element  of 
prediction  is  a  most  prominent  and  essential  fea- 
ture of  Old  Testament  prophecy. 

(2)  Fulfillment  the  Test.  Not  only  this  but 
the  fulfillment  of  his  predictions  was  made  the 
test  by  which  the  seer  must  stand  or  fall. 

Moses  says :  "When  a  prophet  speaketh  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord,  if  the  thing  follow  not,  nor 
come  to  pass,  that  is  the  thing  which  the  Lord 
hath  not  spoken,  but  the  prophet  hath  spoken  it 
presumptuously"  (Deut.  xviii:22).  Jeremiah  also 
says :  "When  the  word  of  the  prophet  shall  come 
to  pass,  then  shall  the  prophet  be  known  that  the 
Lord  truly  sent  him"  (Jer.  xxviiiiQ).  Jehovah 
revealed  to  these  men  his  purposes  concerning 
their  own  people  and  those  of  other  nations. 
"Surely  the  Lord  God  will  do  nothing  but  he  re- 
vealeth  his  secret  unto  his  servants  the  prophets" 
(Amos  iii:?). 


There  was  often  a  condition  made  in  connec- 
tion with  a  prophecy  as  in  the  words  of  the  Mas- 
ter when  he  said :  "Except  ye  repent  ye  shall  all 
likewise  perish"  (Luke  xiii:3). 

In  <the  case  of  Nineveh  there  was  no  condition 
in  the  denunciation,  but  when  the  pe(^le  repented 
and  turned  to  Ciod  he  averted  the  evil  which  had 
been  foretold. 

According  to  the  visions  of  Amos  the  main 
point  in  the  particular  revelation  given  to  him 
was  the  coming  destruction  of  the  Northern 
Kingdom.  This  disaster  was  twice  averted  in  an- 
swer to  the  prayers  of  the  prophet,  but  became 
inevitable  on  account  of  the  obduracy  of  the  peo- 
ple. Amos  denounced  their  wickedness  and  ex- 
horted them  to  repentance,  but  in  vain,  and  at 
last  the  high  places  of  Isaac  were  made  desolate, 
and  the  sanctuaries  of  Israel  were  laid  waste. 

The  test  which  God's  prophets  accepted  for 
themselves  we  may  well  use,  and  the  number  of 
definite  predictions  found  in  the  Old  Testament 
which  have  been  accurately  fulfilled  are  of  the 
greatest  interest.  Only  a  very  few  of  these  can 
be  cited  but  we  may  refer  by  way  of  illustration 
to  the  following  instances. 

(3)  Illustrations.  Ancient  Babylon  was  "the 
glory  of  kingdoms,  the  beauty  of  the  Chaldees' 
excellency."  Her  strength  and  grandeur,  her 
splendor  and  luxury  have  furnished  a  theme  for 
many  writers  both  sacred  and  profane,  but  her 
complete  desolation  was  foretold  in  the  most  def- 
inite terms,  the  prophet  giving  even  the  name  of 
the  leader  of  the  invading  host  (Is.  xiv:i-s). 

Amos  predicted  with  great  precision  the  fate 
of  Amaziah,  the  priest  of  Bethel,  and  also  that 
of  his  familv;  he  also  described  the  coming  and 
severity  of  the  Assyrian  captivity. 

Isaiah  declares  that  before  a  certain  unborn 
child  shall  come  to  years  of  discretion,  great  dis- 
tress shall  come  upon  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  while 
its  enemies,  Ephra^m  and  Damascus,  shall  be  de- 
stroyed (Is.  vii:i6). 

Jeremiah  foretells  the  death  of  Hananiah  with- 
in the  year,  and  he  also  predicts  that  the  Baby- 
Ionian  exile,  although  inevitable,  shall  be  of  lim- 
ited duration,  extending  over  a  period  of  only  sev- 
enty years  (Jer.  xxviii  :i5'i7,  also  xxv:i2  and 
xxix.'io).  Ezekiel  in  Babylon  predicted  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem  and  described  many  specific  events 
in  connection  therewith  (Ezek.  xxi:i8;xxii  13-15). 

Idumea  and  Moab  as  well  as  Nineveh  and 
Babylon  live  in  both  prophecy  and  history.  But 
the  most  important  of  Old  Testament  predictions 
are  those  which  relate  to  the  Messiah. 

(4)  Kessianic  Predictions.  He  is  described 
even  in  Genesis  as  "the  seed  of  the  woman"  who 
should  bruise  the  serpent's  head  (Gen.  iiiiis). 
The  time  of  his  coming  was  foretold  as  being  be- 
fore the  destruction  of  the  second  temple  (Mai. 
iii:i).  We  are  told  that  he  should  be  born  of  a 
virgm  (Is.  vii:i4). 

He  was  to  be  the  son  of  Isaac  and  not  of  Ish- 
mael  (Gen.  xviirig). 

A  messenger  was  to  be  sent  before  him  preach- 
ing in  the  wilderness  (Is.  xl:3). 

He  was  to  be  bom  in  Bethlehem  (Mic.  v  :2).  He 
was  to  be  rejected  by  the  Jews  (Is.  liii  :i-2).  He 
was  to  be  the  Corner  Stone  in  Zion  (Is.  xxviii: 
16).    (See  also  Acts  iv:ii.) 

It  was  foretold  that  he  should  ride  into  Je- 
rusalem on  the  foal  of  an  ass  (Zech.  ixip).  The 
prophet  said  that  he  would  be  sold  for  thirty 
pieces  of  silver  (Zech.  xi:i2). 

It  was  also  said  that  he  would  be  wounded  in 
his  hands  (Zech.  xiii:6). 

He  was  to  be  "despised  and  rejected  of  men," 


PROPHECY  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT    1392    PROPHECY  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 


"wounded  for  our  transg^ressions,"  "oppressed  and 
afliicted,"  "taken  away  by  oppression  and  judg- 
ment," R.  v.,  "numbered  with  transgressors.' 
"buried  in  a  rich  man's  tomb/'  to  bear  "the  sin 
of  many,"  and  make  "intercession  for  transgres- 
sors."    (See  Is.  liii.) 

He  was  to  receive  "vinegar  and  gall"  (Ps. 
lxix:2i). 

His  enemies  were  to  part  his  garments  and  cast 
lots  for  his  vesture  (Ps.  xxii:i8). 

The  personal  character  of  the  Messiah  was  also 
foretold  by  the  prophets.    For  example : 

"Righteousness  shall  be  the  girdle  of  his  loins 
and  faithfulness  the  girdle  of  his  reins." 

"He  had  done  no  violence,  neither  was  there 
any  deceit  in  his  lips"  (Is.  liii:9). 

"He  shall  feed  his  flock  like  a  shepherd :  he  shall 
gather  the  lambs  with  his  arms  and  carry  them 
in  his  bosom"  (Is.  xlrii). 

These  are  only  a  few  out  of  the  many  definite 
descriptions  of  the  Messiah  and  these  pertain  to 
the  historic  Christ. 

In  reference  to  the  broader  field  of  Messianic 
prophecy.  Prof.  W.  R.  Betteridge  says:  "The 
most  noblej  the  most  characteristic  part  of  Old 
Testament  prophecy  is  in  its  essence,  predictive 
prophecy.  1  mean  the  so-called  Messianic  proph- 
ecy, which  I  use  in  the  broader  sense  of  the 
term,  as  including  all  prophecies,  concerning  the 
completion  of  the  kingdom  of  God  and  the  re- 
demption and  glorification  of  his  people,  whether 
this  looked  for  consummation  is  represented  as 
being  brought  about  by  the  royal  deliverer  from 
David's  house,  or  is  regarded  as  being  the  direct 
work  of  Jehovah  himself. 

The  retention  of  the  term  "Messianic"  may  be 
further  justified  by  the  fact  that  whether  ex- 
pressly mentioned  or  not,  it  is  nevertheless  true 
that  the  person  of  Messiah  is  the  central  figure 


of  the  glorious  kingdom  of  the  future.  Messianic 
prophecy  forms  a  part  of  all  forms  of  Biblical  lit- 
erature. History  and  poetry  alike  contain  al- 
lusions to  the  coming  gloiy,  but  these  are  in  the 
main,  only  foreshadowings.  Messianic  prophecy 
in  its  highest  beauty  and  splendor  is  chiefly  con- 
fined to  the  prophetical  books. 

But  this  glowing  picture  of  future  redemption 
has  its  darker  counterpart  which  stands  even 
more  distinctly  in  the  foreground  of  tfhe  prophet's 
picture  of  the  coming  age.  "All  of  the  prophets 
without  exception  are  heralds  of  doom  .... 
In  other  words  the  orbit  of  predictive  prophecy  is 
not  a  circle  but  an  ellipse,  with  judgment  and  res- 
toration as  its  focal  points  ....  An  Amos, 
a  Hosea,  an  Isaiah  proclaim  with  certainty  the 
approaching  punishment  not  from  his  conviction 
that  sin  must  be  punished,  but  from  divine  rev- 
elation. Similarly  each  one  of  them  bases  his 
faith  in  the  ultimate  restoration  of  at  least  a  frag* 
ment  of  the  people,  not  on  his  conception  of  the 
indissoluble  bond  between  Jehovah  and  his  peo- 
ple, but  upon  the  promise  which  Jehovah  has 
given  him.'  (See  W.  R.  Betteridge,  Bib.  Sac,  Jan. 

1897.) 

A  proper  conception  of  the  fulfillment  of  proph- 
ecy cannot  be  obtained  by  a  study  of  the  prophets 
alone.  Many  of  their  statements  can  be  under- 
stood only  in  the  light  of  New  Testament  teach- 
ing. The  apostles  and  other  New  Testament  writ- 
ers recognized  the  fulfillment  of  prophecy  in  the 
life  and  mission,  in  the  suffering  and  death,  in 
the  resurrection  and  the  ascension  of  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ.  His  hand  holds  the  key  of  many 
mysteries,  the  great  lines  of  prophecy  center  in 
him,  and  the  dark  places  of  the  earth  must  be 
illumined  by  the  Sun  of  Righteousness.  (For 
table  showing  chronology  of  the  prophets  and 
periods  of  prophecy,  see  Appendix,  p.  44.) 


PROPHETIC  MESSAGES  MENTIONED  IN  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS  OF  THE  Ot-D  TESTAMENT. 

(From  Barnes*  Bt6.  Did.) 


Prophet. 

To  Whom  Addrbssbxx 

Where  Recorded. 

A&ron •.•••  ..•• .... 

Pharaoh .••.••  ...... 

Ezod.  vii :  1,  sq. 
Judg.  vi :  8-10. 
1  Sam.  ii :  87-88. 

Unnamed .  

Israelites 

Man  of  God 

Eli 

Jehovah  

Samuel. 

1  Sam.  iii ;  11-14. 

Samaal 

Israfilites.     .    ............*............h.. 

1  Sam.  vii :  8. 

Samuel 

Saul,  at  Gileal 

lSam.ziU:18,14. 
1  Sam.,  ch.  xv. 

Samuel 

Saul,  after  soarinff  Amalek 

NathaQ 

David,  resnectinff  temnle 

8  Sam.,  ch.  vii. 

Nathan 

David,  after  his  adultery 

3  Sam*,  ch.  zii. 

Gad 

David,  respecting  census 

8  Sam.,  ch.  zziv. 

Ahiiah  the  Shilonite 

Kins  TeroDoam 

1  Kings  zi:2(Mn. 

1  Kings  zii  :81-M;  8Chron.zi;t^ 

1  Kings  ziii:  1.8. 

Shemaiah 

Kins  nehoboam 

Man  of  God 

Altar  of  lernhoam 

Ahijah 

Wife  of  leroboam 

1  Kings  ziv:  6-18. 

lehu.  son  of  Hanani 

Kine  Baasha 

1  Kings  zvi :  1-4. 

'  IJnnamed 

KinsAhab 

1  Kings  zz:  18. 14, 88.  aft. 
1  Kings  zz:  85,  sq. 
1  Kings  zzi :  17-86. 

Pupil  of  the  prophets 

KingAhab : 

Eioah. ......... ....:::......::...:::: 

Kins  Ahab 

Micaiah.  son  of  Imlah 

Ahab  and  Tehoshaohat  

1  Kings  zzii :  8, 14,  sq. ;  8  Chron.,  ch.  iviU 

8  Kings  iii:  11.  sq. 

8Kingsiz:l-ia 

Elisha   

ehoram  and  lehoshaDhat  .  ^  r 

Pupil  of  Eliaha 

ehu 

.*«««» (Heb.^^9,  A  V.  "burden").. 
Jehovah 

Concerninff  house  of  Ahab. 

8  Kings  iz:  85.88. 

Tehu 

8  Kings  z :  80. 

onah 

leroboam  11.  indirectly 

2  Kings  ziv  :85b 
8  Kings  zviii :  18L 

i  General  messaee 

Israel 

Isaiah 

Unnamed  prophets 

KingHecekiah 

Israel 

8  Kings,  ziz,  zz. 

8Kings  zzi.  10-15. 

8  Kings  zzii :  14,  sq.;  8  Chron.,  ch.  uzv. 

8  Chron.  zii :  5-aL 

Huldah.  wife  of  Shallum 

Kinff  losiah 

Shemaiah 

RehoDoam 

Azariah.  son  of  Oded 

King  Asa 

2  Chron.  zv :  1-7. 

Hanani  

King  Asa 

2  Chron.  zvi :  7-flL 

f  ahaziel.  the  Asaphite 

The  National  Assembly 

Kine    ehoshaohat..... 

2  Chron.  zz :  14-17. 

£liezer,  son  of  Dodavah 

2  Chron.  zz :  37. 

Elijah,  by  letter 

Kinff    ehoram ........ 

8  Chron.  zzi:12-l8L 

Zecharian.  son  of  lehoiada 

Israel,  in  reira  of  loash 

2  Chron.  zziv :  20. 

Man  of  God 

Kinff  Amaziah 

2  Chron.  xxv :  7-9.                        — 

Unnamed 

Kine  Amaziah.. 

2  Chron.  zzv :  15  18 

Oded 

Pnkah  and  armv.. 

2  Chron.  zzviii  '0-11. 

PROPITIATION 


1393 


PROSELYTE 


TABLE  OF  THE  PROPHETICAL  BOOKS. 


Nambs. 


L  Prophets  of  Israel: 

Jonah 

Amo« 

Hoc«a 

II.  Early  prophots  of 
Israel : 

JoeJ* 

Isaiah 

Micah 

IIL  Later  prophets  of 
Judah: 

Nahum 

Zephaniah 

Jeremiah 

Habakknk 

IV.  Prophets   of  the 
Captivity : 

Daniel 

Bzekiel 

Obadiah  

V.  Pott-Exilio  proph- 

ets: 
Haggai 

Zechariah 

Malachi 


Datb 
OP  Ministry. 


783-742  B.C 

760-746 

748(?)-734 

756(?) 

704-71d(?) 

788-71© 

Between  664-4K)7 

639-MK) 

628-683 

600(7)-6eO 

606-686  about... 

502-670 

586 

680 

620 

432  about 


Kings  of  Judah. 


Uzziah  ^Azariah^ 

Uzziah  (Azariah)  

Uzziah,    Totham,    Ahax, 
Hesekfah 


Uzziah 

Uzziah,    jotham,    Ahaz, 

Hezekiah 

Jotham,  Ahaz,  Hezekiah. 


Iosiah 
osiah 
osiah,  Jehoahaz,  Jehoi- 

akim 

Jehoiachin 


Ktngt  qf  Babylon, 
Nebuchadnezzar  to  Cyrus 

Nebuchadnezzar 

Nebuchadnezzar 


Darius  I. 


Darius  I 

Artazerxes  I . 


Kings  op  Israel. 


Jeroboam  II. 
Jeroboam  II. 


Jeroboam  II  to  Hoshea... 


Jeroboam  II. 


Zachariah  to  Hoshea. 
Hoshea 


SuBjscTS  OP  Prophbct. 


The  Fall  of  Nineveh. 
The  Sins  of  IsraeL 

The  Sins  of  Israel. 


The  Plagues  upon  Judah. 

The  Kingdom  of  Cod. 
The  Captivity  and  Christ 


The  Fall  of  Nineveh. 
The  Captivity  of  Judah. 

The  Captivity  of  Judah. 
The  Chaldsan  Invasion. 


The  Great  Empires. 
The  Captivity  and  Return. 
The  Destruction  of  Edom. 


The  Rebuilding   of  the 
Temple. 

The  New  Israel. 

Reformation  and  the  Mes- 
siah. 


V* 


*  Many  of  the  leading  scholars  place  Joel  much  later,  even  as  late  as  600  B.  C. 


PBOPTTIATION  (prd^&h'I-a'shfin),  (Gr.  iXa<r- 
ItJbi,  hil'OS-mos'),  that  which  appeases,  propitiates 
(I  John  ii:2;  iv:io).    This  word  is  used  in  the  LXX 

as  the  translation  of  the  Hebrew  word  ^^^2  (kaP- 
po'reth)t  a  covering. 

It  is  the  averting  the  punishment  due  to  any 
one,  by  undergoing  the  penalty  in  the  room  of 
the  guilty.  Jesus  Christ  is  called  the  "propitia- 
tion," or  Atonement,  as  his  complete  righteous- 
ness satisfies  all  the  demands  of  the  law  and  jus- 
tice for  all  our  transgressions  (Rom.  iii:25;  i 
John  ii:2).  As  it  respects  the  bloodless  propitia- 
tory sacrifice  of  the  mass,  little  need  be  said  to 
confute  such  a  doctrine.  Indeed,  it  is  owned  in 
the  church  of  Rome,  that  there  is  no  other  founda- 
tion for  the  belief  of  it  than  an  unwritten  tradi- 
tion. There  is  no  hint  in  the  Scripture  of  Christ's 
offering  his  body  and  blood  to  his  Father  at  his  in- 
stitution of  the  eucharist.  It  is  also  a  manifest 
contradiction  to  St.  Paul's  doctrine,  who  teaches, 
that,  without  shedding  of  blood,  there  is  no  re- 
mission; therefore  there  can  be  no  remission  of 
sins  in  the  mass.  The  sacrifice  of  Christ,  accord- 
ing to  the  same  apostle,  is  not  to  be  repeated.  A 
second  oblation  would  be  superfluous;  conse- 
quently the  pretended  true  and  proper  sacrifice 
of  the  mass  must  be  superfluous  and  useless. 

Buck. 

-PBOSELYTE  (pr6s'6-lit),  (Gr.  wpwrijkvTot,  pros- 
ay' loo-toSt  a  newcomer),  the  name  applied  in  the 
New  Testament  and  the  Septuagint  to  converts 
from  heathenism  to  Judaism. 

In  the  Old  Testament  such  persons  are  called 
strangers,  advena,  and  settlers,  incol<B.  For  the 
rectption  and  treatment  of  these,  provision  was 
made  in  the  law  of  Moses  (Exod.  xii:48;  xvii:8; 
Num.  xv:i5,  etc.);  and  the  whole  Jewish  state 
was  considered  as  composed  of  the  two  classes, 
Jews,  and  strangers  within  their  gates,  or  pros- 
elytes. In  later  years  this  distinction  was  ob- 
served even  to  the  second  generation. 

(1)  Jewish.  It  has  been  customary  to  make  a 
distinction  between  two  classes  of  Jewish  pros- 
el3rtes,  the  one  denominated  prosel3rtes  of  the 
gate,  and  the  other  proselytes  of  the  covenant. 


or  of  righteousness.  Under  the  former  have  been 
included  those  converts  from  heathenism  who  had 
so  far  renounced  idolatry  as  to  become  worshipers 
of  the  one  God,  and  to  observe,  generally,  what 
have  been  called  the  seven  Noachic  precepts,  viz., 
against  idolatry,  profanity,  incest,  murder,  dis- 
honesty, eating  blood,  or  things  strangled,  and  al- 
lowing a  murderer  to  live,  but  had  not  formally 
enrolled  themselves  in  the  Jewish  state.  The 
latter  is  composed  of  those  who  had  submitted  to 
circumcision,  and  in  all  respects  become  converts 
to  Judaism.  The  accuracy  of  this  distinction, 
however,  has  been  called  in  question  by  several, 
especially  by  Lardner,  whose  arguments  appear 
decisive  of  the  question  (Works,  vol.  vi,  pp.  522- 
533;  vol.  xi,  pp.  313-324,  8vo,  edit.  1788).  That 
there  were,  in  later  times  especially,  many  among 
the  Jews  who  had  renounced  the  grosser  parts 
of  heathenism  without  having  come  over  entirely 
to  Judaism,  is  beyond  all  doubt;  but  that  these 
were  ever  counted  proselytes  admits  of  question. 
Certain  it  is  that  the  proselytes  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament  were  all  persons  who  had  re- 
ceived circumcision,  and  entered  the  pale  of  the 
Jewish  community. 

(2)  Bites.  The  rites  by  which  a  proselyte  was 
initiated  are  declared  by  the  Rabbins  to  have  been, 
in  the  case  of  a  man.  three,  viz.,  circumcision, 
baptism,  and  a  freewill  sacrifice;  in  the  case  of 
a  woman  the  first  was  of  necessity  omitted.  As 
to  the  first  and  last  of  these,  their  claim  to  be 
regarded  as  accordant  with  the  ancient  practice 
of  the  Jews  has  been  on  all  hands  admitted  with- 
out scruple;  but  it  has  been  matter  of  keen  ques- 
tion whether  the  second  can  be  admitted  to  nave 
been  practiced  before  the  Christian  era.  The  sub- 
stance of  much  learned  discussion  on  this  head  we 
shall  attempt  summarily  to  state. 

(8)  Baptism.  There  is  no  direct  evidence  that 
this  rite  was  practiced  by  the  Jews  before  the 
second  or  third  century  of  the  Christian  era ;  but 
the  fact  that  it  was  practiced  by  them  then  neces* 
sitates  the  inquiry:  when  and  how  did  such  a 
custom  arise  among  them?  That  they  borrowed 
it  from  the  Christians  is  an  opinion  which,  though 
supported  by  De  Wettc  (in  his  Treatise  De  Morte 


PROSELYTE 


1394 


PROSEUCHA 


Christi  expiatorid),  cannot  be  for  a  moment  ad- 
mitted by  any  who  reflect  on  the  implacable  ha- 
tred with  which  the  Jews  for  many  centuries  re- 
garded Christianity,  its  ordinances,  and  its  pro- 
fessors.   Laying  aside  this  view,  there  arc  only 
two  others  which  have  been  suggested    The  one 
is  that  proselyte  baptism  was  practiced  among  the 
Jews  from  a  period  long  anterior  to  the  birth  of 
Christ;  the  other  is  that  the  custom  of  baptizing 
proselytes  arose  gradually  out  of  the  habit  which 
the  Jews  had  of  purifying  by  ablution  whatever 
they  deemed  unclean,  and  came  to  be  raised  for 
the  first  time  to  the  importance  of  an  initiatory 
ordinance  after  the  destruction  of  the  temple  serv- 
ice, and  when,  in  consequence  of  imperial  edicts, 
tt  became  difficult  to  circumcise  converts.    This 
latter  opinion  is  that  of  Schneckenburger  {Ueh. 
das  Alter  tLJud.  Proselytentaufe,  Berlin,  1828), 
and  has  been  espoused  by  several  eminent  German 
scholars.    To  us,  however,  it  appears  exceedingly 
unsatisfactoi^.    The  single  fact  adduced  in  sup- 
port of  it,  viz.,  the  difficulty  of  circumcising  con- 
verts in  consequence  of  the  imperial  edicts  against 
proselytism  is  a  singularly  infelicitous  piece  of 
evidence ;  for,  as  the  question  to  be  solved  is,  how 
came  the  later  Rabbins  to  prescribe  both  baptism 
and  circumcision  as  initiatory  rites  for  proselytes? 
— it  is  manifestly  absurd  to  reply  that  it  was  be- 
cause they  could  only  baptize  and  could  not  cir- 
cumcise :  such  an  answer  is  a  contradiction,  not  a 
solution  of  the  question.    Besides,  this  hypothesis 
suggests  a  source  of  proselyte  baptism  which  is 
equally  available  for  that  which  it  is  designed  to 
supersede;    for,    if    the    practice    of    baptizing 
proselytes  on  their  introduction  into  Judaism  had 
Its  rise  in  the  Jewish  habit  of  ablution,  why  might 
not  this  have  operated  in  the  way  suggested,  two 
hundred  years   before   Christ    as   well   as   two 
hundred  years  after  Christ?     And  in  fine,  this 
hypothesis  still  leaves  unremoved  the  master  diffi- 
culty of  that  side  of  the  question  which  it  is 
designed  to  support,  viz.,  the  great  improbability 
of  the  Jews  adopting  for  the  first  time  subse- 
quently to  the  death  of  Christ    a  religious  rite 
which  was  well  known  to  be  the  initiatory  rite  of 
Christianity.    Assuming  that  they  practiced  that 
rite  before,  we  can  account  for  their  not  giving  it 
up  simply  because  the  Christians  had  adopted  it ; 
but,  trace  it  as  we  please  to  Jewish  customs  and 
rites,  it  seems  utterly  incredible  that  after  it  had 
become  the  symbol  and  badge  of  the  religious 
party  which  of  all  others,  perhaps,  the  Jews  most 
Ditterty  hated,  any  consideration  whatever  should 
have  mduced  them  to  begin  to  practice  it.    On 
the  other  hand  we  have,  in  favor  of  the  hypothesis 
that  proselyte  baptism  was  practiced  anterior  to 
the  time  of  our  Lord,  some  strongly  corroborative 
""-evidence.    We  have,  in  the  first  place,  the  unani- 


mous  tradition  of  the  Jewish  Rabbins,  who  impute 
to  the  practice  an  antiquity  commensurate  almost 
with  that  of  their  nation.  (2)  We  have  the 
i&ct  that  the  baptism  of  John  the  Baptist  was  not 
regarded  by  the  people  as  aught  of  a  novelty,  nor 
was  represented  by  him  as  resting  for  its  authoriW 
upon  any  speciaS  divine  revelation.  (3)  We 
have  the  fact  that  the  Pharisees  looked  upon  the 
baptism  both  of  John  and  Jesus  as  a  mode  of 
proselyting  men  to  their  religious  views  (John  iv : 
1-3),  and  that  the  dispute  between  the  Jews  and 
some  of  John's  disciples  about  purifying  was  ap- 
parently a  dispute  as  to  the  competing  claims  of 
John  and  Jesus  to  make  proselytes  (John  iii:25, 
^Q')»  (4)  We  have  the  fact  that  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost  Peter  addressed  to  a  multitude  of  per- 
sons collected  from  several  different  and  distant 
countries,  Jews  and  proselytes,  an  exhortation  to 


'Repent  and  be  baptized'  (Acts  ii:38),  from  which 
it  may  be  fairly  inferred  that  they  all  knew  what 
baptism  meant,  and  also  its  connection  with 
repentance  or  a  change  of  religious  views,  (s) 
We  have  the  fact  that,  according  to  Josephus,  the 
Essenes  were  in  the  habit,  before  admitting  a  new 
convert  into  their  society,  of  solemnly  and  ritually 
purifyinff  him  with  waters  of  cleansing  (De  Bell, 
Jud,  ii.  0.  7),  a  statement  which  cannot  be  under- 
stood of  their  ordinary  ablutions  before  meals  (as 
Mr.  Stuart  proposes  in  his  Essay  on  the  Mode  of 
Baptism,  p.  67)  ;  for  Josephus  expressly  adds  that 
even  after  this  lustration  two  years  had  to  elapse 
before  the  neophyte  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  liv- 
ing with  the  Proficients.  And  (6)  we  have 
the  mode  in  which  Josephus  speaks  of  the  baptism 
of  John,  when,  after  referring  to  John's  having 
exhorted  the  people  to  virtue,  righteousness,  and 
godliness,  as  preparatory  to  baptism,  he  adds, 
'For  it  appeared  to  him  that  baptism  was  ad- 
missible not  when  they  used  it  for  obtaining 
forgiveness  of  some  sins,  but  for  the  purification 
of  the  body  when  the  soul  had  been  already 
cleansed  by  righteousness'  {Antiq,  xviii.  5.  2) ; 
which  seenrs  to  indicate  the  conviction  of  the 
historian  that  John  did  not  introduce  this  rite, 
but  only  gave  to  it  a  peculiar  meaning. 

On  these  grounds  we  adhere  to  the  opinion 
that  prosel3rte  baptism  was  known  as  a  Jewish 
rite  anterior  to  the  birth  of  Christ.  (See  Bap- 
tism.) 

See  the  work  of  Dr.  Halley  on  the  Sacraments, 
Lond.  1844,  p.  1 14.  ff.  He,  with  other  writers,  con- 
tends for  the  antiquity  of  Jewish  proselyte  baptism. 

For  opposite  views,  see  Moses  Stuart,  Bio.  Rep. 
No.  X, 

From  the  time  of  the  Maccabees  the  desire  to 
make  proselytes  prevailed  among  the  Jews  to  a 
very  great  extent,  especially  on  the  part  of  the 
Pharisees,  whose  intemperate  zeal  for  this  object 
our  Lord  pointedly  rebuked  (Matt.  xxiii:i5). 
The  greater  part  of  their  converts  were  females, 
which  has  been  ascribed  to  the  dislike  of  the 
males  to  submit  to  circumcision.  Josephus  tells 
us  that  the  Jews  at  Antioch  were  continually  con- 
verting[  great  numbers  of  the  Greeks  (De  Bell. 
Jud,  vii.  3,  3),  and  that  nearly  all  the  women  at 
Damascus  were  attached  to  Judaism  (Ibid,  ii.  20. 
2;  comp.  Antiq.  xvii:ii;  xx:2;  De  Bell,  Jud. 
2.  18,  etc.;  Tacit.  Hist.  5,  5;  Dion  Cass.  37,  p. 
21.  See  Jahn,  Archaologie,  iii,  215  sq.;  Homes 
Introduction,  vol.  iii,  p.  265  sq.)  W.  L.  A. 

FBOSEXJOHA  (prds'Q-ka),  (Gr.  wpwrtvxfl.  pros- 
yoo-kay, 'prayer),  3.  word  signifying  *jjrayer,  and 
always  so  translated  in  the  Auth.  Version. 

It  is,  however,  applied,  per  melon.,  to  a  place 
of  prayer, — ^a  place  where  assemblies  for  prayer 
were  held,  whether  a  building  or  not.  In  this 
sense  it  seems  also  to  be  mentioned  in  Luke  vi: 
12,  where  it  is  said  that  our  Savior  went  up  into 
a  mountain  to  pray,  and  continued  all  night 
ip  ri  w/>off€vxi  rod  OeoC,  which  can  hardly  bear 
the  sense  our  translators  have  put  upon  it,  'in 
prayer  to  God.'  This  is  admitted  by  Whitby  and 
others,  who  infer,  from  the  use  of  parallel  phrases, 
such  as  'the  mount  of  God,'  'the  bread  of  God,* 
'the  altar  of  God,*  'the  lamp  of  God,'  etc.,  which 
were  all  things  consecrated  or  appropriated  to  the 
service  of  God,  that  the  phrase  might  here  signify 
'an  oratory  of  God,*  or  a  place  that  was  devoted 
to  his  service,  especially  for  prayer. 

That  there  really  were  such  places  of  devotion 
among  the  Jews  is  unquestionable.  They  were 
mostly  outside  those  towns  in  which  there  were 
no  synagogues,  because  the  laws  or  their  adminis- 
trators would  not  admit  any. 


PROSTITUTION.  SACRED 


1395      PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 


They  appear  to  have  been  usually  situated  near 
a  river,  or  the  seashore,  for  the  convenience  of 
ablution  (Joseph.  Antiq,  xiv.  lo,  23).  Josephus 
repeatedly  mentions  proseuchce  in  his  LifCj  and 
speaks  of  the  people  being  gathered  in  the 
proseucha  {Vita,  sec.  44,  46).  Sometimes  the 
proseucha  was  a  large  building,  as  that  at  Tiberias 
(/.  c,  sec.  54),  so  that  the  name  was  sometimes 
applied  even  to  S3magogues  (Vitringa,  Synag. 
Vet,  p.  119).  But,  for  the  most  part,  the 
proseuchae  appear  to  have  been  places  in  the  open 
air,  in  a  grove,  or  in  shrubberies,  or  even  under  a 
tree,  although  always,  as  we  may  presume,  near 
water,  for  the  convenience  of  those  ablutions 
which  with  the  Jews  always  preceded  prayer,  as, 
indeed,  they  did  among  the  pagans,  and  as  they 
do  among  the  Moslems  at  the  present  day.  The 
usages  of  the  latter  exhibit  something  answering 
to  the  Jewish  proseuchae,  in  the  shape  of  small 
oratories,  with  a  niche  indicating  the  direction  of 
Mecca,  which  is  often  seen  in  Moslem  countries 
by  the  side  of  a  spring,  a  reservoir,  or  a  large 
water  jar,  which  is  daily  replenished  for  the  use 
of  travelers.  (See  Jennings,  Jewish  Antiquities, 
pp.  379-382;  Prideaux's  Connection,  ii.  556.) 

PBOSTITXJTION,  SACBED  (prds'tT-ttl-shiin, 
sa'krSd). 

(1)  In  Babylonia.  According  to  Herodotus, 
every  woman  born  in  Babylonia  was  obliged  by 
law,  once  in  her  life  to  submit  to  the  embrace 
of  a  stranger.  These  who  were  gifted  with  beauty 
of  face  or  figure  soon  completed  this  offering  to 
Venus,  but  of  the  others  some  had  to  remain  in 
the  sacred  enclosure  for  several  years  before 
they  were  able  to  obey  the  law. 

(2)  In  Armenia.  Strabo  relates  that  in  Ar- 
mfenia  the  sons  and  daughters  of  the  leading 
families  were  consecrated  to  the  service  of  Anaitis 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  period.  Their  duty  was 
to  entertain  strangers,  and  those  females  who  had 
received  the  greatest  number  were  on  their  return 
home  the  most  sought  after  in  marriage. 

(3)  In  Phoenicia.  The  Phoenician  worship  of 
Astarte  was  no  less  distinguished  by  sacred  prosti- 
tution, to  which  was  added  a  promiscuous  inter- 
course between  the  sexes  during  certain  religious 
fetes. 

(4)  Probably  in  Egypt.  Some  writers  deny 
that  sacred  prostiiution  was  practiced  in  Egypt, 
but  the  great  similarity  between  the  worship  of 
Osiris  and  Isis  and  that  of  Venus  and  Adonis 
renders  the  contrary  opinion  highly  probable.  On 
their  way  to  the  t^tes  of  Isis  at  Bubastis  the 
female  pilgrims  executed  indecent  dances  when 
the  vessels  passed  the  villagers  on  the  banks  of 
the  river.  These  obscenities,  says  Dufour,  were 
such  only  as  were  about  to  happen  at  the  tem- 
ple, which  was  visited  each  year  by  seven  hundred 
thousand  pilgrims  who  gave  themselves  up  to  in- 
credible excesses.  Strabo  asserts  that  a  class 
called  pellices  were  dedicated  to  the  service  of  the 
patron  deity  of  Thebes,  and  they  "were  permitted 
to  cohabit  with  anyone  they  chose." 

(5)  In  India.  Sir  John  Lubbock  says  the  life 
led  by  the  courtezans  attached  to  the  Hindu  tem- 
ples is  not  considered  shameful,  because  they 
continue  the  old  custom  of  the  country  under  re- 
ligious sanction. 

The  ease  with  which  any  doctrine  or  practice, 
however  absurd  or  monstrous,  will  be  accepted, 
if  it  possesses  a  religious  sanction,  would  alone 
account  for  the  respect  entertained  for  religious 
prostitutes. 

(6)  A  Hospitable  Custom.  The  Hindus 
have  a  custom  widely  spread  of  providing  for  a 


guest  a  female  companion,  who  is  usually  the  wife 
or  daughter  of  the  host. 

Such  a  connection  with  a  stranger  is  even  per- 
mitted among  peoples  who  are  otherwise  jealous- 
preservers  of   female   chastity. 

This  custom  of  sexual  hospitality  is  said  to 
have  been  practiced  by  the  Babylonians  in  the 
time  of  Alexander,  although  according  to  the  his- 
torian, parents  and  husbands  did  not  decline  to 
accept  money  in  return  for  favors  thus  accorded. 

In  Armenia  also  strangers  alone  were  entitled 
to  seek  sexual  hospitality  in  the  sacred  enclosures 
at  the  temple  of  Anaitis.  Dufour  says,  "it  may  be 
surprising  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  country 
were  so  impressed  with  a  worship  in  which  their 
women  had  all  the  benefit  of  the  mysteries  of 
Venus."  "However,"  he  adds,  "the  worship  of 
Venus  was  in  some  sort  stationary  for  the  women, 
nomadic  for  the  men,  seeing  that  the  latter  could 
visit  in  towns  the  different  i^tes  and  temples 
of  the  goddesses,  profiting  everywhere  in  these 
sensual  pilgrimages  by  the  advantages  reserved 
to  guests  and  to  strangers." 

(7)  Tbe  Ambition  of  Oriental  Women.    In 

the  East,  the  great  aim  of  woman's  life  is  mar- 
riage and  bearing  children.  We  have  a  curious 
reference  to  this  fact  in  the  lament  of  Jephthah's 
daughter,  which  appears  to  have  been  occasioned 
less  by  her  death  than  by  the  recorded  fact  that 
"she  knew  no  man."    (See  Jephthah's  Vow.) 

(8)  Worship  of  the  Goddess  of  Fecundity.  In 
Babylonia  sexual  union  was  in  the  nature  of  an 
offering  to  the  goddess  of  Fecundity,  and  a  life 
of  prostitution  in  the  service  of  the  goddess  might 
well  come  to  be  viewed  as  pleasing  to  her  and 
deserving  of  respect  at  the  hands  of  her  wor- 
shipers. Sacred  prostitution  is  only  remotely 
connected,  if  at  all,  with  communal  marriage.  The 
only  association  between  them  is  the  sexual  hos- 
pitality to  strangers,  which  the  former  was  estab- 
lished to  supply;  but  the  association  is  only  ap- 
parent, as  the  providing  of  that  hospitality  is  per- 
fectly consistent  with  the  recognition  of  female 
chastity  and  is  quite  independent  of  any  ideas 
entertained  as  to  marriage. 

(0)  Propriety  of  Belations  in  the  Heroic 
Age.  Mr.  Gladstone  says,  "in  the  earliest  heroic 
ages  the  intercourse  between  husband  and  wife 
was  thoroughly  natural,  full  of  warmth,  dignity, 
reciprocal  deference,  and  substantial  if  not  con- 
ventional delicacy." 

The  same  writer  further  siys :  "The  relation  of 
youth  and  maiden  generally  is  indicated  with  ex- 
treme beauty  and  tenderness  in  the  Iliad;  and 
those  of  the  unmarried  woman  to  a  suitor  or 
probable  spouse  are  so  portrayed  in  the  case  of 
the  incomparable  Nausicaa  as  to  show  a  delicacy 
and  freedom  that  no  period  of  history  or  state  of 
manners  can  surpass.  (Sir  John  Lubbock's  Origin 
of  Civilization,  3d  ed.,  p.  96,  sq.)  (See  Ashto- 
reth;  Queen  of  Heaven.) 

PBOTESTANT     EPISCOPAL     OHUBCH 

(pr6t'gs-tant  6-pts'k6-pal  charch). 

1.  Relations  and  Organisation.  Before  the 
American  Revolution  the  organization  now  desig- 
nated by  the  above  title  was  known  as  "The  Church 
of  England  in  the  American  Colonies."  It  is  a 
very  curious  fact  that  the  name  which  has  come 
to  be  official  was  never  formally  adopted  by  the 
organization  itself.  The  first  use  of  the  title  was 
in  1779,  in  Maryland,  where  a  law  was  passed  by 
the  colonial  government  recognizing  the  identity 
of  "The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church"  with  the 
Church  of  England.    In  1789  a  Constitution  was 


PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH       1396      PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 


adopted  which  provided  that  there  should  be  a 
General  Convention  of  "The  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church."  The  name  by  that  time  had  become  quite 
firmly  fixed,  although  never  formally  adopted.  It 
has  never  been  regarded  by  all  persons  as  a 
particularly  appropriate  title.  It  seems  to  sug- 
gest the  idea  of  a  sect,  growing  up  in  mod- 
ern times,  whereas  this  Church  is  a  branch  of 
the  historic  church.  It  traces  its  origin  through 
the  Church  of  England  back  to  the  days  of  the 
Apostles. 

In  the  Preface  to  the  Prayer  Book  adopted  in 
1790,  it  is  stated  that  "the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  is  indebted,  under  God,  for  her  first 
foundation  and  long  continuance  of  nursing  care 
and  protection  to  the  Church  of  England,*  and 
that  "this  Church  is  far  from  intending  to  de- 
part from  the  Church  of  England  in  any  essential 
point  of  doctrine,  discipline  or  worship,  or  fur- 
ther than  local  circumstances  may  require." 
Whatever,  then,  is  the  history  of  the  Church  of 
England  in  the  preceding  centuries  is  also  a  part 
of  the  history  of  this  church,  and  whatever  argu- 
ments may  be  cited  for  the  apostolicity  of  the 
Church  of  England  may  be  cited  for  this  church. 
No  one  knows  when  Christianity  was  introduced 
into  England,  but  the  church  was  early  estab- 
lished there,  so  early  that  three  English  bishops 
were  at  the  Council  of  Aries  in  A.  D.  314,  and  in 
A.  D.  325  English  bishops  attended  the  Council 
of  Nice. 

This  independent  branch  of  the  Catholic  Church 
in  England  resisted  the  gradual  encroachments  of 
the  later  Roman  mission  under  Augustine,  but  was 
finally  brought  into  subjection  to  the  Roman 
obedience.  Many  protests  were  made  from  time 
to  time  against  the  usurpation  of  power  over  the 
English  Church  by  the  Roman  bishops,  but  they 
were  ineffectual  until  the  reign  of  Henry  the 
Eighth.  His  quarrel  with  the  Pope  led  to  the 
overthrow  of  the  usurped  dominion  which  the 
Roman  See  had  exercised  over  the  English  peo- 
ple and  their  church,  and  the  overthrow  of  this 
power  in  England  facilitated  the  Reformation. 
In  1534  the  Convocation  of  Canterbury  declared 
that  "the  Roman  bishop  hath  no  greater  jurisdic- 
tion given  him  by  God  in  this  kingdom  than 
any  other  foreign  bishops."  Other  like  declara- 
tions followed,  and  at  length  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land emerged  from  the  subjection  and  the  errors 
to  which  she  had  so  long  reluctantly  yielded. 
No  new  church  was  established  at  the  time  of  the 
Reformation  in  England.  There  was  simply  a 
return  to  what  was  historic,  and  so  this  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church  traces  its  origin  back 
through  the  Church  of  England  and  finds  itself  a 
branch  of  that  church  which  began  with  the  Apos- 
tles. It  is  historically  connected  with  the  church 
-which  existed  in  the  very  first  ages  of  Christian- 
ity. It  is  impossible  to  understand  the  spirit  of 
the  Episcopal  Church  and  its  attitude  unless  this 
much  of  its  history  is  considered,  for  it  places  a 
high  value  upon  its  lineage.  It  regards  its  his- 
toric continuity  as  one  mark  of  its  divine  origfin. 

In  addition  to  this  the  Episcopal  Church,  in  its 
older  form  as  the  Church  of  England,  can  claim 
to  have  been  the  oldest  religious  organization  in 
this  country.  Englishmen  were  the  discoverers 
of  the  mainland  of  North  America,  and  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  Cabots  had  English 
chaplains  on  their  first  voyages,  as  the  younger 
Cabot  did  on  the  later  voyages,  so  that  the  earliest 
Christian  services  held  on  this  continent  were 
after  the  manner  of  the  Church  of  England.  When 
the  later  English  explorers  turned  their  attention 
to  establishing  colonies  in  this  new  world  they 


declared  their  purpose  "to  carry  God's  Word  into 
those  very  mighty  and  vast  countries."  It  is  true 
that  they  failed  in  making  lasting  settlements,  but 
their  struggle  was  not  in  vain,  for  they  drove 
the  Spaniards  from  our  northern  coast,  and 
opened  the  way  for  the  later  permanent  English 
settlements.  The  first  buildings  for  religious  serv- 
ices in  New  England  and  in  Virginia  were  those 
of  the  English  Church. 

In  1697  and  in  1701  two  societies  were  formed 
in  England  which  had  much  to  do  with  the 
spread  of  the  Gospel  in  this  new  world.  The  older 
of  the  two  was  "The  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge."  Its -aim  was  to  supply 
the  colonists  with  Bibles,  Prayer  Books,  church 
histories,  sermons  and  other  good  books.  It  still 
exists  as  the  S.  P.  C.  K.,  after  two  hundred  years 
of  active  labors.  The  other,  still  in  existence  and 
known  popularly  as  the  S.  P.  G.,  sent  out  mis- 
sionaries to  different  parts  of  the  new  country 
and  paid  their  stipends,  either  wholly  or  in  part. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  American  Revolution  there 
were  two  hundred  and  fifty  Church  of  England 
clergymen  in  this  country,  of  whom  seventy- 
seven  were  missionaries  of  the  S.  P.  G.  After 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  colonial  life  ttkt 
parishes  and  missions  of  the  English  Church  had 
extended  from  the  chief  towns  and  settlements 
on  the  seaboard  to  many  new  places.  Its  greatest 
strength,  however,  was  in  the  middle  and  south- 
ern states,  where  the  prejudices  against  it  were 
not  so  strong  as  in  Puritan  New  England. 

The  great  defect  of  the  English  Church  in  this 
country  in  the  colonial  period  was  the  entire  lack 
of  the  Episcopate.  No  bishops  were  sent  here, 
although  repeated  requests  had  been  made  to  the 
mother  Church  to  consecrate  bishops  for  Amer- 
ica. An  Episcopal  Church  without  bishops  is 
somewhat  like  an  army  without  general  officers. 
The  Episcopate  implies  leadership,  consolidation 
and  aggressive  work.  There  were  many  difficul- 
ties in  the  yvay  of  securing  bishops,  and  their  lack 
here  made  it  necessary  to  send  candidates  for  con- 
firmation and  ordination  to  England.  For  two 
centuries  no  man  was  confirmed  or  ordained,  and 
no  church  edifice  was  consecrated  on  these  shores. 
Among  the  reasons  for  the  failure  to  supply  bish- 
ops for  the  colonies  was  the  steady  opposition 
made  by  many  who  were  not  churchmen,  and  the 
fact  that,  at  the  time,  bishops  were  not  only 
officers  of  the  church,  but  also  officials  of  the 
state,  church  and  state  being  united.  Their  com- 
ing here  was  dreaded  by  many,  and  opposed 
openly  by  some,  as  involving  political  complica- 
tions. 

When  the  colonies  separated  from  the  mother 
country  their  independence  carried  with  it  the 
independence  of  the  Church  in  the  Colonies.  It 
became  free  from  the  control  of  the  mother 
Church.  Movements  were  at  once  made  to  adapt 
the  Church  to  the  new  conditions  brought  about 
by  the  success  of  the  Revolution.  Changes  were 
made  in  the  Prayer  Book,  a  Constitution  was 
adopted,  and  steps  were  taken  to  secure  the  Epis- 
copate. The  first  bishop,  however,  was  secured 
before  any  formal  responsive  action  was  taken 
by  the  English  Church.  As  soon  as  the  war 
ended,  Connecticut  elected  Dr.  Samuel  Seabury 
as  bishop,  and  sent  him  to  England  for  consecra- 
tion. ^fot  caring  to  wait  the  slow  permission  of 
the  government  to  authorize  the  English  bishops 
to  set  him  apart  to  this  high  office,  he  proceeded 
to  Aberdeen  in  Scotland,  where,  in  1784,  he  was 
consecrated  by  the  non-juror  bishops  then  residing 
in  that  country.  Two  years  later,  1706,  a  law  passed 
the  British  parliament  permitting  the  consecra- 


PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH      1397       PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 


tion  of  Dr.  White,  of  Pennsylvania,  and  Dr.  Pro- 
voost,  of  New  York,  without  requiring  them  to 
take  the  usual  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  British 
government. 

The  American  Prayer  Book,  being  a  revision 
of  the  Prayer  Book  of  the  Church  of  England, 
ws^s  set  forth  in  1789,  and  in  the  same  year  a 
Constitution  was  adopted.  Thus  with  bishops  of 
its  own,  with  a  service  book  adapted  to  its  needs, 
and  with  a  Constitution  providing  for  the  union 
and  communion  of  its  different  parts  in  this  coun- 
try, this  church  began  its  career  as  an  inde- 
pendent organization.  While  it  became  independ- 
ent, however,  it  did. not  lose  its  links  of  connec- 
tion with  the  English  Church  through  which,  as 
has  been  seen,  it  is  connected  with  the  church 
of  the  first  Christian  centuries. 

2.  History,  Etc.  Its  history  since  1789  may 
be  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first  extends  to 
1820  and  may  be  called  The  Period  of  Recupera- 
tion. It  had  to  recover  from  the  disintegration 
occasioned  by  the  Revolution.  The  second  part 
of  its  history  runs  from  1821,  when  the  Mission- 
ary Society  was  formed,  down  to  the  present. 
This  may  well  be  called  The  Period  of  Growth 
and  Development.  It  took  a  quarter  of  a  century 
for  the  Church  to  recover  from  the  calamities 
brought  upon  it  by  the  war.  Its  valuable  lands  in 
some  sections  had  been  forfeited,  its  buildings 
had  fallen  into  decay,  numbers  of  its  parishes  had 
been  broken  up,  and  many  of  its  clergy  and  peo- 
ple were  scattered.  The  most  bitter  prdudices 
nad  been  excited  against  it  because  of  its  English 
origin  and  because  of  the  attitude  of  many  of  its 
adherents  before  and  during  the  great  conflict.  It 
is  a  mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  all  of  its 
members  were  opposed  to  the  Revolution,  for 
some  of  the  leadmg  patriots,  and  a  majority  of 
the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
were  churchmen.  Only  gradually,  however,  did 
this  church  convince  the  American  people  that  it 
was  not  un-American,  and  still  more  gradually 
did  it  establish  the  fact  that  it  was  worthy  of  con- 
fidence as  an  exponent  of  the  simple  religion  of 
the  Divine  Master. 

Its  successes  have  been  won  in  the  face  of  most 
decided  opposition,  but  it  has  grown  from  a  con- 
dition of  contempt  and  obscurity  to  one  of  prom- 
inence and  usefulness.  Very  worthy  of  notice  is 
the  fact  that  when  it  realized  its  mission  to  the 
world  outside  of  its  hereditary  membership  it  be- 
gan to  make  firm  strides  forward.  The  organiza- 
tion of  its  missionary  society  thus  marks  its  de- 
termination to  adapt  itself  to  the  needs  of  all 
sorts  and  conditions  of  men  and  to  become  a 
helpful  factor  in  American  life  and  progress. 

It  has  not  been  the  popular  religion  of  the  land, 
nor  is  it  so  to-day  in  many  sections.  In  fact  it  is 
still  well-nigh  unknown  in  some  parts  of  the  country. 
But  with  the  growing  intelligence  of  the  Ameri- 
can people  and  the  decay  of  old  prejudices,  and 
especially  with  the  new  life  pervading  every  part 
of  the  organization,  making  it  earnest  and  aggres- 
sive for  good  wherever  it  goes,  it  awakens  atten- 
tion and  wins  favor.  Our  American  people  are 
beginning  to  see  that  the  Episcopal  Church  has 
been  of  g^reat  value  to  this  nation,  and  that  it  pos- 
sesses most  important  features  which  demand  re- 
spect and  affection.  Among  these  matters  which 
have  never  been  as  fully  considered  as  they  de- 
serve are  the  following : 

(1)  Tlie  Way  for  the  American  Bevolution 
was  Paved  by  This  Church.  Said  Bishop 
Meade :  "The  vestries,  who  were  the  intelligence 
and  moral  strength  of  the  land,  had  been  sk>wly 


fighting  the  battles  of  the  Revolution  for  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years.  They  objected  to  the  ar- 
bitrary appointment  of  ministers,  and  those  old 
controversies  had  as  much  to  do  with  loosening 
the  bonds  between  England  and  the  Colonies  as 
did  the  town  meeting  in  New  England."  Said  W. 
C.  Rives,  of  Virginia :  "Without  denying  to  other 
religious  bodies  their  full  and  glorious  share  in 
the  early  struggles  for  political  liberty  in  Virginia, 
the  leaders  and  chief  actors  were  members  of 
the  Established  Church." 

(2)  Many  Churchmen  Were  Patriots.  Al- 
lusion has  alread]^  been  made  to  the  fact  that  the 
majority  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence were  members  of  this  church.  They 
were  representative  men  and  men  of  influence. 
Washington,  the  leader  of  our  forces,  was  a 
churchman,  and  the  placing  the  command  in  his 
hands  gave  a  national  character  to  *a  movement 
which  otherwise  might  have,  been  but  a  sectional 
struggle. 

(3)  The  Influence  of  Churchmen  was  felt 
in  t^e  Molding  of  the  Civil  Oov^nment.  It 
is  largely  due  to  the  wisdom  and  conservative  spirit 
of  these  men  that  our  civil  government  was  so 
wisely  planned,  so  generous  and  so  comprehen- 
sive. Not  only  in  that  formative  period  of  new 
national  life,  but  ever  since,  much  has  been  due  to 
churchmen.  They  have  been  the  friends  of  true 
refinement  and  education,  lovers  of  liberty  and 
honor,  and  so  have  vindicated  the  claims  of 
culture  as  opposed  to  money  making  and  the 
greed  for  place  and  power. 

(4)  For  a  Simple  Faith  and  a  Sober  Piety. 
In  days  when  great  whirlwinds  of  religious  ex- 
citement swept  over  the  land  it  held  up  the  truth 
that  religion  is  character.  The  views  of  Christian 
nurture  for  which  it  contended  have  been  gradually 
adopted  by  other  religious  bodies.  Much,  too, 
that  is  now  commendable  in  the  improved  condi- 
tions of  religious  life,  can  be  traced  to  the  influ- 
ence of  this  Church.  It  surely  deserves  credit 
for  better  styles  of  architecture,  for  better  music, 
for  the  observance  of  sacred  seasons  other  than 
Sunday,  and  for  many  measures  of  benevolent 
activity  whereby  the  condition  of  once  neglected 
classes  has  been  improved.  In  a  word,  the  Epis- 
copal Church  has  become  a  strong  and  wholesome 
influence  for  truth  and  righteousness  in  this  land. 

J.  %^and  for  Church  Unitp»  One  unique  dis* 
tinction  belongs  to  it,  and  that  is  the  stand  it  has 
taken  in  favor  of  Church  unity.  It  has  always 
prayed  in  its  appointed  services  that  "all  who  pro- 
fess and  call  themselves  Christians  may  be  led 
into  the  way  of  truth  and  hold  the  faith  in  unity 
of  spirit,  in  the  bond  of  peace  and  in  righteous- 
ness of  life."  Whenever  it  celebrates  the  sacra- 
ment of  Holy  Communion,  the  prayer  is  offered 
that  God  "would  inspire  continually  the  universal 
church  with  the  spirit  of  truth,  unity,  and  concord, 
that  all  who  profess  thy  holy  name  may  live  in 
unity  and  godly  love." 

One  of  the  most  important  steps  in  the  religious 
history  of  modern  times  was  taken  in  1886,  when 
its  bishops  set  forth  four  simple  propositions  as 
in  their  judgment,  essential  to  the  reunion  of 
Christians.    These  are  as  follows: 

I.    The  Holy  Scriptures  as  the  revealed  Word 
of  God. 

II.  The  Apostles*  Creed  as  the  Baptismal  sym- 
bol, and  the  Nicene  Creed  as  the  sufficient 
statement  of  the  Christian  Faith. 


PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH      1398      PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 


IIL  The  Two  Sacraments:  Baptism  and  the 
Supper  of  the  Lord,  ministered  with  the 
unfailing  use  of  Christ's  words  of  insti- 
tution and  of  the  elements  ordained  by 
Him. 

IV.  The  Historic  Episcopate  locally  adapted,  in 
the  methods  of  its  administration,  to  the 
varying  needs  of  the  nations  and  peoples 
called  of  God  into  the  unity  of  his 
Church. 

Nothing  more  liberal  could  be  suggested,  if 
anything  is  to  be  retained  as  essential.  Rites, 
customs,  fasts,  festivals,  usages,  however  dear 
to  churchmen,  are  not  even  mentioned  as  es- 
sential to  unity.  Surely  this  Church  has  earned 
the  distinction  of  being  willing  to  ignore  much 
that  is  precious  to  it  for  the  sake  of  a  united 
Christendom^  The  setting  forth  of  these  four 
simple  propositions  has  not  yet  awakened  the  in- 
terest which  might  have  been  expected  from  the 
various  Christian  bodies.  In  some  instances  there 
has  been  the  hasty,  almost  petulant,  expression  of 
a  disinclination  to  consider  the  subject  in  a  broad 
and  generous  way.  In  some  there  has  been  the 
renewal  of  the  old  incredulity  as  to  reunion.  The 
fact  is  that  this  whole  matter  of  Christian  unity 
has  not  yet  taken  very  strong  hold  of  many  Chris- 
tian people,  and  there  is  yet  much  educative  work 
to  be  done  before  it  will  receive  the  considera- 
tion it  deserves. 

4.  Principles,  Etc.  In  the  meantime  the 
generous  attitude  of  the  Episcopal  Church  has 
drawn  the  attention  of  many  to  the  principles 
of  the  organization  itself.  As  they  examine  it, 
what  do  they  find  ? 

(1)  It  Beveres  the  Word  of  God.  Nearly 
three-fifths  of  the  Prayer  Book  are  taken  from 
the  Bible,  and  two-fifths  of  the  worship  at  each 
service  are  in  the  words  of  the  Scriptures.  The 
books  of  the  Divine  Libraiy  are  not  regarded  as 
a  mere  mass  of  ancient  literature,  but  as  con- 
taining a  revelation  from  God  to  man  of  things 
pertaining  to  salvation,  and  especially  a  revelation 
of  the  promised  Deliverer,  the  incarnate  Lord 
The  humblest  member  of  this  Church  may  know 
for  himself  what  God  has  revealed,  for  the  old 
truths  are  so  constantly  repeated  that  the  teach- 
ings of  the  Church  and  the  teachings  of  the 
Scriptures  must  ever  coincide.  "Holy  Scripture 
containeth  all  things  necessary  to  salvation,"  says 
the  sixth  of  the  thirty-nine  articles,  and  in  one 
of  the  Collects  we  pray  that  we  may  read,  mark, 
learn,  and  inwardly  digest  what  God  has  caused 
to  be  written  for  our  learning. 

(2)  A  Simple  Faith.  Its  position  is  that  man 
is  a  religious  being,  and  has  needs  that  can  be 
supplied  only  by  religion.  It  claims  that  the 
principles  of  religion  have  been  clearly  revealed 
through  the  incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God;  and 
that  by  the  life  of  faith  in  Christ  and  discipleship 
of  him  man  attains  excellence  here  and  is  prepared 
for  highest  happiness  hereafter.  In  other  words, 
this  Church  clings  to  the  old  creeds— the  Apos- 
tles* and  the  Nicene.  These  two  are  "simple,  un- 
elaborated  and  unargued  statements  of  facts."  No 
hindrance  is  put  to  free  discussion,  but  the  facts 
must  be  received.  There  is  nothing  in  them  con- 
trary to  reason,  although  there  is  much  that  we, 
with  our  present  powers,  may  not  be  able  to  ex- 
plain. We  are  not  compelled  to  explain  anything. 
We  may  hold  theories,  but  may  not  press  them, 
as  if  religion  were  mere  theological  propositions, 
for  after  all  there  is  something  higher  even  than 
human  reason.  There  is  such  a  thing  as  the  spir- 
itual assimilation  of  truth,  the  growth  of  con- 


viction in  the  soul,  the  inworking  of  the  Spirit 
of  God  through  whom  spiritual  verities  make  their 
indelible  impression  upon  the  religious  nature. 

The  Church's  faith  is  simple.  It  draws  the 
distinction  between  matters  of  opinion  and  mat- 
ters which  must  be  received  as  essential.  Of 
the  latter  there  are  but  few,  and  they  are  summed 
up  in  these  two  creeds.  What  this  Church  deems 
to  be  essential  to  a  right  faith  is  contained  within 
the  few  lines  of  these  old  symbols  of  the  early 
Church.  There  are  other  truths  which  the  Church 
teaches,  but  not  in  the  same  way.  They  are  not 
pressed  as  necessary,  however  desirable,  to  be  re- 
ceived. The  Church  presses  the  truths  in  the 
creeds  because  they  relate  to  the  very  heart  of 
religion,  and  that  is  Christ,  the  revealer  of  God, 
the  friend  and  brother  of  man,  the  incarnate 
Lord. 

(3)  Honors  the  Sacraments.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  Christ  appointed  Baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper;  nor  is  there  any  doubt  that  he 
intended  them  to  be  continued. 

(a)  Baptism.  The  first  sacrament,  whatever 
else  it  does,  brings  the  soul  into  the  midst  of 
spiritual  influences,  and  the  second  strengthens  the 
spiritual  life  begun  in  the  soul.  In  baptism  we 
become  members  of  Christ,  that  is,  of  his  body 
the  Church,  and  there  is  brought  about  that 
change  which  is  called  regeneration.  It  is  not  of 
necessity  a  moral  change,  for  that  is  conversion, 
but  regeneration,  in  the  sense  in  which  the  word 
is  to  be  understood,  is  the  being  born  again 
into  new  conditions,  coming  into  new  possibilities, 
being  admitted  to  a  new  environment.  There  has 
been  much  needless  perplexity  in  trying  to  give 
accurate  definitions  of  regeneration,  and  the  per- 
plexity has  been  increased  when  regeneration  and 
conversion  have  been  confounded.  It  is  enough 
to  think  of  regeneration  as  a  change  of  condi- 
tion, that  is  the  being  called  into  a  state  of  sal- 
vation. It  is  not  a  moral  change  of  the 
spiritual,  nature,  but  it  makes  man  capable 
of  a  moral  change  and  renders  spiritual  growth 
possible.  Baptism  is  thus  highly  valued.  It  is 
not  thought  of  as  a  meaningless  ceremony,  nor  as 
a  superstitious  charm,  but  as  a  sacrament,  di- 
vinely appointed  as  the  channel  of  grace  and  bless- 
ing. 

This  Church  administers  this  sacrament  to  in- 
fants. It  finds  no  prohibition  in  the  Scriptures, 
or  in  the  nature  of  the  Sacrament.  It  knows  from 
history  that  the  baptism  of  infants  appears  to 
have  been  usual  in  the  early  centuries,  and  it 
sees  many  advantages  in  its  early  administration. 
Surely  the  Christian  Church  was  intended  to  be 
as  generous  as  the  Jewish,  and  the  latter  received 
children  by  circumcision  into  covenant  relation 
with  God.  Surely  our  Lord's  receiving  the  little 
children  when  he  was  here  on  earth  suggests 
this  formal  consecration  of  children  to  him  now 
that  he  may  bless  them.  Surely  if  none  but 
adults  were  to  be  baptized  there  would  have 
been  some  express  prohibition  of  children,  and 
some  clearer  and  less  confusing  statements  in 
Scripture  ^  than  that  such  and  such  households 
were  baptized,  for  a  household  suggests  the  pres- 
ence of  children.^  Surely  a  usage  which  began 
so  early,  and  which  has  so  extensively  prevailed, 
demands  something  very  strong  and  positive  to 
indicate  that  it  is  not  in  accordance  with  the 
Lord's  will.  We  know  of  nothing  to  create  even 
a  doubt  as  to  the  propriety  of  infant  baptism. 

As  there  has  been  much  needless  perplexity 
over  infant  baptism,  so  there  has  been  much  over 
the  mode  of  baptism.  Some  claim  that  there  is 
but  one  valid  mode,  and  that  is  by  immersion. 


PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH      1309      PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 


This  Church  adopts  two  methods,  immersion  and 
pouring,  and  regards  each  as  equally  valid  The 
Sjrmbohc  relation  between  baptism  and  burial  is 
retained  whether  water  is  poured  on  the  body, 
or  the  whole  body  is  immersed,  for  the  symbolic 
burial  of  a  dead  body,  with  the  Church's  ritual, 
is  the  scattering  of  earth  upon  the  remains  as 
the  words  "earth  to  earth,"  etc.,  arc  uttered.  In 
such  a  case  the  symbolism  is  satisfied  with  less 
than  the  filling  in  of  the  grave. 

Then,  too,  we  cannot  find  anything  in  history 
to  show  that  immersion  was  the  only  method. 
It  mav  have  been  the  method  very  frequently 
used,  but  some  of  the  oldest  pictorial  representa- 
tions show  the  administrant  in  the  act  of  pouring 
water  on  the  head  of  the  candidate,  even  after 
both  had  gone  down  into  the  water.  Nor  can 
the  matter  be  settled  by  texts  of  Scripture  and 
the  meaning  of  Greek  prepositions,  for  the 
equivalent  words  for  baptism  sometimes  mean 
immersion  and  sometimes  pouring.  And  so  this 
Church  accepts  any  baptism  as  valid  if  water  be 
used  with  the  words  of  the  formula  given  by  our 
Lord:  "In  the  name  of  the  Father  and  of  the 
Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost." 

(b)  The  Holy  Communion.  This  Church 
teaches  that  it  was  "ordained  for  the  continual 
remembrance  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  death  of 
Christ,  and  of  the  benefits  which  we  receive 
thereby,"  and  that  in  it  "our  souls  arc  strength- 
ened and  refreshed  by  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ,  as  our  bodies  are  by  the  bread  and  wine." 
There  is  a^^reement  with  all  Christians,  in  re- 
garding this  sacrament  as  a  means  whereby 
Christ  is  remembered,  according  to  his  own 
command,  but  besides  this,  this  Church  thinks  of 
it  as  subserving  other  purposes.  The  communion 
becomes  the  chief  means  of  g^ace  whereby  spir- 
itual nourishment  is  imparted  to  the  believing 
soul.  In  this  sacrament  they  feed  on  him  by 
faith.  Then,  too,  it  becomes  the  significant  ap- 
peal to  God  to  behold  the  sacrifice  which  his  Son 
offered  for  sinful  men.  They  show  the  Lord's 
death  "till  he  come,"  when,  with  these  elements, 
they  keep  this  feast,  and  seek  mercy  and  bless- 
ing in  the  name  of  the  Crucified. 

Finally  the  communion  becomes  a  bond  of  fel- 
lowship between  Christ  and  believing  souls,  and 
between  all  those  who  acknowledge  him  as  Lord. 
They  have  communion  with  him  and  with  all 
his  people.  This  Church  makes  no  effort  to  ex- 
plain the  mysteries  connected  with  this  sacrament. 
It  rejects  as  unsatisfactory  the  view  that  the 
Lord's  Supper  is  solely  a  help  to  memory,  and 
refuses  on  the  other  hand  to  accept  the  view  that 
there  is  an  actual  change  in  the  elements  whereby 
the  bread  and  wine  become  veritable  fiesh  and 
blood.  It  believes  in  a  presence  of  the  Lord  in 
the  sacrament,  but  it  is  spiritual  and  only  per- 
ceptible bv  the  spiritual  nature  of  those  who 
come  by  faith.  It  believes  in  the  sacredness  of 
the  observance  and  teaches  reverence  and  holy 
awe,  as  it  bids  men  prepare  themselves  to  draw 
near  to  the  Lord's  table.  It  encourages  fre- 
quent receptions  of  the  communion  in  that  it 
makes  provision  for  frequent  celebrations  and 
calls  men  to  the  oft  receiving  of  it  while  they  are 
in  health. 

The  ritual  of  this  sacrament  allows  room 
for  g^eat  simplicity  and  also  for  g^reat  elabora- 
tk>n,  and  consequently  we  find  many  variations 
in  the  details  as  we  compare  parish  with  parish. 
But,  however  it  is  celebratea,  it  becomes  the 
sacrament  of  blessing,  and  men  who  come  to  it 
with  faith  go  from  it  with  uplifted  mind  and 
heart. 


(4)  The  Apostolie  Order  of  the  lEinistry. 

The  ministry  of  this  Church  consists  of  three 
ranks,  bishops,  priests  and  deacons,  and  it  declares 
that  these  three  orders  of  ministers  have  always 
existed  in  Christ's  Church.  It  further  declares  its 
unwillingness  to  regard  any  man  as  a  lawful 
bishop,  priest,  a  deacon  in  this  Chufch,  unless 
he  has  been  episcopally  set  apart.  This  declara- 
tion of  the  Church  brings  before  us  what  is  often 
spoken  of  as  "The  Historic  Episcopate,"  and 
draws  a  line  of  separation  between  it  and  the 
surrounding  Protestant  bodies.  It  makes  a  distinc- 
tion between  the  ministers  of  this  Church  and 
other  ministers.  It  asserts  a  difference.  Its  own 
ministers  have  had  Episcopal  ordination.  These 
other  ministers  have  not  had  it,  and  therefore, 
whatever  else  they  may  be  elsewhere,  they  are 
not  received  as  ministers  of  this  Church,  because 
this  Church  follows  the  method  of  the  early  cen- 
turies in  ordination.  If  they  are  received  they 
must  be  Episcopally  ordained. 

If  this  position  seem  to  be  harsh,  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  no  judgment  is  expressed  as  to 
their  right  to  officiate  in  their  own  denominations. 
Nothinjg  is  said  as  to  their  piety  and  attainments. 
It  is  simply  declared  that  not  being  Episcopally 
ordained  they  are  not  Episcopal  ministers.  Ad- 
mitting now  that  they  are  not  Episcopally  or- 
dained, does  this  invalidate  their  right  to  preach 
the  Gospel  and  to  do  the  work  of  Christ?  Upon 
this  point  this  Church  utters  no  judgment  what- 
ever. The  proving  of  their  commission  is  with 
them.  This  Church  simply  says  that  it  will  cling 
to  that  which  was  apostolic,  and  which  has  come 
down  to  the  present.  In  its  judgment  of  what 
is  best  for  the  Church  at  large,  it  proposes  that 
all  shall  accept  the  Historic  Episcopate  with 
whatever  local  and  special  adaptations  may  be 
possible. 

When  we  ask  for  some  dear  definition  of  what 
is  meant  by  the  Historic  Episcopate,  we  find  our- 
selves in  the  region  of  controversy.  The  con- 
stituted authorities  have  not  adopted  any  definition 
thus  far,  and  there  are  diversities  of  view  among 
Episcopalians  as  to  what  is  really  contained  in 
Episcopacy,  what  is  the  difference  between  the 
being  and  the  well-being  of  the  6hurch,  what  is 
apostolic  succession  and  many  like  points.  There 
is,  however,  agreement  among  all  in  this  Church 
(and  the  view  is  shared  by  many  outside  of  it) 
that  as  a  fact  in  history,  there  have  always  been 
the  three  orders  in  the  Christian  Church.  If  so, 
there  come  two  questions:  As  they  have  always 
been,  why  should  they  not  continue?  And  is 
there  not  some  way  b^  which  non-Episcopal  min- 
isters may  become  united  with  this  Historic  Epis- 
copate? 

This  Church  has  virtually  left  this  matter  of 
the  Historic  Episcopate  in  the  shape  indicated 
by  these  two  questions.  It  has  not  put  it  into 
any  dogmatic  form.  Its  own  members  are  not 
yet  agreed  upon  its  definitions.  Perhaps  there  are 
as  many  divergent  views  in  the  Episcopal  Church 
on  some  questions  arising  from  a  consideration  of 
the  Historic  Episcopate  as  are  held  outside  of  the 
Church.  This  point,  while  it  emphasizes  the 
clear  historic  fact,  suggests  that  many  of  the  con- 
nected questions  need  not  be  settled  in  advance 
of  the  union  which  it  advocates.  Inasmuch  as 
many  of  its  own  members  differ  in  their  explana- 
tion of  the  Historic  Episcopate,  may  it  not  be 
sufficient  for  others  outside  to  accept  the  one  fact 
that  Episcopacy  was  primitive,  and  that  it  pro- 
vides a  bond  of  union? 

There  have  always  been  these  three  orders  of 
ministers.     The  bishops  have   always  exercised 


PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH      1400 


PROVERBS,  THE  BOOK  OF 


supervisonr  powers  in  the  Church.  Can  we  not 
all  get  back  to  this  old  way  and  so  become  one? 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  Episcopal 
Church,  in  urging  the  acceptance  of  the  Historic 
Episcopate,  is  urging  all  bodies  of  Christians  to 
become  "Episcopalians"  in  the  sense  of  being  ab- 
sorbed in  the  present  organization,  and  of  adopt- 
ing everything  as  it  now  stands  in  that  organiza- 
tion. Christian  Unity  does  not  mean  merely  a 
larger  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  Attention 
has  already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  this 
Church  has  expressed  itself  willing  to  leave  out 
of  consideration  much  that  is  precious.  For  ex- 
ample, it  would  not  insist  upon  the  use  of  vest- 
ments or  the  same  liturgical  services.  It  would 
not  make  all  parishes  alike.  It  would  recognize 
a  diversity  of  "uses,"  leaving  all  persons  free  to 
adopt  what  they  thought  best,  provided,  of  course, 
that  the  substance  of  the  faith  be  kept  entire. 

There  would  be  no  crystallization  of  the  Church 
into  any  one  form.  There  would  be  variety, 
diversity,  commensurate  with  the  different  judg- 
ments of  its  adherents,  always,  however,  within 
the  lines  of  loyalty  to  the  truth.  There  would  be 
no  gfreater  attempt  to  secure  a  uniform  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Historic  Episcopate  than  there  would 
be  to  have  one  definition  of  inspiration  in  ac- 
cepting the  Holy  Scriptures  as  the  Word  of  God, 
or  one  explanation  of  the  Sacraments,  or  one 
interpretation  of  every  article  of  the  creed. 

The  generous  character  of  this  Church  is  indi- 
cated in  the  view  which  is  held  as  to  what  con- 
stitutes membership  in  the  Christian  body.  It 
does  not  rebaptize  them  if  they  have  been  al- 
ready baptized  with  water  in  the  name  of  the  Fa- 
ther and  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  It 
recognizes  all  such  baptized  persons  as  already 
members  of  Christ's  body — the  Church. 

Then  note  how  it  refers,  in  most  courteous 
terms,  to  "the  different  religious  bodies  "of  Chris- 
tians in  these  states  as  being  at  libertv  to  model 
and  organize  their  respective  churches.  Of  course 
it  uses  the  word  "churches"  here  without  invali- 
dating its  own  claim  to  be  a  branch  of  the  his- 
toric church,  for  later  on  it  defines  what  it  be- 
lieves to  be  essential  to  the  integrity  of  this 
Church  as  a  branch  of  the  historic  church. 

If  it  appears  exclusive  and  unsympathetic  be- 
cause it  will  not  permit  the  ministrations  of  min- 
isters who  have  not  been  episcopally  ordained, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  it  stands  by  this  law 
to  retain  episcopacy  as  one  of  the  valuable  fea- 
tures which  have  been  transmitted  to  the  present 
from  the  Apostolic  Age.  It  is  evident  that  it  has 
no  more  right  to  relinquish  or  to  undervalue 
episcopacy,  than  it  has  to  give  up  the  ob- 
servance of  the  Lord's  Day.  It  must  trans- 
mit the  oflfice,  and  that  for  which  it  stands,  to  the 
next  generation  as  it  has  come  down  to  this  from 
past  generations.  The  disposition  of  this  Church 
towards  other  bodies  of  Christians  is  kindly  and 
sympathetic,  and  among  no  other  body  is  there 
found  to-day  so  much  that  is  tolerant  and  gen- 
erous. 

It  is  true  that  not  all  of  its  own  members  really 
understand  the  true  position  of  their  Church 
towards  all  who  profess  and  call  themselves  Chris- 
tians, and  it  is  also  true  that  sometimes  views  are 
expressed  which  seem  to  be  arrogant  and  re- 
peflent,  but  they  are  the  views  of  individuals  or 
of  parties,  not  of  the  Church  as  a  body. 

(5)  Individual  and  Church  Teaching.  There 
is  always  to  be  made  a  distinction  between  what 
men  teach  as  individuals,  and  what  is  set  forth 
by  the  Church  in  its  collective  capacity.  No  man, 
no  party,  no  combination  of  men  or  of  parties,  can 


speak  for  the  Church  with  authority.  What  they 
deliver  is  simply  their  view  of  the  Church's  teach- 
ings. As  has  already  been  noted,  this  Church 
holds  a  very  simple  faith — ^a  few  facts  clustering 
around  our  Savior,  Christ — which  it  sets  forth  as 
essential.  Besides  this  it  announces  a  number  of 
truths  as  important  to  be  received,  but  does  not 
press  them  as  vital  like  the  others.  It  also  al- 
lows much  range  of  interpretation  of  the  truths 
it  delivers.  But  the  Church  can  make  no  change 
in  any  essential  principles  of  the  Christian  faith. 
They  never  become  antiquated.    There  is  no  new 

?:ospel  to  be  delivered.  There  is  ever  but  one 
aith,  one  Lord,  one  baptism,  one  God  and  Fa- 
ther of  all.  The  Church  does  not  attempt  to  set 
forth  new  doctrines,  for  the  religion  of  Christ  is 
not  a  discovery  of  an  invention  of  man's.  It  is 
a  revelation  to  man.  Holding  to  essentials  men 
may  be  loyal  to  the  Church,  even  though  they  dif- 
fer as  to  non-essential  points.  They  may  adopt 
different  usages,  and  hold  even  opposite  opin- 
ions. Hence  there  are  parties  and  schools  of 
thought.  It  is  a  tolerant  Church.  A  stranger 
casting  his  lot  in  with  it  finds  in  himself  certain 
tendencies  of  thought  and  feeling  which  may  in- 
cline him  to  favor  one  school  of  thought  or  an- 
other, or  to  ally  himself  with  others  who  in  some 
way  express  his  present  views,  but  his  future  stud- 
ies and  broader  experiences  may  bring  him 
closer  to  others.  It  must  never  be  forgotten, 
however,  that  the  Church  itself  is  broader  and 
more  generous  than  all  the  parties  in  it,  and  the 
Church's  generous  attitude  is  an  appeal  to  each 
to  cultivate  a  like  spirit  towards  all  who  call 
Christ  their  Lord  and  who  seek  to  serve  him.  It 
is  the  fervent  prayer  of  many  that  this  Church 
may  become  a  bond  of  union  between  all  who 
profess  and  call  themselves  Christians,  and  thus 
be  helpful  in  the  realization  of  the  purpose  of 
Christ  that  "they  all  may  be  one."         G.  W.  S. 

FBOVEin)EB  (pr6v'«n-der),  (Heb.  « 'BPP,  mis- 

po\  collected;  'i?,  baw-lat,  to  mix;  food  for 
beasts). 

The  Hebrews*  "provender"  seems  to  have  been 
a  mixture  of  chopped  straw  and  barley,  or  of 
oats,  beanSj  and  peas  (Gen.  xxiv:25;  xlii:27; 
xliii:24;  Judg.  xixiip;  Is.  xxx:24). 

PBOVEKB  (pr6v'erb),  (Heb.  ^^,  maw-shawr, 
to  be  like). 

The  proverb  of  the  Eastern  people  was  pri- 
marily '*a  similitude."  It  might  be  a  saying  re- 
quiring interpretation  (Prov.  xvii:7),  or  a  para- 
ble (Mai.  iii:3).  There  are  many  sayings  of  this 
type  in  the  book  of  Job  (xxviii:8). 

The  Hebrew  word  ipT^,  khee-daw'),  has  the 

meaning  of  a  conundrum,  something  enigmatical 
(Hab.  ii:6). 

FBOVEBBS,  THE  BOOK  OF  (prdv'erbs). 

That  Solomon  was  the  author  of  the  Book  of 
Proverbs  has  never  been  questioned.  Some  have 
indeed  thought  that  he  composed  a  part  only  of 
the  Proverbs  included  in  that  book,  and  collected 
the  others  from  varrous  sources.  It  is  probable, 
indeed,  that  he  availed  himself  of  any  sayings 
already  current  which  he  regarded  as  useful  and 
important.  Whether  he  ever  made  any  collection 
of  his  proverbs  in  writing  is,  however,  doubtful. 
From  the  twenty-fifth  chapter  to  the  end,  we  are 
expressly  informed,  was  written  out  and  added  to 
the  previous  portion,  by  order  of  King  Hezekiah. 
The  divine  authority  of  the  book  is  sufficiently 
proved  by  the  quotations  made  from  it  in  the  New 
Testament  (Rom.  xii:i6;  Heb.  xii:5,  6;  i  Pet. 
iv:8;  i  Thess.  v:i5). 


PROVERBS,  THE  BOOK  OF 


1401 


PROVERBS.  THE  BOOK  OF 


(1)  Characteristics  of  Proverbial  Style. 
The  characteristics  of  the  proverbial  style  (in  the 
more  restricted  sense  of  the  word)  are,  according 
to  Bishop  Lowth  (i)  Brevity;  (2)  Obscurity; 
(3)  Elegance.  The  first  of  these  is,  however,  the 
only  one  that  can  be  considered  at  all  universal. 
Many  of  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon  can  hardly  lay 
claim  to  elegance,  according  to  the  most  liberal 
application  of  the  term,  and  comparatively  few 
of  them  are  at  all  obscure  as  to  meaning.  The 
same  remark  applies  with  even  greater  force  to 
the  proverbs  of  every  day  life,  e,  g.  Time  and  tide 
wait  for  no  man.  Haste  makes  waste.  We  must 
make  hay  while  the  sun  shines,  A  fool  and  his 
money  are  soon  parted.  We  should  be  rather 
inclined  to  name,  as  a  characteristic  of  the  prov- 
erb, a  pointed  and  sometimes  antithetical  form  of 
expression;  and  this,  in  addition  to  brevity  or 
sententiousness,  constitutes  perhaps  the  only  uni- 
versal distinction  of  this  species  of  composition. 
Conciseness  iiideed  enters  into  the  very  essence 
of  the  proverb ;  and  this  fact  is  probably  indicated 
by  the  word  itself;  proverbia,  for,  or  instead  of 
words,  f.  e.  one  word  for  many. 

We  were  about  to  adduce  examples  from  the 
book  of  Proverbs,  of  these  two  excellencies — sen- 
tentiousness  and  point — ^but  it  is  impossible  to  se- 
lect, where  almost  every  verse  is  an  illustration. 
Nor  should  it  be  forgotten  that  the  structure  of 
the  Hebrew  language  admits  of  a  much  higher 
degree  of  excellence  in  this  particular  than  is 
possible  in  the  English  tongue.  We  give  two  ex- 
amples taken  at  random.  *A  man's  heart  deviseth 
his  way:  but  the  Lord  directeth  his  steps,'  Here 
are  twelve  words;  in  the  original  seven  only 
are  employed.  *  tV/ten  a  man's  ways  please  the 
Lord  he  tnaketh  even  his  enemies  to  he  at  Peace 
with  him*  Eighteen  words;  in  the  Hebrew 
eight. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  the  characteristics 
of  the  proverbial  or  parabolic  style,  it  is  obvious 
that  it  possesses  peculiar  advantages  as  a  medium 
of  communicating  truth.  The  proverb  once  heard 
remains  fixed  in  the  memory.  Its  brevity,  its 
appositeness,  its  epigrammatic  point,  often  aided  by 
antithesis  or  paronomasia,  not  only  ensure  its  re- 
membrance, but  very  probably  its  recurrence  to 
the  mind  at  the  very  time  when  its  warning 
voice  may  be  needed.  It  utters  in  a  tone  of 
friendly  admonition,  of  gentle  remonstrance,  of 
stern  reproof,  or  of  vehement  denunciation,  its 
wholesome  lesson  in  the  ear  of  the  tried,  the 
tempted,  and  the  guilty.  Such  words  are  em- 
phatically 'as  goods  and  as  nails  fastened  in  a 
sure  place.' 

(2)  Probable  Beason  for  XTse.  But  Solomon 
must  have  had  other  reasons  for  selecting  it,  pe- 
culiar to  the  age  and  country  in  which  he  lived. 
The  Hebrews  have  been  called  a  nation  of  chil- 
dren. The  mode  of  teaching  by  aphorisms  is  es- 
pecially adapted  to  men  in  an  early  stage  of  cul- 
ture, who  have  not  yet  learned  to  arrange  and 
connect  their  various  knowledges  into  a  system. 
Accordingly  we  find  this  mode  of  writing  em- 
ployed in  the  most  remote  ages ;  and  wise  sayings. 
maxims,  apophthegms,  constitute  a  large  part  ot 
the  early  literature  of  most  nations.  Especially 
is  this  true  of  the  Oriental  nations.  The  fond- 
ness of  the  people  of  the  East  for  parables,  enig- 
mas, allegories,  and  pithy  sayings,  has  itself  be- 
come a  proverb.  It  is  recorded  as  a  proof  of 
the  wisdom  of  Solomon,  that  *he  spoke  three  thou- 
sand proverbs'  (i  Kings  iv:32);  and  Solomon 
himself  says,  that  in  his  time,  such  sayings  formed 


the  chief  study  of  the  learned.    A  wise  man  will 
seek — 

To  understand  a  proverb  and  the  interpretation; 
The  words  of  the  wise  and  their  dark  sayings.' 

Recent  travelers  in  the  East  assure  us  that  this 
reverence  for  proverbs  still  exists  there;  and  that 
nothing  gives  a  man  so  much  advantage  in  an  ar- 
gument as  the  ability  to  quote  one  of  them  on 
his  side.  We  may  therefore  conclude  that  the 
wise  king  could  have  found  no  better  mode  of 
impressing  truth  on  the  minds  of  his  countrymen 
than  the  one  he  has  here  chosen. 

(8)  Style  and  Contents.  Let  us  examine 
more  particularly  the  style  and  contents  of  the 
book. 

(a)  As  to  its  style,  we  find  it  to  be  marked  by 
those  characteristics  which  distinguish  the  foetry 
of  the  Hebrews  from  their  prose  compositions. 
Of  these,  one  of  the  most  obvious  and  important 
is  what,  since  Bishop  Lowth*s  day,  has  been 
termed  parallelism.  This  consists  in  a  certain 
resemblance  or  correspondence,  either  as  to 
thought  or  form,  or  both,  between  the  members 
of  a  period.  The  two  most  simple  kinds  of  paral- 
lelism, and  the  only  two  we  shall  notice  here,  are 
when  the  period  contains  but  two  members,  and 
the  last  either  repeats  the  thought  contained  in  the 
first,  or  presents  an  antithetical  assertion,  begin- 
ning generally  with  the  adversative  but.  The  first 
kind  of  parallelism  is  called  by  Lowth  synony- 
mous, the  second  antithetic.  The  following  pas- 
sage is  a  beautiful  example  of  synonymous  paral- 
lelism : — 

'My  scMi,  if  thou  wilt  receive  my  words. 
And  hide  my  commandments  with  thee; 
So  that  thou  incline  thine  ear  to  wisdom. 
And  apply  thy  heart  to  understanding; 
Yea,  if  thou  criest  after  knowledge, 
And  liftest  up  the  voice  for  understanding. 
If  thou  seekest  her  as  silver, 
And  searchest  for  her  as  for  hid  treasures; 
Then  shalt   thou    understand  the  fear  of   the 

Lord, 
And  find  the  knowledge  of  God.* 

Prov.  ii:i-5. 

As  an  instance  of  antithetic  parallelism,  take 
these  verses: 
The  fear  of  the  Lord  prolongeth  days; 
But  the  years  of  the  wicked  shall  be  shortened. 
The  hope  of  the  righteous  shall  be  gladness; 
But  the  expectation  of  the  wicked  shall  perish. 
The  way  of  the  Lord  is  strength  to  the  upright ; 
But  destruction  shall  be  to  the  workers  of  in- 
iquity.' Prov.  X 127-29. 

(b)  It  will  be  perceived  that  there  is  a  conti- 
nuity in  the  former  of  these  passages,  which  does 
not  belong  to  the  latter. 

In  fact  the  first  nine  chapters  of  the  book  of 
Proverbs  are  remarkably  distinguished  from  the 
remainder,  and  constitute  a  sort  of  proem  or  ex- 
ordium to  the  work.  This  portion  was  probably 
committed  to  writing,  while  the  disconnected 
aphorisms  which  compose  the  gfreater  part  of  the 
remaining  portion  were  only  uttered.  It  is  a  con- 
tinuous discourse,  written  in  the  highest  style  of 
poetry,  adorned  with  apt  and  beautiful  illustra- 
tions, and  with  various  and  striking  figures.  The 
personification  of  Wisdom  in  these  chapters  is 
universally  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
examples  of  prosopopoeia  to  be  found  in  the  Bible, 
and  possesses  an  mdescribable  grace  and  majesty. 
What  can  be  finer  than  the  passage  ch.  viii:22-3i, 


PROVERBS,  THE  BOOK  OF 


1402 


PROVERBS,  THE  BOOK  OF 


where  many  eminent  critics  are  of  opinion  that  the 
Son  of  God  is  to  be  understood  as  speaking. 

*Wisdom  is  better  than  rubies, 

And  no  precious  things  compare  with  her. 

T,  Wisdom,  dwell  with  prudence, 

And  find  out  knowledge  of  wise  cotmsels. 

The  fear  of  Jehovah  is  to  hate  evil ; 
Pride,  haughtiness,  and  an  evil  way, 
And  a  perverse  mouth,  do  I  hate. 

'Counsel  is  mine,  and  reflection; 

I  am  understanding;  I  have  strength. 

'By  me  kings  reign, 

And  pnnces  decree  justice; 
By  me  princes  rule. 

And  nobles,  even  all  the  judges  of  the  earth. 

*I  love  them  that  love  me; 

And  they  that  seek  me  early  shall  find  me. 

'Riches  and  honor  are  with  me. 

Yea,  enduring  riches  and  righteousness. 

'My  fruit  is  better  than  gold,  yea  than  refined 
gold; 
And  my  increase  than  choice  silver.' 

'I  walk  in  the  way  of  righteousness. 

In  the  midst  of  the  path  of  rectitude ; 

To  ensure  abundance  to  those  that  love  me, 
And  to  fill  their  storehouse.    .    .    . 

'Blessed  is  the  man  that  hearetb  me, 
Watching  daily  at  my  gates. 
Waiting  at  the  posts  of  my  doors! 

For  whosoever  findeth  me  findeth  life ; 
And  shall  obtain  favor  from  Jehovah.* 

(Prov.   viii:ii-2i,  34,   35.) 

(c)  In  the  next  chapter  the  word  Wisdom  has 
a  feminine  termination;  and  Wisdom  and  Folly 
are  personified  as  females.  The  contrast  between 
their  respective  pretensions  and  invitations  may 
be  made  more  evident  than  it  is  in  our  version  by 
arranging  the  passages  in  apposition  to  each 
other. 

Wisdom  hath  builded  her  house, 

She  hath  hewn  out  her  seven  pillars. 

She  hath  killed  her  beasts. 

She  hath  .mingled  her  wine, 

She  hath  also  furnished  her  table, 

She  hath  sent  forth  her  maidens, 

She  crieth  upon  the  highest  places  of  the  city, 

'Whoso  is  simple  let  him  turn  in  hither.* 

To  him  who  wanteth  understanding  she  saith: 

'Come,  eat  of  my  bread; 

And  drink  of  the  wine  I  have  mingled. 

Forsake  the  foolish  and  live; 

And  go  in  the  way  of  understanding; 

For  by  me  thy  days  shall  be  multiplied, 

And  the  years  of  thy  life  shall  be  increased; 

Folly  is  clamorous; 

She  is  simple  and  knoweth  nothing. 

She  sitteth  at  the  door  of  her  house. 

On  a  seat  in  the  high  places  of  the  city, 

To  call   passengers  who  go  right   on  their 

ways ; 
Whoso  is  simple  let  him  turn  in  hither.' 

To  him  who  wanteth  understanding  she  saith: 

'Stolen  waters  are  sweet. 

And  bread  eaten  in  secret  is  pleasant.' 


But  he  knoweth  not  that  the  dead  are  there. 
And  that  her  guests  are  in  the  depths  of  the 
grave. 

(d)  At  the  tenth  chapter  a  different  style  com- 
mences. From  ch.  x  to  ch.  xxii:i7,  is  a  series  of 
pithy,  disconnected  maxims,  on  various  subjects, 
and  applicable  to  the  most  diverse  situation. 
From  ch.  xxii:i7  to  ch.  xxv.  a  style  resembling 
that  of  the  exordium,  though  inferior  in  elegance 
and  sublimity,  prevails;  aud  at  the  twenty-fifth 
chapter  the  separate  maxims  recommence.  These 
compose  the  remainder  of  the  book,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  thirtieth  chapter,  which  is  ascribed 
to  Agur,  and  the  thirty-first,  which  is  said  to 
be  the  advice  given  to  king  Lemuel  by  his  mother. 
Who  these  persons  arc  is  not  known.  The  sup- 
position that  Lemuel  is  another  name  of  Solomon 
does  not  appear  to  be  supported  by  proof. 

(6)  The  thirtieth  chapter  affords.an  example  of 
another  species  of  wnting  closely  allied  to  the 
proverb,  and  equally  in  favor  among  the  Ori- 
entals. It  is  that  of  riddles  or  enigmas,  designed 
to  exercise  the  wit  and  ingenuity  of  the  hearer, 
and  to  impart  instruction  through  the  medium  of 
amusement. 

Of  this  kind  is  the  riddle  proposed  by  Samson 
(Judg.  xiv:i2-i8).  The  seventeenth  diapter  of 
Ezekiel  contains  a  very  beautiful  riddle  or  par- 
able, in  which  the  king  of  Babylon  is  spoken  of 
under  the  figure  of  a  g^eat  eagle  with  spread- 
ing wings.  Many  of  the  symbolical  acts  enjoined 
by  God  upon  the  prophets,  which  perhaps  appear 
to  modern  readers  of  Scripture  extremely  child- 
ish and  ridiculous,  are  of  the  same  nature;  and 
thus,  however  unsuited  to  our  times,  were  per- 
fectly well  adapted  to  impress  and  interest  the 
Hebrews  (^.  g.  Jer.  xiii:i-ii;  xviii:i^;  xxivii- 
10).  Sometimes  these  riddles  assumed  the  form 
of  a  brief  narration,  and  were  called  fables  or 
parables.  See  the  beautiful  fable  related  by 
Jot  ham  to  the  men  of  Shechem ;  and  the  touching 
story  of  the  one  ewc-lamb  of  the  poor  man,  by 
which  Nathan  reproved  David. 

(f)  But  to  return  to  Agur  and  his  riddles.  The 
introductory  verses  at  first  view  appear  obscure, 
from  the  absence  of  any  apparent  connection  with 
what  follows.  But  the  explanation  given  by 
Herder  appears  satisfactory.  The  sage  Agur,' 
he  says,  'is  to  discourse  lofty  sentiments  to  his 
pupils;  but  he  begins  with  modesty,  that  too  ex- 
alted wisdom  may  not  be  expected  from  him.' 
How  shall  he  who  confesses  that  he  is  not  versed 
in  human  wisdom,  be  supposed  to  possess  that 
knowledge  which  belongs  to  the  holy?  Wisdom 
for  man  consists  in  obeying  'every  word  of  God' 
(verse  5). 

(g)  We  subjoin  Herder's  version  of  one  of 
these  riddles,  with  the  accompanying  remarks: 

FOUR  SMALL  BUT  VERY  ACTIVE  THINGS. 

Four  things  are  little  on  the  earth, 

But  wiser  than  the  wisest. 
The  ant  race  are  a  people  without  strength, 
Yet  they  prepare  their  meat  in  summer. 
The  conies  are  a  feeble  race. 
Yet  build  their  houses  in  the  rocks. 
The  locusts  have  no  king  to  rule  them. 
Yet  all  of  them  go  forth  by  bands; 
The  lizard — one  may  seize  it  with  his  hand, 
And  yet  it  dwells  in  royal  palaces. 

The  whole  comparison  was  perhaps  made  on 
account  of  the  last,  where  an  animal  of  that  sort 
(which,  in  warm  climates,  lives  in  the  walls,  and 


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1403 


PROVIDENCE 


is  very  annoying)  made  its  appearance;  for  the 
Orientals  are  fond  of  such  conceits  and  involved 
propositions,  especially  in  company,  and  they 
often,  indeed,  assemble  for  the  purpose  of  enjoy- 
ing them. 

(ii)  The  concluding  chapter,  containing  the 
counsels  addressed  to  King  Lemuel  by  his  mother, 
needs  no  elucidation.  It  presents  a  beautiful 
picture  of  female  excellence  in  an  age  and  coun- 
try where  modesty,  industry,  submission,  and 
the  domestic  and  matronly  virtues,  were  esteemed 
the  only  appropriate  ornaments  of  woman. 

If  we  turn  our  attention  to  the  maxims  which 
compose  the  greater  part  of  the  book  of  Proverbs, 
we  shall  find  enough  to  excite  our  wonder  and 
admiration.  Here  are  not  only  the  results  of  the 
profoundest  human  sagacity,  the  counsels  and 
admonitions  of  the  man  who  excelled  in  wisdom 
all  who  went  before,  and  all  who  came  after  him, 
but  of  such  a  man  writing  under  divine  inspira- 
tion. And  how  numerous,  how  various,  how  pro- 
found, how  important  are  his  instructions! 

(i)  These  directions  are  adapted  to  the  wants 
of  every  class  and  rank  of  men,  and  to  every 
relation  of  life.  The  rich  and  the  poor,  the 
learned  and  the  ignorant,  the  master  and  the  serv- 
ant, the  monarch  and  the  subject,  may  here  find 
the  counsels  they  need.  'Apples  of  gold  in  bas- 
kets of  silver'  are  fit  emblems  of  such  prudent 
and  wholesome  counsels  clothed  in  such  an  at- 
tractive garb. 

(6)  Authors,  (i)  The  proverbs  of  Solomon 
(chapters  x-xxii:i6),  a  collection  of  various  max- 
ims of  an  ethical  and  practical  nature. 

(2)  A  connected  series  with  precepts  on  jus- 
tice and  prudence  (Pro v.  xxii:i7;  xxiv:22). 

(3)  Unconnected  proverbs  of  various  wise  men 
(Prov.  xxiv:23-34). 

(4)  Another  collection  of  Proverbs  of  Solomon, 
which  the  men  of  Hezekiah,  king  of  Judah,  copied 
out  (Prov.  xxv-xxix). 

(5)  The  words  of  Agur,  the  son  of  Jakeh 
(Prov.  XXX : I -33).  Ancient  interpreters  take 
"Agur"  to  be  a  symbolic  name  of  Solonwn,  like 
"Koheleth;"  but  then  he  would  not  be  called  the 
son  of  Jakeh.  Probably  the  real  name  of  some 
Hebrew  sage. 

(6)  The  words  of  Lemuel  the  king,  the  proph- 
ecy that  his  mother  taught  him  (Prov.  xxxi:i- 
9).  "Lemuel"  is  perhaps  a  symbolical  name  for 
Solomon — i.  e.,  he  who  is  turned  to  God. 

On  the  whole  subject  of  Proverbs,  Rev.  James 
M.  Gray,  D.  D,,  says: 

"The  book  does  not  readily  lend  itself  to  any 
logical  analysis,  but  has  been  divided  into  five 
parts,  as  follows:  Part  i,  superscription,  chapter  i, 
verses  1-6;  part  2,  chapter  \\y  to  chapter  ix,  forms 
'a  connected  didactic  poem  in  which  wisdom  is 
praised  and  youth  exhorted  to  devote  itself  to 
her;'  part  3,  chapters  x-xxiv,  is  a  collection  of 
single  proverbs  and  detached  sentences  illustrat- 
ing principles  of  worldly  prudence;  part  4  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  rest  of  the  book  not  so  much 
by  the  character  of  its  contents  as  the  fact  that 
it  is  a  collection  of  Solomon's  proverbs  copied 
out  or  edited  by  the  men  or  the  court  of  Heze- 
kiah's  time;  part  5  includes  chapters  xxx-xxxi, 
and  contains  'Words  of  Agur,'  and  the  'Words 
of  King  Lemuel,'  in  the  latter  of  which  is  found 
a  remarkable  acrostic  in  praise  of  the  virtuous 
woman.  Who  these  last-named  authors  were  is 
not  known,  and  indeed  some  have  assumed  that 
their  names  were  merely  symbolical.  It  is  im- 
portant to  note  the  sense  in  which  the  word  'wis- 
dom' is  used  in  Proverbs  as  distinguished  from 
Ecclesiastes     In  the  last-named  it  means  what  we 


understand  by  science,  but  here  it  signifies  piety 
or  religion.  In  one  instance  at  least,  chapter 
viii,  Wisdom  is  personified,  and  evidently  applies 
to  Christ." 

The  value  of  the  book  for  devotional  purposes  is 
well  expressed  by  Dr.  Bridges  in  his  commentary, 
who  says,  'While  other  Scriptures  show  us  our 
high  calling,  this  instructs  us  minutely  how  to 
walk  in  it,"  or  as  the  Bible  Hand  Book  says, 
"This  book  is  for  practical  ethics  what  the  Psalms 
are  for  devotion." 

(6)  LiteratiLre  on  Proverbs.  The  literature 
of  the  book  of  Proverbs  is  contained  chiefly  in 
the  following  works  (besides  the  preliminary  dis- 
sertations in  the  various  Commentaries)  : — Mel- 
anchthon,  Explicatio  Prow.  1555;  Mercer,  Com- 
ment, in  Prow.  Salom.;  Geiero,  Prow,  Salom. 
1669;  Schultens,  Prvverbia  Salom.  1748;  Hirtz, 
Vof/st,  Erklar,  der  Spruche  Salom,  1768;  Hunt, 
Observations  on  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  1775; 
Hodgson,  On  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  1778;  Jager, 
Observatt.  in  Prow.  Salom.  Versionem  Alexand. 
1788;  Lawson,  Exposition  of  Proverbs,  1821 ; 
Umbreit,  Philol.  Krit.  u.  Philosoph.  Comm.  U,  d, 
SprUche  Salom,  1826.  There  are  also  translations, 
mostly  with  note,  by  J.  D.  Michaelis,  1778;  Doe- 
derlein,  1786;  Streunsee,  1783;  Kleuker,  1786; 
Reichard,  1790;  Ziegler,  1791 ;  Muntinghe,  1800, 
1802;  Dahler,  1810;  Holden,  1810;  Gramberg, 
1828;  Bockel,  1829;  and  Ewald,  in  his  Poetischen 
Bucher,  vol.  iv.  (See  also  Conant,  The  Book  of 
Proverbs,  1869;  Muenscher,  The  Book  of  Prov- 
erbs,  1866.)  E.  W.  H. 

FBOVIDENOE  (prfivlf-dms),  (Lat.  providenHa^ 
foreseeing). 

The  word  Providence  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
{providcntia,  pro-videre),  and  originally  meant 
foresight.  The  corresponding  Greek  word,  irp6wto, 
pro-noy-ya,  means  forethought.  By  a  well-loiown 
figure  of  speech,  called  metonymy,  we  use  a 
word  denoting  the  means  by  which  we  accom- 
plish anything  to  denote  the  end  accomplished;  we 
exercise  care  over  anything  by  means  of  foresight, 
and  indicate  that  care  by  the  word  foresight.  On 
the  same  principle  the  word  Providence  is  used 
to  signify  the  care  God  takes  of  the  universe.  As  to 
its  inherent  nature  i/  is  the  power  which  God  exerts, 
without  intermission,  in  and  upon  all  the  works 
of  his  hands.  In  the  language  of  the  schoolmen, 
it  is  a  continual  creation  {creatio  continua).  But 
defined  as  to  its  visible  manifestations,  it  is 
God's  preservation  and  government  of  all  things. 
As  a  thing  is  known  by  its  opposites,  the  meaning 
of  Providence  is  elucidated  by  considering  that 
it  is  opposed  to  fortune  and  fortuitous  acci- 
dents. 

Providence,  considered  in  reference  to  all 
things  existing,  is  termed  by  Knapp  universal; 
in  reference  to  moral  beings,  special;  and  in  ref- 
erence to  holy  or  converted  beings,  particular. 

i.  Divine  Acts.  Providence  is  usually  di 
vided  into  three  divine  acts:  preservation,  co 
operation,  and  government. 

(1)  Preservation.  By  preservation  is  signi- 
fied the  causing  of  existence  to  continue. 

(2)  Co-operation.  Co-operation  is  the  act  of 
God  which  causes  the  powers  of  created  things 
to  remain  in  being.  It  is  not  pretended  that  the 
existence  and  the  powers  of  things  are  ever  sep- 
arated, but  only  that  they  are  distinguishable  in 
mental  analysis.  Co-operation  varies  with  the  na- 
ture of  the  objects  towards  which  it  is  exer- 
cised. 

(3)  Government.  Government,  as  a  branch  of 
Providence,  is  God's  controlling  all  created  things 
so  as  to  promote  the  highest  good  of  the  whole. 


PROVIDENCE 


I40i 


PROVIDENCE 


2.  Proofs,  Among  the  proofs  of  divine  Provi- 
dence may  be  reckoned  the  following : — 

(1)  Axialogous  to  Argpiment   for   Creation. 

One  argument  in  proof  of  Providence  is  analo- 
gous to  one  mode  of  proving  a  creation.  If  we 
cannot  account  for  the  existence  of  the  world 
without  supposing  its  coming  into  existence,  or 
beginning  to  be,  no  more  can  we  account  for 
the  world  continuing  to  exist,  without  supposing 
it  to  be  preserved;  for  it  is  as  evidently  absurd  to 
suppose  any  creature  pt^longing  as  producing  its 
own  being. 

(2)  Love  of  God.  A  second  proof  of  Provi- 
dence results  from  the  admitted  fact  of  creation. 
Whoever  has  made  any  piece  of  mechanism,  there- 
fore takes  pains  to  preserve  it.  Parental  affec- 
tion moves  those  who  have  given  birth  to  chil- 
dren to  provide  for  their  sustentation  and  educa- 
tion. It  is  both  reasonable  and  Scriptural  to  con- 
template God  as  sustaining  the  universe  because 
he  made  it.  Thus  David,  having  premised  that 
the  world  was  made  by  God,  immediately  de- 
scends to  the  course  of  his  Providence  (Ps.  xxiii: 
6;  comp.  ver.  13).  The  creation  also  evinces  a 
Providence  by  proving  God's  right  to  rule,  on 
the  admitted  principle  that  every  one  may  do 
what  he  will  with  his  own. 

(3)  Divine  Perfection.  A  third  proof  of 
Providence  is  found  in  the  divine  perfections. 
Since,  among  the  divine  perfections,  are  all  power 
and  all  knowledge,  the  non-existence  of  Provi- 
dence, if  there  be  none,  must  result  from  a  want 
of  will  in  God.  But  no  want  of  will  to  exercise 
a  Providence  can  exist,  for  God  wills  whatever  is 
for  the  good  of  the  universe,  and  for  his  own 
glory;  to  either  of  which  a  Providence  is  clearly 
indispensable.  God  therefore  has  resolved  to  ex- 
ercise his  power  and  knowledge  so  as  to  subserve 
the  best  ends  with  his  creation. 

(4)  Prevalence  of  Order.  A  fourth  proof  of 
God's  Providence  appears  in  the  order  which  pre- 
vails in  the  universe.  We  say  the  order  which  pre- 
vails, aware  of  the  occasional  apparent  disorder 
that  exists,  which  we  have  already  noticed,  and 
shall  soon  treat  of  again.  That  summer  and  win- 
ter, seed-time  and  harvest,  cold  and  heat,  day  and 
night,  are  fixed  by  a  law,  was  obvious  even  to 
men  who  never  heard  of  God's  covenant  with 
Noah.  Accordingly  the  ancient  Greeks  designated 
the  creation  by  a  word  which  means  order  (xSirfios), 
But  our  sense  of  order  is  keenest  where  we  dis- 
cern it  in  apparent  confusion.  The  motions  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  are  eccentric  and  intervolved, 
yet  are  most  regular  when  they  seem  most  law- 
less. They  werp  therefore  compared  by  the  earli- 
est astronomers  to  the  discords  which  blend  in 
a  harmony,  and  to  the  wild  starts  which  often 
heighten  the  graces  of  a  dance.  Modern  astronomy 
has  revealed  to  us  so  much  miraculous  symmetry 
in  celestial  phenomena,  that  it  shows  us  far  more 
decisive  proofs  of  a  Ruler  seated  on  the  circle  of 
the  heavens,  than  were  vouchsafed  to  the  ancients. 

(5)  Present  Operation  of  Law.  A  ^/tA 
proof  of  a  Providence  is  furnished  by  the  fact 
that  so  many  men  are  here  rewarded  and  pun- 
ished according  to  a  righteous  law.  The  wicked 
often  feel  compunctious  visitings  in  the  midst  of 
their  sins,  or  smart  under  the  rod  of  civil  justice, 
or  are  tortured  with  natural  evils.  With  the 
righteous  all  things  are  in  general  reversed.  The 
miser  and  envious  are  punished  as  soon  as  they 
begin  to  commit  their  respective  sins;  and  some 
virtues  are  their  own  present  reward.  But  we 
would  not  dissemble  that  we  are  here  met  with 
important  objections,  although  infinitely  less,  even 
though  they  were  unanswerable,  than  beset  such 


as  would  reject  the  doctrine  of  Providence,  It 
is  said,  and  we  grant,  that  the  righteous  are  trod- 
den under  foot,  and  the  vilest  men  exalted;  that 
the  race  is  not  to  the  swift,  nor  the  battle  to  the 
strong;  that  virtue  starves,  while  vice  is  fed;  and 
that  schemes  for  doing  good  are  frustrated,  while 
evil  plots  succeed.  But  we  may  reply  (i)  The 
prosperity  of  the  wicked  is  often  apparent,  and 
well  styled  a  shining  misery.  Who  believes  that 
Nero  enthroned  was  happier  than  Paul  in  chains  ? 
(2)  We  are  often  mistaken  in  calling  such  or 
such  an  afflicted  man  good,  and  such  or  such  a 
prosperous  man  bad.  (3)  The  miseries  of  good 
men  are  generally  occasioned  by  their  own  fault, 
since  they  have  been  so  foolhardy  as  to  run 
counter  to  the  laws  by  which  God  acts,  or  have 
aimed  at  certain  ends  while  neglecting  the  appro- 
priate means.  (4)  Many  virtues  are  proved  and 
augmented  by  trials,  and  not  only  proved,  but 
produced,  so  that  they  would  have  had  no  ex- 
istence without  them.  Many  of  David's  noblest 
qualities  would  never  have  been  developed  but  for 
the  impious  attempts  of  Saul.  Job's  integrity  was 
not  only  tested,  but  strengthened,  by  Satan 
being  permitted  to  sift  him  as  wheat.  Patience, 
experience,  and  hope  were  brought  as  ministering 
angels  to  men,  of  whom  the  world  was  not 
worthy,  through  trials  of  cruel  mockings  and 
scourgings.  (5)  The  unequal  distribution  of 
good  and  evil,  so  far  as  it  exists,  carries  our 
thoughts  forward  to  the  last  judgment,  and  a 
retribution  according  to  the  deeds  done  in  the 
body,  and  can  hardly  fail  of  throwing  round  the 
idea  of  eternity  a  stronger  air  of  reality  than  it 
might  otherwise  wear.  All  perplexity  vanishes  as 
we  reflect  that,  *He  cometh  to  judge  the  earth/ 
(6)  Even  if  we  limit  our  views  to  this  world,  but 
extend  them  to  all  our  acquaintance,  we  cannot 
doubt  that  the  tendencies,  though  not  always  the 
effects,  of  vice  are  to  misery,  and  those  of  virtue  to 
happiness.  These  tendencies  are  especially  clear  if 
our  view  embraces  a  whole  lifetime,  and  the  clearer 
the  longer  the  period  we  embrace.  The  Psalmist 
(Ps.  Ixxiii.)  was  at  first  envious  at  the  foolish, 
when  he  saw  the  prosperity  of  the  wicked ;  but  as 
his  views  became  more  comprehensive,  and  he 
understood  their  end,  his  language  was,  'How  are 
they  brought  into  desolation  as  in  a  moment! 
they  are  utterly  consumed  with  terrors!'  The 
progressive  tendency  of  vice  and  virtue  to  reap 
each  its  appropriate  harvest  is  finely  illustrated 
by  Bishop  Butler— best  of  all  perhaps  in  his  pic- 
ture of  an  imaginary  kingdom  of  the  good,  which 
would  peacefully  subvert  all  others,  and  fill  the 
earth.  Indeed,  as  soon  as  we  leave  what  is  im- 
mediately before  our  eyes,  and  glance  at  the 
annals  of  the  world,  we  behold  so  many  mani- 
festations of  God,  that  we  may  adduce  as 

(6)  Historic  Evidence.  A  sixth  proof  of 
Providence  the  facts  of  history.  The  giving  and 
transmission  of  a  revelation,  it  has  been  justly 
said, — the  founding  of  religious  institutions,  as 
the  Mosaic  and  the  Christian, — the  raising  up  of 
prophets,  apostles,  and  defenders  of  the  faith, — 
the  ordering  of  particular  events,  such  as  the 
Refornution, — the  more  remarkable  deliverances 
noticed  in  the  lives  of  those  devoted  to  the  good 
of  the  world,  etc. — all  indicate  the  wise  and  be- 
nevolent care  of  God  over  the  human  family. 
But  the  historical  proof  of  a  Providence  is  per- 
haps strongest  where  the  wrath  of  man  has  been 
made  to  praise  God,  or  where  efforts  to  dishonor 
God  have  been  constrained  to  do  him  honor. 

(7)  Basis  of  BeUgion.  As  a  seventh  ground 
for  believing  in  Providence,  it  may  be  said  that 
Providence^  is  the  necessary  basis  of  all  religion. 


PROVINCE 


1405 


PSALMS.  BOOK  OF 


For  what  is  religion?  One  of  the  best  definitions 
calls  it  the  belief  in  a  superhuman  Power,  which 
has  great  influence  in  human  affairs,  and  ought 
therefore  to  be  worshiped.  But  take  away  this 
influence  in  human  affairs,  and  you  cut  off  all 
motive  to  worship.  To  the  same  purpose  is  the 
text  in  Hebrews:  *He  that  cometh  to  God  must 
believe  that  he  is,  and  that  he  is  a  rewarder  of 
such  as  diligently  seek  him.'  If  then  the  religious 
sentiments  thrill  us  not  in  vain, — if  all  attempts 
of  all  men  to  commune  with  God  have  not  always 
and  everywhere  been  idle, — there  must  be  a 
Providence. 

(8)  Oommon  Consent.  In  the  eighth  place, 
we  may  advert  for  a  moment  to  the  proof  of 
Providence  from  the  common  consent  of  man- 
kind with  the  single  exception  of  atheists.  The 
Epicureans  may  be  classed  with  the  atheists,  as 
they  are  generally  thought  to  have  been  atheists 
in  disguise,  and  a  god  after  their  imaginations 
would  be,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  no  god. 
The  Stoics  were  also  atheists,  believing  only  in  a 
blind  fate  arising  from  a  perpetual  concatenation 
of  causes  contained  in  nature.  The  passages 
acknowledging  a  Providence  in  Cicero,  Seneca, 
Plutarch,  and  all  the  ancient  moralists,  are 
numerous  and  decisive,  but  too  accessible  or  well 
known  to  need  being  quoted. 

(9)  Proved  by  the  Scriptures.  In  the  last 
place,  the  doctrine  of  Providence  is  abundantly 
proved  by  the  Scriptures.  Sometimes  it  is  de- 
clared that  the  Most  High  ruleth  in  the  kingdom 
of  men,  and  giveth  it  to  whomsoever  he  will;  as 
much  as  to  say  that  nothing  can  withstand  his 
power.  Again,  lest  we  may  think  some  things 
beneath  his  notice,  we  read  that  he  number eth  the 
hairs  of  our  heads,  car  eth  for  lilies  and  disposeth 
all  the  lots  which  are  cast.  The  care  of  God  for 
man  is  generally  argued  a  fortiori,  from  his  care 
for  inferior  creatures.  One  Psalm  (xci)  is  de- 
voted to  show  the  providential  security  of  the 
godly;  another  (xciii)  shows  the\  frailty  of  the 
man;  and  a  third  (civ)  the  dependence  of  all  or- 
ders in  creation  on  God's  Providence  for  food  and 
breath.  In  him,  it  is  elsewhere  added,  we  live, 
and  move,  and  have  our  being.  He,  in  the  person 
of  Christ  sustaineth  all  things  by  the  word  of  his 
power,  and  from  him  cometh  down  every  good 
and  perfect  gift.  But  nowhere  perhaps  is  a  provi- 
dence so  pointedly  asserted  and  so  sublimely  set 
forth  as  in  some  of  the  last  chapters  of  Job;  and 
nowhere  so  variously,  winningly,  and  admirably 
exhibited  as  in  the  history  of  Joseph. 

J.  D.  B. 

PROVINCE  (prfiv'fas),  (Heb.  •'1^^^,  med-ee- 
naw',  district  ruled  by  a  judge). 

In  the  Old  Testament  this  word  appears  in  con- 
nection with  the  wars  between  Ahab  and  Ben- 
hadad  (i  Kings  xx:i4,  15,  19).  It  is  termed  a 
country,  or  part  of  a  kingdom  or  empire  (Ezra 
iv:i5).  The  Romans  called  those  places  "prov- 
inces," which  they  had  conquer^  and  reduced  un- 
der their  form  of  civil  government  (Acts 
xxv:i). 

PROVOCATION  (pr6v'6-ka'shun),  (bitterness, 
anger,  strife). 

The  word  is  generally  used  to  designate  the  un- 
grateful, rebellious  spirit  and  consequent  conduct 
of  the  Israelites  (Ps.  xcv:8;  Neh.  ix:i8,  26;  Heb. 
iii:8,  15).  The  idolatrous  offerings  of  the  Hebrews 
were  a  provocation  to  Jehovah  (Ezek.  xx:28). 
Jerusalem  was  a  provocation  to  God,  because  of 
the  much  sin  there  committed  (Jer.  xxxii:3i). 

The  friends  of  Job  were  a  provocation  to  him. 
He  was  wearied  and  angry  with  seeing  and  hear- 


ing  them  sneer  at  him,  and  charge  him  with 
hypocrisy ;  and  even  in  the  night,  the  grief  thereat 
restrained  his  eyes  from  closing  in  sleep  (Job 
xvii;i2). 

PBX7DENCE,  PBTTDENTCpr^'d^j.  prn'd^t). 
the  translation  of  several  Hebrew  and  Greek 
words;  .in  all  of  which  there  is  the  underlying  of 
intellwnce,  understanding, 

(1)  "Prudence  is  the  act  of  suiting  words  and 
actions  according  to  the  circumstance  of  things, 
or  rules  of  right  reason.  Cicero  thus  defines  it: 
*'Est rerum  expetendarum  fugiendarum  scientia" 
"The  knowledge  of  what  is  to  be  desired  or 
avoided."  Grove  thus:  "Prudence  is  an  ability 
of  judging  what  is  best  in  the  choice  both  of  ends 
and  means."  Mason  thus:  "Prudence  is  a  con- 
formity to  the  rules  of  reason,  truth,  and  decency, 
at  all  times,  and  in  all  circumstances.  It  differs 
from  wisdom  only  in  degree ;  wisdom  being  noth- 
ing but  a  more  consummate  habit  of  prudence: 
and  prudence  a  lower  degree  or  weaker  habit  of 
wisdom." 

(2)  It  is  divided  into,  (a)  Christian  prudence, 
which  directs  to  the  pursuit  of  that  blessed- 
ness which  the  Gospel  discovers  by  the  use  of 
Gospel  means,  (b)  Moral  prudence  has  for  its 
ends  peace  and  satisfaction  of  mind  in  this  world, 
and  the  greatest  happiness  after  death,  (c)  Civil 
prudence  is  the  knowledge  of  what  ought  to  be 
done  in  order  to  secure  the  outward  happiness 
of  life,  consisting  in  prosperity,  liberty,  etc.  (d) 
Monastic,  relating  to  any  circumstances  in  which 
a  man  is  not  charged  with  the  care  of  others, 
(e)  Economical  prudence  regards  the  conduct  of 
a  family,  (f)  Political  refers  to  the  good  gov- 
ernment of  a  state  (comp.  2  Chron.  ii:i2;  Prov. 
viii:i2;  Eph.  i:8). 

PBTTNINGh-HOOK  (prunlng-bdok).   See  Vine. 
PSAIiMS,  BOOK  OF  (s&mz.  book  6v),  (Heb. 

^^?\^,  teth'il'lim,  "praises"). 

This  collection  of  sacred  poetry  received  its 
name  (Gr.  ^'aX/Mol,  Psalms),  in  consequence  of  the 
lyrical  character  of  the  pieces  of  which  it  con- 
sists, as  intended  to  be  sung  to  stringed  and  other 
instruments  of  music.  In  the  editorial  note  (Ps. 
lxxii:2o)  we  find  the  preceding  compositions  (Ps. 
i.-lxxii.)  styled  Prayers  of  David,  because  many 
of  them  are  strictly  prayers,  and  all  are  pervaded 
by  the  spirit  and  tone  of  supplication.  The 
Psalms  reveal  all  types  of  religious  experience. 
They  deal  with  historical  events,  personal  and 
biographical  incidents,  give  reflections,  consider 
problems,  and  arise  often  out  of  particular  inci- 
dents. 

i.  titles.  All  the  Psalms,  except  thirty-four, 
bear  superscriptions.  According  to  some  there 
are  only  twenty-five  exceptions,  as  they  reckon 
a  title  in  all  the  Psalms  which  commence  with  it. 
To  each  of  these  exceptions  the  Talmud  (Babyl. 
Cod,  Avoda  Sarah,  fol.  24,  col.  2)  gives  the  name 
Orphan  Psalm, 

(1)  Authority.  The  authority  of  the  titles  is 
a  matter  of  doubt.  By  most  of  the  ancient  critics 
they  were  considered  genuine,  and  of  equal  au- 
thority with  the  Psalms  themselves,  while  most 
of  the  moderns  reject  them  wholly  or  in  part.  They 
were  wholly  rejected  at  the  close  of  the  fourth 
century  by  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  one  of  the 
ablest  and  most  judicious  of  ancient  interpreters 
(Rosenmttller,  Ilist  Interpretationis  Librorum 
Sacrorum,  P.  iii.,  p.  256).  On  the  other  hand  it 
deserves  to  be  noticed  that  they  are  received 
by  Tholuck  and  Hengstenberg  in  their  works  on 
the  Psalms.    Of  the  antiquity  of  the  inscriptions 


PSALMS.  BOOK  OF 


1406 


PSALMS.  BOOK  OF 


there  can  be  no  question,  for  they  are  found  in  the 
Sept.  They  are  supposed  to  be  even  much  older 
than  this  version,  since  they  were  no  longer  in- 
telligible to  the  translator,  who  often  makes  no 
sense  of  them.  Yet  variations  in  the  MSS.  show 
the  titles  to  be  later  than  the  Psalms,  and  there- 
fore liable  to  alteration.  Several  of  the  titles 
are  shown  to  be  wrong  by  comparison  with  the 
contents  of  the  Psalms,  yet  they  have  at  least  the 
value  of  showing  early  opinion. 

(2)  Design.  The  design  of  these  inscriptions 
Is  to  specify  either  the  author,  or  the  chief  singer 
(never  the  latter  by  name,  except  in  Ps.  xxxix.), 
or  the  historical  subject  or  occasion,  or  the  use, 
or  the  style  of  poetry,  or  the  instrument  and  style 
of  music.  Some  titles  simply  designate  the  author, 
as  in  Ps.  xxv.,  while  others  specify  several  of 
the  above  particulars,  as  in  Ps.  li.  The  longest 
and  fullest  title  of  all  is  prefixed  to  Ps.  Ix.,  where 
we  have  the  author,  the  chief  musician  (not  by 
name),  the  historical  occasion  (comp.  2  Sam. 
viii.),  the  use  or  design,  the  style  of  poetry,  and 
the  instrument  or  style  of  music.  It  is  confessedly 
very  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  explain  all  the 
terms  employed  in  the  inscriptions;  and  hence 
critics  have  diflFcred  exceedingly  in  their  conjec- 
tures. The  difficulty,  arising  no  doubt  from  ig- 
norance of  the  Temple  music,  was  felt,  it  would 
seem,  as  early  as  the  age  of  the  Sept. ;  and  it  was 
felt  so  much  by  the  translators  of  our  Authorized 
Version,  that  they  generally  retained  the  Hebrew 
words,  even  though  Luther  had  set  the  example 
of  translating  them  to  the  best  of  his  ability. 
Similar  is  the  practice  of  the  Revisers  of  1881-5. 
It  is  worth  observing  that  the  difficulty  appears 
to  have  determined  Coverdale,  1535,  to  omit  nearly 
all  except  names  of  authors;  thus,  in  Ps.  Ix, 
which  is  Ps.  lix  in  his  version,  he  gives  only — a 
Psatme  of  David,  The  Praver  Book  version  omits 
all  titles  from  the  text  ana  substitutes  the  Latin 
of  the  opening  words. 

2.  Untranslated  Terms.  Of  the  terms  left 
untranslated  or  obscure  in  our  Bible,  it  may  be 
well  to  offer  some  explanation  in  this  place,  tak- 
ing them  in  alphabetical  order  for  the  sake  of 
convenience.  On  this  subject  most  commentators 
offer  instruction,  but  the  reader  may  especially 
consult  Rosenmaller,  Scholia  in  Comp,  Redacta^ 
vol.  iii.  14-22,  DeWette.  Commentar  uber  die  Psal- 
men^  pp.  27-37;  Ewald.  Poet,  Backer,  i.  169:180. 
195;  Driver,  Intr.  yj^\  Perowne,  The  Psalms, 
i.  84 ;  Cheyne,  The  Book  of  Psalms,  and  Kirkpat- 
rick,  in  Cambr.  Bible,  i,  xvii. 

(1)  Aijeleth  Shahar,  Hind  of  the  Morning, 
i.  e.  the  sun,  or  the  dawn  of  day.  This  occurs 
only  in  Ps.  xxii,  where  we  may  best  take  it  to 
designate  a  son^,  perhaps  commencing  with  these 
words,  or  bearmg  this  name,  to  the  melody  of 
which  the  psalm  was  to  be  sung.  So  most  of 
the  ablest  critics  after  Aben  Ezra.  Yet  Tholuck 
and  Hengstenberg,  after  Luther,  suppose  it  to  de- 
note the  subject  of  the  psalm,  meaning  David 
himself,  or  typically  the  Messiah.  The  former 
is  the  more  probable  meaning. 

(2)  Aiamoth  (Ps.  xlvi),  probably  signifies 
virgins,  and  hence  denotes  music  for  female 
voices,  or  the  treble.  So  Gesenius,  Tholuck,  and 
Hengstenberg,  after  Gusset,  who,  in  Comment, 
Ling.  Hebr.  explains  it,  vox  clara  et  acuta,  quasi 
virginum,  "a  clear  voice  and  sharp  as  if  of  vir- 
gins" (see  below  under  Sheminith). 

(3)  Al-taschithy  Destroy  Thou  Not,  is  found 
over  Ps.  Ivii,  Iviii,  lix,  Ixxv,  and  signifies,  by 
general  consent,  some  well-known  ode  beginning 
with  the  expression  (comp.  Is.  lxv:8),  to  the  time 
of  which  these  compositions  were  to  be  sung. 


(4)  Degrees  appears  over  fifteen  Psalms  (cxx  - 
cxxxiv),  called  Songs  of  Degrees,  and  has  been 
explained  in  various  ways,  of  which  the  following 
are  the  chief,  (a)  The  ancients  understood  by 
it  stairs  or  steps,  as  appears  from  the  Sept.  ver- 
sion of  the  title,  tpsh  tQw  dpa^aOfi^w,  and  the 
Vulgate,  carmen  graduum,  song  of  the  steps;  and 
in  accordance  with  this,  Jewish  writers  relate 
(Mishna,  Sucah,  cap.  v.  4),  that  these  Psalms 
were  sung  on  fifteen  steps,  leading  from  the  court 
of  Israel  to  the  court  of  the  women.  This  ex- 
planation is  now  exploded,  though  FOrst  in  his 
Concordance,  sanctions  it.  (d)  Luther,  whom 
Tholuck  is  inclined  to  follow,  renders  the  title 
a  song  in  the  higher  choir,  supposing  the  Psalms 
to  have  been  sung  from  an  elevated  place  or  as- 
cent, or  with  elevated  voice,  (c)  Gesenius.  De- 
litzsch  and  De  Wette  think  the  name  refers  to  a 
peculiar  rhythm  in  these  songs,  by  which  the 
sense  advances  by  degrees,  and  so  ascends  from 
clause  to  clause,  (d)  According  to  the  most 
prevalent  and  probable  opinion,  the  title  signifies 
song  of  the  ascents,  or  pilgrim  song,  meaning  a 
song  composed  for,  or  sung  during  the  journeying 
of  the  people  up  to  Jerusalem,  whether  as  they 
returned  from  Babylon,  or  as  they  statedly  re- 
paired to  the  national  solenmities.  So  Herder 
(Geist  der  Ebr.  Poesie,  ii.  353-357)1  Ewald  {Poet, 
Backer,  i.  195),  Perowne,  \op,  cit.)  and  Kirk- 
patrick  (op.  at.),  W.  R.  Smith  {Enc,  Brit,  s,  v.). 
Journeys  to  Jerusalem  are  generally  spoken  of  as 
ascents,  on  account  of  the  elevated  situation  of 
the  city  and  temple  (see  Ezra  vii:9,  and  especially 
Ps.  cxxii  :4).  This  explanation  of  the  name  is  fa- 
vored by  the  brevity  and  the  contents  of  these 
songs. 

(5)  Gittith  appears  over  Ps.  viii,  Ixxxi, 
Ixxxiv,  and  is  of  very  uncertain  meaning,  though 
not  improbably  it  signifies  an  instrument  or  tune 
brought  from  the  city  of  Gath.  So  Rosen- 
miiller,  De  Wette,  Ewald,  Hengstenberg,  Tholuck, 
Perowne,  Kirkpatrick,  et  al.  In  the  opinion  of 
not  a  few  the  word  comes  from  H^,  winepress, 
and  denotes  either  an  instrument  or  a  melody 
used  in  the  vintage.  So  the  Sept.  renders  it 
inrkp  tQp  \riwQw,  The  new  lexicons  of  Gesenius  and 
Fttrst  give  other  explanations.  (See  Musical  In- 
struments). 

(6)  Higgaion  is  found  over  Ps.  ix:i6,  and 
probably  means  either  musical  sound,  according 
to  the  opinion  of  most,  and  the  Sept.  ip^;  or 
meditation  according  to  Tholuck  and  Heng- 
stenberg (see  more  below  under  Selah). 

(7)  Jeduthun  is  found  over  Ps.  xxxix,  Ixii, 
Ixxvii,  and  is  generally  taken  for  the  name  of 
choristers  descended  from  Jeduthun,  of  whom  we 
read  in  i  Chron.  xxv:i,  3,  as  one  of  David's  three 
chief  musicians  or  leaders  of  the  Temple  music. 
This  use  of  the  name  Jeduthun  for  Jeduthun- 
ites  is  perhaps  like  the  well-known  use  of  Israel 
for  the  Israelites.  It  is  most  probable  that  in 
Ps.  xxxix  Jeduthun  himself  is  meant,  and  not  his 
family.  The  Psalm  may  have  been  set  to  music 
by  Jeduthun  or  set  to  a  theme  named  for  him. 
(See  Jeduthun.) 

(8)  Jonath-elem-rechokim,  the  silent  dove  of 
them  that  are  afar,  or  perhaps  the  dove  of  the 
distant  terebinth,  found  only  over  Ps.  Ivi,  may  well 
denote  the  name  or  commencement  of  an  ode 
to  the  air  of  which  this  psalm  was  sung. 

(9)  Leannoth  in  the  title  of  Ps.  Ixxxviii  is 
quite  obscure.    It  is  probably  the  name  of  a  tune. 

(10)  Mahalath  occurs  in  Ps.  liii  and  Ixxxviii, 
and  denotes,  according  to  some,  a  sort  of  Aute, 
according  to  Gesenius  in  the  last  edition  of  his 


PSALMS,  BOOK  OF 


1407 


PSALMS.  BOOK  OF 


Thesaurus,  a  lute,  but  in  the  opinion  of  Ftirst 
a  tune,  named  from  the  first  word  of  some  popular 
song.  Upon  Mahalath  Leannoth  (Ps.  Ixxxviii), 
is  perhaps  a  direction  to  chant  it  to  the  instru- 
ment or  tune  called  mahalath, 

(11)  Maschil  is  found  in  the  title  of  thir- 
teen psalms.  Delitzsch  supposes  it  to  mean  a 
meditation.  According  to  Gesenius,  De  Wette, 
Ewald,  and  others,  it  means  a  poem,  so  called 
either  for  its  skillful  composition  or  for  its  wise 
and  pious  strain.  The  common  interpretation 
makes  it  a  didactic  poem,  from  7^Di&n,  to  teach 
or  make  wise. 

(12)  Hichtam  is  prefixed  to  Ps.  xvi,  Ivi-lx, 
and  is  subject  to  many  conjectures.  Many,  after 
Aben  Ezra,  derive  it  from  the  Hebrew  word 
meaning  gold,  and  understand  a  golden  psalm, 
so  called  probably  on  account  of  its  excellence. 
Hengstenberg  understands  mystery,  and  supposes 
that  these  Psalms,  more  than  others,  have  a  deep 
or  occult  sense.  Others,  after  the  Sept.,  which 
gives  <rrri\oypait>UL,  fancy  that  the  word  means  a 
poem  engraved  on  a  pillar  or  monument,  or  as 
Delitzsch  says,  a  poem  of  epigrammatic  character, 
pithy  and  expressive.  Another  explanation  is 
offered  by  CJesenius,  De  Wette,  Rosenmtiller  and 
Tholuck,  who  hold  to  signify  a  writing  or  poem. 
It  is  actually  found  in  the  corresponding  Hebrew 
form  over  Hezekiah's  song  in  Is.  xxxviii:9. 

(13)  Muth-labben  (Ps.  ix)  presents  a  perfect 
riddle,  owing  to  the  various  readings  of  MSS., 
and  the  contradictory  conjectures  of  the  learned. 
Besides  the  common  reading  upon  death  to  the 
son,  we  have  the  same  word  that  is  used  in  Ps. 
xlvi.  (see  above  Alamoth).  Some  explain  it  as 
the  subject  or  occasion  of  the  song,  but  most  refer 
it  to  the  music  Cset  to  Muth-labben"  R.  V.). 
Gesenius,  in  his  last  edition,  renders  it — with  vir- 
gins^ voice  for  the  boys,  i.  e.,  to  be  sung  by  a  choir 
of  boys  in  the  treble. 

(14)  Kegrinoth  (Ps.  iv  and  four  others;  over 
Ps.  Ixi)  neginah  in  the  singular,  though  some 
MSS.  give  neginoth  here  also.  This  name,  from 
the  Hebrew  word  meaning  to  strike  a  chord,  like 
fpdWta,  clearly  denotes  that  the  Psalm  was  to 
be  sung  to  the  accompaniment  of  stringed  instru- 
ments. 

(15)  Nehiloth  (Ps.  v),  comes  most  likely 
from  the  Hebrew  word  meaning  to  perforate,  and 
denotes  pipes  or  flutes. 

(16)  Selah  is  found  seventy-three  times  in  the 
Psalms,  generally  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  or 
paragraph;  but  in  Ps.  Iv:i9  and  lvii:3  it  stands 
in  the  middle  of  the  verse.  While  most  authors 
have  agreed  in  considering  this  word  as  some- 
how relating  to  the  music  (the  Psalms  in  which 
it  occurs  bearing  evidence  of  being  intended  to  be 
set  to  music),  their  conjectures  about  its  precise 
meaning  have  varied  greatly.  Son^,  including 
Herder,  De  Wette,  and  Ewald  (Poet.  Bucher,  i, 
I7p),  derive  it  from  a  Hebrew  word  meaning  to 
raxsCy  and  understand  a  raising  of  the  voice  or 
music;  others,  after  Gesenius,  m  Thesaurus,  de- 
rive it  from  the  Hebrew  word  meaning  to  be  still 
or  silent,  and  understand  a  pause  in  the  singing. 
By  the  Targum,  the  Talmud  and  Aquila  it  was 
rendered  "eternity,"  as  perhaps  equivalent  to 
"Amen,"  and  Jerome  translates  it  "semper." 
Probably  selah  was  used  to  direct  the  singer  to  be 
silent,  or  to  pause  a  little,  while  the  instruments 
played  an  interlude  or  symphony.  In  Ps.  ix:i6 
it  occurs  in  the  expression  higgaion  selah,  which 
Gesenius,  with  much  probability,  renders  instru- 
mental music,  pause,  i.  e.  let  the  instruments  strike 
up  a  symphony,  and  let  the  singer  pause. 


(17)  Sheminith  (Ps.  vi  and  xii)  means  prop- 
erly eighth,  and  denotes  either,  as  some  think,  an 
instrument  with  eight  chords,  or,  more  likelv, 
music  in  the  lower  notes,  or  bass.  This  is  strongly 
favored  by  i  Chron.  xv:20,  21,  where  the  terms 
alamoth  and  sheminith  clearly  denote  different 
parts  of  music:  the  former  answering  to  our 
treble,  and  the  latter  to  the  bass,  an  octave  be- 
low. 

(18)  Shigg^ion  (Ps.  vii),  denotes,  according 
to  Gesenius  and  Fiirst,  a  song  or  hymn;  but 
Ewald  and  Hengstenberg  derive  it  from  a  He- 
brew word  meaning  to  err  or  wander;  and  hence 
the  former  understands  a  song  uttered  in  the 
greatest  excitement,  the  latter  after  the  manner 
of  dithyrambs,  or  to  dithyrambic  measures. 

(19)  8hushan  (Ps.  Ix)  and  in  plural  shoshan- 
nim  (Ps.  xlv,  Ixix,  Ixxx).  This  word  com- 
monly signifies  lily,  and  probably  denotes  either 
an  instrument  bearing  some  resemblance  to  a  lily 
(perhaps  cymbal),  or  more  probably  a  melody  so 
named.  Eduth  is  joined  to  it  in  Ps.  Ix  and  Ixxx, 
giving  the  sense  lily  of  testimony,  the  name  of  a 
tune. 

3m  Authors.  Many  of  the  ancients,  both  Jews 
and  Christians,  maintained  that  all  the  Psalms 
were  written  by  David ;  which  is  one  of  the  most 
striking  proofs  of  their  uncritical  judgment.  The 
titles  and  the  contents  of  the  Psalms  most  clearly 
show  that  they  were  composed  at  different  and 
remote  periods,  by  severa4  poets,  of  whom  David 
was  supposed  to  be  the  most  eminent. 

(1)  David.  According  to  the  inscriptions  we 
have  the  following  list  of  authors : — 

I.  David,  *the  sweet  Psalmist  of  Israel'  (2  Sam. 
xxiii:i).  To  him  are  ascribed  seventy-three 
Psalms  in  the  Hebrew  text;  and  at  least  eleven 
others  in  the  Sept.,  namely,  xxxiii,  xliii,  xci, 
xciv-xcix,  civ,  cxxxvii;  to  which  may  be  added 
Ps.  X,  as  it  forms  part  of  Ps.  ix  in  that  version. 
From  what  has  been  advanced  above  respecting 
the  authority  of  the  titles,  it  is  obviously  in- 
judicious to  maintain  that  David  composed  all 
that  have  his  name  prefixed  in  the  He- 
brew. We  cannot  suppose  that  Ps.  cxxxix  is  Da- 
vid's for  its  Aramaisms  (verses  2,  8,  16,  17)  be- 
tray a  later  age ;  and  Ps.  cxxii  can  scarcely  be  his, 
for  its  style  resembles  the  later  Hebrew,  and 
its  description  of  Jerusalem  can  hardly  apply  to 
David's  time.  Besides,  it  is  worthy  of  notice  that 
the  Sept.  gives  this  and  the  other  Songs  of  De- 
grees without  specifying  the  author.  The  rela- 
tion of  David  to  the  Psalter  is  one  of  the  moot 
questions  of  criticism.  The  earlier  tendency  was 
to  attribute  the  entire  collection  to  him.  Many 
modern  scholars  go  to  the  opposite  extreme  and 
with  Olshausen,  Leugerke,  W.  R.  Smith,  Cheyne, 
Wellhauscn,  Reuss,  etc.,  decline  to  date  any  of  our 
Psalms  earlier  than  the  Exile,  not,  however,  deny- 
ing to  David  the  composition  of  certain  songs  or 
elegies  (comp.  2  Sam.  iii  133,  etc.).  Even  these 
scholars  find  it  difficult  to  deny  the  early  date  of 
Ps.  xviii,  and  therefore  its  possible  Davidic  char- 
acter. Hitzig  and  Ewald  would  assign  to  David 
some  dozen  Psalms,  Delitzsch  about  thirty,  and 
others,  like  Binney,  Maclaren,  etc.,  nearly  all 
claimed  by  tradition. 

Driver  (Introd.  p.  378)  remarks,  "All  that  we 
learn  from  the  pre-exilic  literature  respecting  Da- 
vid's musical  and  poetical  talents  is  that  he  was  a 
skillful  player  on  the  harp  (i  Sam.  xvi:  18)  and 
probably  on  other  instruments  as  well  (Amos  vi: 
5);  that  he  composed  a  beautiful  elegy  on  Saul 
and  Jonathan  (2  Sam.  i:i9,  ff.),  and  a  shorter  one 
on  Abner  (ib.  iii:33,  fif.);  that  he  "danced  and 
leaped"  before  the  ark,  when  it  was  brought  up 


PSALMS.  BOOK  OF 


1408 


PSALMS,  BOOK  OF 


to  Zion  (ib.  vi:i4,  16}  and  that  in  the  a|)pendix 
to  2  Sam.  two  sacred  poems  (ch.  xxii,  xxiii:i-7) 
areattributed  to  him."  It  is  not  strange  that  around 
a  name  thus  identified  with  sacred  poetry,  and 
revered  as  was  his,  there  should  gather  composi- 
tions of  a  similar  sort.  Several  other  names  are 
preserved  in  the  titles. 

(2)  Asaph  is  named  in  connection  with  twelve 
Psalms,  viz.,  1,  Ixxiii-lxxxiii.  He  was  one  of 
David's  chief  musicians.  All  the  poems  bearing 
his  name  cannot  be  his;  for  in  Ps.  Ixxiv,  Ixxix, 
and  Ixxx  there  are  manifest  allusions  to  very  late 
events  in  the  history  of  Israel.  Either,  then,  the 
titles  of  these  three  Psalms  must  be  wholly  re- 
jected, or  the  name  must  be  here  taken  for  the 
'sons  of  Asaph;'  which  is  not  improbable,  as  the 
family  continued  for  many  generations  in  the 
choral  service  of  the  Temple. 

(3)  Sons  of  Korah.  The  sons  of  Korah  were 
another  family  of  choristers,  to  whom  eleven  of 
the  most  beautiful  Psalms  are  ascribed. 

(4)  Heman  was  another  of  David's  chief 
singers  (i  Chron.  xviip)  :  he  is  called  the  Ezrah- 
ite,  as  being  descended  from  some  Ezrah,  who  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  descendant  of  Korah;  at 
least  Heman  is  reckoned  a  Kohathite  (i  Chron. 
vi:33-38),  and  was  therefore  probably  a  Korahite; 
for  the  Kohathites  were  continued  and  counted 
in  the  line  of  Korah  (seei  Chron.  vi:22,  37,  38), 
Thus  Heman  was  both  an  Ezrahite  and  of  the 
sons  of  Korah.  His  name  is  connected  with  Ps. 
Ixxxix. 

(6)  Ethan  is  reputed  the  author  of  Ps.  Ixxxix. 

He  also  is  called  the  Ezrahite,  but  this  is  either  a 
mistake,  or  he  as  well  as  Heman  had  an  ancestor 
named  Ezrah,  of  whom  nothing  is  known.  The 
Ethan  intended  in  the  title  is  doubtless  the  Levite 
of  Merari's  family  whom  David  made  chief  mu- 
sician along  with  Asaph  and  Heman  (i  Chron. 
vi:44;  xxv:i,  6).  The  Psalm  could  not,  however, 
be  composed  by  him,  for  it  plainly  alludes  (verses 
38-44)  to  the  downfall  of  the  kingdom.  These 
names  are  therefore  doubtless  to  be  understood 
as  relating  to  the  composition  or  possession  of 
these  Psalm«  to  the  guilds  of  Levitical  singers  in 
the  second  temple. 

(6)  Solomon  is  given  as  the  author  of  Ps.  Ixxii, 
and  cxxvii,  and  there  is  no  decided  internal  evi- 
dence to  the  contrary.  Most  scholars,  however, 
consider  him  to  be  the  subject,  and  not  the  author, 
of  Ps.  Ixxii.  The  name  of  Moses  is  traditionally 
associated  with  Ps.  xc. 

4.  Dates,  Etc.  The  dates  of  the  Psalms,  as 
must  be  obvious  from  what  has  been  stated  re- 
specting the  authors,  are  quite  various,  extending 
down  to  a  period  as  late  as  the  Maccabaean  days 
(165  B.  C),  as  is  shown  by  the  presence  of  psalms 
of  this  age  (e.  g.  Ixxiv,  Ixxix). 

We  should  naturally  have  expected  the  names 
of  great  religious  teachers  like  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  etc.,  to  be  associated  with  some  of  the 
Psalms,  and  the  fact  that  such  is  not  the  case 
tends  to  show  that  these  hymns  were  either  com- 
posed by  members  of  the  guilds  of  temple  singers 
for  the  worship  in  the  second  temple,  or  that  they 
were  gathered  by  these  priestly  musicians  after 
coming  to  expression  here  and  there  among  the 
people. 

5.  Division  and  Enumeration.  The  Septua- 
gint  and  Vulgate  differ  from  the  Hebrew  in  the  divi- 
sion and  enumeration  of  the  Psalms.  They  unite 
Ps.  ix  and  x  of  the  Hebrew  into  one,  as  Ps. 
ix;  hence  the  numbering  of  the  Septuagint  and 
Vulgate,  from  Ps.  ix  onward,  is  one  behind  the 
Hebrew.      In  like  manner  they  unite  Ps.  cxiv 


and  cxv  into  one,  as  Ps.  cxiii ;  but  also  divide  Ps. 
cxvi  into  two,  as  Ps.  cxiv  and  cxv.  Again  they 
divide  Ps.  cxlvii  into  two,  as  Ps.  cxlvi  and  cxlvii ; 
so  that  from  Ps.  cxlviii  inclusive,  their  enumera- 
tion is  the  same  with  that  of  the  Hebrew.  The 
English,  and  most  other  modern  versions  follow 
the  Hebrew;  and  indeed  some  editions  of  the 
Septuagint,  as  that  of  Mill,  have  also  been  ac- 
commodated to  the  Hebrew.  The  above  difference 
should  be  borne  in  mind  in  examining  references 
to  the  Psalms,  made  by  Catholic  writers. 

The  Psalter  is  divided  in  the  Hebrew  into  five 
books,  and  also  in  the  Sept.  version,  which  proves 
the  division  to  be  older  than  B.  C.  200.  These 
books,  which  correspond  probably  not  without  de- 
sign to  the  five  books  of  the  law  (Gen.-Deut.), 
were  apparently  gathered  successively  as  time 
went  on,  like  the  enlarging  editions  of  a  popular 
collection  of  hymns. 

(1)  The  First  Book  (i-xli)  consists  wholly  of 
David's  songs,  his  name  being  prefixed  to  all  except 
i,  ii,  X,  and  xxxiii;  and  it  is  evidently  the  first 
collection.  The  usual  form  of  the  divine  name  in 
this  book  is  Jehovah,  or  Jahwe,  r\V\\ 

(2)  The  Second  Book  (xlii-lxxii)  consists 
mainly  of  pieces  by  the  sons  of  Korah  (xlii- 
xlix),  and  by  David  (li-lxv),  which  may  have 
been  separate  minor  collections.  In  this  book  the 
divine  name  is  usually  Elohim,  D%lbK.  At  the 
end  is  found  the  notice — The  prayers  of  David 
the  son  of  Jesse  are  ended  ;*  and  hence  some  have 
thought  that  this  was  originally  the  close  of  a 
large  collection  comprising  Ps.  i-lxxii.  But  that 
the  second  book  was  originally  distinct  from  the 
first  book,  is  proven  by  the  repetition  of  one  or 
two  pieces;  thus  Ps.  liii  is  plainly  the  same  a'i 
Ps.  xiv,  with  only  the  variation  in  the  divine 
name.  So  also  Ps.  Ixx  is  but  a  repetition  of 
Ps.  xl  113-17,  with  the  same  singular  variation  in 
the  divine  name. 

(3)  The  Third  Book  (Ixxiii-lxxxix)  consists 
chiefly  of  Asaph's  Psalms,  but  comprises  appar- 
ently two  smaller  collections,  the  one  Asaphitic 
(Ixxiii-lxxxiii),  the  other  mostly  Korahitic 
(Ixxxiv-lxxxix).  A  part  of  these  Psalms  (Ixxiii- 
lxxxiii)  use  the  name  Elohim,  the  remainder  em- 
ploying Jahwe. 

(4y  5)  The  Fourth  Book  (xc-cvi)  and  the 
Fifth  (cvii-cl)  are  made  up  chiefly  of  anony- 
mous liturgic  pieces,  many  of  which  were  com- 
posed for  the  service  of  the  second  temple.  In 
the  last  book  we  have  the  Songs  of  Degrees  (cxx- 
cxxxiv),  which  seem  to  have  been  originally  a 
separate  collection.  The  five  books  may,  with 
some  propriety,  be  thus  distinguished:  the  first 
Davidic,  the  second  Korahitic,  the  third  Asaphic, 
and  the  two  remaining Li/ttrgiV.  The  dates  of  these 
divisions  must  be  regarded  as  uncertain.  Kirkpat- 
rick  makes  out  three  collections  of  Psalms.  The 
first,  corresponding  to  Book  i,  he  would  place 
early  in  the  royal  period,  with  later  additions.  The 
second  (Books  2  and  ^)  would  be  dated  in  the 
middle  period  of  the  kmgdom,  with  an  appendix 
(Ps.  Ixxxv)  from  the  age  of  the  Return.  The 
third  collection,  the  remaining  Psalms,  would  then 
be  assigned  to  the  days  of  Nehemiah  and  Ezra. 
Other  arrangements  would  suppose  later  dates. 

6»  Canonicitp  and  Use.  The  inspiration  and 
canonical  authority  of  the  Psalms  are  established 
by  the  most  abundant  and  convincing  evidence. 
Not  to  mention  other  ancient  testimonies  (Can- 
on), we  find  complete  evidence  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, where  the  book  is  quoted  or  referred  to  as 
divine  by  Christ  and  his  apostles  at  least  seventy 
times.    No  other  writing  is  so  frequently  cited; 


PSALTERY 


1409 


PTOLEMY 


Isaiah,  the  next  in  the  scale  of  quotation,  being 
cited  only  about  fifty-five  times.  Twice  (Luke 
XX  .'42  and  Acts  i  :2o)  wc  find  distinct  mention  of 
the  Book  of  Psalms, 

7.  Character  and  Value.  The  character 
and  value  of  the  Psalms,  so  far  as  they  con- 
tain the  expression  of  religious  and  moral 
affections,  are,  perhaps,  higher  than  those 
of  any  other  book  of  the  Old  Testament. 
They  exhibit  the  sublimest  conceptions  of 
God,  as  the  Creator,  Preserver  and  Governor  of 
the  universe;  to  say  nothing  of  the  prophetical 
character  of  many  of  then)»  and  their  relation  to 
the  Messiah,  and  the  great  plan  of  man's  re- 
demption. They  present  us,  too,  with  the  most 
perfect  models  of  child-like  resignation  and  de- 
votedness,  of  unwavering  faith,  and  confidence 
in  God.  The  Psalms  constituted  the  hymn-book 
of  the  early  church,  and  no  grander  record  of  the 
religious  life  has  ever  been  made.  The  variety  of 
sentiment  in  the  Psalms  is  in  accord  with  the  di- 
verse characteristics  of  the  periods  and  people 
from  whom  they  came.  They  have  both  transient 
and  permanent  elements.  The  fierceness  and  pas- 
sion of  some  are  to  be  judged  in  accordance  with 
the  moral  ideals  of  a  primitive  age.  But 
allowing  for  all  the  limitations  which  ap- 
pear, these  hymns  are  the  most  precious  devoi 
tional  material  in  the  possession  of  the  church, 
and  their  value  is  appreciated  in  proportion  as 
they  are  studied. 

S.  Objections  to  DtVine  Anthoritp.  Dr.Jas. 
M.  Gray  says:  "Objection  has  sometimes  been 
raised  to  the  divine  authority  of  the  Psalms  because 
of  the  spirit  of  revenge  exhibited  in  some  of  them, 
but  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  imprecatory 
Psalms  are  written  in  the  prophetic  spirit,  that 
the  enemies  are  conceived  of  as  rebels  against 
God  (rather  than  the  Psalmist  himself),  and  who 
have  permanently  rejected  his  offers  of  grace  and 
salvation.  Similar  objections  have  sometimes 
been  presented  against  the  moral  character  of  the 
Psalms  on  the  ground  of  the  self-righteousness 
they  express,  but  this  righteousness  is  not  claimed 
as  a  ground  of  reward,  but  simply  as  illustrating  a 
Godward  inclination,  while  on  the  other  hand, 
salvation  by  grace  and  the  regeneration  of  the 
Spirit  is  always  implied  (see  Ps.  li)." 

9*  Literature  on  the  Psalms.  The  follow- 
ing are  among  the  chief  and  best  exegetical  helps 
for  explaining  this  book:  De  Wette's  Commentar 
uber  die  Psalmen^  1836,  Rosenmtiller,  Scholia  in 
Epit.  Redacta,  vol.  iii;  Hitzig's  Comment,  und 
Uebersetzung ;  Ewald's  PoeL  Backer^  vol.  ii; 
Tholuck's  Uebersetzung  und  Auslegung  der  Psal- 
men;  Hengstenberg's  Commentar  ueber  die 
Psalmen;  M.  Hupfeld,  Die  Psalmen,  1855-62; 
Wordsworth,  The  Book  of  Psalms,  1867; 
Barnes,  Notes,  1869;  Didham,  Translation  of  the 
Psalms,  1869;  Conant,  The  Psalms,  1869;  F.  De- 
litzsch,  1867,  1883 ;  J.  J.  S.  Perowne,  The  Book  of 
Psalms,  1864-68,  1886;  Cheyne,  The  Book  of 
Psalms,  1888;  The  Historical  Origin  and  Re- 
ligious Ideas  of  the  Psalter.  (Bampton  Lectures) 
1891 ;  A.  F.  Kirkpatrick,  (Cambridge  Bible)  1891, 
1895 ;  W.  T.  Davison,  The  Praises  of  Israel,  1893, 
1897;  James  Robertson,  The  Poetry  and  Religion 
of  the  Psalms,  1898;  A.  Maclaren  (Expositor's 
Bible)  ;  The  Psalms  Chronologically  Arranged  by 
Four  Friends;  Cheyne,  The  Christian  Use  of 
the  Psalms;  Murray,  Origin  and  Growth  of  the 
Psalms,  1880.  B.  D.  and  H.  L.  W. 

PSAIiTEBT  (sal'ter-y).   See  MusiCAL  Instru- 

BIENTS. 
80 


FTOLEMAIS  (tdr^-ma'rs),  (Gr.  UroXefitOt,  pid- 
em-aA'is'),  the  citv  called  Accho  in  Jewish  cuuiala 
and  Ptolemais  under  Macedonian  and  Roman  rule. 

It  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Apocrypha  ( i  Mace. 
v:i5,  22,  55;  2  Mace.  xiii:24,  25,  etc.).  Paul,  on 
returning  from  his  third  missionary  tour,  visited 
Ptolemais,  and  abode  there  one  day  (Acts  xxi: 
7).  The  place  is  now  called  Akka,  or  St.  Jean 
d'Acre,  the  name  given  to  it  by  the  Knights  of  St. 
John,  who  settled  there  soon  after  the  conquest  of 
Jerusalem  by  Saladin.  (A.  D.  1187.)  The  city 
was  named  after  Ptolemy  when  he  was  in  posses- 
sion of  Coele-Syria.    (See  Accho.) 

PTOLEMY  (ptfil'e-mj^)  (-tol'-).  This  common 
name  of  the  Greek  kings  of  Egypt  does  not  occur 
in  the  canonical  Scripture,  but  is  frequent  in  the 
books  of  Maccabees  and  in  Josephus. 

(1)  Ptolemy  I,  Soter    (B.   C.  323-285),  the 

founder  of  the  dynasty;  probably  an  illegitimate 
son  of  Philip  by  his  concubine  Arsenoe ;  served  as 
a  general  in  the  army  of  Alexander ;  seized  Egypt 
(B.  C.  ^z)*  and  maintained  himself  there  against 
Perdiccas  (B.  C.  321),  Demetrius  (B.  C.  312), 
and  Antigonus  (B.  C.  301).  When  invading  Syria 
(B.  C.  320),  he  swept  down  upon  Jerusalem  on  a 
Sabbath-day,  occupied  the  city,  and  carried  away 
a  number  of  Jews  as  prisoners  to  Egypt.  But  he 
treated  them  well,  and  founded  a  flourishing  Jew- 
ish colony  in  his  kingdom.  It  is  commonly  sup- 
posed he  is  meant,  in  Dan.xi:5,by  "the  king  of  the 
south."  He  fostered  literature,  science  and  art,  and 
founded  the  famous  museum  and  library  of  Alex- 
andria. (Sec  Alexandria.) 

Two  years  before  his  death  he  abdicated  in  fa- 
vor of  his  son  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 

(2)  Ptolemy  II,  Philadelphus  (B.  C.  285- 
247),  son  of  the  preceding;  reigned  in  peace  after 
the  marriage  of  his  daughter,  Berenice,  with 
Antiochus  II.  of  Syria  (Dan.  xi:6).  He  enriched 
the  library  of  Alexandria  which  his  father  had 
furnished  with  innumerable  literary  treasures.  He 
drew  to  that  city  such  men  as  the  poet  Theocritus 
and  Philetas,  the  geometrician  Euclid,  the  astron- 
omers Aristarchus  and  Aratus,  etc.;  is  said  to 
have  given  the  first  impulse  to  the  Septuagint 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament ;  and  was  promi- 
nent in  bringing  about  that  amalgamation  of  East 
and  West,  of  Jewish  wisdom  and  Greek  phi- 
losophy, which  left  so  deep  traces  in  the  history  of 
both  Judaism  and  Christianity.  Under  him  Egypt 
rose  to  a  high  rank  among  the  nations  in  power 
and  wealth. 

(3)  Ptolemy  m,  Euergetes  ^B.  C.  247-222), 
son  of  the  preceding;  invaded  Syria  to  avenge  the 
repudiation  and  murder  of  his  sister  Berenice; 
conquered  the  country  as  far  north  as  Antioch 
and  as  far  east  as  Babylon;  oflfered  sacrifices  in 
the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  according  to  the  custom 
of  the  law;  and  brougnt  back  to  Egjrpt  immense 
treasures,  including  the  gods  and  their  molten 
images,  which  Cambyses  had  carried  to  Babylon 
(Dan.  xi  '.y-g).  He  added  so  largely  to  the  library 
at  Alexandria  that  he  has  sometimes  been  called 
its  founder.  In  his  reign  Egypt  reached  the  high- 
est point  of  military  glory,  prosperity  and  wealth. 

(4)  Ptolemy  IV,  Philopator  (B.  C.  222-25), 
son  of  the  preceding;  deC^ated  the  army  of 
Antiochus  the  Great  at  Raphia,  near  Gaza,  215 
(Dan.  xi:io-i2)  ;  offered  sacrifices  of  thanksgiv- 
ing in  the  temple  of  Jerusalem;  but  when  he  at- 
tempted to  penetrate  into  the  sanctuary,  he  was 
suddenly  struck  by  paralysis,  the  legitimate  re- 
sult of  his  life  of  debauchery. 


PUA 


1410 


PUBLICAN 


(5)  Ptolemy  VI,  Epiphanes  (B.  C.  205-181), 
son  of  the  preceding;  was  only  five  years  old 
when  his  father  died.  During  his  minority 
Antiochus  the  Great  conquered  Ccele-Syria, 
Phoenicia,  and  Judaea,  and  a  great  number  of 
Jews  who  remained  true  to  the  Ptolemaean  dy- 
nasty fled  to  Egypt,  where  the  high  priest,  Onias, 
founded  the  temple  at  Leontopolis.  By  the  media- 
tion of  the  Romans,  Ptolemy  and  Antiochus  were 
afterward  reconciled,  but  the  Egyptian  power  was 
now  rapidly  decreasing  (Dan.  xiiiyiy).  The  de- 
cree published  on  his  coronation  forms  the  in- 
scription on  the  far-famed  Rosetta  Stone.  (See 
cut  on  page  568.) 

(6)  Ptolemy  VI,  Philometor  (B.  C.  181- 
146),  son  of  the  preceding;  was  a  mere  infant 
when  his  father  died.  Up  to  her  death  (B.  C. 
173)1  his  ntother,  Cleopatra,  reigned  in  his  stead, 
and  she  kept  peace  with  Syria.  But  (B.  C.  171) 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  sought  and  found  an  oc- 
casion to  attack  Egypt,  defeated  Ptolemjr  VI, 
and  carried  him  away  a  prisoner.  Again  it  was 
the  interference  of  the  Romans  which  saved 
Egypt  (B.  C.  168)  ;  but  the  power  of  the  country 
was  now  really  broken,  and  it  gradually  glided 
into  the  position  of  a  Roman  province  (Dan.  xi: 
25-39)-  Under  the  reign  of  Ptolemv  VI  the 
Jewish  temple  at  Leontopolis  was  completed;  and 
thus  there  existed  a  Judaism  independent  of  Jeru- 
salem and  in  intimate  contact  with  the  classical 
civilization. 

Besides  these,  there  are  several  Ptolemies  of 
less  note — as,  for  example  Ptolemy  IX,  or  Soter 
II,  otherwise  called  Lathyrus  or  Lathurus, 
who  reigned  first  from  117  to  107  B.  C,  and  again 
from  89  to  81  B.  C. ;  also  Ptolemy  X,  or  Alex- 
ander I,  youngest  son  of  Ptolemy  VIII,  who 
reigned  from  107  to  90  B.  C. ;  Ptolemy  XI,  or 
Alexander  II,  son  of  Alexander  I,  81-80  B.  C. ; 
Ptolemy  XII,  or  Dionysus,  or  Auletes,  an  il- 
legitimate son  of  Ptolemy  Lathyrus,  who  reigned 
from  80  to  51  B.  C. ;  Ptolemy  XIII,  who  reigned 
for  some  time  in  conjunction  with  his  sister  Cleo- 
patra, and  who  was  ultimately  drowned  in  the 
Nile,  after  being  defeated  by  Caesar;  and  lastly, 
Ptolemy  XIV,  younger  brother  of  the  preceding. 
Caesar  appointed  him  joint  ruler  with  Cleopatra, 
his  sister  and  intended  wife.  He  died  by  vio- 
lence in  43  B.  C,  at  the  instigation  of  Cleopatra. 
(See  Egypt.) 

PUA  (pQ'a),  (Num.  xxvi:23).    See  Phuvah. 

PUAH  (pu'ah). 

1.  (Heb.  ^^i^fPoov-vaii/'t  a  blast,  i  Chron.  vii:i). 
(See  Phuvah). 

2.  (Heb.  •^?'^^,  p00'aw\  probably  splendid),  one 

of  the  mid  wives  instructed  by  Pharaoh  to  kill  the 
male  children  of  the  Hebrews  at  birth  (Exod.  1:15), 
B.  C.  about  1740. 

8.  (Heb.  ^)\,  fioov-vaiv' t  a  blast,  i  Chron.  vii:i), 

a  man  of  Issachar,  the  father  of  Tola  (Judg.  x:i), 
B.  C.  before  1319. 

PX7BLI0AN  (piib'l^k^In),    (Gr.   TeX<6i^t.    Ul-o'- 
nace,  a  collector  of  the  Roman  revenue;  or  Lat. 
,  PublicanuSt  revenue  collector).      A  person  who 
farmed  the  taxes  and  public  revenues. 

This  office  was  usually  held  by  Roman  knights, 
an  order  instituted  as  early  as  the  time  of  Rom- 
ulus, and  composed  of  men  of  great  considera- 
tion with  the  government,  *the  principal  men  of 
dignity  in  their  several  countries,'  who  occupied 
a  kind  of  middle  rank  between  the  senators  and 
the  people  (Joseph.  Antiq,  xii:4).  Although 
these  officers  were,  according  to  Cicero,  the  orna- 


ment of  the  city  and  the  strength  of  the  com- 
monwealth, they  did  not  attain  to  great  offices, 
nor  enter  the  senate,  so  long  as  they  continued  in 
the  order  of  knights.  They  were  thus  more 
capable  of  devoting  their  attention  to  the  col- 
lection of  the  public  revenue. 

(1)  Classes.  The  publicans  were  distributed 
into  three  classes:  the  farmers  of  the  revenue, 
their  partners,  and  their  securities,  corresponding 
to  the  Mancipes,  Socii,  and  Praedes.  They  were 
all  under  the  Quaestores  iErarii,  who  presided 
over  the  finances  at  Rome.  Strictly  speaking, 
there  were  only  two  sorts  of  publicans,  the  Man- 
cipes and  the  Socii.  The  former,  who  were  gen- 
erally of  the  equestrian  order,  and  much  superior 
to  the  latter  in  rank  and  character,  are  mentioned 
by  Cicero  with  great  honor  and  respect  (Orat, 
pro  Plancio,  9) ;  but  the  common  publicans,  the 
collectors  or  receivers  of  the  tribute,  as  many  of 
the  Socii  were,  are  covered  both  by  heathens  and 
Jews  with  opprobrium  and  contempt. 

(2)  Odious  Among  the  Jews.  The  name  and  pro- 
fession of  a  publican  were,  indeed,  extremely  odious 
among  the  Jews,  who  submitted  with  much  re- 
luctance to  the  taxes  levied  by  the  Romans.  The 
Galileans  or  Herodians,  the  disciples  of  Judas  the 
Gaulonite,  were  the  most  turbulent  and  rebellious 
(Acts  v:37).  They  thought  it  unlawful  to  pay 
tribute,  and  founded  their  refusal  to  do  so  on 
their  being  the  people  of  the  Lord,  because  a 
true  Israelite  was  not  permitted  to  acknowledge 
any  other  sovereign  than  God  (Joseph.  Antiq. 
xviii,  2).  The  publicans  were  hated  as  the  instru- 
ments by  which  the  subjection  of  the  Jews  to  the 
Roman  emperor  was  perpetuated;  and  the  paying 
of  tribute  was  regarded  as  a  virtual  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  sovereignty.  They  were  also  noted 
for  their  imposition,  rapine,  and  extortion,  to 
which  they  were,  perhaps,  more  especially 
prompted  by  having  a  share  in  the  farm  of  the 
tribute,  as  they  were  thus  tempted  to  oppress  the 
people  with  illegal  exactions,  that  they  might  the 
more  speedily  enrich  themselves.  Theocritus  con- 
sidered the  bear  and  the  lion  the  most  cruel 
among  the  beasts  of  the  wilderness;  and  among 
the  bi^sts  of  the  city  the  publican  and  the  parasite. 
Those  Jews  who  accepted  the  office  of  publican 
were  execrated  by  their  own  nation  equally  with 
heathens:  'Let  him  be  unto  thee  as  an  heathen 
man  and  a  publican'  (Matt,  xviii:  17).  It  is  said 
they  were  not  allowed  to  enter  the  temple  or  syn- 
agogues, to  engage  in  the  public  prayers,  fill  offices 
of  judicature  or  even  give  testimony  in  courts 
of  justice.  According  to  the  Rabbins,  it  was  a 
rnaxim  that  a  religious  man  who  became  a  pub- 
lican was  to  be  driven  out  of  the  religious  society 
(Grotius,  ad  Matt,  xviii;  Lightfoot,  Hor,  Heb, 
ad  Matt,  xviii).  They  would  not  receive  their 
presents  at  the  temple  any  more  than  the  price 
of  prostitution,  of  blood,  or  of  anjrthing  wicked 
and  offensive. 

(3)  A  Numerous  Class.  There  were  many 
publicans  in  Judsea  in  the  time  of  our  Savior, 
of  whom  Zacchaeus  was  probably  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal, as  he  is  called  'chief  among  the  publicans* 
(Luke  xix:2),  a  phrase  supposed  to  be  equivalent 
to  our  Commissioner  of  the  Customs,  Matthew 
appears  to  have  been  an  inferior  publican,  and 
is  described  as  'sitting  at  the  receipt  of  custom* 
(Luke  v:27).  Jesus  was  reproached  by  the  Jews 
as  the  friend  of  publicans  and  sinners,  and  for 
eating  with  them  (Luke  vii  :34)  ;  but  such  was  his 
opinion  of  the  unbelieving  and  self-righteous 
chief-priests  and  elders  who  brought  these 
accusations,  that  he  replied  unto  them.  'The 
publicans    and    the    harlots    go   into    the   king- 


PU  BLIUS 


1411 


PUNISHMENTS 


dom  of  God  before  you*  (Matt.  xxi:3i).  The 
parable  of  the  Pharisee  and  the  Publican  who 
went  up  in  to  the  temple  to  pray  (Luke  xviii: 
lo)  is  a  beautiful  illustration  of  the  distinction 
between  hypocrisy  and  true  piety.  When  Jfesus 
visited  the  house  of  Zacchaeus,  who  appears  to 
have  been  eminently  honest  and  upright,  he  was 
assured  by  him  that  he  was  ready  to  give  one 
half  of  his  goods  to  the  poor ;  and  if  he  had  taken 
anything  from  any  man  by  false  accusation,  to 
'restore  him  fourfold'  (Luke  xix:8).  This  was 
in  reference  to  the  Roman  law,  which  required 
that  when  any  farmer  was  convicted  of  extortion, 
he  should  return  four  times  the  value  of  what  he 
had  fraudulently  obtained.  There  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  either  Zacchaeus  or  Matthew  had 
been  guilty  of  unjust  practices,  or  that  there  was 
any  exception  to  their  characters  beyond  that  of 
being  engaged  in  an  odious  employment.  Some 
other  examples  of  this  occur.  Suetonius  (Vesp,) 
mentions  the  case  of  Sabinus,  a  collector  of  the 
fortieth  penny  in  Asia,  who  had  several  statues 
erected  to  him  by  the  cities  of  the  province,  with 
this  inscription,  *To  the  honest  tax-farmer.' 

(4)  Publicans  Chiefly  Jews.  It  has  been 
imagined  by  some  commentators  that,  by  the  Jew- 
ish laws,  it  was  forbidden  to  pay  tribute  to  for- 
eigners, or  to  be  employed  as  publicans  under 
them  (Deut.  xvii:i5);  but  publicans  that  were 
Jews  are  so  often  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, that  Dr.  Lardner  inclines  to  think  the 
Roman  tribute  was  collected  chiefly  by  Jews.  He 
conceives  that  in  most  provinces  the  natives  were 
employed  in  the  towns  as  under-collectors,  and 
that  the  receivers-general,  or  superior  officers, 
only  were  Romans.  As  the  office  was  so  ex- 
tremely odious,  the  Romans  might  deem  it  prudent 
to  employ  some  natives  in  collecting  the  taxes; 
and  there  is  little  doubt  that  in  every  district  they 
would  find  Jews  willing  to  profit  by  the  subjection 
of  their  country,  and  to  accept  appointments  from 
their  conquerors.  G.  M.  B. 

PTJBLITJS  (piib'li-fis),  (Gr.  ir6irXiof,  poj^'lee-os), 
governor  of  Melita  at  the  time  of  Paul's  shipwreck 
on  that  island  (Acts  xxviii:7,  8),  A.  D.  62.  Paul, 
having  healed  his  father,  probably  enjoyed  his 
hosi^italitv  during  the  three  months  of  his  stay  in 
the  island. 

An  inscription  found  in  Malta  designates  the 
governor  of  the  island  by  the  same  title  (irp^of, 
proh'tos,  'first'  or  'chief),  which  Luke  gives  to 
Publius.  The  Roman  martyrologies  assert  that 
he  was  the  first  bishop  of  the  island,  and  after- 
ward succeeded  Dionysius  as  bishop  of  Athens. 
Jerome  records  a  tradition  that  he  was  crowned 
with  martyrdom.     (See  Melita.) 

PUDENS  (pfl'denz),  (Gr.  iroiJSiyt,  poo'dace, 
modest),  one  of  the  persons  whose  salutations 
Paul,  writing  from  Rome,  sends  to  Timothy  (2 
Tim.  iv:2i).    . 

Nothing  is  really  known  of  him;  but  the  martyr- 
ologies make  him  to  have  been  a  person  of  figure 
at  Rome,  of  the  senatorial  order,  and  father  of 
two  pious  virgins,  Praxis  and  Pudentia.  Yet,  by 
a  strange  incongruity,  he  is  also  deemed  to  have 
been  one  of  the  seventy  disciples.  A  female  dis- 
ciple, of  the  name  of  Claudia,  is  mentioned  in  the 
same  verse;  and  as  a  poet  of  the  time.  Martial, 
speaks  of  the  marriage  of  a  Pudens  and  Claudia, 
the  same  persons  are  supposed  to  be  intended.  But 
this  sort  of  identification  requires  little  notice; 
and  if  Pudens  and  Claudia  were  husband  and 
wife,  it  is  unlikely  that  the  apostle  would  have 
interposed  another  name  between  theirs. 

Modern  researches  among  the  Columbaria  at 
Rome,  appropriated  to  members  of  the  imperial 


household,  have  brought  to  light  an  inscription 
in  which  the  name  of  Pudens  occurs  as  that  of  a 
servant  of  Tiberius  or  Claudius.  Although  the 
identity  of  Paul's  Pudens  with  any  legendary  or 
heathen  namesake  is  not  absolutely  proved,  yet  it 
is  probable  that  these  facts  add  something  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  friend  of  Paul  and  Timothy. 

PXTHTTE    (pQ'hite),    (Heb.    ^'^^,  po<hthee\  a 

patronymic  or  family  name  of  unknown  deriva- 
tion, applied  to  one  of  the  families  of  Kirjath- 
jearim  (i  Chron.  ii:53). 

PUL  (piil).  (Heb.  \\%  pool,  lord),  the  first  king 
of  Assyria,  who  invaded  Canaan,  and  by  a  present 
of  1000  talents  of  silver  (equivalent  to  nearly 
$2,000,000  in  our  day),  was  prevailed  on  by  Mena- 
hem  to  withdraw  his  troops  and  recognize  the 
title  of  that  usurping  monarch  (2  Kings  xviiq). 

This  is  the  first  mention  of  Assyria  in  the  sacred 
history  after  the  days  of  Nimrod,  and  Pul  was  the 
first-mentioned  Assyrian  invader  of  Judaea.  The 
Assyriologists  have  settled  the  question  of  the 
identity  of  this  king  with  Tiglath-pileser,  by  the 
Babylonian  Chronicle  deciphered  by  Mr.  T. 
Pinches,  in  the  British  Museum.  (See  Assyria; 
Tiglath-pileser.  ) 

PULPIT   (pur pit).    (Heb.    ^??P.    mig-dawV, 

tower,  rostrum),  in  Neh.  viii:4  we  read,  *And  Ezra 
the  scribe  stood  upon  a  pulpit  of  wood,  which  they 
had  made  for  the  purpose,'  etc.;  the  only  place  in 
the  Scripture  where  it  is  found. 

PULSE  (puis),  (Dan.  i'i2,  16),  a  word  of  more 

restricted  meaning  than  the  Hebrew  PI?,  zay-ro'- 

aht  or  P7",  zay-raw-ohn't  something  sown,  which 

signifies  primarily  vegetables  in  general,  and  more 
particularly  edible  seeds  which  are  cooked,  as 
lentils,  peas,  beans,  and  the  like.    (See  Pol.) 

PUNISHliENTS  (pun'tsh-m^ts).  This  subject 
is  properly  restricted  to  the  penalty  imposed  for 
the  commission  of  some  crime  or  offense  against 
law. 

It  is  thus  distinguished  from  private  retaliation 
or  revenge,  cruelty,  torture,  popular  violence,  cer- 
tain customs  of  war,  etc.  Human  punishments 
are  such  as  are  inflicted  immediately  on  the  per- 
son of  the  offender,  or  indirectly  upon  his  goods, 
etc 

/•  Earip  Capital  Punishment,  Capital  pun- 
ishment is  usually  supposed  to  have  been  insti- 
tuted at  the  deluge  (Gen.  ix  15,  6) :  'At  the  hand 
of  every  man's  brother  will  I  require  the  life  of 
man:  whoso  sheddeth  man's  blood,  by  man  shall 
his  blood  be  shed ;  for  in  the  image  of  God  made 
he  man.'  Arnheim,  however,  contends  that  the 
words,  must  be  rendered  by  his  kinsman  or  near 
relative  (comp.  Gen.  xiii:8,  or  margin),  and  thus 
explains  the  precept :  if  one  stranger  slay  another, 
the  kinsmen  of  the  murdered  man  are  the  avengers 
of  blood ;  but  if  he  be  slain  by  one  of  his  own  kin- 
dred, the  other  kinsmen  must  not  spare  the  mur- 
derer, for  if  they  do,  then  divine  providence  will 
require  the  blood — that  is,  will  avenge  it. 

Certainly  capital  punishment  for  murder  was 
not  inflicted  upon  Cain,  who  was  purposely  pre- 
served from  death  by  divine  interposition  (Gen. 
iv:i4,  15),  and  was  simply  doomed  to  banish- 
ment from  the  scene  of  his  crime  to  a  distant 
country,  to  a  total  disappointment  in  agricultural 
labor,  and  to  the  life  of  a  fugitive  and  a  vaga- 
bond, far  from  the  manifested  presence  of  the  Lord 
(Gen.  iv  :ii,  14)  ;  although  the  same  reason  existed 
in  equal  force  in  his  case,  namely,  the  creation 
of  man  in  the  image  of  God.    We  are  inclined 


PUNISHMENTS 


1412 


PUNISHMENTS 


to  regard  the  whole  of  the  'blessing'  pronounced 
upon  the  Noachidce,  including  this  precept,  as  in- 
tended to  encourage  them  to  re-people  the  earth, 
by  promises,  etc.,  corresponding  to  the  misgivings 
which  were  naturally  created  by  the  catastrophe 
they  had  just  escaped;  such  as  a  continuation  oi 
the  dread  of  man  in  the  inferior  creatures,  a  rein- 
statement of  man  in  dominion  over  them  (comp. 
i  :28),  an  assurance  of  God's  high  regard  for  hu- 
man life,  notwithstanding  his  late  destruction  of 
all  but  themselves,  and  the  institution  of  the  most 
natural  and  efficient  mode  of  preserving  it,  by 
assigning  the  punishment  of  homicide  to  the  near- 
est of  kin,  no  doubt,  however,  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  the  head  of  every  family,  who  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  legislator  till  the  recon- 
stitution  of  things,  spiritual  and  civil,  at  Sinai, 
when  this  among  other  ancient  laws  was  retained, 
perhaps  unavoidably,  but  at  the  same  time  regu- 
lated (Num.  XXXV 19-34).  This  interpretation 
would  account  for  the  custom  of  blood-revenge 
among  all  of  the  ancient  and  Asiatic  nations. 
Certainly  those  who  generalize  this  precept  into 
an  authority  for  capital  punishment  by  courts  of 
law  in  Christian  nations,  ought,  by  parity  of  rea- 
son, to  regard  the  prohibition  of  blood  (Gen.  ix: 
4)  of  equal  obligation.  The  punishment  of  death 
appears  among  the  legal  powers  of  Judah,  as  the 
head  of  his  family,  and  he  ordered  his  daughter- 
in-law,  Tamar,  to  be  burnt  (xxxviii:24).  It  is 
denounced  by  the  king  of  the  Philistines,  Abime- 
lech,  against  those  of  his  people  who  should  in- 
jure or  insult  Isaac  or  his  wife  (xxviiii,  29). 
Similar  power  seems  to  have  been  possessed  by 
the  reigning  Pharaoh  in  the  time  of  Joseph  (xli : 

13). 

2.  The  Mosaic  Lab).  In  proceeding  to  con- 
sider the  punishments  enacted  by  Moses,  reference 
will  be  made  to  the  Scriptures  only,  because,  as 
Michaelis  observes,  the  explanation  of  the  laws  of 
Moses  is  not  to  be  sought  in  the  Jewish  commenta- 
tors. Nor  will  it  be  necessary  to  specify  the  pun- 
ishments ordered  by  him  for  different  offenses, 
which  will  be  found  under  their  respective  names 
(Adultery,  Idolatry,  etc.,  which  see).  The  ex- 
tensive prescription  of  capital  punishment  by  the 
Mosaic  law,  which  we  cannot  consider  as  a  dead 
letter,  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances of  the  people.  They  were  a  nation  of 
newly-emancipated  slaves,  and  were  by  nature 
perhaps  more  than  commonly  intractable;  and  if 
we  may  judge  by  the  laws  enjoined  on  them,  which 
Mr.  Hume  well  remarks  are  a  safe  index  to  the 
manners  and  disposition  of  any  people,  we  must 
infer  that  they  had  imbibed  all  the  degenerating 
influences  of  slavery  among  heathens.  Neverthe- 
less, the  Mosaic  law  mentions  only  seventeen 
crimes  as  being  worthy  of  capital  punishment, 
while  the  English  code  in  the  time  of  Sir  William 
Blackstone  was  much  more  severe,  one  hundred 
and  sixty  offenses  being  declared  by  Acts  of  Par- 
liament to  be. worthy  of  instant  death.  (See 
Blackstone's  Commentaries,  iv,  4,  15,  18). 

J.    Modes   of  Capital  Punishment.     The 

mode  of  capital  punishment,  which  constitutes  a 
material  element  m  the  character  of  any  law,  was 
probably  as  humane  as  the  circumstances  of  Mo- 
ses admitted. 

(1)  Stoning,  Decapitation,  etc.  It  was  prob- 
ably restricted  to  lapidation  or  stoning,  whicn,  by 
skillful  management,  might  produce  instantaneous 
death.  It  was  an  Egyptian  custom  (Exod.  viii: 
26).  The  public  effusion  of  blood  by  decapitation 
cannot  be  proved  to  have  been  a  Mosaic  punish- 
ment, nor  even  an  Egyptian;  for,  in  the  instance 
of  Pharaoh's  chief  baker  (Gen.  xliip),  'Pharaoh 


shall  lift  up  thine  head  from  off  thee,'  the  mar- 
ginal rendering  seems  preferable,  'shall  reckon 
thee  and  take  thine  office  from  thee.'  He  is  said 
to  have  been  'hanged*  (xli:  13):  which  may 
possibly  mean  posthumous  exposure,  though 
no  independent  evidence  appears  of  this  cus- 
tom in  ancient  Egypt  (Wilkinson's  Manners 
and  Customs,  vol.  ii,  p.  45).  The  appearance  of 
decapitation,  'slaying  by  the  sword,'  in  later  times 
(2  Sam.  iv:8;  xx:2i,  22;  2  Kings  x:6-8)  has  no 
more  relation  to  the  Mosaic  law  than  the  decapi- 
tation of  John  the  Baptist  by  Herod  (Matt,  xiv : 
8-12)  ;  or  than  the  hewing  to  pieces  of  Agag  be- 
fore the  Lord  by  Samuel,  as  a  punishment  in  kind 
(i  Sam.  XV  :33)  ;  or  than  the  office  of  the  Chereth- 
ites  (2  Sam.  viii:  18;  xv:i8;  xx:7,  23),  or  heads- 
men, as  Gesenius  understands  by  the  Hebrew 
word,  'to  chop  off'  or  'hew  down*  (executioners 
belonging  to  the  body-guard  of  the  king)  ;  whereas 
execution  was  ordered  by  Moses,  probably  adopt- 
ing an  ancient  custom,  to  be  begun  first  by  the 
witnesses,  a  regulation  which  constituted  a  tre- 
mendous appeal  to  their  moral  feelings,  and  after- 
wards to  be  completed  by  the  people  (Dcut.  xiii : 
10;  xvii:7;  Josh.  vii:25;  John  viii:7).  It  was  a 
later  innovation  that  immediate  execution  should 
be  done  by  some  personal  attendant,  by  whom  the 
office  was  probably  considered  as  an  honor  (2 
Sam.  i:i5;  iv:i2).  Stoning  therefore  was,  prob- 
ably, the  only  capital  punishment  ordered  by  Mo- 
ses. It  is  observable  that  neither  this  nor  any 
other  punishment  was,  according  to  his  law,  at- 
tended with  insult  or  torture  (comp.  2  Mace.  vii). 
Nor  did  his  laws  admit  of  those  horrible  mutila- 
tions practiced  by  other  nations.  For  instance,  he 
prescribed  stoning  for  adulterers  (comp.  Lev. 
xx:io;  Ezek.  xxiii:25;  xvi:38,  40;  John  viii:5); 
but  the  Chaldaeans  cut  off  the  noses  of  such  of- 
fenders (Ezek.  xxiii:25).  According  to  Diodo- 
rus,  the  Egyptian  monarch,  Actisanes,  punished 
robbers  in  like  manner,  and  banished  them  to  the 
confines  of  the  desert,  where  a  town  was  built 
called  Rhinocolura,  from  the  peculiar  nature  of 
their  punishment,  and  where  they  were  compelled 
to  live  by  their  industry  in  a  barren  and  inhos- 
pitable region  (i:6o).  Mutilation  of  such  a  na- 
ture amounts  to  a  perpetual  condemnation  to  in- 
famy and  crime.  It  will  shortly  be  seen  that  the 
lex  talionis,  'an  eye  for  an  eye,'  etc.,  was  adopted 
by  Moses  as  the  principle,  but  not  the  mode  of 
punishment.  He  seems  also  to  have  understood 
the  true  end  of  punishment,  which  is  not  to  grat- 
ify the  antipathy  of  society  against  crime,  nor 
moral  vengeance,  which  belongs  to  God  alone,  but 
prevention.  'All  the  people  shall  hear  and  fear, 
and  do  no  more  so  presumptuously'  (Deut.  xvii: 
13 ;  xxix  :20) .  His  laws  are  equally  free  from  the 
characteristic  of  savage  legislation,  that  of  in- 
volving the  family  of  the  offender  in  his  punish- 
ment. He  did  not  allow  parents  to  be  put  to 
death  for  their  children,  nor  children  for  their 
parents  (Deut.  xxiv:i6),  as  did  the  Chaldaeans 
(Dan.  vi:24),  and  the  kings  of  Israel  (comp.  i 
Kings  xxi;  2  Kings  ix:26). 

(2)  Precipitation.  Various  punishments  were 
introduced  among  the  Jews,  or  became  known  to 
them  by  their  intercourse  with  other  nations, — 
viz.,  precipitation,  or  throwing,  or  causing  to  leap, 
from  the  top  of  a  rock:  to  which  ten  thousand 
Idumaeans  were  condemned  by  Amaziah,  king  of 
Judah  (2  Chron.  xxv:i2).  The  inhabitants  of 
Nazareth  intended  a  similar  fate  for  our  Lord 
(Luke  iv:29).  This  punishment  resembles  that 
of  the  Tarpeian  rock  among  the  Romans.  Dichot- 
omy, or  cutting  asunder,  appears  to  have  been 
a  Babylonian  custom  (Dan.  ii:5;  iii:29;  Luke  xii: 


PUNISHMENTS 


14L3 


PUNISHMENTS 


46;  Matt.  xxiv:5i) ;  but  the  passages  in  the  Gos- 
pels admit  of  the  milder  interpretation  of  scourg- 
ing with  severity,  discarding  from  office,  etc 

(3)  Beating  to  Death.  Beating  to  death  was 
a  Greek  punishment  for  slaves.  It  was  inflicted 
on  a  wooden  frame,  which  probably  derived  its 
name  from  resembling  a  drum  or  timbrel  in  form, 
on  which  the  criminal  was  bound  and  beaten  to 
death  (2  Mace,  viiig,  28;  comp.  v:3o). 

(4)  Fighting  with  Wild  Beasts.  Fighting 
with  wild  beasts  was  a  Roman  punishment,  to 
which  criminals  and  captives  in  war  were  some- 
times condemned  (Adam,  Roman  Antiq,,  p.  344; 
2  Tim.  iv:i7;  comp.  I  Cor.  xv:32). 

(5)  Drowning.  Drowning  with  a  heavy  weight 
around  the  neck  was  a  Syrian,  Greek,  and  Roman 
punishment. 

(6)  The  Lion's  Den,  etc.  The  lion's  den  was. 
a  Babylonian  punishment  (Dan.  vi),  and  is  still 
customary  in  Fez  and  Morocco  (see  accounts  of, 
by  Hoest.  c.  ii,  p.  77).  Bruising  and  pounding  to 
death  in  a  mortar  is  alluded  to  in  Prov.  xxvii: 
22.    For  crucifixion,  see  the  article  Crucifixion. 

4.  Posthumous  Insults.  Posthumous  insults 
offered  to  the  dead  bodies  of  criminals,  though 
common  in  other  nations,  were  very  sparingly  al- 
lowed by  Moses.  He  permitted  only  hangmg  on 
a  tree  or  gibbet ;  but  the  exposure  was  limited  to 
a  day,  and  burial  of  the  body  at  night  was  com- 
manded (Deut.  xxi:22,  23).  Such  persons  were 
esteemed  'cursed  of  God'  (comp.  Josh.  viii:29; 
x:26;  2  Sam.  iv:i2) — a  law  which  the  later  Jews 
extended  to  crucifixion  (John  xix:3i,  etc.;  Gal. 
iii  :I3).  Hanging  alive  may  have  been  a  Canaan- 
itish  punishment,  since  it  was  practiced  by  the 
Giheonites  on  the  sons  of  Saul  (2  Sam.  xxiiQ). 
Another  posthumous  insult  in  later  times  con- 
sisted in  heaping  stones  on  the  body  or  grave  of 
the  executed  criminal  (Josh.  vii:25,  26).  To 
'make  heaps*  of  houses  or  cities  is  a  phrase  de- 
noting complete  and  ignominious  destruction  (Is. 
XXV :2 ;  Jer.  ix  :ii ) .  Burning  the  dead  body  seems 
to  have  been  a  very  ancient  posthumous  insult: 
it  was  denounced  by  Judah  against  his  daughter- 
in-law,  Tamar,  when  informed  that  she  was  with 
child  (Gen.  xxxviii:24).  Selden  thinks  that  this 
means  merely  branding  on  the  forehead  {De  Jure 
N.  et  G.,  vii,  5).  Moses  retained  this  ancient  ig- 
nominy for  two  offenses  only,  which  from  the  na- 
ture of  things  must  have  been  comparatively  rare, 
viz.,  for  bigamy  with  a  mother  and  her  daughter 
(Lev.  XX  :4),  and  for  the  case  of  a  priest's  daugh- 
ter who  committed  whoredom  (xxiip).  Though 
'burning'  only  be  specified  in  these  cases,  it  may 
be  safely  inferred  that  the  previous  death  of  the 
criminals,  probably  by  lapidation,  is  to  be  under- 
stood (comp.  Josh,  vii  :25).  Among  the  heathen 
this  merciful  preliminary  was  not  always  observed, 
as  for  instance  in  the  case  of  Shadrach,  Meshach, 
and  Abednego  (Dan.  iii). 

5.  Minor  Corporal  Punishments.  Among 
the  minor  corporal  punishments  ordered  by 
Moses  was  scourging ;  or  the  infliction  of  blows 
on  the  back  of  an  offender  with  a  rod.  It  was 
limited  by  him  to  forty  stripes,  a  number  which  the 
Jews  in  later  times  were  so  careful  not  to  exceed, 
that  they  inflicted  but  thirty-nine  (2  Cor.  xi:24). 
It  was  to  be  inflicted  on  the  offender  lying  on  the 
ground,  in  the  presence  of  a  judge  (Lev.  xix:20; 
Deut.  xxii:i8;  xxv:2,  3).  We  have  abundant 
evidence  that  it  was  an  ancient  Eg3rptian  punish- 
ment. Among  the  Persians  such  punishments 
were  too  terrible  for  description :  for  mstancc  two 
hundred  stripes  were  awarded  if  the  mother  of  a 
very  young  child  drank  water.      Four  hundred 


stripes  were  the  penalty  if  one  covered  with  a 
dotti  a  dead  man's  feet,  and  eight  hundred  if  he 
covered  the  whole  body. 

The  penalty  for  killing  a  puppy  was  five  hun- 
dred stripes,  for  killing  a  stray  dog,  six  hundred 
stripes,  for  killing  a  shepherd's  dog,  eight  hun- 
dred stripes,  and  much  more  than  this  for  killing 
a  water-dog. 

In  the  old  (German  law  two  hundred  stripes 
were  the  limit,  and  under  the  Mosaic  law  the 
number  could  never  exceed  forty.  Sa.  Bks,  of  the 
East,  vol.  iv,  p.  99.  Int.) 

Corporal  punishment  of  this  kind  was  allowed 
by  Moses,  by  masters  to  servants  or  slaves  of  both 
stxts  (Exod.  xxi:2o).  Scourging  was  common 
in  after  times  among  the  Jews,  who  associated 
with  it  no  disgrace  or  inconvenience  beyond  the 
physical  pain  it  occasioned,  and  from  which  no 
station  was  exempt  (Prov.  xvii:26;  comp.  x:i3; 
Jer.  xxxvii:  15-20).  Hence  it  became  the  symbol 
for  correction  in  general  (Ps.  lxxxix:32).  Solo- 
mon- is  a  jealous  advocate  for  its  use  in  education 
(Prov.  xiii:24;  xxiii:i3,  14;  comp.  Ecclus.  xxx: 
i).  In  his  opinion  'the  blueness  of  a  wound 
cleanseth  away  evil,  and  stripes  the  inward  parts 
of  the  belly'  (Prov.  xx:3o).  It  was  inflicted  for 
ecclesiastical  offenses  in  the  synagogue  (Matt,  x: 
17;  Acts  xxvirii).  The  Mosaic  law,  however, 
respecting  it,  affords  a  pleasing  contrast  to  the 
extreme  and  unlimited  scourging  known  among 
the  Romans,  but  which,  according  to  the  Porcian 
law,  could  not  be  inflicted  upon  a  Roman  citizen 
(Cicero,  Pro  Rabirio,  3;  ad  Famil.  x,  32;  in  Ver- 
rem,  v,  53 ;  comp.  Acts  xvi  122-37 ;  xxii  :25).  Ref- 
erence to  the  scourge  with  scorpions,  t.  e,  a  whip 
or  scourge  armed  with  knots  or  thorns,  occurs  in 
I  Kings  xii:ii. 

6.  Retaliation.  Retaliation,  the  lex  talionis 
of  the  Latins  and  the  dvrtireToi^6t  of  the  Greeks, 
is  doubtless  the  most  natural  of  all  kinds  of  pun- 
ishment, and  would  be  the  most  just  of  all,  if  it 
could  be  instantaneously  and  universally  inflicted. 
But  when  delayed  it  is  apt  to  degenerate  into  re- 
venge. Hence  the  desirableness  that  it  should  be 
regulated  and  modified  by  law.  The  one-eyed 
man,  mentioned  by  Diodorus  Siculus  (xii),  com- 
plained that  if  he  lost  his  remaining  eye,  he  would 
then  suffer  more  than  his  victim,  who  would  still 
have  one  left.  Phavorinus  argues  against  this 
law,  which  was  one  of  the  twelve  tables,  as  not 
admitting  literal  execution,  because  the  same 
member  was  more  valuable  to  one  man  than  an- 
other; for  instance,  the  right  hand  of  a  scribe 
or  painter  could  not  be  so  well  spared  as  that 
of  a  singer.  Hence  that  law,  in  later  times,  was 
administered  with  the  modification,  *Ni  cum  eo 
pacet* ,  except  the  aggressor  came  to  an  agreement 
with  the  mutilated  person,  de  talione  redimenda, 
redeem  the  punishment  by  making  compensation. 
Moses  accordingly  adopted  the  principle,  but 
lodged  the  application  of  it  in  the  judge.  'If  a 
man  blemish  his  neighbor,  as  he  hath  done,  so 
shall  it  be  done  to  him.  Life  for  life,  eye  for 
eye,  tooth  for  tooth,  wound  for  wound,  stripe  for 
stripe,  breach  for  breach'  (Exod.  xxi  123-25;  Lev. 
xxiv:i9;-22).  His  system  of  compensations,  etc., 
occurs  in  Exod.  xxi.  He,  however,  makes  will- 
ful murder,  even  of  a  slave,  always  capital,  as  did 
the  Egyptians.  Roman  masters  had  an  absolute 
right  over  the  life  of  their  slaves  (Juvenal,  vi, 
219).  The  Egyptians  doomed  the  false  accuser 
to  the  same  punishment  which  he  endeavored  to 
bring  on  his  victim,  as  did  Moses  (Deut.  xixriQ). 
Imprisonment,  not  as  a  punishment,  but  custody, 
till  the  royal  pleasure  was  known,  appears  among 
the    Egyptians    (Gen.    xxxix:20,    21).      Moses 


PUNITES 


1414 


PURIM 


adopted  it  for  like  purposes  (Lev.  xxvi:i2).  In 
later  times,  it  appears  as  a  punishment  inflicted  by 
the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  (2  Chron.  xvi:io; 
I  Kings  xxii  .-27 ;  Jer.  xxxvii  :2i )  ;  and  during  the 
Christian  era,  as  in  the  instance  of  John  (Matt. 
iv:i2),  and  Peter  (Acts  xii:4).  Murderers  and 
debtors  were  also  committed  to  prison;  and  the 
latter  'tormented'  till  they  paid  (Matt.  xviii:30; 
Luke  xxiii:i9).  A  common  prison  is  mentioned 
(Acts  v:i8);  and  also  an  inner  prison  or  dun- 
geon, which  was  sometimes  a  pit  (Jer.  xxxviii: 
o;  in  which  were  'stocks*  (Jer.  xx:2;  xxix:26; 
Acts  xvi:24).  Prisoners  are  alluded  to  (Job  iii: 
18),  and  stocks  (xiii:27).  Banishment  was  im- 
practicable among  the  Jews.  It  was  inflicted  by 
the  Romans  on  John  (Rev.  1:9).  Cutting  or 
plucking  off  the  hair  is  alluded  to  (Is.  1:6;  Neh. 
xiii:25).  Excision,  or  'cutting  off  from  his  peo- 
ple/ is  denounced  against  the  uncircumcised  as 
early  as  the  covenant  with  Abraham  (Gen.  xvii: 
14).  This  punishment  is  expressed  in  the  Mo- 
saic law  by  the  formulae — ^'that  soul  shall  be  de- 
stroyed from  its  people'  (Lev.  xxiii:29»  30) ;  'from 
Israel'  (Exod.  xii:i5);  'from  the  midst  of  the 
congregation'  (Num.  xix:2o);  'it  shall  be  de- 
stroyed' (Lev.  xvii:  14;  xx:i7);  which  terms 
sometimes  denote  capital  punishment  (Exod. 
xxxi:i4;  comp.  xxxv:2;  Num.  xv:32,  etc.).  (Sec 
Anathema.) 

7.  Ecclesiastical  Punishments.  Ecclesias- 
tical punishments  are  prescribed,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected, under  a  theocracy,  but  these  were  moder- 
ate. Involuntary  transgressions  of  the  Levitical 
law,  whether  of  omission  or  commission,  were 
atoned  for  by  a  sin-offering  (Lev.  iv:2,  etc.;  v:i, 
4-7) .  This  head  embraced  a  rash  or  neglected  oath, 
keeping  back  evidence  in  court  (Lev.  iv:2,  etc.; 
v:i;  iv:7),  breach  of  trust,  concealment  of  prop- 
erty when  found,  or  theft,  even  when  the  offender 
had  already  cleared  himself  by  oath,  but  was  now 
moved  by  conscience  to  make  restitution.  By 
these  means,  and  by  the  payment  of  twenty  per 
cent,  beyond  the  amount  of  his  trespass,  the  of- 
fender might  cancel  the  crime  as  far  as  the  church 
was  concerned  (Lev.  vi:i-7;  Num.  v:6-io). 
Adultery  with  a  slave  was  commuted  from  death 
to  stripes  and  a  trespass  offering  (Lev.  xix:ao- 
22).  All  these  cases  involved  public  confession, 
and  the  expenses  of  the  offering. 

8»  Future  Punishment •  Though  the  doctrine 
of  a  future  state  was  known  to  the  ancient  He- 
brews, yet  temporal  punishment  and  reward  were 
the  immediate  motives  held  out  to  obedience. 
Hence  the  references  in  the  Old  Testament  to  pun- 
ishment in  a  future  state  are  obscure  and  scanty. 
(See  Hades;  Heaven;  Hell.)  J.  F.  D. 

PT7NITES  (pu'nites).  (Heb.  "i''®,  poo-nee*),  the 
descendants  of  Phuvah  or  Pua  (Num.  xxvi:23). 

PUNON  (pa'non),  (Heb.  ^i^JB,  poo-none*,  dark- 
ness). 

One  of  tihe  stations  of  the  Israelites  (Num. 
xxxiii  :42, 43) ,  between  Zalmonah  and  Oboth.  Ac- 
cording to  Jerome  it  is  identical  with  F/ie»<?n,  cele- 
brated for  its  copper  mines,  in  which  convicts  were 
sentenced  to  labor,  between  Petra  and  Zoar. 
Palmer  suggests  its  identity  with  * Anezeh,  one  of 
the  three  stations,  on  the  Darb  el-Hajj, — Desert  of 
the  Exodus^  p.  430.    (See  Wandering,  The.) 

PUB  (piir),  (Heb.  115).  poor,  lot).  (Esth.  iii:7; 
|x:24.26). 

In  these  passages  Haman  consults  the  astrol- 
ogers regarding  the  destruction  of  the  Jews.  (See 
Festivals;  Lot.) 


(piir'ch&s).  For  they  that  have 
used  the  office  of  a  deacon  "^f^,  purchase  to  them- 
selves a  good  degree  and  great  boldness  in  the 
faith  (i  Tim.  111:13). 

To  purchase  has  acquired  in  modem  times  the 
special  sense  of  winning  or  obtaining  by  pay- 
ment of  money;  but  its  original  meaning  was  to 
obtain  or  acquire  in  any  manner. 

There  is  no  man  doth  a  wrong,  for  the  wrong's 
sake;  but  thereby  to  purchase  himself  profit,  or 
pleasure,  or  honor,  or  the  like. — Bacon's  Essays. 
(Swinton,  Bib,  Word  Bk.) 


(par'lj^).  (Heb.  ID .  bore.  Is.  1:2$). 
There  is  in  this  passage  a  reference  to  an  alkaU 
made  from  plants,  which  was  used  in  smelting. 

PUBENESS  (pQr'nes),  (2  Cor.  vi:6).  Same  in 
meaning  as  purity,  being  derived  from  the  same 
Greek  word. 

PUBGE  (piirj),  (Gr.  Kodalpw,  kath-ah-ee-ro,  to 
cleanse,  John  xv:22). 

Christ  purges  our  sin,  by  making  atonement  for 
it  by  his  blood  (Heb.  i:3).  By  mercy  and  truth 
iniquity  is  purged;  by  God's  display  of  mercy  and 
truth  in  making  (Thrist  a  propitiation  for  us,  it  is 
atoned  for  (comp.  Prov.  xvi:6).  A  land  is 
purged,  when  wicked  men,  who  corrupt  it,  are  cut 
off  by  death  or  captivity  (Ezek.  xx:38);  or  the 
idols,  and  other  occasions  of  wickedness,  are  de- 
stroyed (2  Chron.  xxxiv:3). 

PT7BIFI0ATI0NS  (pu-r¥-fy-k§'shiins).  See  Ab- 
lution; Uncleanness. 

PX7BIM  (pu'rim),  (Heb.  ^^T^^,  poo-reem',  lots, 

Esther  iii  17;  ix:26,  sq.,  from  a  word  supposed  to  be 
the  Persic  for  a  'lot'),  a  celebrated  Jewish  festi- 
val instituted  b)r  Mordecai,  at  the  suggestion  of 
Esther,  in  the  reign  of  Ahasuerus,  king  of  Persia, 
to  commemorate  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from 
the  designs  of  Haman.  (See  Esther;  Haman; 
Mordecai.) 

It  derives  its  name  from  the  lots  cast  every  day 
for  twelve  months  in  presence  of  Haman,  with  the 
view  of  discovering  an  auspicious  day  for  the  de- 
struction of  all  the  Jews  in  the  Persian  dominions; 
when  the  lot  fell  on  the  13th  day  of  Adar  (Feb- 
ruary and  part  of  March).    (See  Festivals.) 

The  celebration  of  this  festival  is  next  referred 
to  in  2  Mace.  xv:36,  where  it  is  denominated 
Mordecai's  day.  (See  Maccabees.)  It  is  also 
mentioned  by  Josephus  (Antiq.  xi:6),  who,  hav- 
ing observed  that  the  Tews  in  Shushan  feasted  on 
the  fourteenth  day  (of  Adar),  and  that  which  fol- 
lowed it,  says,  *Even  now  all  the  Jews  in  the  hab- 
itable world  keep  these  days  festivals,  and  send 
portions  one  to  another;'  and  after  referringj  to 
the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  by  divine  protection, 
he  adds,  'for  which  cause  the  Jews  keep  the  fore- 
mentioned  days,  calling  them  Phruraean  days.  It 
is  disputed  whether  the  word  employed  by  Jo- 
sephus (iPfiovpaUu)  arose  from  an  error  of  tran- 
scription, or  whether  the  historian  may  not  have 
confounded  the  name  Purim  with  the  Hebrew 
word  which  implies  protection.  The  Talmud 
makes  frequent  mention  of  this  feast.  In  the  Je- 
rusalem Megillah  (p.  704)  it  is  observed  that 
'there  were  seventy-five  elders,  above  thirty  of 
whom  were  prophets,  who  made  exceptions 
against  the  feast  of  Purim  ordained  by  Esther 
and  Mordecai,  as  some  kind  of  innovation  against 
the  law'  (see  Lightfoot,  on  John  x:22).  Maimon- 
ides  remarks  that  it  is  forbidden  to  weep  or  fast 
on  this  day. 

It  has  been  sharply  contested  whether  there  is 
any  reference  in  the  New  Testament  to  this  feast 
It  is  recorded  in  St.  John's  gospel  (v:i),  that 


PURITY 

after  these  things  was  the  feast  of  the  lews,  or 
rather,  perhaps,  a  (east,  as  the  article  is  wanlitiB 
in  several  manuscripts.  It  has  been  held  by  Out- 
rein,  Lamy,  and  Hug,  and  still  more  recently  by 
Tholuclc  and  LUcke,  that  the  feast  of  Purim  is 
here  meant.  The  reasons  on  which  this  opinion  is 
grounded  will  be  found  fully  detailed  in  Hug's 
Jnlrod.  (part  ii,  sec.  64),  and  in  Liicke's  Comment. 
on  St.  lohrt's  Gospel  (see  the  English  translation 
of  Lucke's  Dissertation  or  a  Commentary  on  St. 
John's  Gospel,  in  Btb.  Cabinet,  vol.  xlv.  Heng- 
stenberg.  on  the  other  hand  (Christology,  vol.  it, 
'On  the  Seventy  Weeks  of  Daniel,  pp.  4o8-4i4> 
Engl,  transl.,  1839),  opposes  this  hypothesis  hy 
many  ingenious  arguments,  and  holds  it  to  be  in- 
conceivable  that  our  Lord,  'who  never  mentions 
the  book  of  Esther,  whose  apostles  nowhere  ap- 
peal to  it,  should  have  sought  this  feast  conse- 
crated to  the  remembrance  of  an  event  described 
in  this  book.'  Not  that  he  wishes  to  'impugn  the 
authority  of  the  book  of  Esther,  but  because,  in 
regard  to  the  true  standard,  its  reference  to  Christ, 
it  undoubtedly  holds  the  lowest  place  among  all 
the  books  in  the  Old  Testament.'  It  would  ap- 
pear from  this,  that  Professor  Hengstenberg  fol- 
lows Luther's  'touchstone'  of  canonieity.  (See 
Deuteso-canonical.)  Those  who  do  not  con- 
sider Purim  to  be  the  feast  referred  to  in  John 
v:i,  are  divided  between  the  Passover,  the  Feast 
of  Dedication,  and  that  of  Pentecost;  Hengsten- 
berg, with  the  majority  of  commentators,  supports 
the  last.  Locke  concludes  his  able  dissertation  by 
observing  that  all  sure  grounds  of  deciding  be- 
tween Purim  and  the  Passover  are  wanting. 

The  particulars  of  the  mode  in  which  the  Jews 
observe  this  festival  will  be  found  detailed  by 
Buxtorf  (Synag.  Jud.)  and  Schikford  (.Df  Syna- 
goga,  in  the  Crilki  Sacra,  vol.  ii,  p.  1185).  We 
shall  select  a  few  of  the  most  striking.  The 
book  of  Esther,  written  on  a  separate  roll  of 
parchment,  called  on  this  account  Mcgillah  Esther, 
or  simply  Megillah,  is  read  from  beginning  to 
end;  and  even  the  reading  of  the  law  is  on  this 
day  postponed  to  it.  It  may  be  also  read  in  any 
language  which  the  reader  understands.  When 
Mordecai's  name  occurs,  the  whole  congre^lion 
exclaim.  Blessed  be  Mordecail  and  on  mention  of 
that  of  Haman,  thry  say.  May  his  name  perish! 
and  it  is  usual  for  the  children  to  hiss,  spring  rat- 
tles, strike  the  walls  with  hammers,  and  make  all 
sorts  of  noises.  These  noisy  portions  of  the  cere- 
mony have,  however,  been  long  discontinued  in 
England,  except  in  the  synagogues  of  some  for- 
eign Jews.  The  remainder  of  the  day  is  spent  in 
festivity,  in  commemoration  of  Esther's  feast ; 
upon  which  occasion  the  Jews  send  presents  to 
each  other,  the  men  to  the  men,  and  the  women 
to  the  women.  They  also  bestow  alms  on  the 
poor,  from  the  benefit  of  which  Christians  and 
other  Gentiles  are  not  excluded.  Plays  and  mas- 
querades follow;  nor  is  it  considered  a  breach  of 
the  law  of  Moses  on  this  occasion,  for  men  and 
women  to  assume  the  garb  of  the  other  sex.  It 
is  even  written  in  the  Talmud  {Tract.  Megilt. 
vii,  2) ,  that  a  man  should  drink  until  he  cannot  dis- 
cern the  word  'Cursed  be  Haraan'  from  'Blessed 
be  Mordecai.'  But  these  injunctions  are  certainly 
not  considered  as  binding;  and  the  modern  Jews, 
both  at  the  feast  of  Purim  and  in  their  general 
habits,  are  remarkable  for  their  temperance  and 
sobriety.  Hatach  (Esther  iv  and  v)  is  considered 
by  the  Jews  to  be  the  same  whh  Daniel.  Purim 
is  the  last  festival  in  the  Jewish  ecclesiastical  year, 
being  succeeded  by  the  next  Passover.     W,  W. 


1415      PURPLE.  BLUE,  CRIMSON.  SCARLET 


foreign  mixture,  as  related  to  metals,  etc.  (i) 
The  purity  of  the  saints  lies  in  their  having  a 
clean  heart  and  pure  hands;  in  having  their  con- 
science purged  from  guilt.  Iw  the  application  of 
the  Savior's  righteousness ;  their  mind,  will,  and 
affections,  sanctified  by  his  spirit,  endowed  with 
implanted  grace,  and  freed  from  the  love  and 
power  of  sinful  corruption ;  their  outward  conver- 
sation being  holy  and  blameless  (Prov.  xx:o; 
Job_xvii:9;  i  Tim.  l.y.  Matt.  v;8).  (2)  The 
purity  of  prayer  lies  in  its  proceeding  from  a  pure 
heart,  and  requesting  lawful  things  for  lawful 
ends  (Job  xvi:i7).  The  purity  of  God's  word, 
law,  religion,  and  service,  lies  in  freedom  from 
error  and  sinful  defilement  (Ps.  xii:6  and  xix:8; 
James  i'.zy). 

FUBJAOUnSa  (par-loinTng),  (Gr.  mir^ffv,  nas- 
fid'eo,  to  set  apart,  divide.  Tit.  iirio). 

The  passage  refers  to  the  secret  theft  of  prop- 
erly or  to  its  misuse  as  in  the  case  of  a  servant 
who  is  dishonest  with  his  master's  property 
(comp.  Acts  v:2). 

FUIUliE,  BLUB,    OBIUSON,    SOABLBX 

(pOr'p'l,  bm,  krIm'z'Q,  skfir'ldi). 

I.  Purple.  (Heb.  IVfl!?,  ar-gaiv-m<:ni;n  occurs 
in  Exod.  xxv:4;  xxvi;i,  31,  36;  xxvii:i6:  xxviii:S,6, 
8.  15.  33;  "^tv  :6,  23, 25,  3S;  xxxvi;8,  35,  37;  xxxviii; 
18, 23;  xxxix:i,  2,  3,  5,  8,  24,  2q;  Num.  iv:i3;  Judg. 
viii;26;  2Chron.  n:?,  14;  iii:i4;  Esth.  i:6;  viii:K; 
Prov.  xxxi;22;  Cant.  iii:io;  vii:5;  Jer.  x;9;  Ezek. 
xxvii:?,  16;  Ecdus.  xlviio;  Bar.  vi:i2,  72;  1  Mace. 
iv:23;  viii:i4;  x:2o,62;  2  Macc.  iv:38;  Markxv;i7, 
20;  Luke  xvi;i9;  John  xix:2,  s;  Acts  xvi:i4;  Rev. 
xvii:4;  xviii:i2,  16],  (compare  2  Cbron.  ii;?;  Dan. 
v:7,  16,  29). 

In  many  of  these  passages,  the  word  translated 
'purple'  means  'purple  cloth,'  or  some  other  mate- 
rial dyed  purple,  as  wool,  thread,  etc.;  but  no 
reference  occurs  to  the  means  by  which  the  dye 
was  obtained,  except  in  I  Macc.  iv;23,  where  we 
have  'purple  of  the  sea'  (comp,  Diod.  Sic.  iii,  68; 
Josepih.  De  Belt.  Jud.  v,  s.  4).  There  is,  however, 
no  reason  to  doubt  that  it  was  obtained,  like  the 
far-famed  Tyrian  purple,  from  the  juice  of  cer- 
tain species  of  shellfish. 

(1)  How  Obtained.    The  dye  which  was  called 
purple  by  the  ancients,  with  its  various  shades,  was 
obtained   from   many  kinds  o(  shellfish,  all   of 
which   are,  however,  arranged 
by    Pliny    under  two    classes: 
one  called   'buccinum,'   because 
shaped  like  a  horn,  found,  he 
I  says,   in   cliffs   and    rocks,   and 

I  yielding     a     sullen     blue     dye. 

which  he  compares  to  the  color 
of   the  angry   raging  sea   in   a 
tempest;  the  other  called  'pur- 
pura,'  or   'pelagia,'   the   proper 
purple  shefl,  taken  by  fishing 
in    the    sea,    and    yielding    the 
deep  red  color  which  he  com- 
Miirtx  imiiiUat.      pares  to  the  rich,   fresh,  and 
bright  color  of  deep  red  roses. 
Both  sorts  were  supposed  lo  be  as  many  years 
old  as  they  had  spirals  round. 

The  juice  of  tne  whole  shellfish  was  not  used, 
but  only  a  little,  thin  liquor  called  the  flower,  con- 
tained in  a  while  vein  or  vessel  in  the  neck.  The 
larger  purples  were  broken  at  the  top  to  get  at 
this  vein  without  injuring  it,  but  the  smaller  were 

?res3ed  in  mills  {Aristot.  Hist.  An.,  v.  13.  75; 
liny.  Hist.  Nat.  ix.  60).  The  Murex  trunculus 
has  been  demonstrated  to  be  the  species  used  by 


PURPLE.  BLUE,  CRIMSON,  SCARLET      1416      PURPLE,  BLUE,  CRIMSON,  SCARLET 

ancient  Tyrians,  by  Wilde,  who  found  a  concrate 
nuss  nt  the  shells  in  some  of  the  ancient  dye- 

pols  sunk  in  the  rocks  of  Tyre  (Narralivi,  Dub- 
lin, 1840,  vol,  ii.  p.  482).  It  is  of  common  occur- 
rence now  on  the  same  coasts  (Kitto's  Physical 
History  of  Palestine,  p.  418),  and  throughout  the 
whole  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  even  of  the  At- 
lantic. In  the  Mediterranean,  the  countries  most 
celebrated  for  purple  were  the  shores  of  Pelopon- 
nesus and  Sicily,  and  in  the  Atlantic,  the  coasts  of 
Britain,  Ireland,  and  France.  Horace  alludes  to 
the  African  {Carm.  ii:l6,  35).  There  is,  indeed, 
an  essential  difference  in  the  color  obtained  from 
the  purples  of  different  coasts.  Thus  the  shells 
from  the  Atlantic  are  said  to  give  the  darkest 
juice;  those  of  the  Italian  and  Sicilian  coasi,  a 
violet  or  purple;  and  those  of  the  PhtEnician,  a 
crimson. 

(2)  Vaee.  Purple  was  employed  in  relipous 
worship  both  among  Jews  and  Gentiles.  It  was 
one  of  the  colors  of  ihe  curtains  of  the  tabernacle 
(Exod.  xxvi:l)  ;  of  the  vaii  (31)  ;  of  the  curtain 
over  the  grand  entrance  (36)  ;  of  the  ephod  of  the 
high-priest  (xxviii:s,  6).  and  of  its  girdle  (8); 
of  the  breastplate  (15) ;  of  the  hem  of  the  robe 
of  the  ephod  (33),  Ccomp^  Ecclus.  xlvzio);  of 
cloths  for  divine  service  (Exod.  xxxix:i;  comp. 
Num.  iv:i3)  ;  resumed  when  the  temple  was  built 
(2  Chron.  ii:?,  14;  iii:i4).  Pliny  records  a  simi- 
lar use  of  it  amoUK  the  Romans :  'Diis  advocatur 
placandis'  {Hist.  Nat.  ix.  60;  Cicero,  £/•«(,  ad 
Allicuni,  ii.  q).  The  Babylonians  arrayed  their 
idols  in  it  (Jer.  x:g;  Baruch  xiiLja).  It  was 
at  an  early  period  worn  by  kings  (Judg.  viii:26). 
In  the  last  chapter  of  the  Proverbs  it  is  repre- 
sented as  the  dress  of  a  matron  (verse  22).  It  was 
at  one  time  worn  by  Roman  ladies  and  rich  men 
(Livy,  xxxiv,  7,  and  Valerius  Max.  ii,  i).  See 
also  the  parable  of  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus 
(Luke  XVI  iig).  In  Esther  i  ;6,  it  appears  as  part 
of  the  royal  furniture  of  Ahasuerus ;  and  in  C^nt. 
iii:lo,  as  the  covering  of  the  royal  chariot;  and 
Pliny  refers  to  its  general  use,  not  only  for  clothes, 
but  carpets,  cushions,  etc. 

(3)  Supeneded.  It  ultimately  became  super- 
seded by  the  use  of  indigo,  cochineal,  etc.,  whence 
a  cheaper  and  finer  purple  was  obtained,  and  free 
from  the  disagreeable  odor  which  attended  ihat 
derived  from  shellfish  (Martial,  i,  50,  32).  The 
method  of  the  ancients  in  preparing  and  applying 
it,  and  other  particulars  respecting  its  history, 
uses,  and  estimation,  are  most  fully  given  by 
Pliny  IHisl.  Nat.  ix.  36-42).  The  best  modern 
books  are  Amati,  De  Restitutione  Purpurarum,  ■ 
3d  ed.,  Cesena,  1784;  the  treatise  by  Capelli,  De 
Antiqua  et  Nupera  Purpura,  with  notes;  and 
Don  Michaele  Rosa,  Dissertasione  delle  porpore, 
etc.,  1768.  See  also  Diclionnaire  des  Sciences 
Naturelles,  torn,  xliti.  p.  219.  etc.;  Bochari,  edit. 
RoseimiQller,  torn,  iii,  p.  675,  etc;  Heeren's  His- 
torical Researches,  translated,  Oxford,  1833,  vol, 
ii.  p.  8s.  etc. 

2.  Wat.  (Heb.  "^3?,  Uk-ayUtk),  almost 
constantly  associated  with  purple,  occurs  in 
Exod.  XXV :4;  xxvi;i,  4,  31,  36;  xxvii:i6;  xxviii: 
S-8,  IS,  33.  3?;  xxxv:2S:  xxxvi:ii;  xxxix:r-s, 
22.  31;  Num.  iv:6,  7.  9,  11,  12;  xv:38;  a 
Chron.  ii:7,  14;  Esth.  i:6;  viiiiis;  Jer.  xig;  Ezek. 
xxiii;6;  xxvii7,  24;  Sept.  generally  MxrAit,  fsmv- 
W*«t,  and  in  Ecclus.  xl:4;  xIv:io;  i  Mace.  'w.%y, 
and  so  Josephus,  Philo,  Aquila,Symmachus,Theo- 
.do^ion,  Vulgate,  and  Jerome. 

(1)  How  Obtained.  This  color  is  supposed  to 
have  been  obtained  from  another  purple  shellfish 
of  the  Mediterranean,  the  conckylium  of  the  an- 


cients, the  Helix  ianihim  of  Linnaeus  (Syst.  Nat 
torn.  i.  part  7.  p.  3645;  and  see  Forskal's  Descrip- 
tio  Animal,  p.  127).  called  chihort  by  the  ancient 
Jews.  Thus  the  pseudo-Jonathan,  in  Deut.  xxxiii : 
19,  speaks  of  the  Zebulonites,  who  dwell  at  the 
shore  of  the  great  sea,  and  caught  chiison,  with 
whose  juice  they  dye  thread  of  a  hyacinthine  color. 
The  Scriptures  afford  no  clew  to  this  color ;  for 
the  only  passages  in  which  it  seems,  in  the  En- 
glish Version,  to  be  api>lied  to  something  that 
might  assist  our  conceptions,  are  mistranslated, 
namely,  'The  blueness  of  a  wound"  (Prov.  xx  :3o), 
and  'A  blue  mark  upon  him  that  is  b«aien' 
(Ecclus.  xxiiiiio),  there  being  no  reference  to 
color  in  the  original  of  either. 

<8)  Scripture  BeferencoB.  The  chief  refer- 
ences to  this  color  in  Scripture  are  as  follows : — 
The  robe  of  the  high-priest's  ephod  was  to  be  all 
of  blue  (Exod.  xxviii  131);  so  the  loops  of  the 
curtains  to  the  tabernacle  (xxvi:4);  the  riband 
for  the  breastplate  ( xxviii  :28),  and  for  the  plate 
for  the  miter  (ver.  37;  comp,  Eccles.  xlv;io); 
blue  cloths  for  various  sacred  uses  {Num.  iv; 
6,  7,  9,  II,  12);  the  people  commanded  to  wear 
a  riband  of  blue  above  the  fringe  of  their  gar- 
ments (Num.  xv;38) ;  it  appears  as  a  color  of  fur- 
niture in  the  palace  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  i:6).  and 
part  of  the  royal  apparel  (viii;i5)j  array  of  the 
idols  of  Babylon  (Jer.  x  :9)  ;  of  the  Assyrian  no- 
bles, etc,  (Eira  xxiii  :6;  see  Braunius,  De  Vesbm, 
etc.,  i,  9  and  33 ;  Bochart,  torn.  iii.  p.  670). 

3.  Crimson.  (Heb.  ^''P^S,  kar-meeV).  occurs 
in  2  Chron.  ii:7-i4;  iii  114.  This  word  is  by  some 
supposed  to  signify  another  kind  of  shellfish, 
yielding  a  crimson  dye,  so  called  because  found 
on  the  shore  near  Mount  CarmeL 

4.  Searttt.    Often  associated  with  purple  and 

(1)  How  Obtained.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  coccus,  from  which  a  blood- 
red  crimum  dye  was  obtained.    It  was  the  fe- 


male of  this  remarkable  insect  that  was  employed; 
and  though  supplanted  by  the  cochineal  Icoccns 
cacti),  it  is  still  used  for  the  purpose  in  India  and 
Persia.  It  attains  the  size  and  form  of  a  pea, 
is  of  a  violet  black  color,  covered  with  a  whitish 
powder,  adhering  to  plants,  chiefly  various  spe- 
cies of  oak,  and  so  closely  resembling  grains  that 
its  insect  nature  was  not  generally  known  for 
many  centuries.  According  to  Beckham,  the  epi- 
thet vermiculalus  was  applied  to  it  during  the 
middle  ages,  when  this  fact'became  generally  under- 
stood, and  that  hence  is  derived  the  word  ver- 
milion. Hence  the  Hebrew  words  mean  both  the 
coccus  itself  and  the  deep  red  or  bright  rich 
crimson  which  was  derived  from  it  (as  in  Cant, 
iv  ;3 ;  'thy  lips  are  like  a  thread  of  scarlet")  ;  and  so 
the  word  'scarlet  signiHed  in  the  time  of  our 
translators,  rather  than  the  color  now  called  Iv 
that  name,  and  which  was  unknown  in  the  time  of 
fames  1. 

<2)  Where  round.    This  insect  is  widely  dis- 
tributed over  many  of  the  southeastern  countries 


PURPOSES  OF  GOD.  1'. 

of  the  ancient  world.    It  occurs  abundantly  in 

Spain  (Kirby  and  Spence,  Introduction  to  Ento- 
mology,  1828,  vol.  i.  pp.  319-20).  It  is  found  on 
the  quercus  (occifera,  or  kermes  oak,  in  Palestine 
(Kitlo's  Physical  History,  p.  219).  (See  Col- 
ors.) j.  F.  D. 


PUBSB  (pftrs),  (Heb.  ^"^.keece;  Gr. /S<<M«-u>», 
bal-an'Ue-on;  fiii^i,  dzo'nay,  Mark  vi:8,  a  girdle, 
and  so  a  pocket),  a  bag  for  holding  money  (Luke 
x:4;xii:33;xxii:35). 

Anxmg  the  disciples  the  common  purse  was  in 
charge  of  Judas  (John  xii:6;  xiii:29).  Before 
money  was  coined,  Ihe  metal  was  carried  in  a 
bag  and  weights  and  scales  were  taken  about  for 
weighing  out  the  amount  desired.     (See  Money.) 


n  PYTHON 

privileges;  and  here  Hadrian  was  buried.  It  was 
also  the  port  where  ships  usually  discharged 
their  passengers  and  cargoes,  partly  to  avoid 
doubling  the  promontory  of  Circeium,  and  partly 
because  there  was  no  commodious  harbor  nearer 
10  Rome.  Hence  the  ship  in  which  Paul  was 
conveyed  from  Melita  landed  the  prisoners  at 
this  place,  where  the  apostle  stayed  for  a  week 
(Acts  xxviii  113).  The  harbor  was  protected 
by  a  celebrated  mole,  the  remains  of  which 
are  still  lo  be  seen.  The  modern  name  of 
Puteoli  is  PoggHoH.  There  are  considerable  re- 
ntains  of  ancient  structures,  including  an  aque- 
duct, reservoirs,  baths,  and  a  building  called  the 
temple  of  Serapis.  Thirteen  arches  can  still  be 
counted  of  the  twenty-five  which  originally  sup- 
ported the  great  pier,  thrown  out  for  protection 
against  the  waves  and  for  convenience  in  landing 
passengers  and  merchandise. 


PUBTENANCE  (pflr'iS-nans),  (Heb.  ^IR-,  Aeh'- 

reb).    In  Exod.  xiiig,  in  the  A.  V.  the  word  stands 

for  the  viscera  or  inwards  of  a  sacrilicial  victim. 

PUT  (piit),  (I  Chroa,  i:8;  Nah.  iii:9).     See  PHOT. 

PUTEOU  (pu-le'o-ll),  {,Gr.rirriawK,pol-ee'ol-oy, 

wells,  springs,  of  sulphur). 

A  maritime  town  of  Campania,  in  Italy,  on  Ihe 
north  shore  of  the  bay  of  Naples,  and  about  eight 
miles  northwest  from  the  city  of  that  name,  where 
it  still  exists  under  the  name  of  Pozzuoli.  It  de- 
lame  from  its  tepid  baths,  whence  the 
which  it  exists  is  now  called  Terra  di 
[t  was  a  favorite  watering  place  of  the 
s  its  numerous  hot  springs  were  judged 
for  the  cure  of  various  diseases.  Pute- 
oli is  connected  with  many  historical  personages. 
Scipio  sailed  hence  to  Spain :  Cicero  had  a  villa 
near  the  city;  here  Nero  planned  the  murder  of 
his  mother;  Vespasian  gave  to  the  city  peculiar 


Romans, 
efHcacioi 


PUTIEL  (pB'ti-el),  (Heb.  ^»r¥lB  po^ue-ai^. 
atSicted  of  God),  father-in-law  of  Eleazar  the 
priest  (Exod.  vi;2S),  B.  C.  before  1210, 

PTGABO  (pi-garg'),  (Heb.  1*^,  dee-shone'. 
leaper,  Deut.  xiv:s)-  This  is  believed  to  have 
been  some  species  of  anteJope.  perhaps  the  addax 
(Aniitopf  addax).  It  is  mentioned  in  only  one 
of  the  two  lists  of  clean  animals.     (See  Ante- 


x:4)- 

PYTHON  (id'thdn),  occurring  Acts  xvl:i6, 
marg.  A,  V.,  was  a  surname  of  Apollo,  the  god  of 
divination  in  the  Greek  mythology,  and  hence 

giplied  to  all  oracular  and  divinatory  spirits.  (See 
IVINATION). 


QUATERNION 


Q 


Q;UAIH'k.wa\),(aeb.'*\'^,seJ'awv:Sepl.ii>Tvyeii^ 
irfa,  or-tu-gom-ay' trah,  land-rail),  occurs  in  Exod. 
xvi:i3;  Num.  xi:3i,  32;  Ps.  cv.  40. 

(1)  Classiflcatlon.  Quails  form  a  subdivision 
of  the  Tetraonida  or  grouse  family,  being  dis- 
tinguished from  partridges  by  their  smaller  size, 
finer  bill,  shorter  tail,  and  the  want  of  a  red  naked 
eyebrow  and  of  spurs  on  the  legs.  There  are 
several  species,  whereof  the  common,  now  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  Co-turnix  dactyluonam. 


ph< 


QoaiL 

is  abundant  in  all  the  temperate  regions  of  Europe 

and  Western  Asia,  migrating  to  and  from  Africa 
in  the  proper  season.  Thus  it  crosses  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  Black  Seas  twice  a  year  in  vast  multi- 
tudes; hut  being  t^  nature  a  bird  of  heavy  flight, 
the  passage  is  partially  conducted  by  way  of  inter- 
mediate islands,  or  through  Spain ;  and  in  the  East, 
in  still  greater  numbers,  along  the  Syrian  desert 
into  Arabia,  forminK,  especially  at  the  spring  sea- 
son, innumerable  flocks.  They  alig4it  exhausted 
with  fatigue,  and  are  then  easily  caught.  Guided 
by  these  facts,  commentators  have  been  led  to 
identify  the  Hebrew  selawv  with  the  quail ;  al- 
though other  species  of  partridges,  and  still  more 
of  Pterodes  ('sand  grouse'),  abound  in  Western 
Asia;  in  particwlar  Pterodes  Atchala,  or  Attagen, 
which  is  found,  if  possible,  in  still  greater  numbers 
on  the  deserts,  and  has  been  claimed  by  Hassel- 
quist  as  the  selav  of  Exodus.  But  the  present 
Arabic  name  of  the  quail  is  selwa;  and  the  circum- 
stances connected  with  Jhe  bird  in  question— found 
on  two  occasions  by  the  people  of  Israel  in  and 
arouTid  the  camp  so  abundantly  as  to  feed  the 
whole  population  in  (he  desert  (Exod.  xvi:3-i3), 
and  at  Kib roth- Hat taavah,  both  times  in  the  spring 
— are  much  more  applicable  to  flights  of  quail 
alighting  in  an  exhausted  state  during  their  peri- 
odical migration,  than  to  the  pterodes,  which  does 
not  proceed  to  so  great  a  distance,  have  very  pow- 
erful wings,  is  never  seen  fatigued  by  migration, 
is  at  all  times  a  tenant  of  the  wilderness  far  from 
water,  and  which,  strictly  taken,  is  perhaps  not  a 
clean  bird,  all  the  species  subsisting  tor  the  moM 
part  on  larvie,  beetles,  and  insects.  We  regard 
these  considerations  as  sufficient  to  establish  the 
accuracy  of  the  Authorized  Version. 

Of  a  bird  so  well  known  no  figure  or  further 
particular  description  appears   to  be   necessary. 


beyond  mentioning  the  enormous  fli^s  which, 
after  crossing  an  immense  surface  of  sea,  are  an- 
nually observed  at  the  spring  and  fall  to  take  a 
brief  repose  in  the  islands  of  Malta,  Sicily,  Sar- 
dinia, Crete,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  about 
Constantinople,  where  on  those  occasions  there  is 
a  general  shoo  ting- match,  which  lasts  two  or 
three  days. 

(2)  MiraculouB  Frovislon  of  Qoaila.  The 
providential  nature  of  their  arrival  within  and 
around  the  camp  of  the  Israelites,  in  order  that 
they  might  furnish  meat  to  a  murmuring  people, 
appears  from  the  fact  of  its  taking  place  where  it 
was  not  to  be  expected;  the  localities,  we  pre- 
sume, being  out  of  the  direction  of  the  ordinary 
passage ;  for,  had  this  not  been  the  case,  the  dwell- 
ers in  that  region,  and  the  Israelites  themselves, 
accustomed  to  tend  their  flocks  at  no  great  dis- 
tance from  the  spot,  would  have  regarded  the 
phenomenon  as  a  well-known  periodical  occur- 
rence. C.  H.  S. 

In  their  flight  quails  skim  along  the  ground, 
which  seems  to  be  the  meaning  of  the  expression, 
"two  cubits  high."  Prudently  making  provision 
for  the  future,  rhe  Israelites  would  spread  out 
their  flesh  to  dry,  as  Herodotus  tells  us  the  Egyp- 
tians were  accustomed  to  do.  It  is  believed  that 
the  "homers"  in  Num.  xi  132  does  not  denote  the 
measure  of  that  name,  but  rather  "a  heap,"  which 
is  sometimes  the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word. 

QITAEEBS.     See  Society  of  Friends, 

aTTABANTANA  (kw6r-an-ta'ni),  a  mountaio 
about  seven  miles  northwest  of  Jericho,  which 
tradition  points  out  as  the  scene  of  the  tempta- 
tion of  Christ.  It  rises  abruptly  from  the  plain  to 
the  height  of  twelve  hundred  to  fifteen  hundred 
feet,  resembling  a  perpendicular  wall  of  rock. 
Upon  its  sides  are  numerous  grottoes  and  caverns, 
where  hermits  once  dwelt  in  numbers,  and  which 
were  also  the  retreat  of  robbers.  On  the  top  of 
the  mountain  are  ruins  of  a  chapel.  The  moun- 
tain is  not  named  in  the  Bible. 

aUABBT  (kwar'ry),  {Heb.^"9?,/«-«rf.  carved), 
stone  pits  (Judg.  iiiiig,  26);  perhaps  images  of 
false  gods  may  be  intended,  as  the  Hebrew  word 
thus  translated  is  elsewhere  rendered  by  "graven" 
or  "carved  image."  (See  Deut.  vii:25;  Is.  xlii;8; 
Jer.  viii:l9,  etc.). 

QUABTUS  (kwar'i&s),  {Gr.  Kmtaprot,  koo'ar-ios, 
Lat.  quartus,  fourth),  a  Christian,  resident  at  Cor- 
inth, and,  from  his  name,  apparently  a  Roman, 
whose  salutations  Paul  communicated  to  the 
Church  of  Rome  in  his  epistle  thereto  (Rom.  xvi: 
23).  A.  D.  about  50.  In  the  old  church  books  he 
is  alleged  to  Irave  been  one  of  the  seventy  disciples, 
which  is  altogether  unlikely;  and  it  is  on  the  same 
authority  stated  that  he  was  eventually  bishop  of 
the  church  at  Berytus. 

QUATBBNION  (kwi-ter'nt-iiQ),  (Gr.  rerpdiu*. 
tet-rad ee-on,  a  body  of  four),  'a  quaternion  of  sol- 
diers' (Acts  xii:4).  was  a  detachment  of  tour  men, 
which  was  the  usual  number  of  a  Roman  night 
watch. 

Peter,  therefore,  was  guarded  by  four  soldiers, 
two  within  the  prison,  and  two  outside  the  doors  f 
and  as  the  watch  was  usually  changed  every  three 
hours,  it  was  necessary  that  the  'four  quaternions' 


QUEEN  1 

mentioned  in  the  text  should  be  appointed  for  the 
purpose. 

QtTEEH  (kwED).  The  Hebrews  had  no  wbrd 
properly  answering  to  our  term  'queen,'  which 
is  the  feminine  of  'king;'  neither  had  they  the 
dignity  which  that  word  denotes.  The  Hebrew 
word  usually  translated  'queen'  is  gkeb-ee-ra-a/ , 
^y?|,  mistress,  or  la<fy,  being  the  leminine  of 
gheb-eer',  ^"??,  master,  or  lord.  The  feminine 
is  to  be  understood  by  its  relation  to  the  mascu- 
line ;  which  is  not  applied  to  kingly  power,  or  to 
kings,  but  to  general  authority  arhd  dominion.  It 
is  in  fact  the  word  which  occurs  twice  with  refer- 
ence to  Isaac's  blessing  of  Jacob ; — 'Be  lord  over 
thy  brethren ;'  and,  'I  have  made  him  thy  lord' 
{Gen.xxvii:29-37)- 

(1)  EUglbillty  of  King's  Wife.  Among  the 
Jewish  kings  the  usages  bearing  on  this  point  were 
not  different  from  those  which  are  still  exhibited 


19  QUEEN 

should  be  clearly  understood ;  for  it  extends 
throughout  the  Bible,  and  is  yet  entirely  different 
from  European  social  arrangements,  under  which 
the  mother,  as  soon  as  she  becomes  widowed, 
abandons  her  place  as  head  of  the  family  to  the 
daughter-in-law. 

(3)  Duties  and  Frlvll^es.  Examples  of  the 
good  influence  possessed  by  the  king's  mother  oc- 
cur frequently  in  Scripture.  In  how  marked  a 
manner  does  the  mother  of  Solomon  come  for- 
ward at  the  end  of  her  husband's  and  the  begin- 
ning of  her  son's  reign !  She  takes  an  active  part 
in  securing  her  son's  succession;  it  is  in  the  con- 
viction of  her  commanding  influence  that  Adoni- 
jah  engages  her  to  promote  his  suit,  alleging  'he 
will  not  say  ihee  nay ;'  and  then,  when  Bathsheba 
appears  before  her  son,  the  monarch  rises  from 
his  place,  advances  to  meet  her,  bows  himself  be- 
fore her,  and  seats  her  on  the  right  hand  of  his 
throne  (i  Kings  i,  ii).    That  the  king's  mother 


Pool!  of  SolomoD.  Show 

in  Western  Asiatic  courts.  Where  woman  never 
becomes  the  head  of  the  state,  there  can  be  no 
queen  regnant;  and  where  polygamy  is  allowed 
or  practiced,  there  can  be  no  queen  consort.  There 
will,  however,  be  a  chief  wife  in  the  harem ;  and 
this  is  no  doubt  the  rank  indicated  in  the  Bible 
by  the  words  which  we  render  'queen.'  This  rank 
may  be  variously  acquired.  The  first  wife  of  the 
king,  or  the  first  whom  he  look  affer  his  accession, 
usually  obtained  it;  and  if  she  is  both  ot  high  birth 
and  becomes  the  mother  of  the  first  son,  her  posi- 
tion is  tolerably  secure ;  but  if  she  possesses 
neither  of  these  advantages,  she  may  be  super- 
seded in  her  position  as  head  of  the  harem  by  a 
wife  of  higher  birth  and  connections,  subsequently 
espoused ;  or  by  one  who  becomes  the  mother  of 
the  heir  apparent. 

(2)  King's  lloth«T.  Very  different  was,  and 
is  to  this  day,  in  Western  Asia,  the  position  of 
the  king's  mother,  whose  state  is  much  the  nearest 
to  that  of  a  European  queen  of  any  with  which 
the  East  is  acquainted.  It  is  founded  on  that  es- 
sential principle  of  Oriental  manners  which  in  all 
cases  considers  the  mother  of  the  husband  as 
a  far  superior  person  to  his  wife,  and  as  entitled 
to  more   re^tect   and  attention.    This   principle 


QR  Hill  CouDiry  o(  Judca. 

possessed  high  dignity  is  further  evinced  by  the 
fact  that  Asa  found  it  necessary  to  remove  his 
mother  Maachah  'from  being  queen.'  on  account 
of  her  abuse  of  the  power  which  that  character 
conferred  (i  Kings  xv;i3).  jMebel  was  very 
powerful  in  the  lifetime  of  her  husband ;  but  it  is 
only  under  her  son  that  she  is  called  'the  queen' 
(gebirah)  ;  and  the  whole  history  of  his  reign 
evinces  the  important  part  which  she  took  in  pub- 
lic affairs  (2  Kings  ix:32,  30,  37;  x-.ii).  Still 
more  marked  was  the  influence  of  Jezebel  s  daugh- 
ter Athaliah  in  judah  during  the  reign  of  the 
latter's  son,  which  was  indeed  such  as  enabled 
her  at  his  death  to  set  the  crown  on  her  own  head, 
and  to  present  the  anomialy  in  Jewish  history  of  a 
regnant  queen  (a  Kings  xi), 

(4)  IJst  of  Queen  Uothers.  The  following  is 
a  list  of  queen  mothers  through  the  successive 
leigns  of  the  monarchs  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah : 

KlDKi.  Qaeea  molben. 

Solomon Bathsheba. 

Rehoboam Naamah. 

^ll^^-   \ Maachah  or  Michaiah. 

iehoshaphat Azubah. 
ehoram Not  mentioned. 


QUEEN  OF  HEAVEN 


1420 


QUIVER 


Ahaziab Athaliah. 

Joash Zibiah. 


ehoaddan. 

ecoliah. 

erusha. 


Amaziah. 
Uzziah  , 
Jotham. 

Ahaz l^ot  mentioned. 

Hezekiah Abi  or  Abijah. 

Manasseh Hephziban. 

Amon MeshuUemeth. 

osiah Tedidah. 

ehoahaz Hamutal. 

ehoiakim Zebudah. 

ehoiachin Nehushta. 

2edekiah Hamutal. 

QXJEEN  OF  HEAVEN  (kwen  dv  hgv'n),  (Heb.  ' 
W1^tr\  n5.^D      nul-eh'keth    hash'Shaw-mah' yim\ 

the  title  of  the  goddess  of  the  Moon  among  the 
Assyrians,  from  whom  her  worship  spread  into 
Asia  Minor. 

To  the  Shemites  she  was  generally  known  under 
the  names  of  Astarte,  Ashtaroth,  etc.  Cakes  hav- 
ing the  image  of  the  moon  stamped  on  them  are 
supposed  to  have  been  presented  in  sacrifice  as  a 
part  of  her  worship  (Jer.  vii:i8;  xliv:i7,  i8,  iQi 
25).     (See  Ashtoreth;  Prostitution,  Sacred.) 

QT7EEN  OF  SHEBA  (kwen  dv  she'ba).  See 
Sheba. 

QT7I0K,  QT7I0KEN  (kw!k,  kwlk'n),  (from  Heb. 

^^tkhaw-yaw\\o  live).    Psalms  lxxi:2o;  Ixxx:i8; 

cxix:2q,  37,  40, 88;  cxliiiMi,  etc.,  the  word  signifies 
to  make  alive,  to  refresh,  to  comfort.  The  Greek 
word  ^ftWToUfw,  dzO'OP'Oy-eh'Ot  means  to  make  alive 
(Rom.  viii:ii;  I  Cor.  xv:36;  i  Tim.  vi:i3;  i  Pet. 
iii:i8,  etc.). 

In  general  quick,  or  quicken  means:  (i)  Liv- 
ing (Acts  x:42).  (2)  Very  sensible  (L«v.  xiii: 
10).  (3)  Very  readily;  and  so  quickly,  with  all 
possible  haste  (John  xi:29).  (4)  To  give  nat- 
ural life  to  the  dead  (Rom.  iv:i7).  (s)  To  give 
spiritual  life  to  men  dead  in  trespasses  and  sins, 
removing  their  guilt,  instating  them  in  favor  with 
God,  and  producing  in  them  a  living  principle  of 
grace  (Eph.  ii:i,  5).  (6)  To  restore,  re-invig- 
orate,  and  cheer  up  those  who  are  under  spiritual 
languor  and  weakness,  by  imparting  to  them  new 
supplies  of  grace  and  comfort  (Ps.  cxix).  (7) 
The  word  of  God  is  quick  and  powerful;  Christ 
the  personal  Word  of  Cjod,  is  the  living  God,  and 
Author  of  all  created  life;  and  is  infinitely  able 
to  save  men,  and  to  convince  and  turn  their  hearts 
as  he  pleases,  the  revealed  word  of  God  powerfully 
awakens,  convinces,  and  converts  men  to  him 
(Heb.  iv:i2).  Jesus,  the  last  Adam,  is  a  quick' 
ening  Spirit;  as  the  second  representative  of  men 
in  the  new  covenant;  he,  being  possessed  of  a 
divine  nature,  and  of  the  fullness  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  is  the  fountain  of  life,  spiritual  and  eternal, 
to  all  his  members,  in  whose  hearts  he  dwells  by 
faith   (i  Cor.  xv:3S). 

QT7I0KSAND  (kwHc'sind),  (Or.  a^pris,  soor'tis, 
drawn). 

In  Acts  xxvii:i7,  it  is  mentioned  that  when 
the  ship  in  which  Paul  was  embarked  was  driven 
past  the  Isle  of  Gauda  on  the  south,  the  mariners, 
as  would  now  be  said  struck  the  sails  and  scudded 
under  bare  poles,  lest  they  'should  fall '  into  the 
quicksands.*  The  original  word  syrtis  denotes  a 
sandbank  or  shoal,  dangerous  to  navigation,  drawn, 
or  supposed  to  be  drawn  (from  9<ipia,  'to  draw*) 
together  by  the  currents  of  the  sea.  Two  syrtes, 
or  gulfs  with  quicksands,  were  particularly  famous 
among  the  ancients ;  one  called  Syrtis  Major,  be- 
tween Cyrene  and  Leptis,  and  the  other,  Syrtis 
Minor,  near  Carthage.    Both  then  lay  nearly  to 


the  southwest  of  the  west  end  of  Cyprus,  adjoin- 
ing which,  on  the  south,  lay  the  isle  of  Oauda. 
These  Syrtes  were  the  great  dread  of  those  who 
navigated  the  seas  in  which  the  vessel  was  driven, 
and  one  of  them  was  probably  in  this  case   the 
object  of  alarm  to  the  manners.    The  danger  was 
not  so  imaginaiy  in  this  case,  we  apprehend,   as 
Dr.  Falconer  (Dissert  on  Si.  Paul's  Voyage,  p. 
13)  conceives.    For  the  apprehension  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  entertained  till  the  ship   had 
been  driven  past  the  isle  of  Claudia ;  which,  as  we 
take  it,  is  mentioned  merely  as  the  last  point  of 
land  which  had  been  seen  till  the  ship  was  wrecked 
on  the  isle  of  Melita.    The  position  of  that  island 
must  be  regarded  as  indicating  the  course  in  which 
they  were  driven;  and  if  that  were  Malta,   it  is 
clear  that,  had  not  that  course  been  arrested  by 
the  intermediate  shipwreck,  they  would  in  all  prob- 
ability have  been  driven  upon  the  Syrtis  Nlinor, 
which  we  may  therefore  conclude  to  have  been  the 
subject  of  their  apprehension.    That  apprehension 
only  becomes   'imaginary'   when   Meleda   in    the 
Adriatic  is  taken,  as  Dr.  Falconer  himself  takes  it, 
for  the  Melita  of  Scripture.    It  may,  therefore,  be 
added  to  the  arguments  in  favor  of  Malta,  that 
its  identification  with  Melita  gives  reality  to  the 
fear  entertained  by  the  mariners,  which  under  the 
other  alternative  must  be  supposed  to  have  been 
imaginary.     (See  Melita.) 
QX7IBINTJS  (ke-rf'niis).    See  CVRENIUS. 

QkUTT  (kwft),  is  used  in  i  Sam.  iv:9  and  i  Cor. 
xvi:i3  in  the  sense  of  "acquit." 

QXJIVEB  (kwtv'er),  (Heb.  V^,  lel-ee'),  the  box 

or  case  for  arrows.    (Gen.  xxvii:3.) 


Assyrian  Warrior  with  Quiver. 

Figurative.  The  word  is  often  used  figura- 
tively. In  Jer.  v:i6  the  slaughter  and  desolation 
which  should  be  brought  upon  the  Israelites  by 
the  invasion  of  the  Chaldxans  is  expressed  by  the 
calling  of  their  quivers  "an  open  sepulcher,"  or 
their  arrows  certain  death.  When  children  are 
compared  to  arrows,  the  house  is  the  quiver  (Ps. 
cxxviirs).  When  God's  judgments  are  likened  to 
arrows,  his  purpose  and  providence  are  the  quiver 
(Lsrm.  iii:i3).  When  Isaiah  is  likened  to  an 
arrow,  God*s  protection,  in  which  he  is  hid  and 
preserved,  is  the  quiver  (Is.  xlix:2).  Sometimes 
quiver  is  put  for  arrows  in  it ;  thus  the  quiver.  ».  e., 
the  arrows  from  it,  rattle  against  the  horse  in 
battle  (Job  xxxix:23). 


[  (ra'B-mah).  (Hcb.  ^'f^'i,  rah-maw'), 
a  city  of  the  Cushites,  or  of  CushiCe  origin  (Gea.  x: 
7;i  Chroii.i|q;Eiek  xxvii:22). 

Its  situation  is  not  clearly  known,  bit;  the 
Regma  with  which  the  Sept.  identifies  it  was  a 
city  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  mentioned  by  Ptolemy 
{Grog,  vi.?),  and  Stephan.  Byzant  (See  Bochart 
Phakg.  iv  .5). 

T>AAMT*TT  (ra'a-ml'ah),  (Heb.  '^^.  rak-UM- 
yii>i'),  one  of  those  who  returned  Etoih  the  Captivity 
with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  vii:?),  B.  C  445.  In  Eira  if: 
3  he  is  called  Reelikiah. 

BAAKBES  (ra-Sm'sEz),  (Ex.  v.\\\    See  Rah- 

ESES. 

KABBAH  (r^'bah),  (Heb.  ^\  roMazv',  great). 

1.  This  name,  which  properly  denotes  a  great 

ci^  or  metropolis,  is  given  in  Scripture  to  the 


the  inhabitants  expatriated  to  Media.  The  Am- 
monities  then  recovered  possession  of  Rabbah  and 
the  other  cities  and  territories  which  had  in  for- 
mer times  been  taken  from  them  by  the  Israel- 
ites (Jer.  xlix:3;  Eiek.  xxv:z-5).  (Sec  Am- 
uoNiTES.)  Some  centuries  later,  when  theseparts 
were  subject  to  Egypt,  Rabbah  was  restored  or 
rebuilt  by  Plolemy  Philadejphus,  and  called  by 
him  Philadelphia  (Euseb.  Onotnasl.  s.  v.),  and 
under  this  name  it  is  often  mentioned  by  Greek 
and  Roman  writers  (Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  v. 16;  Ptol. 
Geog.  V.15),  by  Josephus  (De  Bell.  lud.  i.6,  3; 
i.ic),  5;  ii.i8,  i),  and  upon  Roman  coins  (Eckhel, 
iii.3Si;  Mionnet,  v. 335),  as  a  city  of  Arabia, 
Ceelesyria,  or  Decapolis. 

Rabbah  appears  to  have  consisted,  like  Aroer, 
of  two  parts;  the  city  itself,  and  'the  city  of 
waters,'  or  royal  city,  which  was  probably  a  de- 
tached portion  of  the  city  itself,  insulated  by  the 


Ammoa  ttoa  tha  But 


capita]  of  the  Ammonites  ( Josb.  xiii  -.25 ;  a  Sam. 
niri;  xii:27;  i  Chron.  xx:i;  Jer,  xlixij);  the 
full  name  of  which,  however,  as  given  in  Deut. 
iii;ii,  appears  to  have  been  Rabbath-beni-Am- 
mon.  It  was  in  this  place  that  the  great  iron  bed- 
stead of  Ok,  king  of  Bashan,  was  preserved 
(Deut.  iii:ii). 

Here  also,  during  the  siege  of  the  place  by 
Joab,  the  unsuspecting  Uriah  was  slain,  through 
the  contrivance  of  David,  that  he  might  possess 
himself  of  his  wife  Bathsheba ;  after  which  the 
king  went  in  person  and  took  the  city,  the  im- 
portance of  which  is  shown  by  the  solicitude  of 
the  monarch  thus  to  appropriate  to  himself  the 
glory  of  its  subjugation  (2  Sam.  xi,  xii).  After 
this  Rabbah  was  included  in  the  tribe  of  Crad. 
After  the  separation  of  the  ten  tribes,  Rabbah, 
with  the  whole  territory  beyond  the  Jordan,  ad- 
"  hered  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  till  it  was  rav- 
aged by  the  Assyrians  under  TiglaCh-pileser,  and 


stream  on  which  it  was  situated.  The  'city  of 
waters'  was  taken  by  Joab;  but  against  the  city 
itself  he  was  obliged  to  call  for  the  assistance  of 
David  with  a  reinforcement   (2  Sam.  xiirzg). 

2.  A  city  of  Judah,  named  with  Kirjath-jearim 
(Josh.  xv:6o  only),  but  location  entirely  un- 
known; thought  by  some  (MeC.  and  S.,  Cyc.)  to 
be  an  epithet  far  Jerusalem  itself. 

3.  In  Josh,  xi  :8,  only,  Zidon  is  mentioned  with 
the  affix  Rabbah  (see  A.  V,  margin),  but  ren- 
dered in  the  text  "great  Zidon," 

BABBATH-UOAB  (rab'bath-mS'ab).     See  Ak. 

BABBATH  OF  THE  CKIXDBEN  OF  AH- 
XON  (Deut.  iiiiii;  Eiek.  xxi:20),  is  the  full  ap- 
pellation of  Rabbah  (which  see). 

BABBI  (rSb'bi).  (Heb.  "95,  rab-bet' ;  Gr.  'PaWf, 
hrab-bee' ,  -my  master),  a  title  of  dignity  and  honor, 
literally  signifying  "my  master." 


RABBINICAL  LITERATURE 


1422 


RACE 


It  was  given  by  the  Jews  to  distinguish  teach- 
ers of  their  Law,  and  frequently  applied  to  our 
Lord  by  the  disciples  and  the  people  (Matt,  xxiii : 
7,  8;  xxvi:25,  49;  Mark  ix:5;  xi:2i;  xiv:45; 
John  1:38,  49;  iii:2,  26,  etc.).  The  usual  Greek 
word  in  the  Gospels  as  the  title  of  Christ  is 
"teacher"  (Matt.  viii:i9;  ix:ii,  etc.).  The  Jews 
distinguished  between  Rob,  "master,"  Rabbi,  "my 
master,"  and  Rabboni,  "my  great  master."  The 
last  was  the  most  honorable  title  of  all. 

RAEBnnCAIi  LITERATX7BE  (rSU>-bIn'Y.kal 
Ut'er-4-tar).    See  Kabala;  Talmud. 

BABBITH    (rab'bith).  (Heb.  ^^^\  r<dhbeeth\ 

multitude),  a  city  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix:2o).  It 
may  be  tne  moaem  Riba,  eight  miles  south  of 
Mount  Gilboa. 

BABB0NI(rab-b5'ni),  (Gr.*Pa/3/3oy2,  hrab-bon-ee', 
from  the  Chaldaic  my  master),  the  title  of  hiehest 
honor  applied  by  the  Jews  to  tHe  teac^jers  of  the 
law.    (See  Rabbi.) 

In  Mark  x:5i  (translated  'Lord'),  John  xx:i6, 
it  is  applied  to  Christ;  but,  as  it  seems  to  us, 
rather  in  its  literal  acceptation,  than  with  refer- 
ence to  the  conventional  distinction  which  it  im- 
plied (if  such  distinction  then  existed)  in  the 
Jewish  schools.  There  were  but  seven  great  pro- 
fessors, all  of  the  school  of  Hillel,  to  whom  the 
title  was  publicly  given.  There  is  some  difference 
as  to  their  names,  and  even  the  Talmud  varies  in 
its  statements.  But  the  only  one  there  whose 
name  occurs  in  Scripture  is  Gamaliel,  unless,  in- 
deed, as  some  suppose,  the  aged  Simeon,  who 
blessed  the  infant  Savior  (Luke  ii:25),  was  the 
same  as  the  Rabban  Simeon  of  the  Talmud.  (See 
Simeon.) 

BABMAG  (rib'mag),  (Heb.  ^T^^,  rab-mawg'. 

chief  magician  or  priest),  a  title  of  Nergal-sharezer 
(Jer.  xxxix:3, 13). 

It  means,  most  probably,  'chief  of  the  Magi,* 
a  dignitary  who  had  accompanied  the  king  of 
Babylon  on  his  campaigns. 

BABSABIS(rab'sa-rIs),(Heb.D'*^.9'3l.  rab-saw- 
reece\ 

1.  One  of  the  three  Assyrian  generals  in  com- 
mand of  the  army  which  appeared  before  Jeru- 
salem, B.  C.  713  (2  Kings  xviii:i7.)  (See  Rab- 
shakeh).  The  word  means  'chief  of  the  eu- 
nuchs;* which  could  scarcely  have  been  a  proper 

le ;  but  whether  his  office  was  really  that  which 
the^ltte  imports,  or  some  other  great  court  office, 
must  be  determined  by  the  considerations  which 
have  been  offered  under  the  article  Eunuch. 
The  chief  of  the  eunuchs  is  an  officer  of  high 
rank  and  dignity  in  the  Oriental  courts;  and  his 
cares  are  not  confined  to  the  harem,  but  many 
high  public  functions  devolve  upon  him.  It  may 
be  very  properly  surmised  that  Rabsaris  is  also  an 
Assyrian  word,  and  is  also  some  sort  of  official 
title.  It  has,  however,  not  yet  been  found  upon 
any  Assyrian  inscription.  Winckler  has  proposed 
to  derive  it  from  three  Assyrian  words  (rab-sha- 
reshu),  which  would  together  mean  aiwut  the 
same  thing  as  Rabshakeh  (see  Rabshakeh)  ;  but 
this  is  improbable  in  itself,  and  the  three  words 
are  nowhere  found  used  as  a  single  word.  For 
the  present  we  can  do  no  better  than  accept  ten- 
tatively a  Hebrew  etymology  for  the  word  by 
which  it  would  mean  'chief  eunuch.*  (Dr.  R. 
W.  Rogers,  Barnes,  Bib.  Diet.) 

2.  One  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  officers,  who  was 
present  at  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  (B.  C.  588), 
when  Zedekiah  was  taken  prisoner  and  sent  to 
Babylon  (Jer.  xxxix:3,  13). 


BABSHAXEH  (r&b'sha-keh),  (Heb.  ^97^* 
rab-shaw'kay' ,  Sept.  *Paf  dinys,  rap-sak'as). 

This  name  is  Aramaic,  and  signifies  ehief  cup- 
bearer. Notwithstanding  its  seemingly  official 
significance,  it  appears  to  have  been  used  as  a 
proper  name,  as  Butler  with  us;  for  the  person 
who  bore  it  was  a  military  chief  in  high  com- 
mand, under  Sennacherib,  king  of  Assyria.  Yet 
it  is  not  impossible,  according  to  Oriental  usages, 
that  a  royal  cupbearer  should  hold  a  militanr 
command;  and  the  office  itself  was  one  of  high 
distinction.  He  is  the  last-named  of  three  As- 
syrian generals,  who  appeared  before  Jerusalem, 
and  was  the  utterer  of  the  insulting  speeches  ad- 
dressed to  the  besieged  (B.  C.  713).  'He  stood 
and  cried  with  a  loud  voice  in  the  Jews'  language ;' 
perhaps  because  he  was  the  only  one  of  the  three 
who  could  speak  that  language  freely  (2  Kings 
xviii:i7,  19,  26,  28,  37;  xix:4,  8;  Is.  xxxvi:2,  4, 
12,  13,  22;  xxxvii:4,  8). 

BACA  (ra'k4),  (Gr.  'Paicd.  hrak-ah'),  from  the 
Aramaic '  worthless.* 

A  word  which  occurs  in  Matt,  v  122,  and  which 
remains  untranslated  in  the  Authorized  Version, 
It  is  expressive  of  contempt  from  the  Chaldee,  and 
means  an  empty,  worthless  fellow.  Jesus,  con- 
trasting the  law  of  Moses,  which  could  only  take 
notice  of  overt  acts,  with  his  own,  which  renders 
man  amenable  for  his  motives  and  feelings,  says 
in  effect:  'Whosoever  is  rashly  angry  with  his 
brother  is  liable  to  the  judgment  of  (jod; 
whosoever  calls  his  brother  Raca  is  liable  to  the 
judgment  of  the  Sanhedrim;  but  whosoever  calls 
him  fool  (}&tap4)  becomes  liable  to  the  judgment 
of  Gehenna.*  To  apprehend  the  higher  crimi- 
nality here  attached  to  the  term  fool,  which  may 
not  at  first  seem  very  obvious,  it  is  necessary 
to  observe  that  while  'raca'  denotes  a  certain 
looseness  of  life  and  manners,  'fool*  denotes  a 
wicked  and  reprobate  person;  foolishness  being  in 
Scripture  opposed  to  spiritual  wisdom. 

BACE  (ras),  (Heb.  ^'^^^  o'rakk^  a  path  or  way, 
Ps.  xix:5). 

1.  One  of  the  contests  in  the  Grecian  games. 
"Such  as  obtained  victories  in  any  of  these  games, 
especially  the  Olympic,  were  universally  honored, 
and  almost  adored.  Cicero  reports  that  a  victory 
in  the  Olympic  games  was  not  much  less  honor- 
able than  a  triumph  at  Rome. 

"Happy  was  the  man  esteemed  who  could  but 
obtain  a  single  victory;  if  any  person  merited 
repeated  rewards,  he  was  thought  to  have  attained 
the  utmost  felicity  of  which  human  nature  is  ca- 
pable; but  if  he  came  off  conqueror  in  all  the  ex- 
ercises, he  was  elevated  above  the  condition  of 
men,  and  his  actions  styled  wonderful  victories ! 
Nor  did  their  honors  terminate  in  themselves, 
but  were  extended  to  all  about  them;  the  city 
that  gave  them  birth  and  education  was  esteemed 
more  honorable  and  august ;  happy  were  their  re- 
lations, and  thrice  happy  their  parents. 

"It  is  a  remarkable  story  which  Plutarch  relates 
of  a  Spartan,  who,  meeting  Diagoras,  that  had 
himself  been  crowned  in  the  Olympic  games,  and 
seen  his  sons  and  grrandchildren  victors,  em- 
braced him,  and  said,  'Now  die,  Diagoras;  for 
thou  canst  not  be  a  god !'  By  the  laws  of  Solon, 
a  hundred  drachms  were  allowed  from  the  public 
treasury  to  every  Athenian  who  obtained  a  prize 
in  the  Isthmian  games ;  and  five  hundred  drachms 
to  such  as  were  victors  in  the  01)rmpian.  After- 
wards, the  latter  of  these  had  their  maintenance 
in  the  Prytaneum,  or  public  hall  of  Athens'*  {Cat- 
met).    (See  Games.) 

2.  A  poetic  word,  signifying  a  way,  path,  and 


RACHAB  1 

ii  used  to  illustrate  the  going  forth  of  the  sun, 
as  a  "strong  man  to  make  a  journey." 

FigaratiV9.  The  race  is  not  to  the  sviifi,  nor 
the  bailie  to  the  strong;  undertakings  do  not  al- 
ways succeed  with  men  according  to  their  qualifi- 
cations, diligence  or  advantages,  but  accordiiig  to 
the  will  and  providential  interposal  of  God  (Ecd. 

BA0HAB{ra'k3b),  (Matt.  ■:;).    See  Rah ab. 

BAOHAL  (ra'kJU),  (Heb.  ^Ti,  raw-kawr,  traf- 
fic), a  town  in  the  southern  part  of  the  territory 
belonging  to  Judah,  to  which  David  sent  a  portion 
of  the  spoil  recovered  at  Ziklag  (I  Sam.  xxx:29). 
The  site  is  not  known. 

RAOHAM  (ra'kSni),  {Heb.  P?^,  ravhkhawm'. 
Lev.  xi:i8;  Deul.  xiv;i7),  is  now  admitted  to  be 
the  white  carrion  vulture  of  Egypt,  Percnopterui 
Neophron  ^gypliacus. 

In  size  the  species  is  little  bulkier  than  a  raven, 
but  it  stands  high  on  the  legs.  Always  soiled  with 
blood  and  garbage,  offensive  to  the  eye  and  nose. 


23  RACHEL 

sun,  though  swarming  around  and  greedy  of  every 
other  animal  substance  (see  Vulture). 

C.  H.  S. 

BAOHEL  (ra'cbei),  (Heb.  ^0^,  ratti-ihaW,  a 
ewe;  Sept.  'Pox4^.  Hachei),  one  and  the  most 
beloved  of  the  two  daughters  of  Laban,  whom 
Jacob  married  (Gen.  xidx:i6,sg.),  andwhobecame 
the  mother  of  Joseph  and  Benjamin,  in  giving  birth 
to  the  latter  of  whom  she  died  near  Bethlehem, 
where  her  sepulcher  is  shown  to  this  day  (Gen. 
XXX :22:  xxxv:i6),  B.  C.  igzo.  For  more  minute 
particulars  see  Jacob,  with  whose  history  Rachel's 
IS  closely  involved. 

Character.  "From  what  is  related  to  ua  con- 
cerning her  character  there  does  not  seem  much 
to  claim  any  high  degree  of  admiration  and  es- 
teem. The  discontent  and  fretful  impatience 
shown  in  her  grief  at  being  for  a  time  childless 
moved  even  her  fond  husband  to  anger  (Gen. 
XXX :  I,  2\.  She  appears,  moreover,  to  have  shared 
all  the  duplicity  and  falsehood  of  her  family.  See, 
'      '    '  '     account  of  Rachel's  stealing  her 


it  yet  is  protected  in  Egypt  both  by  law  and  pub- 
lic opinion,  for  the  services  it  renders  in  clearing 
the  soil  of  dead  carcasses  putrefying  in  the  sun, 
and  the  cultivated  lields  of  innumerable  rats, 
mice,  and  other  vermin.  Pious  Moslems  at  Cairo 
and  other  places  bestow  a  daily  portion  of  food 
upon  them,  and  upon  their  associates  the  kites, 
who  are  seen  hovering  conjointly  in  great  num- 
bers about  the  city.  The  Racham  extends  to 
Palestine  in  the  summer  season,  but  becomes 
scarce  towards  the  north,  where  it  is  not  specially 
protected;  and  it  accompanies  caravans,  (easting 
on  their  leavings  and  on  dead  camels,  etc.  The 
Percnopterus  is  somewhat  singularly  classed  both 
in  Leviticus  and  Deuteronomy,  along  with  aquatic 
birds ;  and  it  may  be  questioned  whether  any  ani- 
mal will  eat  it,  since  in  the  parallel  case  of  Vultur 
aura,  the  turkey  buzzard  or  carrion  crow  of 
America,  we  have  found  even  the  ants  abstaining 
from  its  carcass,  and  leaving  it  to  dry  up  in  the 


'»  Tomb. 

father's  images,  and  the  ready  dexterity  and 
presence  of  mind  with  which  she  concealed  her 
theft"  (ch,  xxxi;34).  And  yet  there  must  have 
been  extremely  fascinating  qualities  of  person, 
mind  and  heart  to  bind  Jacob  so  closely  and  lov- 
ingly to  her. 

rigaratiVt.  "A  voice  was  heard  in  Ramah — 
Rachel  weeping"  (Jer.  xxxi:i5).  "It  appears 
from  ch.  xl:i  that  Nebuzar-adan  had  the  cap- 
tives collected  at  Ramah.  in  chains,  before  tie 
marched  them  off  for  Babylon.  There  must 
needs  have  been  a  great  lamentation  among  them; 
and  as  this  occurred  at  a  place  in  the  tribe  of 
Bi:n]amin,  the  prophet  by  a  fine  and  bold  figure 
introduces  Rachel  as  weeping  for  her  children 
slain  and  captives.  Rachel,  being  both  the  mother 
of  Benjamin,  in  one  of  the  two  kingdoms,  and 
(through  Joseph)  of  Ephraim,  the  leading  tribe  in 
the  other,  is  with  great  propriety  made  to  repre- 
sent the  general  mother  of  the  nation ;  and  the 


RACHEL'S  TOMB 


1424 


RAIL,  RAILING 


weeping  for  her  children  is  assigned  with  strik- 
ing fitness  to  one  by  whom  children  were  so  pas- 
sionately desired.  Rachel's  sepulcher  was  not, 
as  some  commentators  explain,  near  Ramah,  so. 
as  to  be  an  object  before  the  eyes  of  the  miserable 
people  there  assembled;  but  it  was  near  Bethle- 
hem— at  least  twelve  miles  from  this  Ramah,  and 
in  the  tribe  of  Judah ;  and  as  this  was  nearly  at 
the  same  distance  to  the  south  of  Jerusalem  as 
Ramah  was  to  the  north,  perhaps  the  text,  inci- 
dentally, by  this  figure,  indicates  the  extent  of  the 
lamentation  and  sorrow  around  Jerusalem,  by  ex- 
pressing that  the  voice  of  Rachel  weeping  near 
Bethlehem  *was  heard  in  Ramah*  by  the  captives." 
Kitto,  Pictorial  Bible. 

This  quotation  seems  to  explain  the  text  Mat- 
thew ii:i8.  So  great  was  the  grief  in  Bethlehem, 
when  Herod  murdered  the  infants,  that  it  was 
heard  in  Ramah.  This  is  indeed  an  hyperbole, 
but  very  apt  to  intimate  excessive  grief. 

BACHEIi'S  TOMB  (ra'chel's  toom),  this  is  north 
of  Ephrath,  that  is  Bethlehem,  where  Jacob  set  up 
a  pillar  (Gen.  xxxv:iq,  20).  The  spot  was  well 
known  in  the  time  of  Samuel  and  Saul  (i  Sam.  x:2); 
the  present  structure  is  of  no  great  antiquity. 

RADDAI   (r^'da-i),    (Heb.  *'3^,  rad-daA'-ee, 

treading  down),  fifth  son  of  Jesse,  and  an  elder 
brother  of  David  (i  Chron.  ii:i4),  B.  C.  1068. 
Ewald  conjectures  that  he  may  be  identical  with 
Rei. 

RAGATJ  (r&'gau)^  (Gr.  '^ayav,  hrag-ifw'),  son  of 
Phalec  and  an  ancestor  of  Christ  (Luke  iii:35). 

He  is  identical  with  Reu;  the  apparent  differ- 
ence in  the  names  is  due  to  following  of  the 
Greek  translation. 

BAGGED  (rSg'gSd),  the  tops  of  the  ragged 
rocks  (Is.  ii:2i). 

Ragged  is  the  old  form  of  the  word  now  writ- 
ten rugged. 

The    splitting   rocks    cowered   in    the   sinking 

sands. 
And    would   not   dash   me  with   their  ragged 

sides. 
— Shakespeare  (Swinton,  Bih,  Hand  Book.) 

BAGT7EL  or  BEX7EL  (ra-gO'el  or  re-Q'el),  (Heb. 

^«^3?-J,  reh-ooaU,  friend  of  God). 

1.  A  son  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi:4,  10). 

2.  The  father  of  Jethro  (Exod.  ii:i8;  Num. 
x:29).  Some  confound  him  with  Jethro;  but  in 
the  text  last  cited,  he  is  called  the  father  of 
Hobab,  who  seems  to  have  been  the  same  as 
Jethro.  in  the  same  passage,  indeed,  the  daugh- 
ters of  the  'priest  of  Midian'  relate  to  *Reuel  their 
father*  their  adventure  with  Moses;  which  might 
seem  to  support  his  identity  with  Jethro;  but  it  is 
quite  a  Scriptural  usage  to  call  a  grandfather 
•father,'  and  a  granddaughter,  'daughter'  (Gen. 
xxxi:43;  i  Kings  xiv:3;  xvi:2;  xviii:3).  The 
Targum  in  this  place  reads,  They  came  to  Reuel 
their  father's  father.'    (See  Hobab.) 

3.  Another  person  of  this  name  occurs  in  i 
Chron.  ix:8. 

■n-ATTA-R  (ra'h^b),  (Heb.^O!!,  rah'khab,  proud). 

1.  A  name,  signifying  *sea  monster,'  which  is 
applied  as  an  appellation  to  Egypt  in  Ps.  Ixxiv: 
13,  14;  lxxxvii:4;  Ixxxixrio;  Is.  lirg  (and  some- 
times to  its  king,  Ezek.  xxix:3;  xxxiii:3),  which 
metaphorical  designation  probably  involves  an  al- 
lusion to  the  crocodiles,  hippopotami,  and  other 
aquatic  creatures  of  the  Nile. 

2.  Properly    Rachab  (Heb.  ^77i  raW'khawh\ 

large),  a  woman  of  Jericho  who  received  into 
her  house  the  two  spies  who  were  sent  by  Joshua 


into  that  city ;  concealed  them  under  the  flax  laid 
out  upon  the  house-top,  when  they  were  sought 
after;  and,  having  given  them  important  informa- 
tion, which  showed  that  the  inhabitants  were  much 
disheartened  at  the  miracles  which  had  attended 
the  march  of  the  Israelites,  enabled  them  to  es- 
cape over  the  wall  of  the  town,  upon  which  her 
dwelling  was  situated.  For  this  important  service 
Rahab  and  her  kindred  were  saved  by  the  He- 
brews from  the  general  massacre  which  followed 
the  taking  of  Jericho  (Josh.  ii:i-2i;  vi:i7;  comp. 
Heb.  xi:3i). 

In  the  narrative  of  these  transactions  Rahab  is 
called  zonah,  which  our  own,  after  the  ancient 
versions,  renders  *harlot.'  The  Jewish  writers, 
however,  being  unwilling  to  entertain  the  idea  of 
their  ancestors  being  involved  in  a  disreputable 
association  at  the  commencement  of  their  great 
undertaking,  chose  to  interpret  the  word  'hostess,' 
one  who  keeps  a  public  house,  as  if  from  the  He- 
brew word  meaning  *to  nourish'  (Joseph.  Antiq. 
v:i;  ii  and  vii;  comp.  the  Targum  and  Kimchi 
and  Jarchi  on  the  text).  Christian  interpreters 
also  are  inclined  to  adopt  this  interpretation  for 
the  sake  of  the  character  of  the  woman  of  whom 
the  Apostle  speaks  well,  and  who  would  appear 
from  Matt.  i:4  to  have  become  by  a  subsequent 
marriage  with  Salmon,  prince  of  Judah,  an  an- 
cestress of  Jesus.  But  we  must  be  content  to  take 
facts  as  they  stand,  and  not  strain  them  to  meet 
difficulties ;  and  it  is  now  universally  admitted  by 
every  sound  Hebrew  scholar  that  zonah  means 
'harlot,'  and  not  'hostess.'  It  signifies  harlot  in 
every  other  text  where  it  occurs,  the  idea  oi 
'hostess'  not  being  represented  bv  this  or  any 
other  word  in  Hebrew,  as  the  function  repre- 
sented by  it  did  not  exist.  There  were  no  inns; 
and  when  certain  substitutes  for  inns  subsequently 
came  into  use,  they  were  never,  in  any  Eastern 
country,  kept  by  women.  On  the  other  hand, 
strangers  from  beyond  the  river  might  have  re- 
paired to  the  house  of  a  harlot  without  suspicion 
pr  remark.  The  Bedouins  from  the  desert  con* 
stantly  do  so  at  this  day  in  their  visits  to  Cairo 
and  Bagdad.  The  house  of  such  a  woman  was 
also  the  only  one  to  which  they,  as  perfect  stran- 
gers, could  have  had  access,  and  certainly  the  only 
one  in  which  they  could  calculate  on  obtaining  the 
information  they  required  without  danger  from 
male  inmates.  This  concurrence  of  analogies  in 
the  word,  in  the  thing,  and  in  the  probability  of 
circumstances,  ought  to  settle  the  question.  If  we 
are  concerned  for  the  morality  of  Rahab,  the  best 
proof  of  her  reformation  is  found  in  the  fact  of 
her  subsequent  marriage  to  Salmon;  this  implies 
her  previous  conversion  to  Judaism,  for  which  in- 
deea  her  discourse  with  the  spies  evinces  that 
she  was  prepared. 

•RAHAM  (ra'hSlm),  (Heb.  ^^X  rakkam,  pity), 
son  of  Shema,  and  a  man  of  Judah  of  the  family  of 
Hezron,  house  of  Caleb  (i  Chron.  ii:44),  B.  C. 
after  1600. 


Ill  (ra'hel),  a  form  which  was  common  in 
the  old  editions  of  the  Bible,  but  which  has  been 
changed  to  Rachel,  except  in  Jer.  xxxi:i5,  which 
was  doubtless  an  oversight. 

BAIL,  BAHilNG  (ral,  ral-Tng),  the  translation 
of  Hebrew  and  Greek  terms: 

1.  J5>/(Heb,  ^**?,  to  swoop  down  upon,  i  Sam. 
xxv:i4). 

2.  Khaw-raf  (Heb.  *T7,  to  pluck,    to    pull), 

to  treat  with  contempt,  or  scorn,  to  reproach  or 
upbraid  (2  Chron.  xxxii:i7). 

8.   BlaS'fay-me' ah  (Gr.  j?\a<rff>rifda,  slander),  to 
defame  one's  character  or  good  name  (Mark  xv: 


RAIMENT 


1425 


RAMA 


29;   Luke  xxiii:39;   i   Tim.  vi:4;  2  Pet.  ii:ii; 
Jude  9). 

4.  Loy-dor-ee' ah  (Gr.  Xot5op/a),  the  act  of  re- 
viling, upbraiding  or  slandering  (i  Cor.  v:ii). 

5.  It  was  a  great  offense  to  "revile  rulers/*  in 
church  or  state;  and  "revilers"  of  parents  were 
appointed  to  death  (Exod.  xxi:i7;  xxiitsS). 
They  are  blessed  to  God  who  bless  and  from  the 
heart  wish  well  to  such  as  rail  at  or  revile  them 
(Matt.  v:ii;  i  Cor.  v:i2).     (See  Revile.) 

•RATMENT  (ra'mrat).    See  Dress. 

RAIMENT,  CHANGES  OF.  Costly  garments 
of  various  substances  and  colors,  inwrought  and 
embroidered  with  gold  threads  (Ezek.  xvi:io,  13; 
Eccles.  ix:8)  were  frequently  made  by  Hebrew 
women  (Prov.  xxxi:22),  and  also  imported  (Zeph. 
i:8).  Men  of  high  station  had  always  a  large 
supply  of  these  for  their  own  use  (Prov.  xxxi:2i ; 
Job  xxvii:i6;  Luke  xv:22)  and  to  ^ve  away  as 
presents  (Gen.  xlv:22;  i  Sam.  xviii:4;  2  Kings 
v:s;  x:22;  Esth.  iv:4;  vi:8,  11). 

BAIN  (ran),  (Heb.  ""J??,  maw-tar'),  generically 
rain: 

1.  (Heb.  ^"^ii,  gheh' shem\  occasional  showers. 

2.  (Heb.  ^^31,  raw-beeb'),  an  accumulation  of 

drops  (Deut.  xxxii:2;  Jer.  iii:3;  xiv:22;  Mic.  v:7, 
etc.). 

8.  (Heb.  ^^J,  zeh'renit  violent  rainstorm,  or  tem- 
pest), sometimes  accompanied  with  hail  (Job  xxiv: 
§). 

In  the  spring  there  is  frequently  rain  in  Pales- 
tine for  several  days,  with  thunder  and  lightning 
and  a  strong  wind.  In  the  summer  season,  from 
May  to  October,  the  earth  is  parched,  verdure  is 
destroyed,  and  vegetation  languishes.  The  first 
rain  after  the  summer  drought  usually  falls  in 
October,  and  is  called  the  former  or  autunmal 
rain,  because  it  precedes  seed-time  and  prepares 
the  earth  for  cultivation.  The  latter  rain  falls  in 
April,  just  before  harvest,  and  perfects  the  fruits 
of  the  earth  (Deut.  xi:i4;  Hos.  vi:3;  Joel  ii:23). 
Storms  after  this  time  were  regarded  by  the  Jews 
as  unseasonable,  and  even  miraculous  (Prov. 
xxviri;  i  Sam.  xii:i6-i9).  The  average  present 
rainfall  at  Jerusalem  is  61.6  inches,  which  is 
greater  than  that  of  almost  any  part  of  the  United 
States  (Schaff,  Bib.  Diet.),     (See  Palestine.) 

Figurative,  (i)  Whatever  is  refreshing,  nour- 
ishing, delightful,  and  tending  to  make  persons 
useful  in  good  works,  such  as  ethical  instructions, 
outward  blessings,  and  the  word,  ordinances,  and 
influences  of  Jesus  (Thrist  and  his  Spirit,  are 
likened  to  rain  and  blessed  showers  (Deut.  xxxii: 
2;  Is.  v:6;  Ps.  lxviii:9;  Ezek.  xxxiv:26).  Rain 
coming  on  mown  grass,  and  on  the  earth,  may 
import  that  it  comes  on  persons  afflicted  and  sin- 
ful (Ps.  lxxii:6).  (2)  The  remnant  of  Jacob  is 
likened  to  showers;  the  Jewish  apostles  and  be- 
lievers, and  saints  and  ministers  of  every  nation 
are  useful  to  promote  the  spiritual  growth  and 
fruitfulness  of  the  places  they  live  in  (Mic.  v:7). 
(3)  Destructive  judgments  are  likened  to  an 
overflowing  shower,  to  mark  how  sudden,  wast- 
ing, and  ruinous  they  are  to  a  country  (Ezek. 
xiiirii).  (4)  The  word  of  God  (Is.  Iv.io)  is 
compared  to  rain  and  snow,  return  as  vapor  to  the 
slqr,  but  not  without  having  first  of  all  accom- 
plished the  purpose  of  their  descent,  so  the  word 
of  (jod  shall  not  return  to  Him  without  fulfilling 
its  purpose. 

RAINBOW    (ran'bO),   (Heb.   ^f|?.,    keh^sheth, 

*bow  in  the  cloud;"  Gr.  Tptf,  ee'ris), 
A    seven-colored    semicircle    produced    by   the 
90 


reflection  of  the  sun's  rays  from  the  drops  of 
falling  water,  and  appearing  in  its  greatest  bril- 
liancy when  the  spectator  is  placed  between  the 
.shining  sun  on  the  one  side  and  a  raining  cloud 
on  the  other.  It  may  be  formed  in  waterfalls, 
fountains,  etc.,  but  when  formed  in  the  atmos- 
phere it  always  shows  that  the  rain  has  passed 
away.  The  same  laws  by  which  this  effect  is  pro- 
duced were  probably  in  operation  before  the 
Deluge.  It  was  the  token  of  the  covenant  which 
(jod  made  with  Noah  that  the  waters  should  no 
more  become  a  flood  to  destroy  all  flesh.  The 
interpretation  of  Gen.  ix:i3  seems  to  be,  that  God 
took  the  rainbow,  and  consecrated  it  as  the  sign 
of  His  love  and  the  witness  of  His  promise 
(Ecclus.  xliii:ii).  The  meaning  of  the  covenant 
would  be  in  substance,  "'As  surely  as  that  bow  is 
the  result  of  established  laws  which  must  con- 
tinue as  long  as  the  sun  and  atmosphere  endure, 
so  surely  shall  the  world  be  preserved  from  de- 
struction by  a  deluge." 

Figurative.  The  rainbow  became  the  symbol 
of  God's  faithfulness  and  of  his  beneficence,  mer<^ 
and  love  toward  man.  The  covenant  of  grace  is 
compared  to  a  ^'rainbow  round  about  God's 
throne,"  and  "about  Christ's  head;"  this  glorious 
display  of  the  excellencies  of  the  Sun  of  Right- 
eousness, whereby  all  our  clouds  of  trouble  and 
wretchedness  are  illuminated,  is  our  undoubted 
security  against  the  severe  justice  of  God;  and 
Jesus  and  his  Father  often  delight  in,  and  are 
attended  by  it  in  their  dispensations  of  providence 
(Rev.  iv:3;  x:i). 

BAISEB  OF  TAXES  (raz-er  dv  tlLx'Ss),  (Heb. 
^?'^,  no'gashe,  urging),  a  collector  of  taxes  or  a 
task  master. 

BAISIN  (ra'z'n),  (Heb.  D'^P'^^V,  tsim-moo-keenC, 

I  Sam.  XXV :i8;  xxx:2o;  2  Sam.  xvi:i ;  i  Chron«  xii: 
40),  dried  grapes.    (See  Vine.) 

BAKEM  (ra'kem),  (i  Chron.  vii:i6).    See  Re- 

KEM. 

BAXKATH  (rSk'kath),  (Heb.  ^^\  rak'kath\ 
shore). 

A  walled  city  of  Naphtali,  probably  on  the 
south  shore  of  the  sea  of  Galilee  (Josh.  xix:35). 
It  is  identified  with  Tiberias  by  the  Rabbins,  but 
there  seems  little  authority  for  tj^is  statement,  and 
no  trace  of  that  name  has  been  found  in  the 
neighborhood.     (See  Tiberias.) 

^  BAXKON   (rSk'kon),  (Heb.,  with   the   article 

1*P^?,   haw-rak'kone\  thinness),  perhaps  a  shore 

or  temple. 

-A  place  in  the  tribe  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix:46),  not 
far  from  Joppa.  Conder  identifies  it  with  Tell 
er-Rakkeit,  six  miles  north  of  Joppa.  It  is  a 
high  point  covered  by  an  accumulation  of  blown 
sand,  and  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  turbid 
river  Aujeh,  or  "yellow  water." 

RAM  (rim),  (Heb.  O"?,  rawm,  high). 

1.  Son  of  Hezron,  a  man  of  Judah,  and  father 
of  Amminadab  (Ruth  iv:i9;  i  Chron.  ii:9;  Matt, 
i  :3),  B.  C.  about  2000.  He  was  probably  born  in 
Egypt  after  Jacob  removed  to  that  place. 

2.  Son  of  Jerahmeel,  a  man  of  Judah,  nephew 
of  Ram  1  (i  Chron.  ii:25,  27),  B.  C.  after  1900. 

3.  A  Buzite,  ancestor  of  Elihu  (Job  xxxii  :2). 
Ewald  identifies  him  with  Aram  (Gen.  xxii:2i), 
but  the  names  are  not  the  same  in  the  Hebrew. 

BAM,  BATTERING  (r^m  b^t'ter-Yng).  See 
Engine. 

BAMA  (ra'mi),  (Gi  Pa/ca,  ram-ah*),  a  Greek 
form  for  Ramah. 


RAMAH 


1426 


RAMESES 


(ra'miih),   (Heb.  *^'3,  raw^maw^  a 

high  place,  height),  the  name  of  several  towns  and 
villages  in  Palestme,  which  it  is  not  in  all  cases 
easy  to  distinguish  from  one  another. 

1*  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh.  xviii:25),  in 
the  vidni^  of  Gibeah  and  Geba  (Judg.  xix:i^; 
Is.  x:29;  Hos.  v:8;  Ezra  ii:26;  Neh.  vii:3o;  xi: 
33)  ;  on  the  way  from  Jerusalem  to  Bethel  (Judg. 
iv:5),  and  not  far  from  the  confines  of  the  two 
kingdoms  (i  Kings  xv:i7,  21,  22).  It  is  also  - 
mentioned  in  Ter.  xxxi:i5;  xl:i.  Jerome  places  it 
six  Roman  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  and  Josephus, 
who  calls  it  FattaBtip,  ram-ah-thone' ,  places  it 
forty  stadia  from  Jerusalem  {Antiq,  viii:i2,  3). 
In  accordance  with  all  these  intimations,  at 
the  distance  of  a  two  hours'  journey  north  of 
Jerusalem,  upon  a  hill  a  little  to  the  east  of  the 
great  northern  road,  a  village  still  exists  under 
the  name  of  Er-Ram,  in  which  we  cannot  hesi- 
tate to  recognize  the  representative  of  the  ancient 
Rlamah.  This  is  one  of  the  valuable  identifica- 
tions for  which  Biblical  geography  is  indebted  to 
Dr.  Robinson  {Researches,  ii:3i5-3i7).  The  dif- 
ficult text  (Jer.  xxxi:i5),  *A  voice  was  heard  in 
Ramah  .  .  .  Rachel  weeping  for  her  children,' 
which  the  Evangelist  (Matt.  ii:8)  transfers  to 
the  massacre  at  Bethlehem,  has  been  thought  to 
require  a  southerh  Ramah  not  far  from  that  place, 
near  which  indeed  is  Rachel's  sepulcher.  But  no 
such  Ramah  has  been  found;  and  Dr.  Robinson 
thinks  that  the  allusion  of  the  prophet  was  orig- 
inally applicable  to  this  Ramah.  The  context  re- 
fers to  the  exiles  carried  away  captive  by  Ne- 
buzar-adan  to  Babylon,  who  passed  by  way  of 
Ramah,  which  was  perhaps  their  rendezvous  (Jer. 
xl:i}.  As  Ramah  was  in  Benjamin,  the  prophet 
introduces  Rachel,  the  mother  of  that  tribe,  be- 
wailing the  captivity  of  her  descendants. 

2.  Ramah,  of  Samuel,  so  called,  where  the 
prophet  lived  and  was  buried  (i  Sam.  i:i9;  ii: 
11;  vii:i7;  viii:4;  xv:34;  xvi:i3;  xxv:i;  xxviii: 
3).  It  is  probably  the  same  with  the  Ramathaim- 
Zophim  to  which  his  father  Elkanah  belonged  (i 
Sam.  i:i,  19).  The  position  of  this  Ramah  was 
early  lost  sight  of  by  tradition,  and  a  variety  of 
opinions  have  prevailed  since  the  time  of  Euseb- 
ius  and  Jerome,  who  regard  it  as  the  Arimathea 
of  the  New  Testament,  and  place  it  near  Lydda, 
where  a  Ramah-  anciently  existed.  Hence  some 
have  held  the  site  to  be  that  of  the  present  Ram- 
leh,  which  is  itself  a  modern  town  (see  Arima- 
th.«a).  Many  writers  have,  however,  been  dis- 
used to  seek  Samuel's  Ramah  in  the  Ramah  of 
injamin  (Pocock,  ii:7i,  72;  Bachiene,  i:iS5; 
Raumer,  Pal&sL  p.  146;  Winer,  s,  v.);  but  this 
was  only  half  an  hour  distant  from  the  Gibeah 
where  Saul  resided,  which  does  not  agree  with 
the  historical  information  (comp.  i  Sam.  ix:io). 
Again,  general  opinion  has  pointed  to  a  place 
called  Neby  Samuel,  a  village  upon  a  high  point 
two  hours  northwest  of  Jerusalem,  and  which 
was,  indeed,  also  usually  supposed  to  be  the  Ra- 
mah of  Benjamin,  till  Dr.  Robinson  established 
the  separate  claims  of  Er-Ram  to  that  distinction. 
But  this  appropriation  does  not  agree  with  the 
mention  of  Kachel's  sepulcher  in  i  Sam.  x:2,  for 
that  is  about  as  far  to  the  south  of  Jerusalem  as 
Neby  Samuel  is  to  the  northwest.  The  like  ob- 
jection applies,  though  in  a  somewhat  less  de- 
gree, to  the  modern  Soba,  west  of  Jerusalem, 
which  Robinson  points  out  as  possibly  the  site  of 
Ramathaim-zophim  and  Ramah  (Researches,  ii: 
330-334) .  The  chief  difficulties  in  connection  with 
this  matter  arise  of  course  out  of  the  account 
given  of  Saul's  journey  after  his  father's  asses. 
The  city  in  which   Saul   found   Samuel   is  not 


named,  but  is  said  to  have  been  'in  the  land  of 
Zuph'  (i  Sam.  ix:5),  and  is  asstmied  to  have  been 
Ramah-zophim.  In  dismissing  him  from  this 
place,  Samuel  foretells  an  adventure  that  should 
befall  him  near  Rachel's  sepulcher.  Now,  as  this 
sepulcher  was  near  Bethlehem,  and  as  Saul's 
abode  was  in  Benjamin,  the  southern  border  of 
which  is  several  miles  to  the  north  thereof,  it  is 
manifest  that  if  Saul  in  going  home  was  to  pass 
near  Rachel's  sepulcher,  the  place  where  Samuel 
was  must  have  been  to  the  south  of  it.  In  the 
midst  of  all  this  uncertainty.  Dr.  Robinson  thinks 
that  interpreters  may  yet  be  driven  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  city  where  Saul  found  Samael  ( x 
Sam.  ix:io),  was  not  Ramah,  his  home. 

3.  A  town  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix:29).  Robinson 
locates'  it  at  Rameh,  about  thirteen  miles  south- 
west of  Tyre. 

4.  A  city  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix:36). 

5.  A  town  of  Gilead  (2  Kings  viii:29),  the 
name  of  which  is  given  more  fully  in  Josh,  xiii : 
26,  as  Ramoth-mizpeh. 

6.  Ramah  of  the  South,    (See  Ramath-negeb.) 

7.  A  place  reinhabited  by  the  Benjamites  after 
the  Captivity  (Neh.  xi:33).  It  may  be  Ramah  of 
Benjamin,  or  Ramah  of  Samuel. 

TiAMATH  (ra'math),  the  form  of  Ramah  when 

joined  to  another  word. 

RAMATHATTW  -  ZOFHIM    ( ra-matb-a'im-zO'- 

phim),  (Heb.  D*^^  ^'^C'p??,  haw-raw-mavythah* - 

yeem  tso-feem*,  watchers  or  twin  heights],  the 
birthplace  of  Samuel  and  residence  of  his  father 
(i  Sam.  i:i).    (See  Ramah,  2). 

BAMATHTTE  (ra'mathlte),  (Heb.  ^V^\  raw- 

maw-thee*^  an  inhabitant  of  Ramah),  the  appella- 
tion of  Shimei,  David's  overseer  of  the  vineyards 
(1  Chron.  xxvii:27),  of  which  Ramah  he  may  have 
been  a  native,  there  is  no  means  of  knowing. 

BAMATH-LEHI   (ra'math-le'hf),  (Heb.  '^O? 

*''?5,  raw-math'lekh* ee^  lifting  up  of  the  cheek  or 

jaw  bone),  the  name  given  to  Lehi  after  Samson's 
adventure  with  the  jawbone.  It  means  *the  lift- 
ing* or 'wielding'  of  the  jaw  bone  (Judg.  xv:  17). 
(See  Lehi.) 

BAMATH  -  MIZPEH     (ra'math-mTz'peh), 

(Heb.  ^W^'^  r^9^,  raw-math'  ham-mits-pek,  the 

height  of  the  watch  tower),  a  boundary  mark  of  the 
tribe  of  Gad  (Tosh,  xiii: 26).  It  would  seem  to  be  on 
the  northern  boundary  and  perhaps  identical  with 
the  place  where  Jacob  and  Laban  had  their  inter- 
view, called  MizPAH  (which  see). 

RAMATH-NEGEB  (ra'math-ne'geb),  called 
"Ramath  of  the  South"  (Heb.  ^^  riQn  ^  raw- 
math'  neh'geb),  a  place  in  the  southern  border  of 
Simeon  (Josh.  xix:8;  i  Sam.  xxx:27).  In  the  lat- 
ter passage  it  is  called  "South  Ramoth"  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  Ramoth  beyond  Jordan.  It  has 
been  identified  with  Jebel  Barabir,  a  hill  forty-five 
miles  southwest  of  Beer-sheba,  and  also  with 
Kurmul,  twenty  miles  southeast  of  Beer-sheba. 
Van  de  Velde  (Memoir,  p.  342)  identifies  it  with 
Ramath-Lehi,  which  he  locates  at  Tell  el-Lekiyeh. 
The  chief  objection  to  this  location  is  that  it 
seems  too  far  south  for  the  adventures  of  Samson. 
Further  evidence  must  be  had  before  any  of  these 
identifications  can  be  accepted. 

RAMESES  tra-mS'sez),  (Heb.  ^P^P,  raA-mes- 
ace'). 

An  Egyptian  city  in  the  land  of  Goshen,  built, 
or  at  least  fortified,  by  the  labor  of  the  Israelites 
(Gen.  xlvii:ii;  Exod.  i:ii;  xii  :37;  Num.  xxxiii* 


RAMIAH 


1427 


RANSOM 


3-S).  The  name  of  the  city  seems  to  have  been 
sometimes  given  to  the  whole  province  (Gen. 
xlviiiii),  by  which  it  would  appear  to  have  been 
the  chief  city  of  the  district.  It  was  probably 
situated  on  the  watershed  between  the  Bitter 
Lakes  and  the  Valley  of  the  Seven  Wells,  not  far 
from  Heroopolis,  but  not  identical  with  that  city 
(See  Robinson's  Bibl.  Researches,  1:70,  547-550). 
In  Exod.  i:ii,  the  name  is  by  a  difference  in  the 
points  spelled  Raamses.  The  name  means  'son  of 
the  son/  and  was  borne  by  several  of  the  ancient 
kings  of  Egypt,  one  of  whom  was  probably  the 
founder  of  the  city. 
•RAMTAH  (ra-mi'ah),  (Heb.   ^,9^,   ram-yaw*, 

exalted  by  Jehovah),  a  descendant  of  Parosh,  who 
had  married  a  foreign  wife,  but  divorced  her  (Ezra 
x:25),  B.C.  458. 

BAMOTH  (ra'moth),  (Heb.  "'^"3,  raw-moth*, 
heights). 

1*  A  Levitical  city ;  one  of  the  four  in  Issachar 
(i  Chron.  vi:73).  I"  Josh.  xxi:28,  29,  Jarmuth 
appears  in  its  place.  It  is  impossible  to  tell 
whether  they  are  identical. 

2.  One  of  the  descendants  of  Bani,  who  re- 
nounced his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x:29),  B.  C  458. 

8.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Gad  (Deut.  iv:43; 
Josh.  XX  :8;  xxi:38;  i  Chron.  vi:8o),  elsewhere 
called  Ramoth-gilead  (which  see). 

4.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Simeon  ("South  Ram- 
oth,"    I  Sam.  xxx:27). 

RAMOTH-GILEAD  (ra'moth-gfl'e-ad),  (Heb. 

nr?J  n1?Dn^  raw-moth' gii-awif  Mights  oi  Gilead), 

called  also  Ramoth-mizpeh,  or  simply  Ramoth,  a 
town  in  Gilead»  within  the  borders  of  Gad  (Josh. 
xiii:26),  which  belonged  to  the  Levites  (Josh. 
xxiijS;  I  Chron.  vi:65,  00). 

It  was  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  (Deut.  iv:43; 
Josh.  XX  :8),  and  one  of  the  towns  in  which  an 
intendant  was  stationed  by  Solomon  (i  Kings 
iv:i3).  It  was  the  last  of  their  conquests  which 
the  Syrians  held;  and  Ahab  was  killed  (i  Kings 
xxii:i-37;  2  Chron.  xviii),  and  fourteen  years 
after  his  son  Joram  was  wounded  (2  Kings  viii: 
28),  in  the  attempt  to  recover  it.  The  strength  of 
the  place  is  attested  by  the  length  of  time  the 
Syrians  were  enabled  to  hold  it,  and  by  Ahab  and 
Joram  havinp^  both  been  solicitous  to  obtain  the 
aid  of  the  kmgs  of  Judah  when  about  to  attack 
it ;  these  being  two  of  the  only  three  expeditions 
in  which  the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  ever  co- 
operated. It  was  here  also  that  Jehu  was  pro- 
claimed and  anointed  king  (2  Kings  ix:i-6)  ;  but 
it  is  not  very  clear  whether  the  army  was  then 
still  before  the  town,  or  in  actual  possession  of  it. 
Eusebius  (Onomast,  s,  v.)  places  Ramoth-gilead 
on  the  river  Jabbok,  fifteen  Roman  miles  west  of 
Philadelphia  (Rabbah).  At  about  this  distance, 
west-northwest  from  Philadelphia,  and  about  eight 
miles  south  of  the  Jabbok,  are  the  ruins  of  a 
town,  bearing  the  name  of  Jelaad,  which  is  merely 
a  different  orthography  of  the  Hebrew  Gilead 
(Burckhardt,  SyriOy  p.  348).  Buckingham  is, 
however,  more  disposed  to  seek  the  site  of 
Ramoth-gilead  in  a  place  now  called  Ramtha,  or 
Rameza,  which  is  about  twenty-three  miles  north- 
west-north from  Philadelphia,  and  about  four 
miles  north  of  the  Jabbok,  where  he  noticed  some 
ruins  which  he  could  not  examine.  Ramoth- 
gilead  has  been  identified  by  many  travelers  with 
Es-Salt,  which  is  situated  about  25  miles  east 
of  the  Jordan  and  13  miles  south  of  the  Jabbok. 
It  is  now  the  most  important  and  populous  place 
in  that  district,  and  is  the  capital  of  Bdka  and 
the  residence  of  a  Turkish  governor  of  the  third 
rank.    The  place  lies  2,740  feet  above  the  level 


of  the  sea,  has  a  healthy  climate,  and  a  large  popu< 
lation,  given  chiefly  to  agriculture,  among  which 
are  300  to  400  Arab  families  and  a  few  nominal 
Christians.  There  are  some  ruins  of  the  Roman 
period,  and  a  castle  on  the  top  of  a  hill.  The  hills 
around  it  bear  many  traces  of  ancient  rock- 
tombs.  Three  miles  to  the  northwest  is  Jebel 
Jilad,  3,650  feet  in  height,  and  said  to  be  the 
highest  eminence  in  Gilead.  Dr.  Merrill,  how- 
ever, identifies  Ramoth-gilead  with  Gerosh,  about 
25  miles  northeast  of  Es-Salt  (Schaff,  Bih,  Diet.) 

KAMPABT  (rim 'part),  (Heb.  ^^^,  khale,  short), 

a  fortification  protecting  a  military  trench  (Lam. 
11:8;  Nah.  iu:8). 

RAMS'  HORNS  (rams  hdms).  See  Musical 
Instruments. 

RAMS'  SKINS,  BED  (rams  sktns).  These  were 
a  part  of  the  offering  made  by  the  Israelites  to  the 
tabernacle  (Exod.  xxv:5  and  xxxv:7).  There  is 
little  doubt  that  the  red  rams'  skins  here  noticed 
are  to  be  understood  as  the  produce  of  the  Afri- 
can Aoudad,  the  Ovis  tragelaphus  of  naturalists, 
whereof  the  bearded  sheep  are  a  domesticated 
race.  We  agree  with  Dr.  Mason  Harris,  that  the 
si<^ins  in  question  were  most  likely  tanned  and 
colored  crimson;  for  it  is  well  known  that  what 
is  now  termed  red  morocco  was  manufactured  in 
the  remotest  ages  in  Libya,  especially  about  the 
I'ritonian  Lake,  where  the  original  «gis,  or  goat- 
skin breastplate  of  Jupiter  and  Minerva  was  dyed 
bright  red;  and  the  Egyptians  had  most  certainly 
red  leather  in  use,  for  their  antique  paintings 
show  harnessmakers  cutting  it  into  slips  for  the 
collars  of  horses  and  furniture  of  chariots.  (See 
Tabernacle.)  C.  H.  S. 

RANGE  (ranj).    1.  JiTeer  (Heb.  ">**?),  a  cooking 

furnace  of  some  kind  (Lev.  xi:35). 

2.  Sed-ay-raw'  (Heb.  •^^^'?,  ),  a  row,  used  of 

soldiers  in  line  (2  Kings  xi:8,  ij;  2  Chron.  xxiii  114), 
and  of  timbers  in  a  house  (i  Kmgs  viiQ). 

RANSOM  (r^-sum),  (Heb.  from  •*^?f,  paw- 
daw',  release,  redemption;  "^5^,  ko'fer,  pardon, 
forgiveness;  or  ^^,gaw-al), 

1.  A  price  paid  to  recover  a  person  or  thing, 
from  one  who  detains  that  person  or  thing  in 
captivity.  Hence  prisoners  of  war,  or  slaves,  are 
said  to  be  ransomed,  when  they  are  liberated  in 
exchange  for  a  valuable  consideration.  What- 
ever is  substituted  or  exchanged,  in  compensa- 
tion for  the  party,  is  his  ransom;  but  the  word 
ransom  is  more  extensively  taken  in  Scripture. 

2.  Under  the  Levitical  law,  an  offering  was  re- 
quired of  every  Israelite  over  twenty  years  of  age 
at  the  time  the  census  was  taken.  This  offering  is 
called  a  ransom  or  atonement-money  (Exod.  xxx: 
12-16).  It  amounted  to  half  a  shekel,  or  about 
twenty-five  cents.  It  was  to  be  made  upon  pen- 
alty of  the  plague ;  and  every  person,  rich  or  poor, 
was  required  to  give  that  sum,  and  neither  more 
nor  less  (i  Pet.  i:i8,  19). 

3.  A  man  is  said  to  ransom  his  life  (Exod. 
xxi:3o),  to  substitute  a  sum  of  money  instead  of 
his  life  (ch.  xxx:i2;  Job  xxxvl:i8;  Ps.  xlix: 
7),  and  some  kinds  of  sacrifices  might  be  re- 
garded as  ransoms,  that  is,  as  substitutes  for  the 
offerer.  In  like  manner,  Christ  is  said  to  give 
himself  a  ransom  for  all  (i  Tim.  ii:6;  Matt,  xx: 
28;  Mark  x:45);  a  substitute  for  them,  bearing 
sufferings  in  their  stead,  undergoing  that  penalty 
which  would  otherwise  attach  to  them  (see  Rom. 
iii:24;  vii:23;  i  Cor.  i:3o;  Eph.  i:7;  iv:3o;  Heb. 
ix:i5). 


KAPHA  OR  RAPHAH 


1428 


REARWARD 


BAFHA  or  BAFHAH  (ra'phi  or  r&'phah), 
(Heb.  ^?'3,  or  •^?1,  raw-faw',  he  has  healed). 

1.  The  last  of  the  sons  of  Benjamin  (i  Chron. 
viii:2),  B.  C.  after  1927.  He  was  probably  bom 
in  Egypt,  as  he  is  not  mentioned  with  those  who 
accompanied  Jacob  there  (Gen.  xlvi:2i). 

S*  Son  of  Binea,  a  descendant  of  Jonathan  (i 
Chron.  viii  137),  B.  C  after  1000.  He  is  called 
Rephaiah  (i  Chron.  ix:43). 


I  (ra'pha-el),  (Gr.  •Pa^iJX,  raf-ah-ale'), 
one  of  the  seven  archangels  which  stand  contin* 
ually  before  the  throne  of  God,  ready  to  perform 
his  commands  (Tobit  xii:i5). 

BAFHU  (ra'phu).  (Heb.  ^^\  raw'foo\  healed, 

cured),  the  father  of  the  Palti  who  represented 
the  tnbe  of  Benjamin  among  the  spies  sent  to  the 
Promised  Land  (Num.  xiii.*9),  B.  C  oefore  1658. 

RAVEN  (ra'v'n),  (Heb.  ^i^.  <hrabe' ;  Latin. 
corvuj;  Sept.  ic^po^,  raven;  also  Luke  xii:24,  only). 

The  Hebrew  word  occurs  in  Gen.  viii:7;  Lev. 
xi:i5;  Deut.  xiv:i4;  i  Kings  xvii:4-o;  Job 
xxxviii:4i,  etc.  The  raven  is  so  generally  con- 
founded with  the  carrion  crow,  that  even  in  the 
works  of  naturalists  the  figure  of  the  latter  has 
been  sometimes  substituted  for  that  of  the  former, 
and  the  manners  of  both  have  been  confused. 
The  raven  is  the  larger,  weighing  about  three 
pounds ;  has  proportionally  a  smaller  head 
and  a  bill  fuller  and  stouter  at  the  point  Its 
black  color  is  more  iridescent,  with  gleams  of 
purple  passing  into  green,  while  that  of  the  crow 
is  more  steel-blue;  the  raven  is  also  gifted  with 
greater  sagacity;  may  be  taught  to  articulate 
words;  is  naturally  observant  and  solitaiy;  lives 
in  pairs;  has  a  most  acute  scent,  and  flies  to  a 
great  height. 

Whether  the  raven  of  Palestine  is  the  common 
species,  or  the  Corvus  Montanus  of  Temmindc, 
is  not  quite  determined ;  for  there  is  of  the  ravens, 
or  greater  form  of  crows,  a  smaller  group  in- 
cluding two  or  three  others,  all  similar  in  man- 
ners, and  unlike  the  carrion  crows  (Corvus 
Cor  one,  Linn.),  which  are  gregarious,  and  seem- 
ingly identical  in  both  hemispheres.  Sometimes 
a  pair  of  ravens  will  descend  without  fear  among 
a  flight  of  crows,  take  possession  of  the  carrion 
that  may  have  attracted  them,  and  keep  the  crows 
at  a  distance  till  they  themselves  are  gorged.  The 
habits  of  the  whole  genus,  typified  by  the  name 
orahe,  render  it  unclean  in  the  Hebrew  law;  and 
the  malignant,  ominous  expression  of  the  raven, 
together  with  the  color  of  its  plumage,  powers  of 
voice,  and  solitary  habits,  are  the  causes  of  that 
universal  and  often  superstitious  attention  with 
which  mankind  have  ever  regarded  it.  This  bird 
is  the  first  mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  being  sent 
forth  by  Noah  out  of  the  ark  on  the  subsiding  of 
the  waters;  and  in  i  Kings  xvii:4  ravens  bring 
flesh  and  bread  at  morning  and  evening  to  the 
prophet  Elijah. 

RAVnr  {rav'in),  (Heb.  H^V,  taw-raf,  to  pluck 

off,  to  pull  to  pieces).  "Benjamin  shall  ravin  as 
a  woIP  (Gen.  xlix:27.  See  also  Nahum  ii:i2. 
Compare  Ps.  xxii:i3;  Ezek.  xxii:2S,  27).  Our 
wora  ravenous  comes  from  the  same  root. 

RAZOR  (ra'zor).  An  instrument  used  for  shav- 
ing the  hair  or  beard. 

The  usage  of  shaving  the  head  after  completing 
a  vow  must  have  established  the  barber's  trade 
quite  early  among  the  Hebrews.  The  instruments 
used  were  exactly  the  same  as  in  our  days^the 
razor,  the  scissors,  the  basin,  and  the  mirror. 
Razors  are  mentioned  in  Num.  vi  :$ ;  Judg.  xiii  :5 ; 


xvi:i7;  i  Sam.  i:ii;  Ezek.  v:i,  and  figuratively 
in  Ps.  lii;2;  Is.  vii:20.    (See  Haul) 

BBADY  (r«d'y),  (Gr.  lUKKt^,  met lo,  Luke  vii:2), 
expectation. 

In  general  it  denotes  that  which  is: 

1.  Strongly  inclined  and  disposed  (Tit  iii:i). 

2.  Near  at  hand  (i  Pot.  iv:5). 

3.  Well  prepared  and  furnished  (i  Pet.  iii  :i5). 

Figurative,  (i)  Those  •'ready  to  perish"*  are 
such  as  are  on  the  point  of  being  utterly  mis- 
erable. The  Jews  were  in  a  most  wretched  con- 
dition before  Cyrus  gave  them  their  liberty  to 
return  to  Palestine  (Is.  xliv).  (2)  The  Gentiles 
were  in  a  most  deplorable  condition  with  respect 
to  spiritual  matters  just  before  the  gospel  was 
preached  to  them  (Is.  xxvii:i3).  (3)  The  good 
things  of  a  church  are  ''ready  to  die**  when  her 
members  are  growing  few  in  numbers,  when  their 
graces  are  diminishing,  and  the  power  of  gospel 
truths  is  losing  its  influence  on  those  that  con- 
tinue.    (Brown,  Bib.  Diet.) 

BKATA   (re-a'ya),  (i  Chron.  v:5).    See  Rem  ah. 

KEATAH  (re-a-i'ah),  (Heb.  *K^\  reh-aw-yaw', 
Jehovah  has  seen,  or  provided  for). 

!•  Son  of  Shobal  and  a  descendant  of  Hezr<Hi 
and  Judah  ( i  Chron.  iv  \2) ,  B.  C.  after  1658.  He 
is  called  Haroeh,  *the  seeing  one'  (i  Chron.  ii: 
52). 

2.  Son  of  Micah,  and  a  phylarch  in  the  tribe 
of  Reuben  (i  ChTon.  v:5),  B.  C.  before  720. 
The  name  is  Reaia  in  the  A.  V. 

3.  Founder  of  a  family  of  Nethinim,  some  o<f 
whose  descendants  returned  from  the  Captivity 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii:47;  Neh.  vii:5o),  B.  C. 
before  536. 

BEAP,  REAPING  (rgp,  rSp-Tng).  To  reap  is 
to  cut  down  grain  in  harvest  (James  v:4).  Ac- 
cording to  Maundrell,  the  more  ordinary  method 
of  reaping  grain  in  the  East  is  to  pull  it  up  by 
handful s  from  the  roots,  leaving  the  fields  naked 
and  bare  (Ps.  cxxix:6).  But  it  seems  the  Jews 
ordinarily  cut  down  theirs  with  sickles  (Deut. 
xvi:9;  xxiii:25;  Jer.  I:i6;  Joel  iii:  13). 

Figurative,  (i)  To  receive  the  fruit  of 
works,  whether  good  or  bad;  so  such  as  "sow 
in  righteousness,  reap  in  mercy;  reap  everlasting 
life,"  that  is,  receive  it  as  their  gracious  reward 
(Hos.  x:i2).  (2)  Such  as  sow  miquity,  or  cor- 
ruption, "reap"  wickedness,  vanity,  thorns,  whirl- 
wmd,  etc.,  that  is,  they  are  punished  with  de- 
struction and  misery,  as  their  deeds  require  (Job 
iv:8;  Prov.  xxii:8;  Jer.  xii:i3;  Hos.  viii:7). 
(3)  To  "reap  where  one  sowed  not,"  and  "gather 
where  one  strawed  not,"  and  "take  up  what  one 
laid  not  down,"  is  to  expect  and  demand  good 
works  where  no  gifts  or  opportunities  were 
given  (Matt.  xxv:26;  Luke  xix:2i).  (4)  The 
earth  will  be  "reaped"  by  the  angel's  sharp  sickle 
(Rev.  xiv:is).  (5)  Angels  are  called  "reapers"; 
God  employs  them  to  overturn  and  cut  off  na- 
tions; and  by  them  he  will  gather  his  people  to 
him  at  the  last  day  (Matt,  xiii  130,  39).  (6) 
Ministers  are  "reapers*';  they  not  only  sow  the 
seed  of  divine  truth  among  men,  but  are  the 
blest  means  of  cutting  them  off  from  their  nat- 
ural root,  and  bringing  them  to  Christ  (John  iv: 
36,  37).     (Brown,  Bib.  Diet.) 

BEABWABD  (rSr-werd),  (Heb.  ^B?,  aw-saf). 

David  and  his  men  passed  on  in  the  rearward 
with  Achish  (i  Sam.  xxix:2.  See  also  Is.  Hi:  12; 
lviii:8). 

This  is  the  seventeenth  century  form  of  the 
word  now  written  rearguard. 


REASON 


1429 


RECENSION 


Now  in  the  rearward  comes  the  Duke  and  his. 

— Shakespeare. 
(Swinton,  Bib,  Hand  Book.) 

BEASON  (rS'z'n),  (Gr.  dpe<rT6t,  ar-es-tos'.  Acts 
vi:2,  fit).  "  It  is  not  reason  that  we  should  leave  the 
word  of  God  and  serve  tables,"  i.  e.  not  reasonable. 

In  Rev.  xviiiiig  it  has  the  meaning  of  "in 
consequence  of."  In  general,  to  reason  means  to 
talk  together,  dispute,  argue  (Matt.  xvi:8;  Mark 
viii:i6).  The  saints'  offering  of  themselves,  soul 
and  body,  and  their  holy  conversation  to  promote 
the  honor  of  God,  is  a  ^'reasonable"  not  an  un- 
natural, sacrifice,  and  corresponds  with  the  wise 
injunctions  and  grounds  assigned  by  both  reason 
and  revelation    (Rom.  xii:i). 

BEBA  (re'ba),  (Heb.  ^3^.,  reh'bah,    a    fourth 

part,  or  quarter),  one  of  the  five  kings  of  Midian» 
vassals  of  Sihon,  slain  by  the  Israelites  in  the  ex- 
pedition in  which  Balaam  was  killed  (Num. 
xxxi:8;  Josh.  xiii:2i),  B.  C.  about  1170. 

BEBECCA  (re-b€k'ka),  (Gr.  'Pc/S^jcjca,  rhek-bek'- 
kah),  the  Greek  forming  the  name  Rebekah 
(Rom.  ix:io). 

BEBEKAH  (re-bSk'k4),  (Heb.  ^V^\  rib'kaw\ 
a  noosed  cord). 

Daughter  of  Bethuel,  and  sister  of  Laban,  who 
became  the  wife  of  Isaac  (B.  C.  2023).  The  cir- 
cumstances of  her  marriage  with  Isaac  constitute 
one  of  the  most  charming  and  beautiful  passages 
of  the  sacred  history  ((^n.  xxiv).  After  she 
had  been  married  twenty  years  without  children 
she  became  the  mother  of  Jacob  and  Esau.  When 
they  grew  up  Jacob  became  the  favorite  of  his 
mother,  and  this  undue  partiality  was  the  source 
of  much  mischief.  She  persuaded  him  to  obtain 
his  father's  blessing  by  practicing  a  deceit,  and 
he  had  to  flee  for  fear  of  his  brother's  revenge. 
She  died  before  Isaac,  and  was  buried  in  Abra- 
ham's tomb  (Gen.  xlix:3i).  The  particulars  of 
her  history  and  conduct,  as  given  in  Scripture, 
chiefly  illustrate  her  preference  for  Jacob  over 
Esau,  and  have  been  related  in  the  article  Jacob. 
(See  also  Isaac.) 

BECEIPT  OF  CUSTOMS  (r^-set  dv  kiis't&ms), 
(Gr.  TcXcAptoy,  tel'O'nee-on,  place  of  taking  taxes), 
the  place  where  the  tax-gatherer  received  taxes 
(Matt.  ix:9,  etc.). 

BECEIVEB  (r6-sev'er),  (Heb.  'l^,  shaw-kal\ 

to  weigh),  one  who  determined  the  weight  of  gold 
and  silver  (Is.  xxxiii:i8). 

The  meaning  of  this  passage  would  seem  to  be 
the  passing  of  a  sorrowful  past  and  the  coming  in 
of  a  glorious  present. 

BECENSION  (r6-sgn'shiin).  After  the  critical 
materials  lying  at  the  basis  of  the  New  Testament 
text  had  accumulated  in  the  hands  of  Mill  and 
Wetstein,  they  began  to  be  surveyed  with  philo- 
sophic eye.  Important  readings  in  different  docu- 
ments were  seen  to  possess  resemblance  more  or 
less  striking.  Passages  were  found  to  present  the 
same  form,  though  the  testimonies  from  which  they 
were  singled  out  belonged  to  various  times  and 
countries.  The  thought  suggested  itself  to  Bengel, 
that  the  mass  of  materials  might  be  divided  and 
classified  in  conformity  with  such  peculiarities.  The 
sanne  idea  also  occurred  to  Semler.  Both,  however, 
had  but  a  feeble  and  dim  apprehensrion  of  the  en- 
tire subject  as  it  was  afterwards  disposed.  But, 
by  the  consummate  learning  and  skill  of  Gries- 
bach,  it  was  highly  elaborated,  so  as  to  exhibit 
a  new  topic  for  the  philosophical  acumen  and  the 
historic  researches  of  the  erudite  inquirer.  To 
the  different  phases  of  the  text  existing  in  the 
MSS.,   quotations  made  by  the  fathers,  and  in 


the  ancient  versions,  the  name  recension  was 
given  by  Griesbach  and  Semler.  Yet  the  appella- 
tion was  not  happily  chosen.  Family  (which 
Bengel  used),  class  or  order,  would  have  been 
much  more  appropriate.  Recension  ordinarily 
suggests  the  idea  of  an  actual  revision  of  the 
text;  but  this  is  inapplicable  to  the  greater  part 
of  (jriesbach's  own  system.  If,  however,  it  be 
remembered  that  recension  simply  denotes  a  cer- 
tain class  of  critical  testimonies -characterized  by 
distinctive  peculiarities,  it  matters  little  what 
designation  be  employed;  though  family  is  less 
likely  to  originate  misconception. 

/•  Griesbach's  System.  In  Griesbach's  sys- 
tem there  are  three  recensions:  i.  The  Occi- 
dental; 2.  The  Alexandrine,  or  Oriental;  3.  The 
Constantinopolitan,  or  Byzantine.  The  first  two 
are  the  most  ancient,  and  are  assigned  by  him  to 
the  time  in  which  the  two  collections  were  made. 
The  Oriental  selected  readings  most  conformable 
to  pure  Greek,  and  made  slight  alterations  in  the 
text  where  the  language  did  not  appear  to  be 
classical. 

(1)  The  Occidental  BecensioiL  The  Occi- 
dental, based  on  the  most  ancient  MSS.,  viz., 
such  as  were  made  before  the  epistles  had  been 
collected  together,  preserved  with  greater  care 
than  the  Oriental  the  Hebraisms  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, but  made  explanatory  additions,  and  fre- 
quently preferred  a  more  perspicuous  and  easy 
reading  to  another  less  facile.  The  Constantino- 
politan arose  from  the  intermingling  of  the  other 
two.  A  senior  and  a  junior  Constantinopolitan 
are  distinguished.  The  former  belongs  to  the 
fourth  century,  and  is  marked,  to  a  still  greater 
extent  than  the  Alexandrine,  by  its  rejection  of 
readings  that  seemed  less  classical,  as  well  as  by 
its  reception  of  glosses;  the  latter  originated  in 
the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  in  consequence  of 
the  labors  of  the  learned  men  belonging  to  the 
Syrian  church.  According  to  this  system,  the 
leading  characteristic  of  the  Occidental  recension 
is  its  exegetical,  that  of  the  Oriental  its  gram- 
matical tendency;  while  the  Constantinopolitan 
bears  a  glossarial  aspect. 

The  Occidental  recension  is  exhibited  by 
eight  Greek  MSS.  of  the  Gospels,  D.  E.  F.  G.  of 
the  Pauline  epistles,  the  Latin  versions  made  be- 
fore Jerome,  the  Sahidic  and  Jerusalem-Syriac 
versions,  and  by  the  quotations  of  Tertullian,  of 
Irehaeus  as  translated  into  Latin,  of  Cyprian,  Am- 
brose, and  Augustine. 

(2)  The  Alexandrine  Becension  is  found  in 
the  documents  B,  C,  L  in  the  Gospels,  with  three 
others,  in  A.  B,  C  in  the  epistles,  with  three 
codices  besides;  in  the  Memphitic,  Harclean  or 
Philoxenian,  Ethiopic  and  Armenian  versions, 
and  in  the  writings  of  the  fathers  belonging  to 
the  Alexandrian  school,  especially  those  of  Clem- 
ent, Origen,  Eusebius,  Athanasius,  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andria, and  Isidore  of  Pelusium. 

(3)  The  Constantinopolitan  Becension.   The 

senior  Constantinopolitan  is  found  in  A,  E,  F,  G, 
H,  S  of  the  Gospels,  and  in  the  Moscow  codices 
of  Paul's  epistles,  in  the  (jothic  and  Sclavonic 
versions,  in  the  quotations  of  the  fathers  that 
lived  during  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  centuries 
in  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  and  the  neighboring  coun- 
tries; while  the  junior  Constantinopolitan  is  ex- 
hibited by  the  greater  number  of  those  MSS. 
which  were  written  since  the  seventh  century. 

2.  Hug's  System.  Somewhat  different  from 
Griesbach's  system  is  that  of  Hug,  first  proposed 
in  his  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament. 

The  Koiv^  tKdwrii,  t.  e,  the  most  ancient  text 
unrevised,  conformed   to  no  recension,  exhibit- 


RECENSION 


1430 


RECENSION 


ing  diversities  of  reading  of  mixed  origin,  but 
containing  particular  glosses  and  interpolatiotis 
intended  to  explain  the  sense.  This  text  is 
found  in  five  MSS.  of  the  Gospels,  in  four  of 
Paul's  epistles,  in  the  most  ancient  L^tin  versions 
and  in  the  Sahidic,  in  the  oldest  of  the  fathers 
down  to  the  time  of  Origen,  and  in  Origen  him- 
self. Such  a  phase  of  the  text  is  seen  till  the 
middle  of  the  third  century,  and  agrees  with  the 
Occidental  recension  of  Griesbach.  In  refei^ence 
to  the  old  Syriac,  Griesbach  afterwards  conceded 
to  Hug  that  it  approached  nearer  the  Occidental 
than  the  Alexandrian. 

J.  HesycMan  Revision.  About  the  middle 
of  the  third  century,  Hesychius,  an  Egyptian 
bishop,  undertook  a  revision  of  the  most  ancient 
text.  But  he  was  too  fond  of  such  readings  as 
contained  purer  and  more  elegant  Greek.  To 
this  Hesychian  revision,  which  obtained  ecclesi- 
astical authority  only  in  Egypt,  belong  B,  C,  L 
of  the  Gospels,  and  A,  B,  C  of  the  Epistles,  the 
Memphitic  version,  with  the  quotations  of 
Athanasius,  Macarius,  and  Cyril  of  Alexandria. 
Thus  the  Hesychian  recension  of  Hug  coincides 
with  the  Alexandrian  of  Griesbach. 

4.  Lncian's  Version.  About  the  same  time, 
Lucian,  a  presbyter  of  Antioch  in  Syria,  revised 
the  most  ancient  text,  as  it  appeared  in  the  Pesh- 
ito,  comparing  different  MSS.  current  in  Syria. 
In  this  way  he  produced  a  text  that  did  not  wholly 
harmonize  with  the  Hesychian,  because  he  was 
less  studious  of  elegant  Latinity.  This  third  form 
of  the  text  is  found  in  codices  E,  F,  G,  H,  S,  V  of 
the  Gospels,  in  G  of  St.  Paul's  epistles,  in  the 
Moscow  MSS.,  the  Sclavonic  and  Gothic  versions, 
and  the  ecclesiastical  writers  of  those  countries 
that  adopted  it,  from  the  middle  of  the  third 
century. 

5.  Origen's  Revision.  A  fourth  form  of  the 
text  he  attributes  to  Origen  during  his  residence 
at  Tyre.  This  revision  was  based  on  the  Vulgat^ 
edition  current  in  Palestine,  and  in  many  places 
differs  both  from  the  Hesychian  and  Lucian. 
It  is  found  in  the  codices  A,  K,  M  of  the  Gospels, 
in  the  Philoxenian  or  Harclean  Syriac,  and  in  the 
writings  of  Chrysostom  and  Theodoret.  Here 
Hug  and  Griesbach  are  at  variance,  the  latter  be- 
lieving the  alleged  Origenian  recension  to  be 
nothing  more  than  a  branch  of  the  Constantino- 
politan  or  Lucianian. 

6.  Eichhorn's  System.  Eichhom's  system  is 
substantially  the  same  as  that  of  Hug,  with  one 
important  exception.  That  distinguished  critic 
admitted  a  twofold  form  of  the  text  before  it 
had  received  any  revision;  the  one  peculiar  to 
Asia,  the  other  to  Africa.  This  unrevised  text 
may  be  traced  in  its  two  forms  as  early  as  the 
second  century.  Hesychius  revised  the  first ;  Lu- 
cian the  second.  Accordingly,  from  the  conclusion 
of  the  third  century,  there  was  a  threefold  phase 
of  the  text:  the  African  or  Alexandrian;  the 
Asiatic  or  Constantinopolitan ;  and  a  mixed  form 
composed  of  the  other  two.  Eichhorn  denies  that 
Origen  made  a  new  recension. 

/•  Scholz's  System.  Scholz  makes  only  two 
classes  or  families  of  documents,  the  Alexan- 
drian, which  he  also  absurdly  calls  the  Occidental, 
and  the  Constantinopolitan,  which,  with  equal 
perversity,  ho  designates  the  Oriental.  The  Occi- 
dental class  of  Griesbach  is  thus  merged  into  the 
Alexandrian.  The  Alexandrian  embraces  the 
MSS.  that  were  made  in  Egypt  and  Western 
Europe,  most  of  the  Coptic  and  Latin  versions, 
the  Ethiopic,  and  the  ecclesiastical  writers  be- 
longing to  Egypt  and  Western  Europe.    To  the 


Constantinopolitan  he  refers  the  codices  belonging 
to  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Palestine,  Eastern  Europe, 
especially  Constantinople,  with  the  Harclean  or 
Philoxenian,  the  Gothic,  Georgian,  and  Sclavonic 
versions ;  as  also  the  ecclesiastical  fathers  of  these 
regions.  To  the  latter  documents  he  gives  a  de- 
cided preference,  because  of  their  mutual  agree- 
ment, and  because  they  were  written  with  great 
care  agreeably  to  the  most  ancient  exemplars; 
whereas  the  Alexandrian  were  arbitrarily  altered 
by  officious  grammarians.  Indeed,  he  traces  the 
Constantinopolitan  codices  directly  to  the  auto- 
graphs of  the  original  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

S.  Rinck's  System.  Rinck  agrees  with  Scholz 
in  assuming  two  classes  of  MSS.,  the  Occidental 
and  the  Oriental;  the  former  exhibited  by  A,  B, 
C,  D,  E,  F,  G  in  the  epistles ;  the  latter,  by  MSS. 
written  in  the  cursive  character.  The  Occidental 
he  subdivides  into  two  families,  the  African  (A, 
B,  C)  and  the  Latin  codices  (D,  E,  F,  G). 

9.  Matthmi's  System.  Matthaei,  as  is  well 
known,  rejected  the  entire  theory  of  recensions; 
and  Lachmann,  the  latest  editor  of  the  Greek  Tes- 
tament, has  no  regard  to  such  a  basis  for  his  new 
text. 

to.  Opposition  to  Griesbach.  To  Griesbach 
all  concede  the  praise  of  ingenuity  and  acuteness. 
His  system  was  built  up  with  great  tact  and  abil- 
ity. However  rigidly  scrutinized,  it  exhibits  evi- 
dences of  a  most  sagacious  mind.  But  it  was  as- 
sailed by  a  host  of  writers,  whose  combined  at- 
tacks it  could  not  sustain.  In  England,  Dr.  Lau- 
rence shook  its  credit.  In  Germany,  Michaelis, 
Matthaei,  Eichhorn,  Bertholdt,  Hug,  Schulz, 
Scholz,  Gabler,  Schott,  and  others,  have  more  or 
less  made  objection  to  it.  The  venerable  scholar 
in  his  old  age  himself  modified  it  to  some  extent, 
chiefly  in  consequence  of  Hug's  investigations. 
By  far  the  ablest  opponent  of  it  is  Mr.  Norton, 
who,  after  it  had  been  assailed  by  others,  finally 
stepped  forth  to  demolish  it  beyond  the  possibility 
of  revival.  Bold  indeed  must  be  the  man  who 
shall  undertake  to  defend  it  after  such  a  refuta- 
tion. The  great  point  in  which  it  fails  is  that  the 
line  of  distinction  between  the  Alexandrian  and 
Western  classes  cannot  be  proved.  Origen  and 
Clement  of  Alexandria  are  the  principal  evidences 
for  the  Alexandrian  form  of  the  text,  yet  they 
coincide  with  the  Western  recension.  Griesbaqh's 
allegations  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Eastern  and 
Western  recensions  are  also  visionary ;  while  it  is 
not  difficult  to  see  that  the  text  followed  by  the 
old  Syriac  presents  a  formidable  objection  to  the 
whole  scheme. 

//•  Opposition  to  Hug.  The  system  of  Hug, 
in  so  far  as  it  materially  differs  from  its  prede- 
cessor, is  as  faulty  as  that  of  Griesbach.  It  puts 
Clement  and  Origen  in  the  most  ancient  text.  But 
Origen  employed  an  Occidental  MS.  only  in  his 
commentary  on  Matthew;  in  his  commentary  on 
Mark  he  uniformly  quotes  the  Alexandrian  co- 
dex; and  his  usual  text  certainly  agrees  with  the 
Alexandrian  recension.  As  to  Clement,  he  fre- 
quently agrees  with  the  Alexandrian  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  Western  recension,  and  therefore 
he  cannot  be  properly  reckoned  as  belonging  to 
the  latter,  in  a  system  where  there  are  two  dis- 
tinct recensions  agreeing  with  the  Occidental 
and  the  Alexandrian.  The  Hesychian  revision 
does  not  seem  to  have  had  much  authority,  or 
to  have  been  widely  circulated  even  in  the  country 
where  it  was  made.  Besides  the  form  of  the 
text  ascribed  to  Hesychius  appears  to  be  older, 
even  as  old  as  Clement's  time.    Hesychius,  there- 


RECENSION 


1431 


RECHAH 


fore,  probably  did  nothing  more  than  revise  the 
Ale;candrian  recension. 

12.  Conclusions.  With  regard  to  Scholz's 
system,  it  conmiends  itself  to  our  approbation  only 
in  so  far  as  it  insists  upon  two  families  of  docu- 
ments, the  Alexandrian  and  the  Constantinopoli- 
tan.  There  is  no  definite  line  of  demarcation  be- 
tween the  Alexandrian  and  the  Western,  as  was 
long  since  shown  by  Laurence;  although  Tischen- 
dorf  has  recently  reasserted  it.  Egypt  and  the 
Western  world  were  supplied  with  Biblical  MSS. 
from  Alexandria,  some  of  them  revised,  others 
untouched  and  unpurged  by  the  hand  of  a  cor- 
rector. Thus  the  Alexandrian  and  Occidental 
MSS.  of  Griesbach  were  the  productions  of  one 
country  and  one  age;  differing,  indeed,  from  one 
another  in  many  respects,  but  that  discrepancy 
owing  to  the  caprice  of  transcribers,  and  to  the 
varying  tastes  which  they  found  it  advantageous 
to  please.  But  although  we  look  upon  Scholz's 
system  as  simpler  and  better  supported  than  any 
other,  in  so  far  as  it  asserts  no  more  than  two 
families,  yet  it  is  otherwise  pressed  by  fatal  ob- 
jections. It  is  based  on  assertions,  instead  of  ar- 
guments solid  and  sufficient.  The  framer  of  it 
has  failed  to  prove  that  the  particular  form  of 
the  text  current  during  the  first  three  centuries 
in  Asia  Minor  and  Greece  was  the  same  as  that 
exhibited  by  the  Constantinopolitan  manuscripts 
of  a  much  later  date.  He  has  failed  to  show  that 
the  Byzantine  family  was  derived  in  a  very  pure 
state  from  the  autographs  of  the  inspired  writers. 
Besides,  he  is  obliged  to  admit,  that  the  text 
which  obtained  at  Constantinople  in  the  reigns  of 
Constantine  and  Constans,  was  collated  with  the 
Alexandrian,  which  would  naturally  give  rise  to 
a  commingling  of  readings  belonging  to  both.  Eu- 
sebius  states  that,  at  the  request  of  Constantine, 
he  made  out  fifty  copies  of  the  New  Testament 
for  the  use  of  the  churches  at  Constantinople; 
and  as  we  know  that  he  gave  a  decided  preference 
to  Alexandrian  copies,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that 
he  followed  those  sanctioned  by  Origen's  author- 
ity. On  the  whole,  it  can  never  be  made  out  on 
historic  grounds,  that  the  Constantinopolitan  cod- 
ices have  descended  from  the  autographs  in  a 
pure  state.  They  differ,  indeed,  in  characteristic 
readings  from  the  Alexandrian,  but  that  prefer- 
ence should  be  given  to  the  former  is  a  most 
questionable  position.  Why  should  junior  be  set 
in  value  above  much  older  documents?  What 
good  reason  can  be  assigned  for  the  predilection 
of  Matthaei  and  Scholz?  None  truly.  Antiquity 
may  be  outweighed  by  other  considerations,  and 
certainly  the  Alexandrine  MSS.  are  neither  fault- 
less nor  perfect ;  but  in  the  case  of  the  Byzantine 
family  there  is  no  suMcient  ground  for  arbitrarily 
placing  it  above  the  other.  In  the  present  day, 
numbers  will  not  be  considered  as  decisive  of  gen- 
uine readings,  in  opposition  to  weighty  consider- 
ations founded  on  antiquity ;  and  yet  it  is  possible 
that  numbers  may  have  had  an  undue  influence 
on  the  mind  of  Scholz.  Such  as  desire  to  see  a 
thorough  refutation  of  the  system  may  read  es- 
pecially Tischendorf  s  Preface  to  his  edition  of 
the  Greek  Testament,  where  it  is  dissected  with 
great  ability,  and  the  foundation  on  which  it  pro- 
fessedly rests  demonstrated  to  be  feeble  and  fu- 
tile. In  fact,  the  historical  proofs  of  the  indus- 
trious Scholz  are  no  better  than  fictions,  which 
genuine  ecclesiastical  history  will  never  sanction. 

Perhaps  the  data  are  not  sufficient  to  warrant 
or  support  any  one  system  of  recensions.  Our 
knowledge  of  the  manner  in  which  the  text  was 
early  corrupted,  of  the  innumerable  influences  to 
which  it  was  exposed,  the  revisions  it  underwent 
In  different  countries  at  different  times,  the  modes 


in  which  transcribers  dealt  with  it,  and  of  the 
principles,  if  any  such  there  were,  on  which  they 
proceeded,  is  too  scanty  to  allow  of  any  definite 
superstructure.  The  subject  must,  therefore,  be 
necessarily  involved  in  obscurity.  S.  D. 

See  Laurence's  remarks  on  Griesbach's  Sys- 
tematic Classification  of  MSS.,  Oxford,  1814,  8vo ; 
Norton's  Genuineness  of  the  Gospels,  vol.  i.  Bos- 
ton, 1837,  8vo;  Davidson's  Lectures  on  Biblical 
Criticism,  Edinb.  1830,  8vo;  Davidson,  BibliccU 
Criticism,  ed.  1852).  (See  Criticism  and  ARCHiE- 
ology;  Interpretation  of  the  Old  Testament.) 

BBOHAB(re-kab),  (Heb.  3?1,  ray-kawV,  rider; 
Sept.*Pi?x<^,  rechab), 

1*  The  son  of  Hemath  the  Kenite,  and  probably 
a  descendant  of  Jethro  (see  Kenites)  ;  he  is  only 
known  as  the  father  of  Jonadab,  the  founder-  of 
the  sect  of  Rechabites,  which  took  from  him 
its  name  (2  Kings  x:i5;  i  Chron.  ii:55;  Jer. 
XXXV  :6),  B.  C.  before  882. 

2.  One  of  the  assassins  of  Ishbosheth,  son  of 
Saul  (2  Sam.  iv:2,  sq.).  He  was  a  son  of  Rim- 
mon  the  Beerothite  (B.  C.  1046). 

3.  The  father  of  Malchiah,  the  ruler  of  part 
of  Beth-haccerem,  and  mentioned  as  repairing 
the  dung-gate  of  Jerusalem  in  the  time  of  Nehe- 
miah  (Neh.  iii:i4),  B.  C.  before  446. 

BEOHABITES  (r6'kab-ites),  (Heb.  Q^??l,  ray- 
kaw'beem*\ 

The  tribe  or  family  of  Kenites,  whom  Jona- 
dab, the  son  of  Rechab,  subjected  to  a  new  rule 
of  life ;  or  rather  bound  to  the  continued  observ- 
ance of  ancient  usages  which  were  essential  to 
their  separate  existence,  but  which  the  progress 
of  their  intercourse  with  towns  seemed  likely 
soon  to  extinguish.  By  thus  maintaining  their 
independent  existence  as  a  pastoral  people,  they 
would  keep  themselves  from  being  involved  in  the 
distractions  and  internal  wars  of  the  country, 
would  be  in  no  danger  of  becoming  objects  of 
jealousy  and  suspicion  to  the  Israelites,  and  would 
be  able  at  all  times  to  remove  from  a  country  in 
which  there  were  strangers.  The  Rechabites 
found  so  much  advantage  in  these  rules  that  they 
observed  them  with  great  strictness  for  about 
300  years,  when  we  first  become  aware  of  tiieir 
existence.  Jeremiah  brings  some  Rechabites  into 
one  of  the  chambers  of  the  Temple,  and  sets  be- 
fore them  pots  full  of  wine,  and  cups,  saying, 
'Drink  ye  wine;*  on  which  it  is  well  observed 
by  Gataker  and  others  that  the  prophet  omits 
the  usual  formula.  Thus  saith  the  Lord,'  which 
would  have  constrained  obedience  in  men  so  pious 
as  the  Rechabites,  even  at  the  expense  of  in- 
fringing their  rule  of  life.  But  now  they  answer, 
*We  will  drink  no  wine;  for  Jonadab,  the  son 
of  Rechab,  our  father,  commanded  us,  saying, 
Ye  shaJl  drink  no  wine,  neither  ye  nor  your  sons 
for  ever.  Neither  shaH  ye  build  house,  nor  sow 
seed,  nor  plant  vineyard,  nor  have  any;  but  all 
your  days  ye  shall  dwell  in  tents,  that  ye  may  live 
many  days  in  the  knd  where  ye  be  strangers' 
(Jer.  xxxv:6,  7). 

Some  highly  interesting  facts  are  known  re- 
specting the  present  condition  of  the  Rechabites. 
They  still  dwell  in  the  mountainous  tropical  coun- 
try to  the  northeast  of  Medina.  They  are  called 
Beni  Khaibr,  "sons  of  Heber,"  and  their  land 
is  called  Khaibr.  They  have  no  intercourse  with 
their  brethren,  the  Jews,  who  are  dispersed  over 
Asia,  and  are  esteemed  as  "false  brethren"  be- 
cause they  observe  not  the  Law. 

(rg'kah),  (Heb.  •^1,  ra/kaw,  soft- 


ness), a  place  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,but  the  location 
is  unknown  (i  Chron.  iv.  J2).  See  Schwarz,  Pale9^ 
tine,  p.  116. 


RECONCILE.  RECONCILIATION  1432 


RED  SEA.  PASSAGE  OF 


BECONCILE,  BECONOILIATION  (rSk'dn- 
8iU  i«k'«n-sn'r-a'8hiin),  (Heb.  «¥?•  khaw-taw',  to 

offer  or  receive  a  sin  offering;  ^\  kaw-far*^  to 

cover,  to  make  atonement;  Gr.  IXd^ico/iac,  hii-as'- 
koM'ahee^  to  appease,  propitiate). 
These  words  then  denote: 

1.  To  make  peace  between  parties  at  variance ; 
to  secure  favor  (Matt.  v:24). 

2.  To  atone  for;  consecrate  (Lev.  vi:30; 
Ezek.  xlv:2o). 

3.  God  "reconciles  the  world  to  himself;"  he 
devised  the  whole  plan  of  our  reconciliation  and 
peace  with  him;  he  sent  his  Son  to  satisfy  for 
our  offenses,  accepted  of  his  righteousness  in  our 
stead,  sends  him  to  bless  us;  justifies,  sanctifies 
and  glorifies  us,  according  to  the  riches  of  his 
grace  (2  Cor.  viig). 

General  application*  Christ  "reconciles**  us; 
he  fulfills  all  righteousness  in  our  stead;  he  in« 
tercedes  with  God  on  our  behalf;  and  by  uniting 
us  to  himself,  and  dwelling  in  us  by  faith,  he 
secures  our  everlasting  peace  with  God  (Eph.  ii: 
16).  He  "reconciles  all  things;*'  through  his 
obedience  and  death,  (jod  is  "reconciled"  to  men; 
Jews  and  Gentiles  are  "reconciled**  into  one 
church;  holy  angels  and  men  are  at  peace  one 
with  another;  men  become  peaceably  disposed 
among  themselves,  and  enjoy  a  real  inward  peace 
of  conscience,  and  are  in  a  covenant  of  peace 
with  the  irrational  and  inanimate  creation  (Col. 
i:2o).  The  gospel  is  the  "word**  or  "ministry 
of  reconciliation  ;*'  by  means  thereof  is  this  peace 
with  God,  angels,  men,  conscience  and  other 
creatures,  declared,  offered  and  applied  to  us  (2 
Cor.  v:i8,  19). 

BECOBD  (rSk'erd  and  r^kord'),  (noun),  (Gr. 
ftdpTvSf  mar^toos^  witness,  Phil.  i:8,  "  For  Goa  is  my 
record,  how  greatly  I  long  after  you  all  in  the  ten- 
der mercies  of  Jesus  Christ/'  R.  V.) 

BECOBDEB    (r6-k6rd'er).    (Heb.   ^^^,  maz- 

keer*,  a  rememberer),  the  title  of  a  high  officer  in 
^e  court  of  the  Kings  of  Judah  (2  Sam.  viii:i6;  i 
Kings  iv:3;  2  Kings  xviii:i8). 

As  the  idea  of  memory,  memorials,  is  prevalent 
in  the  etymology  of  the  word,  'remembrancer* 
would  perhaps  be  a  more  exact  translation  of  it. 
We  have  no  office  with  which  it  can  be  compared ; 
for  the  functions  of  the  Master  of  the  Rolls  do 
not  sufficiently  correspond  with  the  title  to  war- 
rant the  parallel  which  it  might  suggest.  The 
Hebrew  maskir  seems  to  have  been  not  only  the 
grand  custodier  of  the  public  records,  but  to  have 
kept  the  responsible  registry  of  the  current  trans- 
actions of  the  government.  This  was  an  employ- 
ment of  the  very  first  rank  and  dignity  in  the 
courts  of  the  ancient  East. 

BED  (rSd),  (Heb.  ^"^^f,  aw-dome*),  is  applied  to 

blood  (2  Kings  iii:22),  a  garment  sprinkled  with 
blood  (Is.  lxiii:2),  a  heifer  (Num.  xix:2),  pottage 
made  of  lentils  (Gen.  xxv:3o),  a  horse  (Zech.  iS; 
vi:2),  wine  (Prov.  xxiii:3i),  the  complexion  (Otn. 
XXV 125;  Cant.  v:io;  Lam.  iv:7,  A.  V.  "ruddy**). 

BED  HEIFEB  (rgd  hSf'er). 

The  particulars  relative  to  this  sacrifice,  which 
was  an  eminent  type  of  our  Savior  (Heb.  ix: 
13),  will  be  found  in  Num.  xix.  The  virtue  of 
purifying  from  defilement  by  contact  with  a  dead 
body  did  not  reside  in  the  abundance  of  water 
with  which  the  person  previously  washed  himself; 
but  in  the  ashes  of  the  heifer,  however  small  their 
quantity,  with  which  he  was  baptized  by  sprin- 
kling. (Heb.  ix:io,  13,  14).  (See  Ablution; 
Offering;  Sacrifice;  Uncleanness.) 


SEA  (rSd  se).  (Heb.  T^  ^\,yawm  soof.) 

A  long,  narrow  arm  of  the  ocean  separating 
Asia  from  Africa.  It  was  called  by  the  He- 
brews "the  sea'*  <Exod.  xiv:2,  9,  16,  21,  28;  xv:i, 
4,  8,  10,  19;  Josh.  xxiv:6,  7,  etc.) ;  the  "Egyptian 
Sea**  (Is.  xi  :i5)  ;  but  especially  the  "Sea  of  Suph," 
apparently  so  named  from  the  wool-like  weeds 
growing  in  it  (Exod.  x'lg;  xiii:i8;  xv:4,  22; 
xxiii:3i;  Num.  xiv:25;  xxi:4,  etc).  The  Greeks 
applied  *'Eruthra  Thalassa"  or  "Red  Sea**  to  it 
in  common  with  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Indian 
Ocean;  in  the  New  Testament  it  is  applied  to 
the  western  gulf,  now  known  as  the  "Red  Sea*' 
(Acts  vii:36;  Heb.  xi:29).  The  name  is  de- 
rived, perhaps,  from  the  red  coral  or  zoophytes 
in  the  sea,  or,  as  some  conjecture,  from  fedoin, 
which  signifies  "red.**  The  Egyptians  called  it 
the  "Sea  of  Punt**  or  Arabia,  and  the  Arabs 
"Bahr  el  Hejaz,*'  or  "El-bahr  el-Ahmar."  The 
navigation  of  the  sea  is  at  all  times  somewhat 
perilous,  from  the  sudden  changes  of  the  wind  and 
the  strength  with  which  it  often  blows.  The 
voyage  from  end  to  end  was  rendered  slow  by 
the  prevalent  wind  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
sea  blowing  toward  the  south  during  nine  months 
of  the  year,  and  in  the  southern  part  blowing 
northward  during  the  same  period.    (See  Sea.) 

BED  SEA,  NAME  OF.  Sir  J.  William  Daw- 
son says:  "In  the  Bible  the  sea  crossed  by  the 
Israelites  is  the  Yam  Suph,  or  Sea  of  Weeds.  It 
has  been  objected  to  the  use  of  this  name  for  the 
Red  Sea,  that  in  Kings  it  is  applied  to  the  Gulf 
of  Akaba.  But  it  is  likely  that  in  later  usage  it 
was  the  name  of  both  gulfs  of  the  sea. 

"This  name  I  would  attribute  to  the  abundance 
of  the  beautiful  green  water  weed,  Ceratophyllum 
demersum,  which  now  grows  very  plentifully  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Sweet-water  (3anal,  and  was 
probably  much  more  abundant  when  a  branch 
of  the  Nile  ran  into  the  narrow  extension  of  the 
Red  Sea  now  forming  the  Bitter  Lakes. 

"The  name  Red  Sea  is  of  latter  origin,  and 
seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the  color  of  the 
rocks  bordering  its  upper  part. 

"The  Eocene  and  Cretaceous  limestones  assume 
by  weathering  a  rich,  reddish-brown  hue,  and 
under  the  evening  sun  the  eastern  range  glows 
with  a  ruddy  radiance,  which  in  the  morning  is 
equally  seen  on  the  western  cliffs,  while  these 
colors  contrast  with  the  clear,  greenish-blue  of 
the  sea  itself.  Such  an  appearance  would  natu- 
rally suggest  to  the  early  voyagers  the  name  of 
*Red  Sea'**  (Dawson,  Egy^t  and  Syria,  p.  72). 
(See  Red  Sea,  Passage  of.) 

BED  SEA,  PASSAGE  OF  (r^  se,  pis'sij  6v). 

The  grand  event  associated  with  the  Red  Sea 
is  the  passage  of  the  Israelites  and  the  overthrow 
of  the  Egyptians  (Exod.  xiviis).  This  miracu- 
lous event  is  freqiiently  referred  to  in  the  Scrip- 
tures (Num.  xxxiii:8;  Deut.  xi:4;  Josh.  ii:io; 
Judg.  xi:i6;  2  Sam.  xxii:i6;  Neh.  ix:9-ii;  Ps. 
lxvi:6;  Is.  x:26;  Acts  vii:36;  i  Cor.  x:i,  2;  Heb. 
xi:29  ,etc.).  The  place  of  the  crossing  has  been 
a  matter  of  much  controversy.^  It  should  be  re- 
marked, as  preliminary  to  this  discussion,  that 
the  head  of  the  gulf  is  probably  at  least  50  miles 
farther  south  than  it  was  at  the  time  of  the 
Exodus.  If  the  Red  Sea  then  included  the  Bitter 
Lakes  of  Suez  and  the  Birket  et-Timsah  ("Lake 
of  the  Crocodile"),  the  crossing  may  have  been 
farther  north  than  would  now  appear  possible. 
Thus  the  predictions  of  Isaiah  xi:i5;  xix  15, 
"The  Lord  shall  utterly  destroy  the  tongue  of 
the  Egyptian  Sea,**  "The  waters  shall  fail  from 
the  sea,*   are  fulfilled. 


REDEEM,  REDEEMED 


1433 


REED 


Stanley  says  that  the  place  of  passage  has  been 
extended  by  Arab  tradition  down  the  whole  Gulf 
of  Suez. 

The  following  are  the  principal  theories  re- 
specting the  place  of  crossing  of  the  Red  Sea : 

(1)  The  modem  theory  of  Schleiden,  revived 
by  Brugsch,  that  the  Israelites  did  not  cross  the 
Red  Sea,  but  the  Serbonian  bog.  This  conflicts 
with  the  plain  narrative  of  Scripture,  which  says 
they  crossed  the  Red  Sea.  And  it  also  requires 
that  Rameses  be  transferred  to  Zoan,  about  40 
miles  farther  north  than  Brugsch  had  positively 
fixed  it  from  the  inscriptions,  in  his  earlier  works. 

(2)  The  tradition  of  the  peninsular  Arabs, 
which  places  the  crossing  south  of  Jebel  Atakah. 
But  the  physical  features  of  the  country  are 
against  this  place,  for  the  mountains  shut  down 
to  the  sea,  leaving  only  a  footpath  impracticable 
for  such  a  host  to  pass,  and  this  mountain  ex- 
tends for  about  12  miles. 

(3)  M.  de  Lesseps  puts  the  passage  between  the 
Crocodile  Lake  and  the  Bitter  Lakes,  while  M. 
Ritt  finds  it  along  the  dike  at  Chaloof.  If  the 
Red  Sea  extended  to  these  points  its  depth  and 
breadth  then  have  not  been  proved  sufficient  to 
meet  the  Scriptural  conditions  (Schaflf,  Bib. 
Diet.).     (See  Exodus,  The.) 

BEDEEM,  REDEEMED  (r«-dem,  r«-demd[). 

1.  To  redeem  is  to  buy  back  persons  or  things 
formerly  sold,  by  paying  a  due  price  for  them 
(Lev.  XXV  :25). 

2.  To  deliver  from  distress  and  bondage,  by 
the  exertion  of  great  power  and  love  (Deut. 
vii:5;   xxxii:6). 

3.  To  deliver  men  from  the  broken  law,  sin, 
Satan,  an  evil  world,  death,  and  hell,  by  the  price 
of  Jesus'  obedience  and  suffering,  and  by  means 
of  the  enlightening  and  sanctifying  power  of  his 
Spirit  (Luke  i:68;  Gal.  iv:4,  5;  Tit.  ii:i4;  i  Pet. 
i:i9),  they  are  "redeemed  from  the  earth,"  from 
among  carnal  men,  and  "to  (jod,"  into  a  state  of 
fellowship  with,  and  voluntary  subjection  to  him 
(Rev.  v.q;  xiv:3). 

4.  To  "redeem  time"  is,  under  the  conviction 
of  misspending  much  of  it,  to  double  our  dili- 
gence in  the  improvement  of  what  remains  for 
us  (Eph.  v:i6).  The  children  of  Israel  are 
called  "the  redeemed  of  the  Lord"  (Is.  xxxvip; 
lxii:i2),  as  returning  from  Babylonian  captivity. 
(See  Redeemer;  Redemption.) 

REDEEICEB  (r6-dem'er),  (Heb.  ^^\  go-ale^  a 

primitive  root,  to  redeem). 

The  Hebrew  "goale,"  or  kinsman-red eenter,  >vho 
was  also  the  nearest  of  kin,  was  to  exert  him- 
self in  favor  of  his  destitute  kinsman.  If  he  had, 
through  poverty,  mortgaged  his  inheritance,  the 
goale  was  to  buy  it  back.  If  he  had  sold  himself 
into  slavery,  the  goale  was  to  pay  his  ransom. 
If  he  was  murdered,  the  goale  was  to  avenge  his 
blood.  If  he  died  childless,  the  goale  might  espouse 
his  widow,  and  raise  up  seed  to  him ;  but  it  does 
not  appear  that  he  was  obliged  to  do  this,  except 
he  was  an  unmarried  brother  (Num.  v. -8;  xxvii: 
11;  XXXV ;  Deut.  xxv:i-8;  Ruth  iii,  iv;  Lev.  xxv: 
25 ;  Jer.  xxxii :  7»  8). 

General  Applications,  (i)  God  is  called  a 
"Redeemer;"  with  mighty  power  and  kindness 
he  rescued  the  Hebrews  from  their  bondage  and 
trouble,  and  often  delivers  the  oppressed;  and 
he,  through  the  blood  of  his  Son,  saves  from 
deep  slavery  and  woe  under  the  broken  law,  to 
endless  glory  and  happiness  (Is.  Ixiii:i6).  (2) 
CHirist  is  a  "Redeemer ;"  by  his  righteousness,  he 
paid  the  price  of  our  redemption;  by  his  inter- 
cession he  pleads  for  and  procures  it;  by  his 
Spirit  he  applies  it  to  our  soul  (Job  xix:25;  Is. 


lix:2o).  (3)  Christ  is  our  "redemption";  our  de- 
liverance  from  sin,  and  all  its  effects,  is  through 
his  blood  and  Spirit  (Eph.  iiy;  Col.  i:i4;  Heb. 
ix:i2);  and  begins  in  our  forgiveness,  is  car- 
ried on  in  our  sanctification,  and  perfected  in 
our  eternal  blessedness,  when,  at  the  resurrec- 
tion, our  very  bodies  shall  be  delivered  from  all 
the  effects  of  sin;  and  this  entrance  on  eternal 
glory  is  called  our  "redemption,"  as  it  brings 
the  deliverance  to  its  perfection  (Luke  xxi:28; 
Rom.  viii:23).  It  is  caMed  the  "redemption  of 
the  purchased  possession,"  as  we  then  enter  on 
the  full  possession  of  what  Christ  has  purchased ; 
or  it  is  the  "redemption  of  the  peculiar  people" 
(Eph.  i:i4).  Christ  died  for  the  "redemption 
of  transgressions,"  that  is,  that  he  might  make 
full  satisfaction  for  them  (Heb.  ix:i5).  He  is 
made  of  God  to  us  "redemption ;"  he  is  prepared 
and  given  of  God  to  us  as  an  all-sufficient 
Savior;  as  the  purchaser,  price,  treasury  and 
substance  of  our  everlasting  deliverance  from 
sin  and  misery  to  holiness  and  happiness  (i  Cor. 
i:3o).  We  are  justified  through  "the  redemption 
that  is  in  him,"  the  "redemption-price"  of  his 
righteousness;  and  partaking  of  him,  as  made 
of  God  to  us  "redemption"  (Rom.  iii  122). 

REDEMPTION  (r^-dgmp'shun),  (Heb.  •"'*;?,/««/- 

ddw\  to  sever),  in  theology,  denotes  our  recovery 
from  sin  and  death  by  the  obedience  and  sacrifice 
of  Christ,  who,  on  this  account,  is  called  TA^  Re- 
deemer (Is.  lix:2o;  Job  xix:25). 

(i)  Our  English  word  redemption  is  from  the 
Latin  redemptio,  and  signifies  buying  again;  and 
several  words,  in  the  Greek  language  of  the  New 
Testament,  are  used  in  the  affair  of  our  redemp- 
tion, which  signify  the  obtaining  of  something  by 
paying  a  proper  price  for  it;  sometimes  the  sim- 
ple verb,  to  buy,  is  used;  so  the  redeemed  are 
said  to  be  bought  unto  God  by  the  blood  of 
Christ,  and  to  be  bought  from  the  earth,  and  to 
be  bought  from  among  men,  and  to  be  bought 
with  a  price;  that  is,  with  the  price  of  Christ's 
blood  (i  Cor.  vi:2o).  Hence,  the  church  of 
(jod  is  said  to  be  purchased  with  it  (Acts  xx : 
28).  Sometimes  a  compound  word  is  used,  which 
signifies  to  buy  again,  or  out  of  the  hands  of  an- 
other, as  the  redeemed  are  bought  out  of  the 
hands  of  justice,  as  in  Gal.  iii  113,  and  Gal.  ivij. 
In  other  places  the  word  denoting  ransom  is 
used,  or  others  derived  from  it,  which  signifies 
the  deliverance  of  a  slave  or  captive  from  thrall- 
dom,  by  paying  a  ransom  price  for '  him ;  so  the 
saints  are  said  to  be  redeemed  not  with  silver  or 
gold,  the  usual  price  paid  for  a  ransom,  but  with 
a  far  greater  one,  the  blood  and  life  of  Christ, 
which  ne  came  into  this  world  to  give  us  a  ran- 
som price  for  many,  and  even  himself,  which  is 
aniilutron,  an  answerable,  adequate,  and  full 
price  for  them  (i  Pet.  i:i8).  (2)  The  cxfils 
from  which  we  are  redeemed  or  delivered  are 
the  curse  of  the  law,  sin,  Satan,  the  world,  death, 
and  hell.  (3)  The  moving  cause  of  redemption 
is  the  love  of  God  (John  iii:  16).  (4)  The  pro- 
curing cause,  Jesus  CHirist  (i  Pet.  i:i8,  19).  (5) 
The  ends  of  redemption  are,  that  the  justice  of 
God  might  be  satisfied;  his  people  reconciled, 
adopted,  sanctified,  and  brought  to  glory.  (6) 
The  properties  of  it  are  these:  (a)  It  is  agree- 
able to  all  the  perfections  of  God;  (b)  what  a 
creature  never  could  obtain,  and  therefore  entirely 
of  free  grace;  (c)  it  is  special  and  particular;  (d) 
full  and  complete;  (e)  and,  lastly,  is  eternal  as  to 
its  blessings. 

BEED  (red).    Several  Hebrew  words  are  used 
for  marsh  plants.    Two,  aw'khoo  (Heb.  ^<f)  and 


REED,  MEASURING  143 

too/  (Heb.  'yC),  are  frequently  but  not  always 
rendered  "flag."  Kaw-tteh'  (Heb.  •"'hE),  which 
is  cognate  with  eane,  may  be  considered  as  the 
equivalent  of  the  English  reed,  taken  as  that 
term  i&  in  a  broad  sense.  Fisbpoles,  canes,  and 
rods  (Matt.  xxvii;29),  are  formed  of  it.  These 
plants  flourish  in  marshes  or  in  the  vicinity  of 
water-courses;  hence  the  allusion  (Job  xl:2i). 
It  is  often  used  by  the  sacred  writers  to  illustrate 
weaitness  and  fragility  (2  Kings  xviii  :2i ;  Is. 
Kxxvi  :6i  xlii:3;  Ezek,  xxix:6;  Malt.  xii:3o). 
Reeds  were  also  used  to  make  pens  of  (see  Pen), 
and  also  as  measuring- rods  (Ezek.  xhs).  (See 
Weights  and  Meascbes.)  From  their  height  and 
slender  shape,  plants  of  this  kind  are  nioved  by 
the  slightest  breath  ol  wind  (l  Kings  xiv:is), 
and  hence  nothing  could  be  more  unimportant  in 
itself  than  such  a  motion,  and  nothing  more  strik- 
ingly illustrative  of  fickleness  and  instability; 
comp.  Matt,  xi  :7  and  Eph.  iv:i4. 

The  true  reed  of  Egypt  and  Palestine,  Arundo 
donax,  has  a  slender  jointed  stalk  like  bamboo, 
about  twelve  feet  in  height,  with  a  fine  large 
brush  of  bloom  al  the  top.  This  flexible  stalk 
often  lies  prostrate  before  the  wind,  ready  to  rise 
again  at  the  first  lull.  About  the  perennial  waters 
of  the  Holy  1-and  there  are  often  dense  cane- 
brakes  of  this  plant,  in  the  midst  of  which  wild 
beasts  find  their  lairs.  With  one  or  more  hollow 
tubes  of  reed,  musical  instruments  are  constructed 
by  the  youth  of  the  country,  and  it  is  likely  that 
David  first  learned  to  play  on  a  similar  primitive 
reed-organ.  (Schaff,  Bib.  Diet.)  (See  Bulrush; 
Flag;  Rush;  and  especially  Kaneh.) 

Figurative.  (1)  Christ  will  not  break  the 
bruised  reed,  nor  quench  the  smoking  Has;  he 
will  not  utterly  destroy,  but  kindly  help,  care 
for.  and  comfort  the  weak  saints  and  their  weak 
graces,  that  are  upon  the  point  of  losing 
all  their  grace  and  comfort  (Is.  xlii:^). 
(2)  In  allusion  10  the  multitude  of  reeds 
growing  about  Egypt,  the  Egyptians  and 
their  king  are  likened  to  a  ilaff  of  reed; 
and  broken  reed.  10  denote  their  inability 
lo  help,  and  their  readiness  to  hurl  the 
Jews,  and  such  others  as  trusted  in  ihem 
for  support  or  protection  (Eiek.  xxix:6; 
Is.  xxxvi:6).  (3)  The  ten  tribes  of 
Israel  were  smitten  as  a  reed,  when 
tossed  lo  and  frt>  as  to  their  outward  ' 
estate,  by  the  force  of  God's  judgments  . 
upon  tb«n  (i  Kings  xivns).  (4)  John 
Baptist  was  not  a  reed  shaken  iirilh  the 
wind;  was  not  unsettled  in  his  doctrine 
or  practice,  but  constant  and  steady  in 
bearing  testimony  to  Christ,  and  follow- 
ing a  course  of  strict  holiness,  amid 
storms  of  trouble  (Matt.  xi:?).  (S) 
The  measuring  reed  in  Ezekiel  and 
John's  vision  may  denote  the  word  of 
God,  according  to  -which  all  the  things 
of  the  church  ought  to  be  adjusted;  or, 
that  the  providence  of  God  should  with 
great  exactness  protect  and  defend  them 
(Ezek.  xl:3,  and  xlii:i6;  Rev.  xi:i,  and 
xxi:is).      (6)     The  reeds  at    Babylon  ^ 

were  burnt  with   fire;   either  those  that 
were  growing  in  the  Euphrates  were  deprived  of 
their  moisture  when  the  current  was  diverted,  or 
they,  or  those  on  the  roofs  of  houses,  were  burnt 
by  the  Persians  (Jer.  11:32). 

KEED,  HBASUItlNa  (red.  meih'Ar-Ing) 
(Eiek.  xlij).    See  Weights  and  Measures. 

BEELATAK  (re-el'a-yi),  (Heb.  ^^T',,  reh-ay- 
taw-yam",  trembling  caused  by  Jehovah),  one  of 


I  REEM 

those  who  returned  from  Babylon  with  Zenibbabel 
and  Jeshua  (Eira  ii:2);  called  Raamiah  (Neb.  vii: 
7),  B.  C.  about  545, 

BESK  (rem),  (Heb.  ^\  rekamt',  unicorn;  or 
wildbu11:Vulg.rilMM£CT'i>r,-and  in  several  versions 
ol  the  Bible,  unicorn,  R.  V.  wild  ox). 

The  radical  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word  fur- 
nishes no  evidence  that  an  animal  such  as  is  now 
understood  by  'unicorn'  was  known  to  exist,  or 
thai  a  rhinoceros  is  thereby  absolutely  indicated; 
and  there  is  no  authority  whatever  for  the  infer- 
ence that  either  was  at  any  time  resident  In  West- 

The  Indian  Rhinocerotes,  constituting  three 
species,  belong  all  to  the  southeastern  states  of 
the  continent  and  the  Great  Austral  Islands;  and 
there  is  no  indication  extant  that  in  a  wild  state 
they  ever  extended  west  of  the  Indus.  Early  col- 
onies and  caravans  from  the  East  most  probably 
brought  rumors  of  the  power  and  obstinacy  of 
these  animals  to  Western  Asia,  and  it  might  have 
been  remarked  that  under  excitement  the  rhinoc- 
eros raises  its  head  and  bom  on  high,  as  it  were 
in  exultation,  though  it  is  most  likely  because  the 
sense  of  smelling  is  more  potent  in  it  than  that 
of  sight,  which  is  only  lateral,  and  confined  by 
the  thickness  of  the  folds  of  skin  projecting  be- 
yond the  eyeballs.  The  rhinoceros  is  not  abso- 
lutely untamable — a  fact  implied  even  in  Job 
(Job  xxxix:9,  10).  Thus  we  take  this  species 
as  the  original  type  of  the  unicorn ;  bat  the  active 
invention  of  Arabic  minds,  accidentally,  perhaps, 
in  the  first  instance,  discovered  a  species  of 
Oryx  (generically  bold  and  pugnacious  rumi- 
nants), with  the  loss  of  one  of  its  long,  slender 
and  destructive  horns.  In  this  animal  the  reetn 
of  the  Hebrews  and  the  far  East  became  personi- 
fied, reem  being  most  probably  an  Oryx  Leucoryx, 


TlOtJobI 


im). 


since  individuals  of  that  species  have  been  repeat- 
edly exhibiied  in  subsequent  ages  as  unicoms, 
when  accident  or  artifice  had  deprived  them  of 
one  of  their  frontal  weapons,  notwithstanding  that 
the  reem  is  well  known  to  Arabian  hunters  as  a 
two-horned  animal.  The  spirit  of  appropriation 
in  Persia  and  Macedonia,  as  we  have  before  no- 
ticed, was  similarly  engaged,  and  for  the  same 
purpose  an  Jbex,  Bouquetin,  or  mountain  goat 


REFINE,  REFINER 


1435 


REFORMED  CHURCH,  THE 


was  taken,  but  showing  only  one  horn.  (Sec 
Goat.)  In  Africa,  however,  among  three  or  four 
known  species  of  rhinoceros,  and  vague  rumors 
of  a  Biculcate  species  of  unicorn,  probably  only 
the  repetition  of  Arabian  reports,  there  appears 
to  exist  between  Congo,  Abyssinia,  and  the  Cape, 
precisely  the  terra  incognita  of  Africa,  a  real 
pachydermous  animal,  which  seems  to  possess  the 
characteristics  of  the  poetical  unicorn.  In  the 
narratives  of  the  natives  of  the  different  regions 
in  question  there  is  certainly  exaggeration  and 
error;  but  they  all  incline  to  a  description  which 
would  make  the  animal  indicate  a  pachyderm  of 
the  rhinoceros  group,  with  a  long  and  slender 
horn  proceeding  from  the  forehead,  perhaps  with 
another  incipient  behind  it,  and  in  general  struc- 
ture so  much  lighter  than  other  rhinocerotes.  (See 
Unicorn.)  C.  H.  S. 


(r^'fin.  r6-fin'er),  (Heb. 

P7Xf  2aw'kak\  to  clarify,  to  strain;  H^V,  lsaw-raf\ 

to  fuse  to  purify),  as  founders  do  metal  from  dross, 
or  as  vintners  do  wine  from  dregs  (i  Chron.  xxviii: 
i8;  Is.  XXV :6). 

Figurative,  (i)  Its  peculiar  force  in  the  pas- 
sage (Mai.  iii:3)  will  be  seen,  when  it  is  remem- 
bered that  refiners  of  silver  sit  with  their  eyes 
steadily  fixed  on  the  furnace,  that  they  may  watch 
the  process,  and  that  the  process  is  complete  and 
perfected  only  when  the  refiner  sees  his  own 
image  in  the  melted  mass.  (2)  Christ  is  a  refiner 
and  purifier;  by  his  word,  his  blood,  his  Spirit, 
and  by  sanctified  troubles,  he  purges  out  the  dross 
of  error  and  corruption  from  the  church,  and 
the  dross  of  sinful  defilement  from  the  heart  and 
life  of  his  people  (Mai.  iii:2,  3;  Is.  xlviiirio; 
Zech.  xiii:9).  (3)  The  word  of  the  Lord  is  re- 
fined; there  is  no  dross,  error,  wickedness,  or 
vanity  to  be  found  therein  (2  Sam.  xxii:3i;  Ps. 
cxix:i4o). 

BEFOBM,  BEFOBMATION  ( re-form '.  rgf'or- 
ma'shun),  (Gr.  8i6p$u>iris,  dee-or' tho-sis,  a  making 
straight,  Heb.  ix:io),  to  bring  into  a  new  shape  or 
course. 

The  Hebrews  were  reformed  when  they  left 
their  idolatries  and  other  evil  courses,  and  turned 
to  the  Lord  (Lev.  xxvi:23).  The  gospel  dispen- 
sation is  called  the  reformation;  the  ceremonial 
ordinances,  being  fulfilled  in  Christ,  were  laid 
aside  for  more  clear,  easy,  and  spiritual  ones; 
and  multitudes  of  Jews  and  Gentiles  were  turned 
from  their  legal,  superstitious,  idolatrous,  and 
other  wicked  courses,  to  the  profession  of  faith  in 
and  obedience  to  God  in  Christ  (Heb.  ix:io). 

BEFOBHED  CHXTBCH,  THE,  IN  AMEB- 
ICA, 

The  Reformed  Church  in  America,  formerly  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Church,  is  the  oldest  religious 
body  having  a  presbyterian  form  of  government 
on  the  Western  hemisphere.  It  inherited  its  doc- 
trinal symbols  from  the  Reformed  Church  of  Hol- 
land, viz.,  the  Belgic  Confession,  in  1561,  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism,  1563,  and  the  Canons  of 
the  Synod  of  Dort,  1619.  These  are  of  a  Calvin- 
istic  character  in  general.  Its  ministers,  however, 
are  expected  to  present  chiefly  the  features  of  doc- 
trine contained  in  the  Heidelberg  Catechism, 
which  elaborates  the  system  under  the  aspect  of 
the  comfort  to  be  derived  therefrom.  Its  first 
question  and  answer  are  the  key  to  the  whole 
system : 

"What  is  thine  only  comfort  in  life  and  in 
death?"  Answer:  That  I,  with  body  and  soul, 
both  in  life  and  death,  am  not  my  own,  but  belong 
to  my  faithful  Savior,  Jesus  Christ,  who,  with  his 
precious  blood,  hath  fully  satisfied  for  all  my  sins. 


and  delivered  me  from  ail  the  power  of  the  devil ; 
and  so  preserves  me  that  without  the  will  of  my 
Heavenly  Father  not  a  hair  can  fall  from  my 
head;  yea,  that  all  things  must  be  subservient  to 
my  salvation;  and,  therefore,  by  his  Holy  Spirit, 
he  assures  me  of  eternal  life,  and  makes  me  sin- 
cerely willing  and  ready  henceforth  to  live  unto 
him." 

(1)  Before  the  English  Conquest.  The  first 
congregation  was  organized  in  New  Amsterdam 
in  1628  by  Rev.  Jonas  Michaelius.  Within  thirty- 
six  years  after  this  event,  occurred  the  English 
conquest  of  New  York,  namely  in  1664 ;  but  in  this 
brief  period,  a  dozen  churches  had  been  or^nized, 
which  had  been  served  by  fourteen  mmisters. 
Only  six  of  these  were  in  actual  service  at  the 
time  of  the  surrender.  Excellent  terms  were  se- 
cured by  the  Dutch  as  to  their  own  form  of  relig- 
ion, their  modes  of  inheritance,  and  some  other 
customs;  and  these  terms  alone  saved  this  little 
body  from  complete  annihilation,  during  the  Eng- 
lish domination.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Revo- 
lution this  Church  had  grown  into  a  hundred  con- 
gregations, with  about  thirty-three  ministers.  At 
the  present  time,  1901,  it  reports  six  hundred  and 
nineteen  churches  and  nearly  one  hundred  and  ten 
thousand  communicants,  with  contributions,  for 
home  expenses  and  benevolence,  approximating 
a  million  and  a  half  dollars,  not  including  the  in« 
come  from  endowments  for  educational  purposes. 

(2)  From  English  Conquest  to  American 
Independence.  From  the  English  conquest  until 
American  Independence,  a  period  of  one  hundred 
and  twelve  years,  the  Dutch  Church  occupied  the 
peculiar  position  of  being  religiously  under  the 
care  of  the  Church  of  Holland,  while  politically 
her  people  were  subjects  of  Great  Britain.  This 
gave  occasion  to  not  a  little  legal  entanglement. 
The  relations  of  church  and  state  in  New  York 
were  more  complicated  and  gave  rise  to  more  law- 
suits and  judicial  decisions  than  in  any  other  col- 
ony. The  Dutch  always  had  a  large  majority  in 
the  civil  assembly,  and  this  fact  greatly  restrained 
the  English  government  in  their  attempts  to  en- 
force their  secret  instructions,  especially  in  re- 
gard to  religious  matters.  The  governors  almost 
continuously  sought  to  impose  the  English  Church 
Establishment  upon  New  York,  which  the  Dutch 
as  continuously  and  vigorously  resisted.  In  1626, 
the  church  in  New  York  City,  after  repeated  fail- 
ures for  ten  years,  succeeded  in  securing  a  charter 
for  itself,  which,  by  its  terms,  made  that  church, 
in  religious  matters,  quite  independent  of  govern- 
mental interference.  Most  of  the  other  Dutch 
churches,  sooner  or  later,  secured  similar  charters, 
while  these  were  denied  to  all  other  congrega- 
tions, except  the  Episcopal,  until  after  the  Revo- 
lution. 

When  civil  rights  were  thus  secured,  the  Church 
began  to  turn  its  attention  toward  obtaining  cer- 
tain ecclesiastical  rights  from  the  Church  of  Hol- 
land. They  could  neither  educate  young  men  for 
the  ministry  nor  ordain  them  in  America.  Candi- 
dates for  this  office  were  obliged  to  go  to  Holland 
for  these  advantages.  It  was  not  until  1747  that 
partial  ecclesiastical  autonomy  was  secured.  But 
in  1755  the  Church  became  divided  on  this  subject, 
to  its  own  great  detriment,  and  the  division  lasted 
until  1770,  when  the  parties  united  and  substantial 
independence  was  secured.  In  this  same  year  a 
charter  was  secured  in  New  Jersey  for  Queen's 
College  [now  called  Rutgers],  located  at  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.  In  1784  the  Rev.  Dr.  John  H. 
Livingston  was  elected  Professor  of  Theology — 
the  first  appointment  of  this  kind  in  America.  In 
1810  the  Theological  Seminary  was  also  perma- 
nently located  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  and  is 


REFORMED  CHURCH,  THE 


1436 


REFORMED  CHURCH.  THE 


now  well  endowed,  having  large  grounds,  suitable 
buildings,  and  a  splendid  library. 

(3)  Increaaed  Dutch  Emigratioii.  In  1846 
began  a  new  Dutch  emigration  from  Holland, 
which  made  the  state  of  Michigan  the  chief  center 
of  its  settlements  and  operations.  The  Holland- 
ers in  New  York  at  the  English  conquest  were 
only  about  ten  thousand.  This  recent  immigra- 
tion to  the  West  during  the  past  fifty  years  must 
have  considerably  exceeded  one  hundred  thousand. 
The  increase  in  this  country  has  also  been  very 
large,  and  has  occasioned  overflow  into  the  neigh- 
boring states.  Most  of  these  immigrants,  at  first, 
fell  naturally  into  the  fold  of  the  old  Dutch 
Church,  and  these  are  now  represented  by  more 
than  one  hundred  congregations.  But  there  is  also 
another  body,  identical  in  faith  and  government, 
among  these  recent  Hollanders,  called  the  Chris- 
tian Reformed  Church,  composed  also  of  about 
one  hundred  congregations.  Those  connected  with 
the  Reformed  Church  in  America  have  Hope  Col- 
lege and  a  Theological  Seminary  at  Holland, 
Michigan,  which  are  becoming  well  endowed,  and 
the  germs  of  other  similar  institutions  at  Orange 
City,  Iowa. 

(4)  Foreigrn  Missions.  In  the  work  of  for- 
eign missions  the  Reformed  Church  in  America 
has  been  remarkably  successful.  Her  operations 
began  in  1819,  when  the  Rev.  John  Scudder,  M. 
D..  went  to  India  as  a  physician,  but  was  soon 
ordained  by  a  union  of  Methodist,  Baptist  and 
Congregational i St  ministers  in  Ceylon.  She  has 
now  flourishing  missions  in  Arcot,  India;  in 
Amoy,  China;  and  in  various  parts  of  Japan; 
while  a  new  mission  has  recently  been  started  in 
Arabia.  More  than  one  hundred  thousand  dol- 
lars are  raised  annually  for  these  missionary  en- 
terprises. 

(5)  Erangelical  in  Character.  This  Church 
has  always  been  noted  for  its  steadfast  adherence 
to  what  is  known  as  Evangelical  Religion.  This 
has  led  not  a  few  ministers  of  other  denomina- 
tions, when  dissatisfied  with  certain  modern  tend- 
encies, to  seek  admission  into  her  fold.  About 
one-half  of  her  ministry,  during  the  present  cen- 
tury, have  been  trained  in  other  institutions  than 
her  own;  yet  no  attempt  has  ever  been  made  to 
amend  her  doctrinal  standards.  Attempts  to 
change  her  liturgy  have  never  succeeded  beyond 
the  correction  of  grammatical  errors,  although  a 
few  additional  forms  have  been  added  to  meet 
new  necessities,  but  all  the  liturgical  forms,  ex- 
cept the  sacramental,  are  optional  as  to  use.  Yet 
the  Church  is  far  from  being  illiberal.  She  has 
always  been  a  pioneer  in  the  movement  of  all  the 
great  union  societies,  and  a  liberal  friend  in 
supporting  them  in  the  spread  of  evangelical  truth. 

(6)  Attempted  Church  Union  or  Federa- 
tion.  Repeated  efforts  have  been  made  for  more 
than  a  century  by  this  Church  to  effect  union  or 
closer  relations  with  other  churches  of  our  land. 
Indeed,  as  early  as  1743,  while  the  efforts  above 
alluded  to,  to  organize  some  sort  of  an  eccle- 
siastical assembly  tor  self-government,  were  pend- 
ing, the  Classis  of  Amsterdam  sought  to  effect  a 
union  of  the  Dutch  Church  with  the  German  and 
Presbyterian  Churches  in  America,  but  the  effort 
did  not  succeed.  In  1764,  the  Coetus  party  in  the 
Churdh  invited  the  German  Church  to  unite  with 
them  and  form  a  new  and  independent  body;  but 
the  Germans  then  felt  under  too  g^reat  obligations 
to  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam  to  cast  off  their  au- 
thority. In  1794  further  suggestions  of  union 
were  made;  and  frequent  allusions  to  the  same 
subject  occur  for  a  half  century,  but  none  of 
them  developed  into  practical  form.    In   1848  a 


complete  plan  of  union  was  drawn  up,  and  was 
on  the  point  of  consummation,  when  certain  cir- 
cumstances suddenly  brought  about  its  failure.  In 
1886,  again,  every  arrangement  had  been  made  for 
union,  when  certain  technical  errors  in  the  report- 
ing of  the  classical  votes  necessitated  the  delay  of 
the  matter  for  a  year,  when  it  was  defeated. 

Efforts  to  unite  more  or  less  closely  with  the 
Associate  Reformed  (Scotch)  and  the  Presby* 
terian  Churches  were  begun  in  1785;  were  re- 
newed in  1800,  and  were  on  the  point  of  consum- 
mation in  1816,  when  a  trivial  difference  of  opin- 
ion on  a  minor  point,  caused  one  of  the  parties  to 
withdraw.  In  1822  special  articles  of  fraternity 
were  entered  into  with  the  Presbyterian  Church 
and  delegates  have  been  exchanged  almost  yearly 
ever  since.  But  it  was  in  1873  that  the  most  com- 
prehensive effort  for  unity  was  made  by  the  Dutch 
Reformed,  the  German  Reformed,  and  the  two 
Presbyterian  bodies,  North  and  South.  Large 
committees  were  appointed  and  meetings  were 
held  extending  over  two  years.  But  again  a  cir- 
cumstance occurred  which  defeated  the  scheme. 

The  Reformed  Church  in  America  has  held  cor- 
respondence during  the  past  century  with  more 
than  thirty  different  denominations,  including  a 
few  in  Europe.  While  decided  in  her  attachment 
to  evangelical  truth,  she  recognizes  the  impor- 
tance of  closer  unity  among  the  different  branches 
of  the  Church  of  Christ  in  order  to  secure  the  con- 
quest of  the  world  for  Him.  And  we  firmly  be- 
lieve that  when  the  time  comes  for  a  simpler  creed 
— one  not  forged  in  the  furnace  of  polemics  and 
under  the  shadows  of  state  churchism — she  will 
stand  shoulder  to  shoulder  with  the  other  evan- 
gelical churches  of  our  land  and  of  the  world  in 
framing  a  confession  having  for  its  starting  point 
Divine  Love,  yet  not  ignoring  the  holiness  and 
justice  of  God.  She  has  long  been  ready  for  some 
wise  plan  of  federation,  and  we  trust  the  day  is 
not  far  distant  when  God  will  raise  up  some  genius 
capable  of  being  the  successful  advocate  of  such 
a  scheme.  E.  T.  C. 

BEFOBMED  CHTJBCH,  THE,  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 

The  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States 
(formerly  known  as  the  German  Reformed 
Church)  is  the  American  representative  of  the 
Reformed  Church  of  Switzerland  and  Germany. 
The  latter  is  the  earliest  of  the  group  of  national 
churches  derived  from  the  religious  movement 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  of  which  Zwingli  and 
Calvin  were  the  most  distinguished  leaders.  In 
Germany  it  received  its  distinctive  form  in  the 
reign  of  Frederick  III,  Elector  of  the  Palatinate. 

The  Swiss  Reformation,  as  inaugurated  by 
Zwingli,  was  distinct  from  that  of  Luther,  and 
was  from  the  beginning  marked  by  decided  pecu- 
liarities. Luther  refused  to  recognize  the  Swiss 
churches,  on  the  ground  that  they  did  not  agree 
with  him  with  regard  to  the  nature  of  Christ's 
presence  in  the  Lord's  Supper ;  but  it  is  easy  to 
see  that  in  any  event  it  would  have  been  difficult 
to  secure  complete  unity.  The  German  princes 
disliked  the  Swiss  republicans,  and  the  Church 
of  Switzerland  was  literally  compelled  to  become 
"the  free  church  in  the  free  state." 

The  teachings  of  John  Calvin  differed  in  some 
respects  from  those  of  Zwingli,  but  in  1549  Calvin 
joined  with  Henry  Bullinger — Zwingli's  succes- 
sor at  Zurich — in  a  common  Confession  of  Faith. 
In  this  Confession — ^known  as  the  Consensus 
Tigurinus — Zwingli's  doctrines  were  more  fully 
elaborated,  and  it  was  found  that  existing  differ- 
ences were  not  essential.  In  this  way  the  Ger- 
man and  French  elements  in  the  Reformed 
Church    were    practically    united.    Calvin's    doc- 


REFORMED  CHURCH,  THE 


1437 


REFORMED  CHURCH,  THE 


trine  of  the  Sacraments  was  generally  accepted; 
but  on  the  doctrine  of  the  decrees  the  Germans 
were  not  disposed  to  take  the  advanced  ground 
which  was  held  by  the  Church  of  Geneva. 

(1)  Strengthened  by  Union.  By  this  act  of 
union  the  Reformed  Church  was  greatly  strength- 
ened. In  Germany,  where  it  had  hitherto  been 
of  little  importance,  it  gradually  made  its  way 
until  it  became  the  leading  religious  organization 
along  the  whole  course  of  the  Rhine.  In  1559, 
Frederick  III,  Elector  of  the  Palatinate,  declared 
his  adhesion  to  the  Reformed  Church,  and  his 
example  was  followed  by  several  other  German 
princes.  It  was,  however,  not  until  1613  that 
John  Sigismund,  Elector  of  Brandenburg — the 
Ancestor  of  the  present  imperial  family  of  Ger- 
many— accepted   the  Reformed   faith. 

(2)  Catechism.  The  Heidelberg  Catechism 
was  prepared  at  the  direction  of  the  elector 
Frederick  III,  and  published  in  1563.  Its  chief 
authors  were  Caspar  Olevianus  and  Zacharias 
Ursinus.  The  former  was  a  Calvinist,  and  the 
latter  had  been  a  disciple  of  Melancthon,  many 
of  whose  disciples  had  been  literally  driven  into 
the  Reformed  Church  by  the  great  sacramental 
controversy  which  was  then  raging  among  the 
Lutherans.  The  Catechism  which  was  thus  pro- 
duced has  ever  since  its  appearance  been  recog- 
nized as  the  chief  confession  of  faith  of  the  Re- 
formed Churches. 

(3)  Church  Under  the  Cross.  For  many 
years  the  Reformed  Church  of  Germany  was  "a 
church  under  the  cross,"  and  it  was  not  until  the 
treaty  of  Westphalia,  in  1648,  that  it  was  officially 
recognized  as  one  of  the  three  authorized  "Con- 
fessions" of  the  empire.  Though  it  had  suffered 
greatly  during  the  Thirty  Years*  War,  its  trials 
did  not  cease  with  the  conclusion  of  that  terrible 
struggle.  In  1689  the  Palatinate  was  devastated 
by  a  French  invasion,  and  thousands  of  the  peo- 
ple fled  to  other  lands.  Switzerland  was  over- 
crowded with  refugees,  so  that  the  poverty  of 
the  people  became  extreme.  The  German  princes 
manifested  neither  piety  nor  patriotism,  and 
seemed  to  care  nothing  for  the  sufferings  of  their 
subjects.  In  the  Palatinate  the  court  changed  its 
religion  four  times  in  as  many  reigns,  and  those 
of  the  people  who  were  too  conscientious  to  imi- 
tate their  rulers  became  the  victims  of  persecu- 
tion. 

The  defeat  of  the  French  by  Marlborough  and 
Prince  Eugene  at  Blenheim  inay  be  said  to  have 
concluded  the  period  of  invasions,  but  the  misery 
of  the  fatherland  was  not  diminished.  For  sev- 
eral years  the  harvests  failed,  and  the  winter  of 
1708-9  was  the  severest  that  had  ever  been 
known.  At  the  time  of  the  greatest  suffering  it 
was  reported  that  Queen  Anne  had  invited  the 
destitute  Palatines  to  seek  a  home  in  her  Ameri- 
can colonies.  "Then,"  says  an  early  writer, 
"men  looked  into  each  other's  faces  and  said, 
*Let  us  go  to  America,  and  if  we  perish  we  per- 
ish.' " 

(4)  Gemnan  and  Swiss  Migration.  From 
the  great  German  and  Swiss  migration  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  Reformed  Church  in  the 
United  States  is  mainly  derived.  There  had  been 
isolated  Germans  among  the  Dutch  and  Swedes, 
and  it  is  on  record  that  Peter  Minuit,  the  leader 
of  the  Swedes  on  the  Delaware,  had  been  a  dea- 
con of  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  German  city 
of  Wesel.  It  was  not,  however,  until  about  1710 
that  efforts  were  made  to  establish  German  Re- 
formed Churches  in  America.  In  that  yev  the 
Rev.  John  Frederick  Hager  began  to  preach  to 
the  Reformed  Palatines  on  the  Hudson,  and  the 
^v.  Henry  Hoeg^r  performed  the  same  office 


at  New  Berne,  N.  C.  In  the  same  year  the  Rev. 
Paulus  Van  Vlecq,  a  Dutch  Reformed  minister, 
did  some  missionary  work,  partly  in  the  interest 
of  the  Germans,  at  Skippack  and  White  Marsh, 
in  Pennsylvania.  A  Reformed  Church  was 
erected  in  Germantown  in  1719.  In  1720  John 
Philip  Boehm  was  preaching  at  Falkner  Swamp, 
Skippack,  and  White  Marsh;  in  1727  George 
Michael  Weiss  organized  a  Reformed  Church  m 
Philadelphia.  About  a  dozen  churches  appear 
to  have  been  organized  between  1730  and  1735. 
In  1731  the  whole  number  of  Reformed  people 
in  Pennsylvania  was  estimated  at  15,000. 

That  the  people  were  religiously  in  a  destitute 
condition  cannot  be  doubted.  They  were  gener- 
ally too  poor  to  support  a  settled  pastor,  and  the 
visit  to  Europe  in  1729-30  by  the  Rev.  G.  W. 
Weiss  and  an  elder  named  Reiff,  for  the  purpose 
of  soliciting  aid  for  the  destitute  churches  of 
Pennsylvania,  was  abundantly  justified.  It  was 
a  period  of  great  confusion,  and  ministers  labored 
independently  of  all  ecclesiastical  authority.  The 
man  who  toiled  most  earnestly  to  establish  order 
was  John  Philip  Boehm,  to  whom  the  church  is 
indebted  for  its  earliest  congregational  constitu- 
tion. It  was  also  greatly  due  to  his  efforts  that 
the  Church  of  Holland  took  charge  of  the  Ger- 
man Reformed  Churches  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
effectually  aided  them  in  effecting  a  general  or- 
ganization. 

Michael  Schlatter  (1716-90)  was  sent  to 
America  in  1746  by  the  Synods  of  Holland,  with 
a  commission  as  Missionary  Superintendent.  In 
1747  he  succeeded  in  organizing  an  ecclesiastical 
body,  known  as  the  Coetus,  which  was  like  a 
synod,  except  that  its  acts  were  subject  to  revis- 
ion by  the  Synods  of  Holland.  Twice  he  visited 
Europe  and  collected  a  fund  of  £12,000  (about 
$60,000),  which  was  invested  in  Holland  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Reformed  churches  of  Pennsylvania. 
This  was  the  origin  of  the  "Holland  stipend," 
which  was  for  many  years  paid  to  American  min- 
isters. Schlatter  was  also  instrumental  in  the  col- 
lection of  a  large  fund  for  the  establishment  of 
"Charity  Schools"  in  Pennsylvania,  and  of  these 
schools  he  became  the  first  superintendent. 

The  most  advanced  and  promising  portion  of 
the  Church  soon  joined  the  Coetus,  but  some 
ministers  remained  independent.  The  most  emi- 
nent of  the  latter  was  the  Rev.  Dr.  John  Joachim 
Zubly,  who  labored  energetically  in  the  South, 
and  was  in  1775-76  a  member  of  the  Continental 
Congress. 

The  connection  with  Holland,  which  was  at 
first  a  blessing,  became  in  time  an  intolerable  bur- 
den. As  every  act  of  the  Coetus  had  to  be  re- 
ported for  revision,  years  sometimes  passed  be- 
fore, in  important  cases,  a  decision  was  reached. 
The  Synods  of  Holland  occasionally  sent  mis- 
sionaries to  America — the  last  two  m  1786;  but 
they  refused  to  grant  to  the  Coetus  the  privi- 
lege of  conferring  the  rite  of  ordination.  At  last, 
in  1793,  correspondence  with  Holland  ceased  and 
the  Coetus  resolved  itself  into  an  independent 
Synod. 

(5)  Marked  Periods.  The  history  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  in  the  United  States  since  the 
organization  of  the  first  Synod  in  1793  may  be 
regarded  as  consisting  of  three  plainly  marked 
periods:  (a)  To  the  founding  of  a  Theological 
Seminary  in  1825;  (b)  to  the  Tercentenary  Cele- 
bration and  the  organization  of  the  General 
Synod  in  1863;  and  (c)  to  the  present  time. 

The  condition  of  the  Church  during  the  first 
period  was  in  many  respects  discouraging.  The 
supply  of  educated  ministers  from  Europe  had 
almost  ceased,  and  there  were  none  who  were 


REFORMED  Episcopal  church      1438      reformed  episcopal  church 


properly  qualified  to  take  the  place  of  those  who 
were  passing  away.  An  attempt  to  found  a  col- 
lege in  junction  with  the  Lutherans,  in  1787,  had 
proved  a  failure,  and  it  was  long  before  the 
church  recovered  from  its  disappointment.  The 
introduction  of  the  English  language  into  the 
services  of  many  churches  caused  disturbance, 
and  some  congregations  were  lost  to  the  Church. 
In  1824  the  churches  west  of  the  Alleghenies, 
about  eighty  in  number,  organized  a  separate 
S3mod.  In  1825  the  communicants  of  the  entire 
Church  numbered  23,291. 

During  the  second  period  the  life  of  the  Church 
centered  in  the  theological  Seminary  at  Mercer- 
burg.  In  that  little  mountain  village  labored 
such  men  as  Drs.  Lewis  Mayer,  F.  A.  Ranch, 
John  W.  Nevin,  Philip  Schaff,  Henry  Harbaugh, 
and  others  whose  names  are  known  in  all  the 
churches.  There  Ranch  wrote  his  "Psychology," 
Nevin  published  his  "Mystical  Presence,"  and 
Schaff  began  his  series  of  Church  Histories.  The 
Church  was  rapidly  advancing  in  general  intelli- 
gence and  maintained  a  number  of  periodicals,  in- 
cluding a  German  and  an  English  literary  and 
theological  review. 

The  Tercentenary  Celebration  of  the  Heidel- 
berg Catechism,  in  1863,  was  an  important  his- 
torical epoch.  Two  large  conventions  were  held, 
besides  many  local  celebrations,  and  a  splendid 
edition  of  the  Catechism  was  published.  5^- 
nevolent  contributions  were  largely  increased, 
and  the  Church  manifested  extraordinary  energy 
in  its  missionary  work. 

The  present  period  has  continued  and  devel- 
oped the  prosperity  which  was  thus  inaugurated. 
A  long  controversy  concerning  the  use  of  a  re- 
sponsive liturgy  was  concluded  in  1879;  and  the 
Church  has  now  reached  a  position  which  may  be 
described  as  moderately  liturgical,  though  per- 
fect freedom  in  worship  is  allowed.  The  Re- 
formed Church  now  consists  of  one  General 
Synod,  eight  district  Synods,  and  in  round  num- 
bers 1,000  ministers  and  230,000  communicants. 
It  supports  a  flourishing  mission  in  Japan.  In 
this  country  its  missionaries  have  labored  suc- 
cessfully among  the  German  and  Hungarian  im- 
migrants. Three  Orphan  Homes  are  supported. 
Of  its  eight  Synods  three  are  prevailingly  Ger- 
man. It  sustains  nineteen  literary  and  theolog- 
ical institutions  and  publishes  twenty-eight  peri- 
odicals. 

(6)  Chief  Cause  of  Becent  Prosperity.  A 
chief  cause  for  the  recent  prosperity  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  must  be  sought  in  its  liberal  and 
comprehensive  character.  Practically  its  faith 
is  based  on  the  ancient  creeds  which  are  the  com- 
mon possession  of  Christendom.  It  holds  aa 
firmly  as  did  the  Great  Synod  of  Berne,  in  1532, 
that  "Christ  is  the  center  of  Christian  teaching," 
and  that  "God  himself  can  be  known  only  as 
he  has  revealed  himself  in  Jesus  Christ."  Dur- 
ing its  whole  history  the  Reformed  Church  has 
taken  the  most  advanced  ground  on  the  subject 
of  Christian  union,  and  it  is  still  ready  to  go 
more  than  half  way  to  meet  those  who  seek  to 
actualize  the  ideal  of  the  Master.  J.  H.  D. 

BEFOBMED  EPISCOPAL  CHTJBCH. 

/.  Organization  and  Principles.  On  the  sec- 
ond day  of  December,  1873,  certain  clergymen 
and  laymen,  formerly  connected  with  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  met  in  New  York  and  organized  the  Re- 
formed Episcopal  Church,  with  Bishop  Cummins 
as  its  first  presiding  bishop. 

The  following  Declaration  of  Principles  con- 
stituted its  basis: 


1.  The  Reformed  Episcopal  Church,  holding 
'the  faith  once  delivered  to  the  saints,*  declares 
its  belief  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  as  the  Word  of  God,  and  the 
sole  rule  of  faith  and  practice;  in  the  Creed, 
commonly  called  the  Apostles*  Creed;  in  the  di- 
vine institution  of  the  sacraments  of  baptism  and 
the  Lord's  Supper;  and  in  the  doctrines  of  grace, 
substantially  as  they  are  set  forth  in  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  of  Religion. 

II.  This  church  recognizes  and  adheres  to  Epis- 
copacy, not  as  of  divine  right,  but  as  a  very  an- 
cient and  desirable  form  of  church  polity. 

III.  This  church  retaining  a  liturgy  which  shall 
not  be  imperative  or  repressive  of  freedom  in 
prayer,  accepts  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  as 
it  was  revised,  proposed  and  recommended  for 
use  by  the  General  Convention  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  A.  D.  1785,  reserving  full  lib- 
erty to  alter,  abridge,  enlarge  and  amend  the 
same,  as  may  seem  most  conducive  to  the  edifi- 
cation of  the  people,  'provided  that  the  substance 
of  the  faith  be  kept  entire.' 

ly.  This  church  condemns  and  rejects  the  fol- 
lowing erroneous  and  strange  doctrines  as  con- 
trary to   God's  Word: 

First.  That  the  church  of  Christ  exists  only 
in  one  order  or  form  of  ecclesiastical  polity. 

Second.  That  Christian  ministers  are  "priests" 
in  another  sense  than  that  in  which  all  believers 
are  a  "royal  priesthood." 

Third.  That  the  Lord*s  table  is  an  altar,  on 
which  the  oblation  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
is  offered  anew  to  the  Father. 

Fourth.  That  the  presence  of  Christ  in  the 
Lord's  Supper  is  a  presence  in  the  elements  of 
bread  and  wine. 

Fifth.  That  regeneration  is  inseparably  con- 
nected with  baptism. 

2.  Antecedent  Historp.  (1)  Church  of  En^ 

land.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  above,  the  Re- 
formed Episcopal  Church  is  an  offshoot  from  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States 
and  through  it  from  the  Church  of  England.  The 
history  of  Protestant  principles  in  the  English 
Church  is  thus  the  antecedent  history  of  the  Re- 
formed Episcopal  Church. 

(1)  Edward  VI.  The  Reformers,  under  King 
Edward  VI,  proceeded  with  caution,  avoiding 
an  abrupt  change  from  accustomed  modes  of 
worship,  until  the  people  should  become  familiar 
with  the  principles  of  the  Reformation.  Homi- 
lies were  set  forth  for  popular  instruction  and 
appointed  to  be  read  in  churches — ^many  of  the 
clergy  being  unable  to  preach.  Probably  the  most 
efficient  educator  was  the  rendition  of  the  serv- 
ices in  English,  instead  of  Latin.  Errors,  which 
passed  unchallenged  when  disguised  in  an  un- 
known tongue,  were  clearly  seen,  and  three  years 
after  the  first  prayer-book,  the  second  was  issued. 
This  second  book,  issued  in  1552,  is  Protestant  in 
character.  It  was  in  use  but  a  short  time,  how- 
ever, for  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary  checked 
the  Reformation.  The  prominent  reformers  were 
put  to  death,  and  Romanism  was  reestablished. 

(2)  Elizabeth.  Upon  the  accession  of  Eliza- 
beth, difficulties  confronted  the  Reformation  as 
great  if  not  greater  than  under  King  Edward. 
Protestanism  had  been  extirpated;  only  devoted 
Romanists  occupied  the  bishoprics;  the  Catholic 
monarchs  were  ready,  should  the  Pope  command, 
to  de'throne  the  English  Queen.  Elizabeth  tem- 
porized. Catholic  monarchs  who  aspired  to  the 
queen's  hand  in  marriage  were  skillfully  pitted 
against  each  other,  and  the  Pope  was  quieted  by 
the  prospect  of  Elizabeth's  submission  to  his  spir- 


REFORMED  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH        1439        REFORMED  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 


itual  sway.    Time  was  gained,  while  the  Reforma- 
tion in  the  English  Church  was  reviving. 

The  second  prayer  book  was  too  Protestant  to 
please  the  Pope  or  the  English  Catholics.  It 
was  modified,  therefore,  by  features  taken  from 
the  first  book,  and  for  ten  years  Catholics  and 
Protestants  united  in  its  use.  The  sacerdotal 
features,  thus  introduced  into  ^he  English  liturgy 
from  motives  of  state  policy,  have  never  been  re- 
moved. 

The  fraternal  feeling  between  the  English 
Church  and  the  Protestant  churches  of  the  Con- 
tinent, begun  during  the  reign  of  Edward  VI, 
continued  through  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  James 
I,  Charles  I,  and  the  Commonwealth.  Clergymen 
from  other  Protestant  churches  were  received 
into  the  Church  of  England  without  reordina- 
tion.  It  was  not  until  1662,  under  Charles  II, 
that  Episcopal  ordination  was  made  an  essential 
for  pastorship  in  the  English  Church.  Under  this 
monarch  further  changes  were  made  in  the  prayer 
book — all  of  them  of  sacerdotal  character. 

(3)  Two  Contradictory  Systems.  Thus  it 
has  come  to  pass  that  there  are  two  distinct  and 
contradictory  religious  systems  in  the  Church  of 
England,  and  these  have  been  inherited  by  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States. 
The  Articles  of  Religion  are  Protestant — ^the 
prayer  book  has  Romanizing  elements. 

An  attempt  was  made  in  1689,  under  William 
III,  to  remove  the  sacerdotal  features  of  the  prayer- 
book,  and  thus  reconcile  it  with  itself  and  with 
the  articles.  Political  considerations  defeated  the 
attempt.  The  right  of  William  to  the  throne  was 
not  universally  conceded.  Many  of  the  clergy  re- 
fused to  swear  allegiance  to  him;  any  change  in 
the  service  book  was  felt  to  be  inopportune  then ; 
and  so  the  occasion  passed. 

S»  The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  After 
the  American"*  Revolution,  the  American  Episco- 
palians organized,  taking  the  name  of  The  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States.  The 
name  indicates  the  doctrinal  views  of  the  Church 
at  that  time. 

(1)  Prayer  Book  of  1785.  A  revised  prayer 
book — that  of  1785 — was  set  forth,  and  while  that 
book  was  in  use  Bishops  White  and  Provoost 
were  consecrated  at  Lambeth  in  1787  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury. 

(2)  Prayer  Book  of  1789.  The  prayer  book 
of  1785  was  displaced  in  1789  by  the  influence  of 
Bishop  Seabury,  whose  aggressive  spirit  overbore 
the  gentle  White.  Bishop  Seabury  had  been  re- 
fused consecration  by  the  English  bishops,  and 
was  privately  consecrated  by  the  Scotch  non- 
juror bishops-  in  1784,  and,  as  appeared  many 
years  after,  he  had  pledged  himself  to  introduce 
the  Scotch  prayer  book  into  America.  He  kept 
his  promise.  It  thus  befell  that  the  present  prayer 
book  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  is  some- 
what more  sacerdotal  than  the  English. 

(3)  Fraternal  Feeling.  The  great  majority  of 
Episcopalians,  clergy  and  laity,  in  the  early  days 
of  the  republic  were  evangelical.  Fraternal  rec- 
ognition of  other  Protestant  churches  by  inter- 
change of  pulpits  and  otherwise,  was  common, 
and  the  sacerdotal  and  sacramental  expressions  in 
the  prayer-book,  though  distasteful,  were  ignored 
or  explained  away.  The  constant  teaching  of  the 
book,  however,  had  its  effect,  and  prepared  the 
way  for  the  changes  which  ultimately  submerged 
the  evangelical  influence  in  the  church. 

(4)  Denial  of  Non-Episcopal  Orders.    Before 

and  after  the  American  Revolution  much  annoy- 
ance was  caused  by  the  introduction  into  pastor- 
ates of  persons  from  England,  who  pretended  to 


be  clergymen.  To  remedy  this  evil,  wardens  and 
vestrymen  were  forbidden  to  allow  any  person 
to  officiate  as  a  clergyman  unless  he  had  Episco- 
pal ordination.  This  inhibition  grew  in  time  to 
be  a  denial  of  the  validity  of  all  orders  except 
Episcopal. 

(5)  Division  of  Missionary  Work.  Next, 
the  division  of  missionary  work  was  disastrous 
to  the  Protestant  party  in  the  church.  The  for- 
eign missionary  field  was  assigned  to  low  church- 
men; the  home  field  to  high  churchmen.  The 
money  and  men  of  the  low  church  party  were  thus 
sent  to  foreign  lands,  where  they  could  not  af- 
fect the  councils  of  the  church.  The  new  dioceses 
in  the  western  states  were  manned  by  high-church 
clergymen.  The  vote  of  a  small  diocese  was  as 
powerful  in  General  Convention  as  that  of  a  large 
diocese,  and  thus  it  came  to  pass  that  while  a  ma- 
jority of  the  Episcopalians  of  the  country  were 
evangelical,  the  law-making  power  was  sacer- 
dotal. 

(6)  Prosecutions  of  Evangelical  Clerg^ymen. 
Then  came  prosecutions  of  evangelical  clergymen. 
Canons  were  enacted  and  enforced  which  forbade 
exchanp^e  of  pulpits  with  non-episcopal  clergy- 
men. The  teachings  of  the  prayer  book  concern- 
ing baptismal  regeneration  were  pushed  to  the 
front.  Clergymen  omitting  phrases  which  they  be- 
lieved unscriptural  were  expelled.  Many  volun- 
tarily withdrew.  Young  men  of  evangelical  senti- 
ments who  were  preparing  for  the  ministry  betook 
themselves  to  other  churches  or  entered  secular 
life.  An  effort  was  made  by  five  bishops  to  se- 
cure a  modification  of  the  baptismal  office.  It  met 
with  defeat. 

Defeated  in  the  councils  of  the  church,  low 
churchmen,  still  numerous,  held  many  meetings 
to  stay,  if  possible,  the  rising  sacerdotal  and  sac- 
ramental tide.  They  were  constantly  outmaneu- 
vered  by  their  more  skillful  adversaries.  They 
were  placed  in  the  attitude  of  disobedient  sons. 
The  prayer  book,  which  they  had  unsuspiciously 
accepted,  was  against  them.  They  were  bidden  to 
obey  or  depart.  Some,  weary  of  controversy,  con- 
tended no  more ;  some  resigned  their  offices.  The 
others,  loving  the  mode  of  worship  in  which  they 
had  been  reared,  but  troubled  in  conscience,  were 
in  perplexity,  when  the  action  of  Bishop  Cummins 
opened  the  way  for  such  as  had  courage  and  self- 
denial  enough  to  follow  him.  J.  D.  W. 

4.  The  Reformed  Episcopal  Church.    The 

circumstances  of  Bishop  Cummins'  action  will  ap- 
pear in  the  following  extract  from  an  article  by 
Rt.  Rev.  Samuel  Fallows,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  of  Chi- 
cago, 111.: 

(1)  Bishop  Cummins.  The  Rt.  Rev.  George 
David  Cummins,  D.  D.,  who  had  been  assistant 
bishop  of  Kentucky  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  separated  from  it  in  a  communication 
dated  November  10.  1873,  to  the  Rt.  Rev.  Dr. 
Smith,  its  presiding  bishop.  To  this  step  Bishop 
Cummins,  who  was  a  man  of  singular  eloquence, 
elevated  purity  of  character,  marked  organizing 
ability,  and  of  unswerving  devotion  to  evangelical 
truth,  was,  as  he  avers,  most  painfully  but  con- 
scientiously led.  Among  the  reasons  which  caused 
him  to  take  the  step  of  separation,  he  states  the 
following,  in  his  letter  to  Bishop  Smith : 

"I  have  lost  all  hope  that  this  system  of  error, 
now  prevailing  so  extensively  in  the  Church  of 
England  and  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  this  country,  can  be,  or  will  be  eradicated  by 
any  action  of  the  authorities  of  the  church,  legis- 
lative or  executive.  The  only  true  remedy,  in 
my  judgment,  is  the  judicious  yet  thorough  re- 
vision of  the  prayer  book,  eliminating  from  it  all 


REFORMED  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH        1440        REFORMED  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 


that  gives  countenance,  directly  or  indirectly,  to 
the  whole  system  of  sacerdotalism  and  ritualism; 
a  revision  after  the  model  of  that  recommended 
by  the  commission  appointed  in  England  under 
royal  authority  in  1689,  and  whose  work  was  in- 
dorsed by  the  great  names  of  Burnet,  Patrick, 
Tillotson,  and  Stillingfleet,  and  others  of  the 
Church  of  England — a  blessed  work,  which  failed, 
alas!  to  receive  the  approval  of  Convocation,  but 
was  taken  up  afterwards  by  the  fathers  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States, 
and  embodied  in  the  prayer  book  of  1785,  which 
they  set  forth  and  recommended  for  use  in  this 
country. 

"I  propose  to  return  to  that  prayer  book  sanc- 
tioned by  William .  White,  and  to  tread  in  the 
steps  of  that  saintly  man  as  he  acted  from  1785 
to  1789. 

"One  other  reason  for  my  present  action  re- 
mains to  be  given.  On  the  last  day  of  the  late 
conference  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  I  partici- 
pated in  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  by 
mvitation,  in  the  Rev.  Dr.  John  Hall's  church,  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  and  united  with  Dr.  Hall, 
Dr.  William  Arnot  of  Edinburgh,  and  Professor 
Dorner  of  Berlin,  in  that  precious  feast.  It  was  a 
practical  manifestation  of  the  real  unity  of  *the 
blessed  company  of  all  faithful  people*  whom 
'God  hath  knit  together  in  one  communion  and 
fellowship,  in  the  mystical  body  of  his  son  Jesus 
Christ.*  The  results  of  that  participation  have 
been  such  as  to  prove  to  my  mind  that  such  a  step 
cannot  be  taken  by  one  occupying  the  position  I 
now  hold  without  sadly  disturbing  the  peace  and 
harmony  of  *this  Church,*  and  without  impairing 
my  influence  for  good  over  a  large  portion  of  the 
same  Church,  very  many  of  whom  are  within  our 
own  diocese. 

"As  I  cannot  surrender  the  right  and  privilege 
thus  to  meet  my  fellow-Christians  of  other 
churches  around  the  table  of  our  dear  Lord,  I 
must  take  my  place  where  I  can  do  so,  without 
alienating  those  of  my  own  household  of  faith. 

"I  therefore  leave  the  communion  in  which  I 
have  labored  in  the  sacred  ministry  for  over 
twenty-eight  years,  and  transfer  my  work  and 
office  to  another  sphere  of  labor.  I  have  an  ear- 
nest hope  and  confidence  that  a  basis  for  the 
union  of  all  evangelical  Christendom  can  be  found 
in  a  communion  which  shall  retain  or  restore  a 
primitive  episcopacy  and  a  pure  scriptural  liturgy, 
with  a  fidelity  to  the  doctrine  of  justification  by 
faith  only — Articulus  stantis  vel  cadentis  Eccle- 

Si(B. 

(2)  Organization  of  Churches.  The  newly 
organized  church  was  without  a  single  place  of 
worship,  the  Reformers  by  their  action  having 
lost  legal  claim  upon  their  ecclesiastical  property. 
Christ  Church,  Chicago,  of  which  the  Rev. 
Charles  Edward  Cheney,  D.  D.,  now  Bishop  Che- 
ney, was  rector,  having  been  sold  under  foreclos- 
ure of  mortgage  and  purchased  by  a  member  of 
the  new  organization,  its  congregation  passed  un- 
changed into  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church. 
Elsewhere  congregations  were  formed  de  novo, 
and  houses  of  worship  were  erected.  The  churches 
which  were  organized  in  Canada  united  with 
those  of  the  United  States  to  form  one  ecclesias- 
tical body.  Attempts  were  made  to  incorporate 
in  a  similar  way  the  Reformed  Episcopal  churches 
which  sprang  up  in  England,  but  the  loss  of  time 
and  the  expense  involved  in  sending  delegates  to 
councils,  etc.,  have  brought  about  a  practical  in- 
dependence in  legislative  action. 

(3)  Doctrines  y  Usages  ^  and  Worship.    The 

following  extract,  from  the  article  of  Bishop  Fal- 
lows, above  alludeh  to,  gives  in  succinct  form  the 


doctrines,  worship  and  government  of  the  church : 

**In  justification  of  the  action  taken,  writers  in 
the  interest  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church 
point  to  the  prevalence  of  ^ht  errors  and  excesses 
of  the  Tractarian  school  in  the  parent  Church. 
They  contend  that  the  drift  is  increasingly  in  that 
direction.  Altars,  super  altars,  crucifixes,  candles, 
incense,  many  colored  vestments,  genuflections, 
prostrations,  confessions  and  the  like,  abound. 
They  assert  that  the  extremists  have  a  logical 
ground  on  which  to  stand  in  the  prayer  book; 
that  until  it  is  revised  Protestantward,  it  is  in 
vain  to  hope  to  check  the  retrogressive  tendency. 
They  refer  to  the  efforts  which  nave  been  repeat- 
edly made  to  procure  revision,  but  each  time  with 
a  decreasing  minority,  until  there  is  absolutely  no 
hope  for  success." 

(i)  The  doctrines  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal 
Church  may  be  in  general  considered  as  those  of 
orthodox  and  evangelical  Protestantism.  The  old 
Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England  and 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  were  revised  to 
make  them  more  distinctive  and  adapted  to  pres- 
ent life  and  thought.  These  articles  have  been 
compressed  into  Thirty-five.  The  famous  Seven- 
teenth Article,  "0/  Election,  Predestination  and 
Free  Will/*  has  been  made  the  Eighteenth,  and 
reads  as  follows: 

"While  the  Scriptures  distinctly  set  forth  the 
election,  predestination  and  calling  of  the  people  of 
God  unto  eternal  life,  as  Christ  saith:  *A11  that 
the  Father  giveth  me  shall  come  to  me;*  they  no 
less  positively  affirm  man's  free  agency  and  re- 
sponsibility, and  that  salvation  is  freely  offered  to 
all  through  Christ. 

"This  Church,  accordingly,  simply  affirms  these 
doctrines  as  the  Word  of  God  sets  them  f«rth, 
and  submits  them  to  the  individual  judgment  of 
its  members,  as  taught  by  the  Holy  Spirit ;  strictly 
charging  them  that  God  commandeth  all  men 
everywhere  to  repent,  and  that  we  can  be  saved 
only  by  faith  in  Jesus  Christ." 

Thus  clergymen  of  the  Calvinistic  and  Arminian 
type  of  thought  are  equally  at  home  in  this  Chris- 
tian organization. 

(2)  The  Reformed  Episcopal  Church  is  li- 
turgical in  its  character.  Its  prayer  book  has 
been  revised  so  that  everything  of  a  sacerdotal 
character  is  eliminated.  It  is  therefore  claimed 
to  be  Protestant,  Evangelical,  and  Scriptural.  In 
its  services  the  people  are  expected  always  to  take 
part.  Provision  is  made  for  free  prayer,  and 
meetings  for  extempore  worship  are  encouraged. 

(4)  Qovernment.  Its  government  is  Episco- 
pal. Its  Bishops  are  first  among  equals,  the  first 
among  Presbyters.  They  are  Presbyters  in 
orders,  but  bishops  in  office.  To  them  belongs  the 
conferred  right  to  confirm,  ordain,  and  consecrate. 
Their  Succession  is  an  equally  historic  one  with 
that  of  the  Church  from  which  they  are  descended. 

In  relation  to  this  question  of  Episcopacy,  the 
Rt.  Rev.  James  A.  Latane,  D.  D.,  the  Presiding 
Bishop  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church,  thus 
sets  forth  the  views  entertained  by  its  General 
Council : 

The  basis  of  organization  of  the  Reformed 
Episcopal  Church  and  its  fundamental  law  forever, 
is  the  "Declaration  of  Principles**  to  be  found  in 
the  forefront  of  every  Reformed  Episcopal  Prayer 
Book. 

In  that  Declaration  the  position  of  the  church 
on  the  subject  of  Episcopacy  is  very  clearly  de- 
fined in  these  two  sentences:  "This  Church 
recognizes  and  adheres  to  Episcopacy,  not  as  of 
Divine  right,  but  as  a  very  ancient  and  desirable 
form  of  Church  government."  "This  Church  con- 
demns and  rejects,  as  contrary  to  God's  word,  th% 


REFORMED  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH        1441 


REGENERATION 


erroneous  and  strange  doctrine  that  the  Church  of 
Christ  exists  only  in  one  order  or  form  of  ecclesi- 
astical polity." 

The  leading  idea  here  is  a  distinct  repudiation 
of  all  the  high  claims  which  are  made  for  episco- 
pacy and  for  Apostolic  succession  or  the  historic 
episcopate.  Others  may  claim  that  episcopacy  is 
of  divine  right — that  it  exists  by  divine  appoint- 
ment— that  it  has  received  its  authority  from 
Christ  and  his  Apostles— that  it  is  the  only  le- 
gitimate form  of  church  government — and  that 
without  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  a  Bishop 
who  has  received  his  commission  in  the  line  of  an 
unbroken  historical  succession  of  Bishops  from 
Apostolic  days,  there  can  be  no  valid  ordination 
to  the  ministry — no  valid  ministry — no  valid  ad- 
ministration of  the  sacraments — and  no  true 
Church  of  Christ.  The  Reformed  Episcopal 
Church  does  not  give  its  sanction  to  any  such 
claims.  It  does  not  pretend  to  them  in  bdialf  of 
its  own  Episcopacy  nor  recognize  them  in  the  case 
of  the  Episcopacv  of  any  other  branch  of  tftie 
Church  of  Christ.  It  finds  no  basis  for  them  in 
the  Word  of  God,  and  therefore  rejects  them. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  retains  Episcopacy— re- 
tains bishops  and  the  Episcopal  form  of  govern- 
ment— but  not  on  the  ground  of  any  pretended 
divine  right,  nor  as  the  only  form  of  church  gov- 
ernment, nor  as  an  exclusive  polity,  nor  as  some- 
thing without  which  there  can  be  no  true  ministry 
or  sacraments  or  church,  but  simply  because  it  is 
a  very  ancient  form  of  church  government  and 
believed  to  be  a  desirable  one. 

And  this  position  in  regard  to  Episcopacy  the 
Reformed  Episcopal  Church  has  consistently 
maintained,  and  even  emphasized,  by  its  legisla- 
tion. Thus  it  has  enacted:  (i)  "This  church 
recognizes  the  Episcopate  as  an  office,  and  not  as 
an  order."  (2)  "The  ecclesiastical  parity  of  Pres- 
byters of  this  church,  whether  Episcopally  or 
otherwise  ordained,  shall  be  maintained  as  a 
fundamental  principle  of  this  church."  And  (3) 
"Ministers  in  good  standing  in-  other  churches 
shall  be  received  into  this  church,  on  letters  of 
dismission,  without  reordination! 

In  thus  declaring  the  Episcopate  an  office  and 
not  an  order,  the  church  recognizes  but  two 
orders  in  its  ministry,  the  Diaconate  and  the 
Presbyterate,  and  makes  the  bishop  simply, 
primus  inter-pares— ?i  Presbyter  charged  for  cer- 
tain purposes  with  the  oversight  of  his  brethren 
and  their  work.  .    ,        .        ,  . 

And  in  declaring  the  ecclesiastical  parity  of  its 
ministers,  whether  Episcopally  or  otherwise  or- 
dained, it  distinctly  recognizes  the  validity  of 
Presbyterian  orders,  and  no  more  allows  the  re- 
ordination  of  ministers  who  have  been  ordained 
by  the  hands  of  the  Presbytery  than  of  those  who 
have  been  ordained  by  Episcopal  hands. 

In  taking  this  position  with  regard  to  Episco- 
pacy, the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church  has  simply 
gone  back  to  the  Scriptural  position  of  the  choice 
spirits  of  the  Church  of  England  at  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  to  the  practice  of  the  Church  of  England 
for  many  years  thereafter  in  allowing  ministers 
from  the  continent,  who  had  received  only  Pres- 
byterian ordination,  to  hold  positions  in  the 
Church  of  England  without  reordination.  And  in 
taking  this  position  so  honestly  and  openly  the  Re- 
formed Episcopal  Church  has  placed  itself  in  a 
relation  of  cordial  and  liberal  and  brotherly  fel- 
lowship with  all  other  branches  of  the  Church  of 
Christ. 

(5)    Belation  to  Other  Churches.     With  the 

congregational  character  of  the  individual  parishes, 

in  whose  affairs  communicants  and  contributors 

participate;  with  its  freedom  of  extempore  prayer; 

91 


with  its  recognition  of  the  ministerial  character 
and  standing  of  clergymen,  and  of  the  Qiristian 
character  and  standing  of  members  in  other 
churches;  with  its  Episcopal  government  and  ad- 
herence to  a  Liturgy;  with  its  broad  fellowships 
and  practical  sympathies,  it  affords  a  meeting 
ground  for  a  common  Christendom. 

(6)  Qovemznent.  The  supreme  legislative 
body  in  the  church  is  the  General  Council,  which 
at  first  met  annually,  in  recent  years  triennially. 
Synods  composed  of  neighboring  parishes  may 
be  formed  and  have  the  privilege  of  choosing 
each  its  own  bishop  with  the  consent  of  General 
Council,  and  of  making  its  own  canons,  not 
conflicting  with  those  of  the  general  Church. 
There  are  three  Synods,  New  York  and  Philadel- 
phia, Chicago,  and  Canada.  Missionary  Bishops 
are  assigned  to  jurisdictions  outside  the  limits  of 
Synods.  There  is  a  special  jurisdiction  composed 
of  colored  persons  in  South  Carolina. 

(7)  Past  and  Future.  In  the  first  few  years 
of  its  history  the  growth  of  the  church  was  rapid. 
More  recently  the  growth  has  coincided  with  the 
normal  growth  of  other  churches. 

Holding  a  unique  position  in  the  Christian 
world,  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church,  with  the 
lapse  of  years,  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  gain 
adherents,  strength,  and  influence.  Conservative, 
and  yet  progressive,  she  has  both  the  statics  and 
the  dynamics  of  progress  in  her  constitutional  un- 
folding and  development. 

BEFXJGE,  CITIES  OF  (r^f'Aj  sYt'Yz  dv)»  Num. 
XXXV ;  Deut.  xix  7,  9 ;  Josh,  xx  :2,  7,  8,  were  the 
several  Levitical  cities  divinely  appointed  by  the 
Jewish  law  as  asylums,  to  which  those  who  had 
been  undesignedly  accessory  to  the  death  of  a  fel- 
low-creature were  commanded  to  flee  for  safety 
and  protection. 

There  were  six  of  them :  Kadesh,  in  Naphtali ; 
Shechem,  in  Mount  Ephraim ;  Hebron,  in  Judah, — 
these  being  west  of  Jordan;  Golan,  in  Bashan; 
Ramoth-gilead,  in  Gad ;  Bezer,  in  Reuben,— cast  of 
Jordan.    (See  Cities  of  Refuge.) 

BEFUSE  (rgf'tis).  1.  (Heb.  ^B?,  maw-sas*,  to 

waste),  a  reference  to  diseased,  imperfect  or  worn- 
out  cattle  (I  Sam.  xv:o). 
2.  It  refers  to  chaff  (Amos  viii:6). 

Figurative*    The  (Heb.  ^^9,  maw-oc^  means 

to  contemn,  despise,  disdain.  Hence  the  Jews 
were  made  as  the  refuse,  when  rendered  weak, 
poor,  contemptible,  and  wretched  (Lam.  iii:45)* 

BEGEM   (rS'jgm),  (Heb.  0??,  reh'^em,  stone- 

heap,  or  perhaps  friend),  the  first  of  the  six  sons 
of  Jahdai,probably  of  the  family  of  Caleb  (i  Chron. 
ii:47),  B.  C.  after  1658. 

BEGEK-MELECH  (re'jem-me'lteh),  (Heb.  1^9 
CJl,  reh' getn-meh' lek^  friend  of  the  king). 

One  of  those  sent  from  the  captivity  to  make 
inquiries  at  the  Temple  regarding  fasting.  (Zech. 
vii:2).     (B.  C  about  517). 

BEGENEBATION  (r6-jgn'er-a[shfin),(Gr.  i-aXty- 
^tvtaUk^Pal-ing'ghen-es-ee' ah,  a  being  born  again). 

(1)  Begeneratlon  is  Expressed:  in  Scripture 
by  being  born  again  (John  iii:7),  born  from 
above;  so  it  may  be  rendered  (John  iii:2,  7,  27) 
being  quickened  (Eph.  ii  :i)  ;  Christ  formed  in  the 
heart  (Gal.  iv:6)  ;  a  partaking  of  the  divine  na- 
ture (2  Pet.  i:4). 

(2)  The  Efficient  Cause  of  regeneration  is  the 
Divine  Spirit.  That  man  is  not  the  author  of  it 
is  evident,  if  we  consider:  (i)  The  case  in  which 
men  are  before  it  takes  place ;  a  state  of  ignorance 
and  inability   (John  iii:4).     (2)     The  nature  of 


REGENERATION,  BAPTISMAL 


1442 


REGENERATION.  BAPTISMAL 


the  work  shows  plainly  that  it  is  not  iti  the  power 
of  men  to  do  it;  it  is  called  a  creation,  a  produc- 
tion of  a  new  principle  which  was  not  before,  and 
which  man  could  not  himself  i)roduce  (Eph.  ii: 
8,  lo).  (3)  It  is  expressly  denied  to  be  of  men, 
but  declared  to  be  of  God  (John  i:i2,  13;  i  John 
iii:9). 

(3)  The  Instrumental  Cause,  if  it  may  be  so 
called,  is  the  word  of  God  (James  i:i8;  i  Cor.  iv: 
15).  The  evidences  of  it  are,  conviction  of  sin, 
holy  sorrow,  deep  humility,  knowledge,  faith,  re- 
pentance, love,  and  devotedness  to  God's  glory. 

KEGENEBATION,  BAFTISMAIi. 

We  give  two  articles  on  this  subject  from  emi- 
nent exponents  of  somewhat  varying  views  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  and  Reformed  Episcopal 
Churches.  The  Rev.  J.  Francis  Hall,  D.  D.,  In- 
structor of  Dogmatic  Theology  in  the  Western 
Seminary  of  Chicago,  presents  the  subject  as  fol- 
lows: 

The  purpose  of  this  article  is  to  give  a  brief 
exposition  of  the  doctrine  of  baptismal  regenera- 
tion as  contained  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prater 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  The  writer 
holds  no  brief  for  a  party,  whether  high  or  low, 
advanced  or  moderate,  but  seeks  simply  to  state 
what  the  Episcopal  Church  teaches  officially. 

In  the  form  for  "the  Administration  of  Public 
Baptism  of  Infants,"  the  minister  exhorts  the 
congregation  to  pray  that  God  "will  grant  to  this 
Child.  .  .  .  that  he  may  be  baptized  with  water 
and  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  received  into  Christ's 
holy  church,  and  be  made  a  living  member  of 
the  same.**  In  one  of  the  prayers  which  follow, 
the  words  occur,  "We  call  upon  thee  for  this  in- 
fant that  he,  coming  to  thy  holy  baptism,  may 
receive  remission  of  sin,  by  spiritual  regenera- 
tion." In  another  prayer  the  minister  is  to  say, 
"Give  thy  holy  spirit  to  this  infant,  that  he  may 
be  born  again,  and  be  made  an  heir  of  everlasting 
salvation,'  etc.  After  the  baptism  itself  is  per- 
formed the  minister  must  say,  "Seeing  now  .... 
that  this  child  is  regenerate,  and  grafted  into  the 
body  of  Christ's  Church,"  etc.  A  little  further 
on  he  is  to  say,  "We  yield  Thee  hearty  thanks 
....  that  it  hath  pleased  Thee  to  regenerate  this 
infant  with  Thy  Holy  Spirit,  to  receive  him  for 
Thine  own  child  by  adoption,  and  to  incorporate 
him  into  Thy  Holy  Church."  Then  follows  a 
prayer  that  being  thus  "living  unto  righteous- 
ness," he  "may  crucify  the  old  man,  and  utterly 
abolish  the  whole  body  of  sin,"  etc. 

The  teaching  here  implied  seems  clearly  to  be 
as  follows:  Regeneration  is  treated  as  something 
which  can  be  received  by  an  unconscious  infant 
— i.  e.  it  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  any  moral 
movement  on  the  part  of  the  subject  of  regenera- 
tion, but  is  entirely  through  an  operation  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  It's  concomitants  are  (a)  incor- 
poration into  the  Church  of  Christ,  which  is 
treated,  as  in  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians, 
as  the  body  of  Christ;  (b)  adoption  or  engraft- 
ing into  the  body  of  Christ,  so  as  to  become 
God's  child  by  grace;  (c)  the  flowing  into  the 
child's  soul  of  life-giving  and  cleansing  streams 
of  grace.  In  short,  baptismal  regeneration  is  the 
effect  of  a  new  and  life-giving  relation  to  Christ 
in  his  body,  achieved  by  the  Holy  Ghost 
through  the  instrumentality  of  a  rite  divinely  ap- 
pointed for  that  purpose.  (Comp.  St.  John  i:i2, 
13;  iii:5;  Titus,  iii:5;  Luke  virig;  Eph.  iv:4,  16; 
v:30.) 

This  doctrine  is  often  misunderstood  by  being 
confused  with  conversion.  The  two  are  not 
treated  by  us  as  equivalent,  although  nearly  re- 
lated.   I  shall  endeavor  to  bring  out  our  meaning 


by  distinguishing  four  closely  related  but  distinct 
ideas. 

(a)  Regeneration,  or  the  reception  of  life-im- 
parting grace,  without  which  our  perfect  con- 
formity to  Christ  is  impossible,  but  which  is  a 
divinely  conferred  relation  to  Christ,  which  en- 
ables rather  than  compels  such  conformity.  In 
it  we  become  branches  of  the  vine.  But  we  may 
still  fail  to  respond  to  the  life  which  flows  into 
us  from  the  trunk  (Christ),  and  be  cut  off  in  the 
end.  In  brief,  regeneration  is  not  a  moral  change 
on  our  part,  but  a  state  of  grace  from  above  by 
which  our  full  sanctiflcation  becomes  possible. 

(b)  Conversion  in  its  primary  sense,  or  a 
change  in  our  convictions  and  purpose  from  error 
and  evil  to  truth  and  righteousness.  It  is  made 
possible  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  whether  it  precedes 
or  follows  baptism;  but  it  includes  a  change  of 
view  and  will  on  our  part.  It  is  not  in  itself 
life-giving,  as  is  regeneration,  but  the  new  aim^ 
adopted  in  it  are  made  realizable  by  regeneration. 

(c)  Repentance,  which  resembles  conversion 
with  this  difference,  that,  whereas,  conversion 
usually  refers  to  a  revolution  in  our  whole  course 
of  mind  and  purpose,  repentance  concerns  our 
particular  sins,  sins  which  we  continue  to  com- 
mit through  weakness  even  after  regeneration 
and  conversion. 

(d)  SanctiUcation,  or  conversion  in  the  ulti- 
mate sense,  which  means  the  lifelong  process  of 
our  entire  and  interior  conformity  to  Christ — 
our  perfect  acquisition  of  the  virtues  which  make 
it  possible  for  us  to  enjoy  Divine  fellowship,  and 
without  which  we  cannot  enter  heaven. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  from  such  a  point  of 
view  as  I  have  outlined — the  point  of  view  of  our 
Prayer  Book — regeneration  can  occur  but  once, 
and  constitutes  the  potential  principle  of  effectual 
repentance  and  ultimate  sanctiflcation.  Conver- 
sion in  its  first  sense  may  in  cases  be  superfluous 
— i.  e.  when  the  child  has  always  possessed  the 
general  aim  of  serving  Christ,  in  spite  of  occa- 
sional yieldings  to  temptation.  It  may  precede 
but  does  not  take  the  place  of  regeneration.  It 
needs  to  be  followed  by  life-long  progress  in 
sanctiflcation.  It  is  instantaneous,  often,  but 
constitutes  only  the  beginning  of  our  use  of  the 
assistance  of  saving  grace. 

The  Rt.  Rev.  Charles  Edward  Cheney,  D.  D., 
Senior  Bishop  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church, 
treats  the  question  in  the  following  manner: 

The  great  body  of  those  distinctively  known  as 
Evangelical  Christians  concur  in  regarding  the  new 
birth  which  is  so  conspicuously  set  forth  in  the 
New  Testament,  as  that  "creative  act  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  by  which  he  imparts  to  the  soul  a  new 
spiritual  life."  Even  those  churches  which  are 
not  generally  included  in  the  term  "evangelical," 
such  as  the  Roman  Catholic  for  example,  would 
admit  the  substantial  correctness  of  the  definition 
just  given.  The  many  controversies  regarding 
regeneration  which  have  agitated  Christendom, 
have  therefore  arisen  not  out  of  vital  differences 
as  to  what  the  new  birth  is,  so  much  as  from  in- 
quiries as  to  when,  how,  and  in  the  use  of  what 
instrumentalities,   is   it  imparted. 

(1)  Protestant  View  in  General.  Among 
Protestants  with  comparatively  few  exceptions, 
the  view  has  always  predominated  that  in  regen- 
eration God's  gracious  Spirit  acted  upon  the  soul 
through  the  medium  of  revealed  truth.  No 
matter  in  what  precise  method  that  truth  may 
have  been  presented,  whether  in  parental  instruc- 
tion, the  public  teaching  from  the  pulpit,  the 
reading  or  hearing  of  the  Scriptures,  or  even 
the  memory  of  some  long- forgotten  but  divine 
admonition,   the   Holy   Ghost   deigns   to   employ 


REGENERATION,  BAPTISMAL 


1443 


REGION  ROUND  ABOUT,  THE 


each  and  all  of  these  agencies  in  the  new  creation 
of  the  moral  and  spiritual  nature.  Christ  him- 
self taught,  **The  words  that  I  speak  unto  you, 
they  are  spirit,  and  they  are  life."  In  direct  con- 
nection with  St.  John's  characterization  of  Christ 
as  **The  Word,"  he  adds,  "To  as  many  as  re- 
ceived Him  (The  Word),  to  them  gave  he 
power  to  become  the  sons  of  God.**  "Of  his  own 
will,"  says  St.  James,  "begat  he  us  with  the 
word  of  truth.**  Writing  to  the  Corinthian  be- 
lievers, St.  Paul  declares,  "In  Christ  Jesus  I 
have  begotten  you  again  through  the  Gospel.*' 
St.  Peter  writes  to  the  scattered  Christians  to 
whom  his  first  epistle  is  addressed,  "Being  born 
again,  not  of  corruptible  seed,  but  of  incorrupti- 
ble, by  the  word  of  God,  which  liveth  and  abidetk 
forever." 

(2)  Boman  Catholic  View.  On  the  other 
hand,  from  the  early  days  of  the  church — how 
early  it  would  be  hard  to  determine — a  totally 
different  theory  has  had  its  advocates  and  devo- 
tees. The  Church  of  Rome  has  committed  itself 
wholly  to  the  dogmatic  proposition  that  Baptism 
is  the  immediate  and  direct  instrument  through 
which  the  Holy  Spirit  acts  upon  the  soul.  It 
holds  that  when  a  properly  qualified  functionary 
of  the  church  applies  water  in  the  name  of  the 
Holy  Trinity,  the  act  becomes  the  vehicle  by 
which  the  new  creation  is  imparted. 

(3)  Anglican  Views.  How  far  the  Anglican 
Church  goes  in  the  adoption  of  this  idea  of  the 
Baptismal  washing,  is  a  question  involving  much 
difference  of  opinion.  On  the  one  hand  it  is 
universally  admitted  that  from  the  Reformation 
down,  a  large  portion  of  the  clergy  and  laity  of 
the  English  Church  have  been  in  entire  accord 
with  the  prevailing  Protestant  and  evangelical 
conception  of  the  sacrament  of  Baptism  stated 
above.  It  is  to  be  remembered,  however,  that 
clear  definition  and  accuracy  of  statement  cannot 
be  expected  in  any  subject  about  which  contro- 
versy has  not  raged.  And  the  hot  debates  of 
the  English  Reformation  centered  about  the 
Lord's  Supper  rather  than  about  Baptism.  The 
Reformers  views  concernkig  the  Eucharist  are 
sharply  defined,  but  as  Baptism  was  not  thus 
elaborately  discussed,  so  its  effects  upon  the 
spiritual  nature  of  the  recipient  were  not  brought 
out  with  clear-cut  precision.  Thus  it  came  about 
that  both  in  the  Established  Church  of  England 
and  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the 
United  States  the  subject  has  remained  unsettled, 
and  the  ministers  and  members  of  the  church 
have  been  divided  between  the  evangelical  and 
the  mechanical  view  of  the  sacrament  of  Baptism. 

(4)  Anglican  Book  of  Common  Prayer.   But 

the  careful  student  of  the  Anglican  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  can  hardly  fail  to  perceive  that 
the  enormous  influence  which  as  a  litur^cal  form 
constantly  repeated,  it  exerts,  is  manifestly  on 
the  side  of  those  who  hold  that  the  gift  of  the 
new  birth  is  inseparably  tied  to  the  outward  act 
of  Baptism  with  water.  The  office  for  the  admin- 
istration of  the  rite  imperatively  ^  requires  the 
clergyman  to  say,  after  the  affusion  of  water, 
"Seemg  now,  dearly  beloved,  that  this  child  (or 
person)  is  regenerate."  What  the  person  was 
before  the  baptismal  act  is  seen  by  the  Church 
Catechism  in  its  declaration  that  "we  are  born  the 
children  of  wrath."  Consequently  this  new- 
creative  act  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  inseparably  in- 
volved in  a  ceremony  performed  by  a  mortal  and 
sinful  man.  Of  course,  the  principal  Scripture 
basis  alleged  for  such  a  belief,  is  St.  John  iiitj; 
"Except  a  man  be  bom  of  water  and  the  Spirit, 
he  cannot  enter  the  kingdom  of  God."    Dearly 


Christ  required  a  baptism     both    physical     and 
spiritual. 

(5)  Objections.  But  He  does  not  assert,  as 
does  the  Baptismal  Office  referred  to,  that  the 
outward  washing  ensures  the  inward.  An  im- 
migrant may  be  told,  "Except  you  be  naturalized, 
and  receive  the  spirit  of  your  adopted  country, 
you  cannot  be  an  American."  But  who  shall  dare 
assure  him,  "Take  the  step  of  legal  naturaliza- 
tion, and  the  spirit  of  patriotism  will  necessaril> 
accompany  it?'  Other  passages  are  used  as 
proof-texts.  In  Titus  iii:5,  St.  Paul  says,  "Ac 
cording  to  His  mercy  he  saved  us  by  the  wash- 
ing of  regeneration,  and  the  renewal  of  the  Holv 
Ghost."  But  the  assumption  that  the  "washing 
(laver)  of  rej:eneration  is  Baptism,  is  only  a 
manifest  begging  of  the  question.  Moreover,  it 
is  alluded  to  as  something  in  strong  contrast  to 
"works  of  righteousness  which  we  have  done." 
But  outward  Baptism  is  surely  among  these 
"works  of  righteousness"  of  human  performance. 
St.  Peter's  language  in  i  Pet.  iii:2i,  "Baptism 
doth  also  now  save  us,"  is  often  employed  to  en- 
force Baptismal  Regeneration.  But  the  remain- 
der of  the  verse  reads  as  a  corrective  of  such  a 
theory:  "Not  the  putting  away  of  the  filth  of  the 
flesh,  but  the  answer  of  a  good  conscience  toward 
God." 

(6)  Explanations.  Various  explanations  have 
been  put  upon  the  language  of  the  Anglican 
Prayer  Book  which  appears  to  teach  so  mechan- 
ical a  theory.  Low  cnurchmen  have  sometimes 
taken  refuge  in  what  is  styled  "The  hypothetical," 
or  "charitable"  explanation.  On  the  supposition 
that  the  person  baptized  would  fulfill  the  promises 
of  repentance  and  faith,  the  clergyman  is  speak- 
ing as  though  they  had  been  actually  fulfilled.  So 
clumsy  a  defense  of  plain  words  hardly  needs 
notice  or  refutation  here.  Some  have  satisfied 
scruples  about  the  language  of  the  service  by  as- 
serting that  the  regeneration  assumed,  was  a 
mere  ecclesiastical  term  for  admission  into  the 
church.  As  an  infant  is  at  his  nativity  brought 
into  a  new  world,  so  the  baptized  person  enters 
a  new  world  of  church  privilege  by  an  act  which 
therefore  may  be  called  a  new  birth.  No  moral 
change  is  involved.  The  l*ishops  of  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church  in  1871,  endeavored  to  quiet 
conscientious  souls  with  this  explanation.  Un- 
fortunately, however,  the  thanksgiving  following 
the  act  of  baptism  defines  what  this  regeneration 
is.  "We  thank  Thee  that  it  hath  pleased  Thee  to 
regenerate  this  person  by  Thy  Holy  Spirit/*  It  is 
therefore  spiritual  regeneration  which  is  supposed 
to  be  wrought,  and  certainly  one  cannot  conceive 
of  a  change  effected  upon  a  human  soul  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  of  God,  which  shall  not  be  a  moral 
change. 

(7)  Beformed  Episcopal  Attitude.  In  the 
revision  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  made  by 
the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church,  all  this  labored 
attempt  to  interpret  a  phrase  of  the  baptismal 
service  was  superseded  by  the  entire  omission  of 
any  statement  which  could  possibly  convey  the 
idea  that  regeneration  was  inseparably  connected 
with  water  baptism.  C.  E.  C. 

BEGIOKBOTTNBABOXTT,  THE  (re' jiin,  round 
&-bout',  the),  (Gr.  wtplxvpot,  per-ikh* o-ros^  lying 
round  about). 

In  the  Old  Testament  it  is  used  in  the  Sept.  as 
the  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  hac-Ciccar,  which 
means  literally  "the  round,"  the  topographical 
signification  of  which  is  not  clear,  but  which  seems 
to  denote  the  country  under  cultivation  in  which 
stood  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  and  the  rest  of  the 
five  "cities  of  the  Ciccar"  (Gen.  xiii:io.  11,  12; 


1 


REGISTER 


1444 


REHOBOTH 


xix:i7,  25,  28,  29;  Deut.  xxxiv:3).  Elsewhere  it 
has  a  wider  meaning,  though  still  attached  to  the 
Jordan  (2  Sam.  xviii:23;  i  Kings  vii:46;  2  Chron. 
iv:i7;  Neh.  iii:22,  xii:28).  It  is  in  this  restricted 
sense  that  perikhoros  occurs  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. In  Matt,  iii  :S  and  Luke  iii  13  it  denotes  the 
populous  and  flourishing  region  which  contained 
the  towns  of  Jericho  and  its  dependencies. 

BEGISTEB  (r«j'Is-ter),  (Heb.  ^HD,  kaw-thawb), 

a  public  record  for  marking  genealogies  and 
events  worthy  of  remembrance  (Ezra  ii:6a). 

-RTCTTAHTATT   (re'ha-bi'ah).  (Heb.  ^^^^\  rekh- 

ab-yaw't  in  i  Cor.  xxiii.;  whom  Jehovah  enlarges), 
a  grandson  of  Moses,  and  son  of  Eliezer  (i  Chron. 
xxiii:i7;  xxiv:2i;  xxvi:25),  B.  C.  after  1250. 

KEHOB  (re'hdb),  (Heb.  ^"1,  rekk-obe',  an  open 
space,  width),  called  also  Beth-Rehob. 

1.  A  place  on  the  northern  border  of  Pales- 
tine (Num.  xiii:22),  not  far  from  Dan  (Judg. 
xviii:27-29).  It  was  assigned  to  the  tribe  of 
Asher  (Josh.  xix:28),  and  was  a  Levitical  city 
(Josh.  xxi:3i;  i  Chron.  vi:75).  It  does  not, 
however,  appear  that  the  Israelites  ever  had  it  in 
actual  possession  (comp.  Judg.  i:3i;  2  Sam.  x: 
6.8). 

2.  A  town  allotted  to  Asher  (Josh.  xix:28). 
Schwarz  suggests  a  place  seven  and  a  half  miles 
east  of  Tyre  as  its  location. 

3.  Another  town  of  Asher  allotted  to  the 
Levites  (Josh.  xxi:3i;  i  Chron.  vi  :7s),  but  of 
which  one  of  the  Canaanites  retained  possession. 
Site  unknown. 

4.  The  father  of  Hadadezer,  king  of  Zobah, 
in  Syria  (2  Sam.  viii:3),  B.  C.  before  1043. 

5.  One  of  the  Levites  who  entered  into  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x:ii),  B.  C. 
410. 

BEHOBOAM  (re-ho-bS'am),  (Heb.  ^V^\  rekh- 
ab-awm't  he  enlarges  the  people). 

The  son  and  successor  of  Solomon,  born  by  one 
Naamah  (B.  C.  about  934),  an  Ammonitess,  about 
the  end  of  David's  reign.  It  appears,  from  the 
book  of  Proverbs,  that  his  father  was  at  no  small 
pains  to  teach  him  wisdom :  but  these  instructions 
were  not  blessed  of  God  to  him,  nor  were  they 
duly  exemplified  in  his  father's  life. 

(1)  Accession  to  the  Throne.  When  he  be- 
gan to  reign,  being  about  forty-one  years  of  age, 
he  repaired  to  Shechem,  where  the  Hebrews  had 
assembled  to  make  him  king.  Instigated  by  Jero- 
boam, who  had  begun  to  raise  sedition  a  little  be- 
fore Solomon's  death,  they  offered  Rehoboam  sov- 
ereignty, provided  he  would  ease  them  of  the  hard 
service  and  expensive  taxes  which  his  father  had 
laid  upon  them  as  he  carried  on  his  buildings.  He 
took  three  days  to  deliberate  on  the  proposal.  His 
aged  counsellors,  who  had  served  with  his  father 
in  that  station,  advised  him  to  give  the  people  an 
obliging  answer,  and  he  would  soon  fix  them  in 
his  interest.  Unwilling  to  do  so,  he  consulted 
with  his  young  counsellors,  who  had  been  brought 
uo  with  him.  They  advised  him  to  tell  the  people 
that  he  intended  to  load  them  with  far  more 
grievous  burdens,  and  to  punish  them  far  more 
severely  than  ever  his  father  had  done.  This  ad- 
vice suiting  his  haughty  and  foolish  disposition, 
he  followed  it. 

(2)  Bevolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes.  The  ten  tribes 
of  Reuben,   Simeon,   Ephraim,   Manasseh,   Dan,, 
Zebulun,  Issachar,  Naphtali,  Gad,  and  Asher,  pro-' 
voked  herewith,  cried  out  that  they  were  under  no 
obligation  to,  and  had  no  interest  in  the  family  of 
David,  and  so  would  go  home,  and  let  Rehoboam 


and  the  family  of  David  care  for  themselves.  Upon 
their  withdrawment  in  a  body,  Rehoboam  sent 
Hadoram,  his  treasurer,  after  them,  to  persuade 
them  to  return.  Perhaps  supposing  him  the  au- 
thor of  their  late  hardships,  they  stoned  him  to 
death.  Rehoboam  seeing  this,  posted  off  to  Jeru- 
salem in  his  chariot,  where  the  tribes  of  Judah  and 
Benjamin  acknowledged  him  king.  Of  these  he 
formed  an  army  of  180,000  to  reduce  the  ten  re- 
volting tribes  by  force :  but  Shemaiah  the  prophet, 
in  God's  name,  dissuaded  him  and  his  army  from 
this  atttempt,  as  it  would  not  prosper.  Rehoboam 
and  his  people  then  returned  to  their  homes. 

(3)  Beig^  He,  to  strengthen  his  kingdom, 
fortified  a  number  of  cities,  storing  them  with  gar- 
risons of  men,  and  magazines  of  armor  and  pro- 
vision. As  Jeroboam,  who  had  got  himself  made 
king  of  the  ten  tribes,  cast  off  the  true  worship  of 
God,  many  of  the  priests  and  Levites,  and,  no 
doubt,  others,  retired  to  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
and  strengthened  it. 

For  three  years  Rehoboam  and  his  subjects  fol- 
lowed the  Lord,  and  prospered  exceedingly;  but 
afterwards  thev  abandoned  themselves  to  every 
enormity.  Idolatrous  altars,  statues,  groves  and 
high  places  were  everywhere  formed,  and  both 
men  and  women  were  appointed  to  be  public  pros- 
titutes. 

(4)  Egjrptian  Invasion.  To  punish  this 
wickedness,  Ciod  brought  Shishak,  King  of  Egypt, 
to  invade  the  land  (B.  C.  929).  He  ravaged  the 
country,  and  carried  off  the  treasure  of  the  temple 
and  palace.  Shemaiah  the  prophet  told  Rehoboam 
and  his  princes  that  their  idolatry  and  other  wick- 
edness had  occasioned  these  disasters.  They  hum- 
bled themselves  under  a  sense  of  their  guilt,  and 
acknowledged  the  justice  of  God  in  their  miseries. 
Shemaiah  then  assured  them  that  God  would  not 
utterly  forsake  them,  but  would  prove  to  them  the 
difference  between  the  hardships  of  serving  the 
Lord  and  of  serving  Shishak.  When  Shishak  left 
the  country,  after  he  had  held  it  in  subjection 
about  three  or  four  years,  Rehoboam  and  his  peo- 
ple restored  in  some  degree  the  worship  of  God, 
but  the  hiph  places  were  not  removed.  He  caused 
brazen  shields  to  be  made  for  his  guard  who  at- 
tended him  to  the  temple,  instead  of  the  golden 
ones  made  by  command  of  his  father,  which 
Shishak  had  carried  off :  these  were  laid  up  in  his 
arsenal  when  they  were  not  used. 

(5)  Death.  After  Rehoboam  had  reigned 
seventeen  years,  he  died,  and  was  buried  in  -the 
city  of  David;  and  left  Abijah  his  son,  whom  he 
intended  to  have  made  his  colleague  on  the  throne, 
to  be  his  successor.  There  were  almost  perpetual 
wars  between  him  and  Jeroboam,  the  history  of 
which,  and  of  his  life,  was  written  by  the  prophets 
Shemaiah  and  Iddo;  but  not  being  intended  as 
canonical,  has  not  reached  our  times,  (i  Kings 
xii:  and  xiv:2i-3i ;  2  Chron.  x-xii).  (See  Israel; 
Jeroboam;  Judah). 

BEHOBOTH  (re-h5'both),  (Heb!  ^^^\  rekh-o- 
bdth't  broad  land). 

1.  The  "city  Rehoboth,"  one  of  the  four  found- 
ed by  Asher  or  Nimrod  (Gen.  x:ii,  12).  The 
text  has  been  variously  explained.  Some  regard 
it  as  denoting,  not  a  separate  city,  but  the  "streets 
of  the  city** —  that  is,  of  Nineveh ;  others  prefer  to 
regard  it  as  a  distinct  city.  Rawlinson  would 
identify  it  with  Selemiyah,  near  Kalah,  which  has 
extensive  ruins. 

2.  "Rehoboth  by  the  river"  mentioned  as  the 
home  of  Saul  or  Shaul,  an  early  king  of  the 
Edomites  ((Jen.  xxxvi:37;  i  Giron.  i:^).  The 
"river"  is  supposed  to  be  the  Euphrates.  The 
name  is  represented  by  Rahabah,  attached  to  two 


REHOBOTH-IR 


1445 


RELIGION,  SCIENCE  OF 


places  on  the  Euphrates,  one  twenty-eight  miles 
below  the  junction  of  .the  Khabour  and  three 
miles  from  the  western  bank;  the  other  lower 
down,  on  the  eastern  side.  The  former  is  per- 
haos  the  true  site  of  the  ancient  Rehoboth. 

0.  A  well  belonging  to  Isaac,  and  the  third  dug 
by  him  (Gen.  xxvi:22).  It  is  thought  by  some  to 
be  located  about  eighteen  miles  south  of  Beer- 
sheba,  at  the  head  of  the  great  Wady  Refah,  and 
to  be  identical  with  what  is  now  known  as  er- 
Ruhaipeh;  yet  because  of  its  distance  from  Gerar, 
where  the  first  well  of  Isaac  was  digged,  it  seems 
unsafe,  without  further  proof,  to  regard  its  iden- 
tification with  Rehoboth  as  complete. 

Near  some  stone  ruins  is  an  ancient  well;  the 
troughs  and  other  masonry  which  still  remain  are 
of  immense  proportions,  and  apparently  of  very 
great  antiquity.  One  of  the  troughs  is  round  and 
the  other  circular,  and  cut  in  solid  blocks  six  feet 
by  five  feet,  and  five  fc«t  high.  Palmer  states  that 
the  appearance  of  the  masonry,  which  is  more 
massive  and  antique  than  any  other  in  the  neigh- 
borhood, renders  it  probable  that  it  is  the  well 
which  Isaac  dug.  Though  Robinson  could  not 
find  it,  Stewart  and  Rowlands  each  found  it,  as 
an  ancient  well  and  twelve  feet  in  circumference ; 
but  it  was  so  built  over  and  filled  with  rubbish 
that  neither  Palmer  nor  Drake  could  at  first  dis- 
cover it.     (Schaflf,  Bib,  Diet.) 

^BEHOBOTH-IB  (re-h5'both-€r'),  (Heb.  ^^^1 
*^*y,  rekh'O'both' eer^  Rehoboth-city),  a  city  of  an- 
cient Assyria  (Gen.  x:ii),  which  formed  a  part  of 
Nineveh.    Site  not  known. 

KEHUM  (rS'hum),  (Heb.  ^^\  rekh-oom',  com- 
passionate). 

1.  One  of  those  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel 
from  Babylon  (Ezra  ii:2),  B.  C.  536.  He  is 
called  Nehum  (Neh.  vii:7). 

2.  A  chief  officer  of  the  king  of  Persia,  who 
commanded  in  Samaria  and  Palestine.  He  wrote 
to  Artaxerxes  (Smerdis),  the  successor  of  Cam- 
byses,  to  oppose  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  of 
Jerusalem  (Ezra  iv:8,  9,  17,  22),  B.  C.  465. 

3.  A  Levite,  one  of  the  sons  of  Bani,  who  re- 
paired a  part  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  under 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  iii:i7),  B.  C.  445- 

4.  A  priest  who  returned  from  the  Captivity 
with  Zerubbabel   (Neh.  xii:3),  B.  C.  445- 

5.  One  of  the  chief  Israelites  who  entered  into 
the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x:2S),  B.  C. 

445.* 
BBICre'O.CHeb.**?!,  ray-ee',  friendly,  social),  an 

officer  of  David*s  who  refused  to  conspire  with 
Adonijah  to  usurp  the  throne  (i  Kings  1:8),  B.  C. 
1015. 

BEINS  (ranz),  u  e.,  kidneys,  from  the  Latin 
rerus, 

1.  The  word  is  used  to  translate  the  Hebrew 

word  •^t'2?,  kil-yaw',  strength. 

2.  It  is  once  used  (Is.  xi:5)  as  Ti^»  khaw-iawts', 
the  loms,  the  seat  of  strength. 

Figurative.  (1)  The  Scripture  imputes  to  the 
reins,  love  and  the  fountain  of  generation  (i 
Kings  viii:i9).  (2)  God  upbraids  the  Jews  with 
having  him  enough  in  their  mouths,  but  not  in 
their  reins  and  hearts  (Jer.  xii:2).  (3)  In  trou- 
ble and  in  fear  the  reins  are  disturbed  and  trem- 
ble. They  faint  away  (Nah.  ii:io),  and  are  re- 
laxed (Dan.  v:6;  Ezek.  xxix:7).  (4)  The  psalm- 
ist says  that  his  reins  have  encouraged  and  ex- 
cited him  to  praise  the  Lord  (Ps.  xvi:7):  and 
Jeremiah  (Lam.  iii:i3)»  that  the  Lord  had  sent 
the  daughters  of  his  quiver  into  his  reins;  that 
is,  he  hath  pierced  me  with  his  arrows;  he  hath 


exhausted  his  whole  quiver  upon  me;  the  daugh- 
ters of  the  quiver  is  a  poetical  expression  for  ar- 
rows, (s)  In  Deut.  xxxii:i4,  the  fat  of  the  reins 
of  wheat  signifies  the  finest  fiour.  (6)  Men  are 
'pricked  in  their  reins/  when  their  soul  is  wound- 
ed with  disquieting  thoughts,  tormenting  passions, 
envy,  sorrow,  anger  (Ps.  lxxii:2i). 

BEKEM  (re-kgm),  (Heb.  °R"5,  reh'kem^  variega- 
tion). 

1.  One  of  the  five  kings  of  Midian  slain  by 
the  Israelites  at  the  time  Balaam  was  killed 
(Num.  xxxi:8;  Josh.  xiii:2i),  B.  C.  1170. 

2.  A  son  of  Hebron  and  father  of  Shammai, 
of  Judah  (i  Chron.  ii:43,  44),  B.  C.  after  1170. 

3.  A  descendant  of  Manasseh  through  Machir 
and  probably  son  of  Sheresh  (i  Chron.  vii:i6), 
B.  C.  before  1619. 

4.  One  of  the  towns  of  the  allotment  of  Ben- 
jamin (Josh.  xviii:27),  mentioned  as  between 
Mozah  and  Irpeel;  site  unknown. 

BELEASE  (r^-lSs'),  (Heb.  ^P^,  shaw-maf,  to 

let  alone,  to  desist,  to  remit;  Gr.  dv-oXi^w,  ap-ol-00'0, 
to  release,  (i)  To  set  a  prisoner  or  slave  at  lib- 
erty (Matt.  xxvii:i5).  (2)  To  forgive  a  debt  or 
tribute  (Deut.  xv:2;  Esth.  ii:i8).  (See  Feasts; 
Festivals.) 

BELIGIOK  (rMIj'iin),  is  a  Latin  word,  derived, 
according  to  Cicero,  from  relegere^  "to  recon- 
sider;*' but  according  to  Servius  and  most  modem 
grammarians,  from  religare^  "to  bind  fast." 

If  the  Ciceronian  etymology  be  the  true  one, 
the  word  religion  will  denote  the  diligent  study  of 
whatever  pertains  to  the  worship  of  God;  but, 
according  to  the  other  derivation,  it  denotes  that 
oblig[ation  which  we  feel  on  our  minds  from  the 
relation  in  which  we  stand  to  some  superior 
power.  The  word  is  sometimes  used  as  synony- 
mous with  sect;  but,  in  a  practical  sense,  it  is 
generally  considered  as  the  same  with  godliness, 
or  a  life  devoted  to  the  worship  and  fear  of  God. 
Dr.  Doddridge  thus  defines  it:  "Religion  con- 
sists in  the  resolution  of  the  will  for  God,  and  in 
a  constant  care  to  avoid  whatever  we  are  per- 
suaded he  would  disapprove,  to  dispatch  the  work 
he  has  assigned  us  m  life,  and  to  promote  his 
glory  in  the  happiness  of  mankind."  (See  (jOd- 
LiNESS.)  The  foundation  of  all  religion  rests  on 
the  belief  in  the  existence  of  God. 

Religion  has  been  divided  into  natural  and  re- 
vealed, (a)  By  natural  religion  is  meant  that 
knowledge,  veneration,  and  love  of  Ciod,  and  the 
practice  of  those  duties  to  him,  our  fellow-crea- 
tures, and  ourselves,  which  are  discoverable  by 
the  right  exercise  of  our  rational  faculties,  from 
considering  the  nature  and  perfections  of  God, 
and  our  relation  to  him  and  to  one  another,  (b) 
By  revealed  religion  is  understood  that  discovery 
which  he  has  made  to  us  of  his  mind  and  will  in 
the  Holy  Scriptures. 

BELIGION,  SCIENCE  OF  (r«-]Yj'Qnsi'^s6v). 

The  Science  of  Religion,  or  Comparative  The- 
ology, starts  with  a  study  of  the  principal  religions 
of  the  world. 

The  name  of  comparative  religion  should  be 
avoided.  We  do  not  speak  of  comparative  lan- 
guage, but  of  comparative  philology.  No  one 
would  use  comparative  bones  m  the  sense  of  com- 
parative anatomy.  If  theology  is  the  science  of 
religion,  comparative  theology  is  the  natural  name 
for  a  comparative  study  of  religions.  If  other 
names  were  wanted,  hierology,  as  suggested  by 
Prof.  Tiele,  or  pistology^  would  answer  the  pur- 
pose. 

Like  the  science  of  languages,  mythology,  and 
thought,  it  would  have  been  absolutely  impossible 


RELIGION,  SCIENCE  OF 


1446 


RELIGION.  SCIENCE  OF 


before  the  beginning  of  this  century,  and  it  is  cer- 
tainly our  century  which  may  by  right  claim  it  as 
its  own.  It  is  true  the  Jewish,  the  Christian  and 
the  Mohammedan  religions  had  formed  the  sub- 
ject of  learned  studies  for  many  centuries,  and 
the  sacred  texts  on  which  these  religions  profess 
to  be  founded,  the  Old  Testament,  the  New  Tes- 
tament and  the  Koran  had  been  carefully  edited 
and  translated.  We  have  only  to  look  at  the  im- 
mense folios  on  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament 
which  fill  ever  so  many  shelves  in  our  libraries  in 
order  to  see  how  much  the  history  of  the  Jewish 
and  Christian  religfions  had  occupied  the  thoughts 
of  those  who  came  before  us.  Nor  need  the  works 
of  modern  scholars,  inspired  by  what  is  often 
contemptuously  called  the  higher  criticism,  fear 
comparison  with  the  works  of  the  ancient  fathers 
or  reformers  of  the  church. 

/.  Unhlsioric  Spirit.  What  detracts,  how- 
ever, from  the  value  of  most  of  these  works  is  the 
absence  of  the  historical  spirit,  and  the  unjustifi- 
able way  in  which  the  sacred  texts  of  these  re- 
ligions were  violently  torn  away  from  those  great 
historical  movements  of  human  thought,  which 
alone  could  have  given  life  and  meaning  to  theip. 
If  we  add  to  this  that  all  non-Christian  religions 
were  treated  at  the  same  time  in  a  totally  unhis- 
torical  spirit  by  being  assigned  to  the  devil  as  their 
author,  we  can  well  understand  why  a  history  of 
religion  and  a  comparative  study  of  religions  were 
impossibilities  before  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. It  is  all  the  more  interesting:  to  observe  one 
notable  exception,  and  to  see  the  mtrepid  scholar- 
ship displayed  by  the  famous  Cardinal  Cusanus  in 
the  fifteenth  century.  He  seems  to  have  been  the 
first  to  study  non-Christian  religions  in  the  inde- 
pendent spirit  of  a  scholar  and  an  historian.  He 
examined  the  religions  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
of  Jews,  and  as  far  as  possible  at  the  time,  of  th^ 
Hindus  and  Mohammedans  also.  He  actually  ac- 
quired a  knowledge  of  Arabic  in  order  to  read  the 
Koran  in  the  original,  and  devoted  a  whole  book, 
**De  Cribratione  Alchoran,"  to  the  sifting  of  the 
Koran,  and  an  examination  of  Mohammed's 
teaching,  pointing  out  what  seemed  to  him  the 
many  errors  of  the  prophet.  And  yet  he  was  able 
to  discover  a  certain  harmony  in  all  religions,  as 
far  as  they  were  known  to  him,  and  it  was  on  this 
harmony  that  he  built  a  hope  of  universal  religion, 
and  of  universal  peace.  He  went  so  far  as  to  say 
that  "even  those  who  worship  many  gods  have 
borne  witness  to  the  existence  of  God,  and  that  in 
their  many  gods  the  polytheists  worship  after  all 
the  one  Deity,  though  they  have  divided  it  among 
many  gods.  It  was  the  one  God  they  worshiped 
m  all  the  other  gods."  We  might  also  quote  St. 
Augustine  as  a  large-hearted  judge  of  non-Chris- 
tian religions,  for  though  he  knew  but  a  small 
number  of  religions,  it  required  greater  courage  in 
his  time,  when  paganism  was  still  a  dreaded 
enemy,  to  say  what  he  said,  "that  there  was  no 
religion  which  did  not  contain  some  grains  of 
truth."  Since  the  revival  of  classical  learning  in 
Europe  the  ancient  religions  of  Greece  and  Rome 
have  naturally  formed  the  subject  of  many  learned 
and  voluminous  treatises.  Unfortunately  these 
two  mythological  religions  possess  nothing  that 
could  be  called  sacred  or  canonical  books,  and 
even  in  their  most  ancient  records  we  meet  them 
already  fully  developed,  no  longer  as  growing  and 
expanding. 

What  was  the  true  origin  of  Zeus  and  Apollo 
the  Greeks  knew  as  little  as  Virgil  knew  the  first 
germs  of  Jupiter  and  Mars.  Yet  these  are  the 
questions  which  most  concern  the  students  of 
m)rthology  and  religion.    It  is  difficult,  if  not  im- 


possible, to  draw  a  sharp  line  between  the  religion 
and  the  mythology,  whether  of  Greeks  or  of  Ro- 
mans, and  we  must  often  rest  satisfied  to  know  no 
more  of  their  Gods  than  the  lep^ends  and  the  cult 
peculiar  to  each  period  in  their  growth. 

2.  Comparison  and  Etymology.  The  only 
means  we  possess  of  knowing  more  of  their  gods 
than  the  Greeks  and  Romans  knew  themselves  is 
comparison  and  etymology.  Much  has  been 
achieved  in  this  research,  but  there  remain  many 
names  which  admit,  as  yet,  of  no  comparison  and 
defy  all  etymology.  We  must  rest  satisfied  with 
having  established  the  fact  that  the  first  step  in 
the  evolution  of  the  principal  gods  and  heroes  is 
to  be  found  in  their  names,  and  that  a  considera- 
ble proportion  of  their  names  admit  of  etymolog- 
ical interpretation.  This  conviction,  unwelcome 
as  it  was  at  first  to  classic  scholars,  and  resisted 
as  it  is  even  now  as  a  dangerous  innovation  by  a 
few  of  them,  has  imparted  a  new  character  to  all 
mythological  and  religious  studies,  and  has  clear- 
ly established  the  fact  that  here,  as  elsewhere,  the 
legends  and  the  cult  of  the  gods  can  be  accepted 
as  the  detritus  onlv  of  far  more  ancient  religious 
and  mythological  thought.  Though  the  later  his- 
tory of  the  cult  of  the  gods,  of  worship,  sacrifice, 
of  public  and  private  festivals,  and  more  particu- 
larly of  the  most  ancient  temples  still  preserved 
to  us  is  full  of  interest  for  understanding  the  later 
development  of  religious  faith  and  mjrth  among 
the  two  classical  nations,  it  would  clearly  be  as 
hopeless  to  try  to  gain  an  insight  into  the  orig- 
inal character  of  the  principal  deities  of  Greece 
and  Italv  from  what  we  know  of  their  cult  in 
historical  times  as  to  try  to  discover  the  true 
genius  of  Christianity  from  the  magnificent  pag< 
eants  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  or  from  the  joyous 
celebrations  of  the  days  of  popular  saints  in  the 
streets  of  Santa  Lucia  at  Naples.  This  is  not 
meant  to  belittle  in  any  way  the  value  of  the  Qiany 
learned  treatises  on  the  legends  and  cults  of 
Greeks  and  Romans  published  by  the  classical 
scholars  of  former  centuries,  but  only  to  bring 
out  more  clearly  the  fundamental  difference  be- 
tween their  ideas  and  what  is  now  called  The  ScU 
ence  of  Religion.  That  science,  concerned  as  it 
chiefly  is  with  the  origin,  not  only  of  Greek  and 
Roman,  but  of  all  the  religions  and  mythologies 
of  the  East  which  have  become  accessible  to  us  in 
their  sacred  literatures,  with  the  genesis  of  their 
gods  and  goddesses,  with  the  etymology  of  their 
names,  and  with  the  beginnings  and  original  in- 
tentions of  their  sacrifices,  and  of  the  various 
forms  of  praise,  prayer  and  thanksgiving  which 
in  some  cases  gradually  developed  into  a  regular 
ceremonial  or  cult,  was  simply  impossible  before 
the  begpnning  of  our  own  and  the  end  of  the  last 
century,  and  may  fairly  be  claimed  as  one  of  the 
greatest  conquests  of  our  time. 

J.  Requisites  for  Investigation.  A  compar- 
ative study  of  the  religions  of  the  world  required 
before  all  things  a  knowledge  of  the  language 
in  which  each  religion  arose,  and  without  which 
it  would  have  been  impossible.  No  one  would 
be  bold  enough  to  write  on  the  gods  of  ancient 
Greece  and  Rome  without  at  least  a  smattering 
of  Greek  and  Latin.  How  then  could  the  religions 
of  India  and  ancient  Persia  have  been  studied 
without  a  knowledge  of  Sanskrit  and  Zend,  and 
how  could  a  comparative  study  of  the  principal  re- 
ligions and  mythologies  of  the  World  have  been 
possible  without  a  previous  comparative  study  of 
the  languages  in  which  they  have  become  known 
to  us  ?  Even  with  regard  to  the  still  existing  re- 
ligions, whether  of  civilized  or  uncivilized  races, 
which  have  been  described  to  us  by  missionaries 


RELIGION,  SCIENCE  OP 


1447 


RELIGION.  SCIENCE  OF 


i: 

11 

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Mi 
t— * 

I 

I 


3 

c 

V 

n. 

i 
« 


and  travelers,  or  even  by  some  of  their  followers, 
we  see  at  once  the  wide  difference  between  the 
statements  of  mere  casual  observers  unable  to  ask 
questions  or  to  carry  on  discussions  on  any  au- 
thoritative documents,  whether  of  a  literary  or 
moral  character,  and  the  really  instructive  ac- 
counts which  we  owe  to  men  like  Dr.  Hahn,  Bishop 
Callaway,  the  Rev.  W.  W.  Gill,  or  to  Ram-Mohun 
Roy,  Nila  Kantha  Ghoreh,  Bunyin  Nanjio,  and 
others.  When,  at  the  beginning  of  our  century, 
the  scholars  of  Europe  began  to  devote  themselves 
to  a  study  of  Sanskrit  and  Zend,  of  Egyptian  and 
Babylonian,  there  soon  followed  a  complete  revo- 
lution in  the  ordinary  ideas  about  the  religions 
of  the  ancient  (inhabitants  of  India,  Persia  (Me- 
dia), Egypt  and  Babylon.  The  decipherment  of 
Vedic  Sanskrit,  of  Avestic  Persian,  of  hiero- 
glyphic Egyptian  and  cuneiform  Babylonian  re- 
ceived its  real  value  when  it  was  seen  how  it 
could  serve  as  a  key  to  the  literature  and  reli- 
gion of  ancient  humanity.  Before  that  time  our 
ideas  of  the  religion  of  Egypt  and  Babylon,  of 
India  and  Persia,  were  chiefly  derived  from  He- 
rodotus and  other  Greek  writers,  but  comparison 
of  their  accounts  with  such  accounts  of  the  Egyp- 
tian pantheon,  as  we  now  possess  in  the  works 
of  Brugsch  or  Maspero,  will  best  show  the  dif- 
ference which  a  knowledge,  however  slight,  of 
the  ancient  Egyptian  language  has  produced  in 
a  true  appreciation  of  the  ancient  religion  of 
Egypt.  The  same  remark  applies  to  the  religion 
of  Babylon  and  Assyria,  though  here  there  re- 
mains much,  undoubtedly,  to  be  done  before  we 
can  reach  the  deepest  roots  of  the  religion  of  the 
land  of  the  two  rivers.  As  we  know  it  at  present 
from  the  works  of  Maspero  or  Sayce,  it  seems  so 
full  of  what  we  should  call  secondary  or  even  ter- 
tiary ideas  that  we  cannot  but  hope  that  a  fuller 
knowledge  of  the  Akkadian  language  and  litera- 
ture may  in  time  disclose  to  us  a  far  deeper 
stratum  of  thought  and  in  it  the  real  germs  of 
Mesopotamian  faith  and  worship. 

The  religions  of  China  were  known  even  during 
the  last  century,  thanks  chiefly  to  the  conscien- 
tious labors  of  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  resi- 
dent in  the  capital  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  Their 
knowledge  of  Chinese  was  most  creditable,  and 
their  translations  of  some  of  the  kings  ascribed  to 
Confucius  and  Laotze  enabled  European  scholars 
to  form  a  fairly  accurate  idea  of  the  teaching  of 
these  two  philosophers  which  consisted  of  moral 
and  metaphysical  doctrines  rather  than  of  what 
we  mean  by  religious  dogma  in  a  more  narrow 
sense.  Still  in  this  branch  of  Oriental  scholar- 
ship also  great  progress  has  been  made  by  more 
recent  scholars,  such  as  Abel  Remusat,  Stanislas 
Julien,  Professor  Legge,  Dr.  Wylie,  and  others,  so 
much  so  that  what  is  called  religious  cult  in 
China,  whether  the  ancient  popular  cult  embodied 
in  the  writings  of  Confucius,  or  the  more  meta- 
physical and  esoteric  system  ascribed  to  his  con- 
temporary Laotze,  or  the  worship  of  Fo,  i.  e.,  Bud- 
dha, introduced  in  the  first  century  from  India  to 
China,  may  now  be  studied  as  readily  ^by  Euro- 
pean students  as  the  religions  of  Mohammed  or 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 

Remembering  that  all  of  the  great  religions  had 
their  origin  in  the  East,  and  that  the  sacred  writ- 
ings on  which  they  profess  to  be  founded  are  all 
composed  in  the  ancient  languages  of  their  re- 
spective countries,  it  may  be  easily  understood 
why  it  was  only  after  the  rise  of  Oriental  philol- 
ogy in  the  beginning  of  our  century,  that  a  really 
scholarlike  «tudy  of  their  teaching  became  pos- 
sible. 


4.  Religious  Literature  of  Various  Coon- 
tries* 

We  are  now  in  possession  of  what  may  be  called 
authentic  religious  literature  for  the  following 
countries : 

(1)  Eg^jrpt.  Though  we  do  not  possess  any  of 
the  sacred  books  which  seem  to  have  been 
known  to  ancient  Greek  writers,  the  hieroglyphic 
and  hieratic  inscriptions  and  papyri,  particularly 
the  so-called  Book  of  the  Dead,  are  so  full  of  re- 
ligious ideas,  and  the  ancient  temples  and  pictorial 
representations  on  their  walls  have  placed  before 
us  such  living  pictures  of  their  daily  life  and  their 
solemn  cult,  that  it  has  been  possible  for  hier- 
oglyphic scholars  to  give  us  a  fuller  knowledge  of 
the  religion,  mythology  and  cult  of  ancient  Egypt 
than  we  can  ever  hope  to  gain  of  the  religious  faith 
and  ceremonies  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
Greece  and  Italy.  (See  Egyptians,  Literature  of 
Ancient;  Egyptians,  Religion  of  Ancient.) 

(2)  Babylon  and  Assyria.  The  cuneiform 
inscriptions  found  in  these  Mesopotamian  king- 
doms, though  far  less  abundant  than  those  of 
Egypt,  have  likewise  yielded,  not  indeed  what 
could  be  called  a  sacred  code,  but  so  many  h3rmns, 
legends  and  names  of  gods,  goddesses  and  heroes, 
that  it  has  been  found  possible  to  trace  the  gen- 
eral outlines  at  least  of  what  constituted  their  re- 
ligion and  sacrificial  cult.  What  seems  strange  is 
that  while  some  very  competent  scholars  are  now 
inclined  to  look  upon  the  Babylonian  civilization 
as  more  ancient  than  that  of  Egypt,  we  find  in  the 
oldest  Babylonian  hymns  allusions  to  an  historical 
environment  which,  according  to  our  ideas,  would 
indicate  a  far  more  advanced  progress  in  the  arts 
of  civilized  life  than  we  find,  for  instance,  in  the 
hymns  of  the  Rigveda,  which  are  commonly  as- 
signed to  a  much  later  date.  We  must  not  forget 
that  brilliant  as  the  progress  of  Babylonian  re- 
search has  been,  these  studies  are  as  yet  in  their 
infancy,  and,  considering  the  ever-increasing 
wealth  of  materials,  hold  out  a  hope  .  of  much 
greater  future  discoveries  than  have  hitherto 
been  achieved.  (See  Babylonia,  15;  Babylon 
AND  Assyria,  Religion  of.) 

(3)  Palestine.  I  need  add  nothing  here  about 
the  Old  Testament  and  the  religion  of  the  Jews, 
beyond  pointing  out  that  as  both  the  Jewish  and 
the  Babylonian  religfions  are  of  Semitic  origin  and 
composed  in  a  Semitic  language,  they  often  help 
to  illustrate  each  other,  and  share  many  things  in 
common,  such  as  the  legend  of  the  deluge,  and, 
according  to  some  scholars,  the  legends  of  the 
Tower  of  Babel,  of  Paradise,  and  other  half  his- 
torical traditions  of  the  most  ancient  Semitic 
world.    (See  Hebrews,  Religion  of  the.) 

(4)  Arabia.  There  is  one  more  Semitic  re- 
ligion, Islam,  as  founded  by  Mohammed  in  the 
seventh  century  A.  D.  Mohammed  clearly  bor- 
rowed most  of  his  ideas  from  Jews  and  Christians, 
with  whom  he  came  in  contact  while  trying  to  re- 
form the  manners  and  superstitions  of  the  wild 
tribes  of  Arabia.  Had  his  informants  been  able 
to  give  him  an  account  of  the  true  doctrines  of 
Moses  and  Christ,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
Mohammed  might  have  been  satisfied  with  preach- 
ing Jewish  and  Christian  doctrines,  instead  of  be- 
coming the  founder  of  a  new  religion. 

(5)  China.  Here  we  possess  indeed  the  lit- 
erary documents  on  which  the  three  recognized 
religious  systems  of  the  country  profess  to  be 
founded.  The  system  of  Confucius  is  founded 
on  the  Kings.  King,  however,  does  not  mean 
what  we  mean  by  sacred  book  or  Bible,  but  simply 
a  book  recognized  as  authoritative  on  all  the  sutv- 


RELIGION,  SCIENCE  OF 


1448 


RELIGION,  SCIENCE  OF 


jects  on  which  k  touches.  Nor  do  these  books  de- 
rive their  authority  from  any  supposed  miraculous 
revelation,  but  chiefly  from  their  age.  Confucius 
who  has  often  been  quoted  as  their  author,  de* 
cidedly  declines  that  honor  for  himself  and  claims 
no  more  than  to  have  been  the  collector  and  pre- 
server of  these  books,  and  in  that  sense  the  re- 
storer but  not  the  founder  of  the  ancient  religion 
of  his  country.  To  our  mind  these  books  are  not 
altogether  religious.  They  teach  principles  of 
morality  and  worldly  wisdom,  besides  those  of  re- 
ligion, and  Confucius  actually  warns  the  people  not 
to  have  too  much  to  do  with  the  spirits,  but  to 
honor  their  fathers  and  mothers,  as  a  founda- 
tion of  a  well  ordered  social  life. 

Laotze,  who  was  a  contemporary  of  Con- 
fucius and  the  founder  of  Taoism,  is  far  more 
responsible  personally  for  the  Tao-te-King  than 
Confucius  for  his  Kings,  but  he  also  represents  his 
doctrine  of  Tao,  Right  or  Reason,  as  a  doctrine 
of  great  antiquity,  which  he  preached,  but  did  not 
invent.  This  doctrine  which  was  originilly  highly 
metaphysical,  and  destined  for  the  few  rather  than 
the  many,  has  become  thoroughly  vulgarized  and 
degraded  in  the  course  of  centuries,  and  we  are 
told  that  it  is  now  professed  by  the  least  educated 
classes  of  the  people  of  China. 

The  same  is  equally  true  of  the  third  estab- 
lished religion  in  China.  Buddhism,  as  intro- 
duced into  the  country  in  the  first  century  A.  D., 
was  chiefly  founded  on  the  Mahdydna  school. 
This  school  presented  even  in  India  a  secondary 
and  on  many  points  corrupt  form  of  Buddhism, 
and  has  been  still  further  misunderstood  and  de« 
graded  in  China,  Korea  and  Japan.  For  a  scien- 
tific study  of  this  branch  of  Buddhism  we  should 
depend  on  the  Sanskrit  originals  rather  than  on 
Chinese  translations,  but  we  can  hardly  expect 
the  leaders  of  the  various  sects  into  which  the 
Mahayana  Buddhism  has  been  broken  up  in  China, 
Japan  and  Mongolia  to  take  this  view.  In  their 
eyes  this  doctrine,  which,  for  the  sake  of  clear- 
ness, I  proposed  to  call  Bodhism  rather  than  Bud- 
dhism, is  the  true  and  genuine  doctrine  of  Buddha, 
or,  as  they  call  him,  the  great  Bodhisattva. 

Bodhi,  enlightenment,  true  knowledge,  is  the 
highest  goal  of  this  sect.  Bodhisattva  is  he  who 
has  the  essence  of  that  knowledge  and  becomes  in 
time  a  Buddha.  Philosophical  as  it  was  in  its 
first  conception,  this  branch  of  Buddhism  has  be- 
come deteriorated  by  many  superstitions. 

Nor  can  it  be  denied  that  it  may  have  answered 
the  religious  requirements  of  the  great  mass  of 
the  people  far  better  than  the  more  or  less  agnos- 
tic teaching  of  the  Buddha.  Much  still  remains 
here  to  be  cleared  up,  how  to  account  for  the 
origin  of  the  Mahayana  school,  for  its  divergence 
from  the  religion  as  contained  in  the  Pali  Tripi- 
^aka,  and  for  the  many  things  which,  in  spite  of 
their  differences  the  two  sects  share  in  common, 
often  to  their  ipsissima  verba, 

(6)  India.  Here  we  possess  the  immense  ad- 
vantage that  the  Hindus  themselves  have  recog- 
nized certain  ancient  texts,  not  only  as  sacred  but 
as  canonical  or  invested,  as  we  should  say,  with 
supreme  authority,  and  in  fact,  infallible.  Though 
we  cannot  trace  these  texts  in  their  present  form 
back  to  more  than  the  second  millennium  before 
our  era,  there  have  been  many  changes  in  the 
Brahmanic  religion  which  we  can  watch  through 
various  periods  of  language  and  literature.  Eadh 
of  these  changes  represents  a  religion  by  itself 
and  can  be  studied  in  its  own  Sacred  Books.  We 
have  to  distinguish  in  India : 

1.  The  religion  of  the  Veda  (the  metrical 
hymns  or  Mantras). 

2.  The  religion  of  the  Brahmanas  (prose). 


3.  The  religion  of  the  Purftiias  and  their  modf 
em  developments. 

4.  The  religion  of  Buddha  in  its  three  modifi* 
cations:  (a)  The  HinayAna;  0)  The  Mahiy4na; 
(c)  The  GainsL  sect. 

The  most  ancient  religion  of  the  Veda  has  to 
be  studied  in  the  ten  Manila  of  the  poetic  hynms 
of  the  Rie-Veda-Sanhitd. 

The  relidon  of  the  BrShmaiias  is  contained  in 
the  prose  Brdhmaiias,  and  in  the  Sanhitds  of  the 
Yaijiirveda  Simaveda,  and  Atharvaveda. 

The  later  and  more  popular  religion  of  In- 
dia has  left  its  records  in  the  Mahabharata, 
Ramayana,  the  legal  5'astras  and  the  Puranas.  The 
religious  beliefs  and  customs  of  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  India,  who  are  often  alluded  to  in 
the  Mantras,  Brahmanas,  and  in  the  Mahabharata, 
etc.,  have  left  no  documents  behind,  and  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  superstitious  practices  of 
some  of  the  uncivilized  races  still  inhabiting  parts 
of  India  may  be  accepted  as  survivals  of  their  an- 
cient religions. 

Buddhism  has  to  be  studied  in  three  dis- 
tinct sacred  canons:  (a)  The  Hinay&na  in  the 
Tripi/aka  or  The  Three  Baskets  (Pali)  ;  (6)  The 
Mahayana  in  a  number  of  texts  written  in  the  so- 
called  Gatha  dialect  and  in  a  corrupt  Sanskrit 
prose.  These  are  sometimes  comprehended  under 
the  name  of  Angas,  t.  e,,  members,  parts;  {c) 
The  Gaina  religion  in  its  own  Agamas. 

(7)  Persia.  The  religion  of  ancient  Persia 
(Media  and  Bactria)  has  been  rendered  accessible 
to  us  by  the  discovery  of  MSS.  of  the  so-called 
Zend-Avesta,  and  by  their  first  scholarlike  de- 
cipherment by  Burnouf  and  his  successors.  The 
Avesta  contains  ancient  and  modern  texts,  the 
most  ancient  being  the  Gathas.  The  later  devel- 
opment of  the  Avestic  religion  can  now  be  studied 
in  the  Pehlevi  literature,  dating  from  the  Sas- 
sanian  period. 

Most  of  these  sacred  texts  are  now  published  in 
the  original  languages,  and  the  more  important 
of  them  have  been  rendered  accessible  to  the  stu- 
dents of  the  history  of  religion  by  English  trans- 
lations published  in  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  East, 
Though  it  seems  self-evident  that  for  an  accurate 
and  scholar-like  knowledge  of  the  great  religions 
of  the  world,  the  books  recognized  as  canonical 
and  authoritative  by  the   followers  of  each  re- 
ligion are  indispensable,  doubts  have  been  raised 
by  various  scholars  whether  a  religion  lives  really 
in  its  sacred  books,  or  whether  it  does  not  rather 
lie  buried  in  them.    We  know  that  a  large  and 
important  branch  of  Christians  set  less  value  on 
the  texts  of  the  Bible  than  on  the  traditions  of  the 
church,  that  its  priests  actually  dissuade  the  laity 
from  reading  the  Bible,  and  that  they  hold  certain 
doctrines  and  enforce  certain  practices  for  which 
there  is  no,  or  a  very  doubtful,  authority  in  the 
Bible.    According  to  them  the  church,  the  coun- 
cils,  the  priesthood,  or  the  head  of  the  priest- 
hood should  be  accepted  as  the  recognized  repre- 
sentatives and  infallible  exponents  of  all  religious 
truth.    Others,  again,  see  the  real  life  of  a  re- 
ligion in  the  faith  of  the  individuals  who  profess 
to  believe   in   it.    According  to  them  any  poor 
widow  has  as  much  ri^^ht  to  claim  her  faith  to  be 
the  true  Christian  faith,  as  the   most  powerful 
preacher  or  the  most  learned  professor.    From  a 
practical  point  of  view  there  may  be  some  truth 
in  these  ideas,  but   for  historical  purposes,  and 
more  particularly  for  a  comparison  of  religions, 
such  a  view  would  simply  be  subversive  of  the 
scientific  character   of  our  studies.    All   studies 
on  religion,  all  comparisons  of  the  great  religions 
of  the  world,  must  be  founded  on  their  sacred 
texts.    Everything  else  is  mere  waste  of  time  and 


RELIGIOUS  PROSELYTES 


1449 


REPENTANCE 


vexation  of  spirit.  We  ourselves  would  not  ac- 
cept every  Christian  bishop  or  minister,  nor  every 
educated  Christian  layman  as  an  authority  for  the 
true  doctrine  of  Christ,  unless  he  was  prepared  to 
give  us  chapter  and  verse  from  the  Bible  for  every 
statement  made  by  him.  In  the  same  way  no 
Buddhist,  -whether  he  comes  from  Ceylon  or  Bur- 
mah,  from  China  or  Japan,  whether  he  be  a  fol- 
lower of  the  Hinaydna,  the  Mahiy&na,  or  the 
Gaina  school,  has  any  right  to  lay  down  the  law 
with  regard  to  Buddhism,  unless  he  is  prepared 
to  give  us  his  reference  to  passages  in  \A\t  Vinaya, 
the  Sutras,  or  the  Abhidharma  in  support  of  his 
statements. 

It  was  a  well-known  custom  among  the  de- 
fenders of  Brahmanism  to  appeal  to  lost  JS'akahs 
or  lost  branches  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  in  sup- 
port of  doctrines  for  which  there  was  really  no 
authority  in  their  extant  Vedas.  This  was  done 
for  the  last  time  in  the  controversy  on  widow- 
burning  carried  on  between  Radhakantadeva,  Pro- 
fessor Wilson  and  myself.  My  answer  to  the 
learned  Maharajah  was  the  old  one  given  by  their 
own  medieval  casuists  that  it  is  impossible  to  ap- 
peal to  skull  as  a  witness  in  a  court  of  law.  If 
our  study  of  the  religions  of  the  world,  and  more 
particularly  a  comparative  study  of  their  funda- 
mental doctrines,  is  to  lead  to  any  valuable  or 
permanent  results,  we  must  no  longer  speak  of 
what  Hinduism,  Buddhism,  Parsism,  of  what 
Judaism  or  Christianity  teaches.  We  must  distin- 
guish between  Mantras,  Brahmanas  and  Puranas; 
between  Mahiyina,  Hinayina  and  (7aina  Buddh- 
ism; between  Githa, Yasna  and  Sassanian  Parsism; 
between  the  Judaism  of  the  law  and  the  prophets, 
and  the  Judaism  of  the  Apocrypha;  between  the 
Christianity  of  the  Gospels,  the  Epistles,  and  that 
of  the  Ecumenical  councils.  If  possible  the 
ipsissima  verba  of  the  originals  should  always  be 
produced,  and  though  I  am  well  aware  of  the  im- 
perfections of  all  translations  of  ancient  Oriental 
texts,  the  English  translations  given  in  my  Sacred 
Books  of  the  East  may  be  accepted  for  the 
present  as  a  sufficient  authority,  btrictly  speak- 
ing, no  modern  language  can  give  us  the  exact 
equivalents  of  the  words  and  ideas  current  at  the 
time  of  the  composition  of  these  sacred  texts. 
We  must  be  satisfied  with  approximate  accuracy, 
and  we  should  remember  that  the  differences 
that  have  arisen  between  competent  Oriental  schol- 
ars in  the  interpretation  of  those  ancient  texts 
hardly  ever  affect  their  fundamental  doctrines. 
Unless  these  warnings  are  taken  to  heart  our 
study  of  the  religions  of  the  world  will  lead  only 
to  confusion,  to  acrimonious  controversy  and 
strife,  not  to  the  discovery  of  those  eternal  truths 
which  lie  hidden  in  all  religions. 

Nothing  can  be  more  welcome  for  our  purpose 
than  that  learned  natives  also  from  eastern  coun- 
tries should  give  us  their  individual  views  of  their 
own  religions,  but  it  should  be  a  condition  sine 
qua  non  that  they  should  always  support  their 
statements  by  references  to  their  own  sacred  and 
canonical  texts.  No  cardinal  or  bishop,  no  min- 
ister or  rabbi,  would  desire  exemption  from  this 
rule,  nor  are  other  eastern  religions  without 
learned  representatives  who  could  substantiate 
their  statements  by  quotations  from  their  own 
sacred  codes  and  hold  their  own  against  the  best 
Oriental  scholars  of  Europe;  nay,  even  correct 
their  views  by  their  own  more  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  their  sacred  texts,  and  their  more 
livinp:  knowledge  of  the  present  working  of  their 
religion.  F.  M.  M. 

BEUGIOUS  PROSELYTES  (r^Uj'fis  prds'i- 
Uts).   See  Proselyte, 


REMATiTAH  (rSm'a-li'ah),  (Heb.  ^)^\  rem- 

al-yaw'hooy  whom  Jehovah  hath  adorned),  father  of 
Pekah,  the  King  of  Israel  (2  Kings  xv:25-37;  xvi:i, 
q;  2  Chron.  xxviii:6).  His  name  seems  to  have 
been  a  reproach  to  his  descendants  (Is.  vii:4,  $; 
viii:6),  B.  C.  before  756. 

BEMETH  (re'meth),  (Heb.    ^\  reh'meth,  a 

high  place),  a  town  of  Issachar  (Josh.xix:2i),  called 
Ramoth  (i  Chron.  vi:73).  As  the  place  is  named 
next  to  En-eannim  it  may  be  identical  with  Wezar 
on  Mt.  Gilboa  (Robinson,  Research,  iii.  157,  160). 

BEMMON  (rSm'mon),  (Josh.  xix:7).     See  Rim- 

MON. 

BEMMON-METHOAB  (rSm'mon-mSth'o-^), 
ijosh.  xix:i3).    See  Rimmon. 

BEMPHAN  (rgm'phan)  or  BEFHAN  (Gr. 
*Pe/i^y,  hrefn'fan\  a  name  quoted  in  Acts  vii:43, 
from  Amos  v:26. 

But,  according  to  the  received  pointing,  it 
would  better  read,  *Ye  bore  the  tabernacle  of  youf 
king  (idol),  and  the  statue  (or  statues)  of  your 
idols,  the  star  of  your  god,  which  ye  make  to 
yourselves.*  According  to  this  reading,  the  name 
of  the  idol  so  worshiped  by  the  Israelites  is,  in 
fact,  not  given,  although  the  mention  of  a  star 
still  suggests  that  some  planet  is  intended.  The 
reference  is  probably  to  Saturn,  who  was  wor- 
shiped by  the  Semitic  nations  as  an  evil  demon 
to  be  appeased  by  sacrifices. 

BEND  (r«nd),  (Heb.  ^^)3,  kawraA*). 

1.  To  tear  asunder,  pull  in  pieces  (Ps.  vii:2). 

2.  To  reproach  (Ps.  xxxv:i5). 

Figurative.  (1)  "Rending  of  garments/'  im- 
ported one*s  being  overwhelmed  with  grief,  or 
shocked  with  something  terrible  (Gen.  xxxvii: 
29,  34;  2  Chron.  xxxiv:27). 

(»)  As  the  priests  were  not  allowed  to  rend 
their  garments,  Caiaphas,  rending  his  garments, 
was  a  token  the  priesthood  was  departing  (Matt, 
xxvi:  65). 

(3)  "Rending  of  the  heart"  denotes  great  and 
bitter  sorrow  for  sin  (Joel  ii:i3)- 

(4)  God  "rends  the  heavens,"  and  "comes 
down,"  when,  in  a  majestic  manner,  he  powerfully 
delivers  his  people   (Is.  Ixivri). 

(5)  God  **iore**  the  Jews  when  he  divided  and 
terribly  afflicted  them  (Hos.  v:i4). 

(6)  The  anger  of  the  Edomites  did  "tear  per- 
petually;" they,  on  every  opportunity,  harassed 
and  murdered  the  Jews   (Amos  i:ii). 

(7)  The  Assyrian  kings  did  "tear  enough  for 
their  whelps;"  enriched  their  country  with  the 
wealth  they  procured  by  spoiling  and  murdering 
the  nations  around  (Nah.  ii:i2). 

(8)  To  "rend  the  face  with  paint"  is  an  ex- 
pression employed  in  Jer.  iv:30.  It  may  seem 
strange  to  western  ears  to  use  this  language,  as 
paint,  if  applied  to  the  cheeks,  rather  serves  to 
close  up  scars  and  wounds,  than  to  open  them. 
But  the  language  in  the  original  would  at  once 
suggest  to  the  Oriental  the  practice  of  distending 
or  tearing  open  the  eyes  with  stibium  or  kohl. 
The  eye  being  closed,  a  small  ebony  rod,  smeared 
with  the  composition,  is  squeezed  between  the 
lids;  the  edges  are  consequently  left  black,  and 
the  clear  white  of  the  eye  seen.  It  has  the  effect 
of  apparently  rending  the  eyelids  asunder,  so  as 
to  make  the  eye  appear  large. 

BEPENTANOE  (rd-pSnt'ans).  In  general,  re- 
pentance is  sorrow  for  anything  past.  Theologi- 
cally and  ethically  it  signifies  that  sorrow  for  sin 
which  produces  newness  of  life. 

The  ternj  most  frequently  used  in  the  New  Test-^ 


REPENTANCE 


1450 


REPHAIM,  THE  VALLEY  OF 


ment  is  the  Greek  word  itxrdvoia,  tnet-an' oy-ah,  ^ 
change  of  mind. 

In  other  words,  it  properly  denotes  an  after- 
thought, or  the  soul  recollecting  its  own  actings; 
and  that  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  sorrow 
in  the  review,  and  a  desire  of  amendment. 

!•  Specific  Kinds.  There  are  various  kinds 
of  repentance: 

(1)  A  natural  repentance,  or  what  is  merely 
the  effect  of  natural  conscience. 

(2)  A  national  repentance,  such  as  the  Jews  in 
Babylon  were  called  unto;  to  which  temporal 
blessings  were  promised    (Ezek.  xviii:3o). 

(3)  An  external  repentance,  or  an  outward  hu- 
miliation for  sin,  as  in  the  case  of  Ahab. 

(4)  A  hypocritical  repentance,  as  represented 
in  Ephraim   (Hos.  vii:i6). 

(5)  An  evangelical  repentance  consists  in  con- 
viction of  sin ;  sorrow  for  it ;  confession  of  it ; 
hatred  to  it;  and  renunciation  of  it. 

2.  EVangeticat  and  Legal  Repentance 
Distinguished,  Legal  and  evangelical  repent- 
ance are  distinguished  thus; 

(1)  A  legal  repentance  flows  only  from  a  sense 
of  danger  and  fear  of  wrath;  but  an  evangelical 
repentance  is  a  true  mourning  for  sin,  and  an 
earnest  desire  of  deliverance  from  it. 

(2)  A  legal  repentance  flows  from  unbelief, 
but  evangelical  is  always  the  fruit  and  conse- 
quence of  a  saving  faith. 

(3)  A  legal  repentance  flows  from  an  aversion 
to  (xod  and  to  his  holy  law,  but  an  evangelical 
from  love  to  both. 

(4)  A  legal  repentance  ordinarily  flows  from 
discouragement  and  despondency,  but  evangelical 
from  encouraging  hope. 

(5)  A  legal  repentance  is  temporary,  but  evan- 
gelical is  the  daily  exercise  of  the  true  Christian. 

(6)  A  legal  repentance  does  at  most  produce 
only  a  partial  and  external  reformation,  but  an 
evangelical  is  a  total  change  of  heart  and  life. 

J.  Author »  Subjects  o/.  Etc.  The  author  oi 
true  repentance  is  God  (Acts  v:3i).  The  subjects 
of  it  are  sinners,  since  none  but  those  who  have 
sinned  can  repent.  The  means  of  repentance  is 
the  word,  and  the  ministers  of  it;  yet  sometimes 
consideration,  sanctified  afllictions,  conversation, 
etc.,  have  been  the  instruments  of  repentance. 
The  blessings  connected  with  repentance  are,  par- 
don, peace,  and  everlasting  life  (Acts  xi:i8). 
The  evidences  of  repentance  are,  faith,  humility, 
prayer,  and  obedience    (Zech.  xii:io). 

4.  Repentance  and  Conversion.    Dr.  A.  A. 

Hodge  thus  distinguishes  between  repentance  and 
conversion : 

(1)  Conversion  is  the  more  general  term,  and 
is  used  to  include  the  first  exercises  of  faith,  as 
well  as  all  those  experiences  of  love  of  holiness 
and  hatred  of  sin,  etc.,  which  are  consequent 
upon  it.  Repentance  is  more  specific,  and  ex- 
presses that  hatred  and  renunciation  of  sin  and 
that  turning  unto  God  which  accompanies  faith 
as  its  consequent. 

(2)  Conversion  is  generally  used  to  designate 
only  the  first  actings  of  the  new  nature  at  the 
commencement  of  a  religious  life,  or,  at  most,  the 
first  steps  of  a  return  to  God  after  a  notable 
backsliding  (Luke  xxii:32),  while  repentance  is 
applied  to  that  constant  bearing  of  the  cross  which 
is  one  main  characteristic  of  the  believer's  life 
on  earth  (Ps.  xix:i2,  13:  Luke  ix:23;  Gal.  vi: 
14;  v:24.  (Outlines  of  Theology,  enlarged  ed. 
p.  489.) 

5.  Repentance  of  Cod.  God  is  said  to  re- 
pent  (CJen.  vi:6;  Jonah  iiirp,  10).      He  cannot 


truly  repent,  since  he  never  does  wrong  and  is 
unerring  wisdom.  But  God's  actions,  looked  at 
from  earth,  may  appear  to  indicate  a  change  of 
purpose.  We  thus  attribute  to  him  human  ideas 
which,  of  course,  may  be  very  incorrect. 

BEPETinON  (r6p'6-tlsh'tin),  (Gr.  fiarroKoyiw, 
bat'tal'Og-eh' o^  to  stutter,  prate  tediously). 

Repetition  is  thus  the  doing  or  saying  a  thing 
again  and  again.  The  vain  repetitions  of  the 
Pharisees  were  the  saying  the  same  things  over 
and  over  in  their  prayers,  as  if  the  more  they 
spake,  they  would  be  the  better  heard  (Matt. 
VI 7). 

BEPHAEL  (re'pha-el  or  rSph'a-el).  (Heb.  ^S?"!. 

ref-aw-ale*,  whom  God  heals),  a  son  of  Shemiak, 
and  porter  in  the  Temple  in  the  time  of  David  (l 
Chron.  xxvi:7),  B»  C.  about  960. 

BEPHAH     (re'phah).     (Heb.     "S^,    reffakh. 

riches),  son  of  Beriah,  an  Ephraimite,  and  ancestor 
of  Joshua  (I  Chron.  vii:25),  B.  C.  after  1170. 

BEFHAIAH    (r^ph'a-i'ah  or  re-pha'iah)  (-ya), 

(Heb.  •^?'!,  ref-aw-yaw',  healed  of  Jehovah). 

1.  Descendant  of  Zerubbabel  (i  Chron.  iii:2i). 
In  the  Peshito-Syriac  he  is  made  the  son  of 
Jesaiah.  He  is  identical  with  Rhesa  of  Luke 
iii:27. 

2.  Son  of  Binea,  a  descendant  of  Saul  and 
Jonathan  (i  Chron.  ix:43),  B.  C.  after  1000.  He 
is  called  Kapha  (i  Chron.  viii  137) . 

8.  Son  of  Hur,  the  ruler  of  a  part  of  Jerusalem* 
He  aided  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  walls  of  the 
city  (Neh.  iiiiQ),  B.  C.  445. 

4.  Son  of  Ishi  and  a  chieftain  of  the  tribe  of 
Simeon,  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah,  who  led  the 
expedition  against  the  Amalekites  (i  Chron.  iv: 
42),  B.  C.  725. 

5.  Son  of  Tola,  and  head  of  a  family  of  Issachar 
(i  Chron.  vii:2),  B.  C.  before  1658. 

BEFHAIM  (r6ph'a.!m),  (Heb.  ^'"Wl  ref-aw 
eem\  strong). 

An  ancient  people  of  unusual  stature,  who,  in 
the  time  of  Abraham,  dwelt  in  the  country  be- 
yond the  Jordan,  in  and  about  Ashtoreth-Kar- 
naim  (Gen.  xivrs).  Subsequently,  however,  two 
of  their  southern  tribes,  the  Emim  and  Zamzum- 
mim,  were  repressed  and  nearly  annihilated  by  the 
Moabites  and  Ammonites;  so  that  at  the  time 
of  the  ingress  of  the  Israelites  under  Joshua,  none 
of  the  Rephaim  were  left  save  in  the  dominion 
of  Og,  king  of  Bashan,  who  was  himself  of  this 
race  (Deut.  iiiiii;  Josh.  xii:4;  xiii:i2).  There 
seems  reason  to  think  that  the  Rephaim  were 
the  most  ancient  or  aboriginal  inhabitants  of 
Palestine  prior  to  the  Canaanites,  by  whom  they 
were  gradually  dispossessed  of  the  regions  west 
of  the  Jordan,  and  driven  beyond  that  river. 
Some  of  the  race  remained  in  Palestine  proper 
so  late  as  the  invasion  of  the  land  by  the  He- 
brews, and  are  repeatedly  mentioned  as  *the  sons 
of  Anak,'  and  *the  remnant  of  the  Rephaim* 
(Num.  xiii:28;  Deut.  ix:2;  Josh.  xv:i4),  and  a 
few  families  existed  in  the  land  so  late  as  the 
time  of  David  (2  Sam.  xxi:i6).     (See  Giants.) 

BEPHAIM,  THE  VALLEY  OF  (rgph'a-rm 
the  variY  6v),  (Heb.  ^^^\  ref-aw-eem^  T??,  ay'- 
mek,  valley  of  the  strong). 

In  Josh.  XV  :8,  and  xviii:i6,  it  is  translated  in 
the  A.  y.  "the  valley  of  the  giants."  It  is  a  valley 
beginning  adjacent  to  the  valley  of  Hinnom, 
southwest  of  Jerusalem,  and  stretching  away 
southwest  on  the  right  of  the  road  to  Bethlehem 
(2  Sam.  v:i8,  22).    This  name  corroborates  the 


REPHAIMS 


1451 


RESTITUTION 


z 

L. 
1 


r. 


presumption  that  the   Rephaim   were  originally 
west  of  the  Jordan. 


(rSph'a-Ymz),  an  incorrectly  plu* 
ralized  form  of  Rephaim  (Gen.  xiv:5;  xv.*2o).  See 
Rephaim. 


(r«ph'i-drm),  (Heb.  O'^TPl,  ref-^e- 

deem't  rests  or  stays ),  a  place  where  the  Israelites 
rested  in  the  journey  from  Egypt  to  SinaL  (See 
Sinai). 

BEPBOACH    (r6-pr5ch'),   (Heb.   ^Y^,  kher- 

paw* ;  Gr.Bi^tSos,(m'i-dtfs),    It  denotes: 

1.  The  bad  character  of  one,  whether  procured 
by  his  own  wicked  deeds,  or  occasioned  by  false 
accusation,  outrageous  upbraiding,  or  scornful  de- 
rision (Neh.  ii:i7;  Prov.  vi:33;  Is.  li:7;  Ezek. 
xxxvi  130) . 

2.  Slanderous  speech,  whereby  men  give  dis« 
graceful  characters  to  others  (Ps.  Ixxix:i2). 

Figurative  and  applicative,  (i)  Persons  or 
things  are  said  to  be  a  "reproach*'  when  loaded 
with  bad  characters,  and  made  a  common  byword 
(Ps.  xxii:6;  lxxxix:4i).  (2)  Sin  is  the  *'r^- 
proach  of  any  people;"  it  is  a  disgrace  to  them, 
and  tends  to  render  them  contemptible  (Prov.  xiv : 
34)-  (3)  Oppression  or  mocking  of  the  poor  is  a 
"reproaching'  of  Ciod,  as  if  his  image  on  them 
deserved  no  respect;  as  if,  by  making  them  poor, 
he  had  devoted  them  to  hard  usage ;  and  as  if  he 
could  not  protect  them  (Prov.  xiv  131;  xviirs). 
(4)  The  "reproach  of  Christ"  is  scorn  and  cal- 
umny endured  for  adherence  to  him  and  his  ways 
(Heb.  xi:26;  xiii:i3).  (5)  Among  the  Hebrews, 
barrenness  was  accounted  a  "reproach"  as  it  ex- 
cluded from  a  share  in  the  multiplication  of  Abra- 
ham's seed,  and  from  being  the  honored  progenitor 
of  the  Messiah  (Gen.  xxx:23;  Is.  iv:i;  Luke  i: 
25).  (6)  Uncircumcision  was  the  "reproach  of 
Egypt,**  as  it  anciently  marked  aliens  from  God, 
like  the  Egyptians;  and  perhaps  many  of  the  Jews 
neglected  to  circumcise  their  children  in  Egypt 
(Josh.  v:9).  (7)  God  put  the  Philistines  to  a  per- 
petual "reproach**  when  he  smote  them  with  the 
long-remembered  and  shameful  disease  of  the 
emerods  (Ps.  lxxviii:66).  (8)  "Reproach  breaks 
the  heart"  as  it  not  only  tends  to  bereave  one  of 
his  outward  enjoyments,  but  renders  him  con- 
temptible, and  useless  for  advancin^^  the  honor  of 
God  or  doing  real  service  to  mankind  (Ps.  Ixix: 
20). 

BEPBOBATE  (r«p'r6-bat),  (Heb.  ^8)?,  maiv-as'. 

to  spurn;  Gr.  iZhKiym^  ad-okUe^mos^  unsound),  one 
who  is  incapable  of  enduring  trial,  or  when  tested, 
found  unworthy.  Among  metallists  it  signifies 
what  cannot  abide  the  proper  trial  or  test. 

Figurative,  (i)  Thus  wicked  men  are  "repro- 
bate silver;"  they  are  not  purged  nor  refined, 
nor  will  pass  current  according  to  the  standard  of 
God's  law  (Jer.  vi:3o).  (2)  When  used  con- 
cerning wrestling  games  and  races,  it  signifies  him 
who  miscarries,  and  loses  the  prize.  Lest  I  should 
be  a  "reprobate"  or  "castaway;"  lest  I  should  be 
found  a  hypocritical  counterfeit,  one  void  of  true 
grace,  one  whom  God  will  never  reward  as  a  run- 
ner of  the  CHiristian  race,  or  as  a  victorious  fighter 
of  the  good  fight  of  faith,  (i  Cor.  ix:27).  (3)  A 
"reprobate  mind"  is  one  hardened  in  wickedness, 
and  which  cannot  discern  between  good  and  evil 
(Rom.  i:28).  (4)  Men  are  "reprobate  concerning 
the  faith"  when  they  apostatize  from  the  doctrines 
of  Christ,  and  abandon  themselves  to  the  most 
horrible  errors  (2  Tim.  iii  :8).  (5)  They  are  "rep- 
robate to  every  good  work"  when  quite  incapable, 
and  averse  to  perform  them,  and  to  others  per- 
forming of  them  (Tit.  i  :i6). 


BEFBOOF   (r6-pr6of'),   (Heb.    ^^,  Uhkay^ 

khaw\  Ps.   xxxviii:i4),  answer,  rejoinder,  argu- 
ment.   See  Job  xxii:4;  Prov.  xxix:i5. 

In  general  it  means  blame  or  reprehension 
spoken  to  a  person's  face.  It  is  distinguished  from 
a  reprimand  thus:  He  who  reproves  another, 
points  out  his  fault,  and  blames  him.  He  who 
reprimands,  affects  to  punish,  and  mortifies  the 
offender. 

(1)  Bules  for  Giving  Beproof .  In  giving  re- 
proof, the  following  rules  may  be  observed:  (i) 
We  should  not  be  forward  in  reproving  our  elders 
or  superiors,  but  rather  to  remonstrate  and  suppli- 
cate for  redress.  What  the  ministers  of  (jod  do  in 
this  kind,  they  do  by  special  commission,  as  those 
that  must  give  an  account  (i  Tim.  v:i;  Heb. 
xiii:i7).  (2)  We  must  not  reprove  rashly;  there 
should  be  proof  before  reproof.  (3)  We  should 
not  reprove  for  slight  matters,  for  such  faults  or 
defects  as  proceed  from  natural  frailty,  from  inad- 
vertency, or  mistake  in  matters  of  small  conse- 
quence. (4)  We  should  never  reprove  unseason- 
ably, as  to  the  time,  the  place,  or  the  circum- 
stances. (5)  We  should  reprove  mildly  and  sweet- 
ly, in  the  calmest  manner,  in  the  gentlest  terms. 
(6)  We  should  not  affect  to  be  reprehensive ;  per- 
haps there  is  no  one  considered  more  trouble- 
some than  he  who  delights  in  finding  fault  with 
others. 

(2)  Biiles  for  Beceiving  Beproof.  In  receiv- 
ing reproof,  it  may  be  observed:  (i)  That  we 
should  not  reject  it  merely  because  it  may  come 
from  those  who  are  not  exactly  on  a  level  with 
ourselves.  (2)  We  should  consider  whether  the 
reproof  given  be  not  actually  deserved ;  and  that, 
if  the  reprover  knew  all,  whether  the  reproof 
would  not  be  sharper  than  what  it  is.  (3)  Whether, 
if  taken  humbly  and  patiently,  it  will  not  be  of 
great  advantage  to  us.  (4)  That  it  is  nothing  but 
pride  to  suppose  that  we  are  never  to  be  the  sub- 
jects of  reproof,  since  it  is  human  to  err. 

BEPBOVE  (rft-proov'),  in  particular,  (Heb.  '^JJ, 

yaw-kakk^lchvx-z^  refute, object  to,  disapprove. 
For  use  in  general,  see  Reproof. 

BEFUTE,  BEFX7TATI0N  (re'pOt,  r£p'd-ta'- 
shi&n),  are  the  translation  of  several  words  in  the 
original.    Among  them  are: 

1.  (Heb.  "*!??,  yaw-kawr*,  costly,  valuable),  to 
hold  in  high  esteem  (Job  xviii:3;  Eccl.x:i). 
^  2.  (Gr.  rlyuurtt  tim'ee-05,  of  great  price,  reputa- 
tion, a  hieh  character.  Gal.  ii:2);  similarly  (Gr.  ioK* 
ovwef,  dok-oan'Ust  those  highly  regarded). 

8.  (Gr.  irei^,  ken-o*Ot  to  empty  one's  self,  Phil 
11:7).    See  Kenosis. 

4.  (Gr.  tlrrtfMs,  en*iee-mo5^  valuable),  translated 
in  R.  V.  "Hold  such  in  honor." 

BESEH  (rS'sen),  (Heb.  T?^,  reh'sen.  a  haltei), 

an  ancient  town  of  Assyria,  described  as  a  great 
city  lying  between  Nineveh  and  Calah  (Gen.  x:i2). 
Biblical  geographers  have  been  disposed  to  fol- 
low Bochart  (Phaleg.  iv.  23)  in  finding  a  trace 
of  the  Hebrew  name  in  Larissa,  which  is  men- 
tioned by  Xenophon  (Anab,  iii.  4,  9)  as  a  desolate 
city  on  the  Tigris,  several  miles  north  of  the 
Lycus.  The  resemblance  of  the  names  is  too  faint 
to  support  the  inference  of  identity. 

BESHEFH   (rfi'sheph).    (Heb.    H^,   rM'^A?/ 

flame),  a   descendant  of  Ephraim,  and  "son**  of 
Berian  (i  Chron.  vii:25),  B.  C.  after  1658. 

BEBTITUTION  (r^'tT-tO'shilD).  See  Law,  2; 
Punishments. 


RESURRECTION  OF  CHRIST 


1452 


RESURRECTION  OF  CHRIST 


BESUBBECTION  OF  CHRIST  (rSz^ur-r^k'- 
shfin  6v  krist). 

After  our  Lord  had  completed  the  work  of 
redemption  by  his  death  upon  the  cross,  he  rose 
victorious  from  the  grave,  and  to  those  who 
through  faith  in  him  should  become  members 
iof  his  body,  he  became  'the  prince  of  life/ 

!•  Sitepticism  Concerning.  Since  this  event, 
however,  independently  of  its  importance  in  re- 
spect to  the  mtemai  connection  of  the  Chris- 
tian doctrine,  was  manifestly  a  miraculous  occur- 
rence, the  credibility  of  the  narrative  has  from 
the  earliest  times  been  brought  into  question 
(Celsius,  apud  Origen,  cont.  CeTs.  i.  2;  Woolston, 
Discourses  on  the  Miracles,  disc,  vi;  Chubb. 
Posth,  Works,  i.  330;  Morgan,  The  Resurrection 
Considered,  1744).  But  others  have  admitted 
the  facts  as  recorded  to  be  beyond  dispute,  yet 
have  attempted  to  show  that  Christ  was  not 
really  dead;  but  that,  being  stunned  and  palsied, 
he  wore  for  a  time  the  appearance  of  death,  and 
was  afterwards  restored  to  consciousness  by  the 
cool  grave  and  the  spices.  Objections  of  this 
kind  do  not  require  notice  here. 

The  arguments  for  the  resurrection  are  ad- 
mirably summed  up  by  Saurin  as  follows : 

2.  Answers  to  Skeptics. 

(1)  Theft  Impossible.  If  the  body  of  Jesus 
Christ  were  not  raised  from  the  dead,  it  must 
have  been  stolen  away.  But  this  theft  is  incred- 
ible. Who  committed  it?  The  enemies  of  Jesus 
Christ?  Would  they  have  contributed  to  his 
glory  by  countenancing  a  report  of  his  resurrec- 
tion? Would  his  disciples?  It  is  probable  they 
would  not,  and  it  is  next  to  certain  they  could 
not.  How  could  they  have  undertaken  to  remove 
the  body?  Frail  and  timorous  creatures,  who 
fled  as  soon  as  they  saw  him  taken  into  custody; 
even  Peter,  the  most  courageous,  trembled  at 
the  voice  of  a  servant  girl,  and  three  times  denied 
that  he  knew  him.  People  of  this  character, 
would  they  have  dared  to  resist  the  authority  of 
the  governor?  Would  they  have  undertaken  to 
oppose  the  determination  of  the  Sanhedrim,  to 
force  a  guard,  and  to  elude  or  overcome  soldiers 
armed  and  aware  of  danger?  If  Jesus  Christ 
were  not  risen  again  (I  speak  the  language  of  un- 
believers), he  had  deceived  his  disciples  with  vain 
hopes  of  his  resurrection.  How  came  the  disciples 
not  to  discover  the  imposture?  Would  they  have 
hazarded  themselves  by  undertaking  an  enter- 
prise so  perilous  in  favor  of  a  man  who  had  so 
cruelly  imposed  on  their  credulity?  But  were 
we  to  grant  that  they  formed  the  design  of  re- 
moving the  body,  how  could  they  have  executed 
it? 

(2)  The  Disciples  Could  Not  Besist  Boman 
Power.  How  could  soldiers  be  armed,  and  on 
guard,  suffer  themselves  to  be  overreached  by 
a  few  timorous  people?  Either,  says  St.  Au- 
gustine, they  were  asleep  or  awake;  %f  they  were 
awake,  why  should  they  suffer  the  body  to  he 
taken  awayf  If  asleep,  how  could  they  know 
that  the  disciples  took  it  awayf  How  dare  they 
then  depose  that  it  was  stolen  t 

(3)  Credibility  of  Witnesses.  The  testimony 
of  the  Apostles  furnishes  us  with  arguments,  and 
there  are  eight  considerations  which  give  the  evi- 
dence sufficient  weight: 

The  nature  of  these  witnesses.  They  were  not 
men  of  power,  riches,  eloquence,  credit,  to  impose 
upon  the  world;  on  the  contrary,  they  were  poor 
and  mean. 

The  number  of  these  witnesses.  (See  i 
Cor.  XV ;  Luke  xxiv:34;  Mark  xvi:i4;  Matt, 
xxviiirio).    It  is  not  likely  that  collusion  should 


have  been  held  among  so  many  to  support  a  lie. 
which  would  be  of  no  utility  to  them. 

The  facts  themselves  which  they  avow;  not 
suppositions,  distant  events,  or  events  related 
by  others,  but  real  facts  which  they  saw  with 
their  own  eyes  (i  John  i). 

The  agreement  of  their  evidence;  they  all  de- 
posed the  same  thing. 

Observe  the  tribunals  before  which  they 
gave  evidence;  Jews  and  heathens,  philosophers 
and  rabbins,  courtiers  and  lawyers.  If  they  had 
been  impostors,  the  fraud  certainly  would  have 
been  discover'^d. 

The  place  in  which  they  bore  their  testi- 
mony. Not  at  a  distance,  where  they  might  not 
easily  have  been  detected,  if  false,  but  at  Jeru- 
salem, in  the  synagogues,  in  the  pretorium. 

The  time  of  this  testimony;  not  years  after, 
but  three  days  after,  they  declared  he  was 
risen;  yea,  before  their  rage  was  quelled,  while 
Calvary  was  yet  dyed  with  the  blood  they  had 
spilled.  If  it  had  been  a  fraud,  it  is  not  likely 
they  would  have  come  forward  in  such  broad 
daylight,  amidst  so  much  opposition. 

Lastly,  the  motives  which  induced  them  to  pub- 
lish the  resurrection;  not  to  gain  fame,  riches, 
glory,  profit;  no,  they  exposed  themselves  to  suf- 
fering and  death,  and  proclaimed  the  truth  from 
conviction  of  its  importance  and  certainty. 

4.  Summary  of  Arguments.  "Collect/*  says 
Saurin,  "all  these  proofs  together;  consider 
them  in  one  point  of  view,  and  see  how  many 
extravagant  suppositions  must  be  advanced, 
if  the  resurrection  of  our  Savior  be  denied. 
It  must  be  supposed  that  guards,  who  had  been 
particularly  cautioned  by  their  officers,  sat  down 
to  sleep;  and  that,  however,  they  deserved  credit 
when  they  said  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ  was 
stolen.  It  must  be  supposed  that  men,  who  have 
been  imposed  on  in  the  most  odious  and  cruel 
manner  m  the  world,  hazarded  their  dearest  en- 
joyments for  the  glory  of  an  impostor.  It  must 
be  supposed  that  ignorant  and  illiterate  men, 
who  have  neither  reputation,  fortune  nor  elo- 
quence, possess  the  art  of  fascinating  the  eyes  of 
all  the  church.  It  must  be  supposed  either  that 
five  hundred  persons  were  all  deprived  of  their 
senses  at  a  time,  or  that  they  were  all  deceived  in 
the  plainest  matters  of  fact;  or  that  this  multi- 
tude of  false  witnesses  had  found  out  the  secret  of 
never  contradicting  themselves  or  one  another, 
and  of  being  always  uniform  in  their  testimony. 
It  must  be  supposed  that  the  most  expert  courts 
of  judicature  could  not  find  out  a  shadow  of  con- 
tradiction in  a  palpable  imposture.  It  must  be 
supposed  that  the  apostles,  sensible  men  in  other 
cases,  chose  precisely  those  places  and  those  times 
which  were  most  unfavorable  to  their  views.  It 
must  be  supposed  that  millions  madly  suffered  im- 
prisonments, tortures  and  crucifixions,  to  spread 
an  illusion.  It  must  be  supposed  that  ten  thousand 
miracles  were  wrought  in  favor  of  falsehood,  or 
all  these  facts  must  be  denied;  and  then  it  must 
be  supposed  that  the  apostles  were  idiots ;  that  the 
enemies  of  Christianity  were  idiots;  and  that  all 
the  primitive  Christians  were  idiots. 

"The  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ 
affords  us  a  variety  of  useful  instructions.  Here 
we  see  evidence  of  divine  power;  prophecy  ac- 
complifihed;  the  character  of  Jesus  established; 
his  work  finished;  and  a  future  state  proved. 
It  is  a  ground  of  faith,  the  basis  of  hope,  a 
source  of  consolation,  and  a  stimulus  to  obedi- 
ence." 

5.  Causes  0/  Apparent  Discrepancies.    A 

few   words   upon   the  apparent   discrepancies  of 


RESURRECTION  OF  THE  BODY 


1453 


RESURRECTION  OF  THE  BODY 


the  gospel  narratnves  will  not  be  misplaced. 
These  discrepancies  were  early  perceived;  and  a 
view  of  what  the  fathers  have  done  in  the  at- 
tempt to  reconcile  them  has  been  given  by  Nie- 
meyer  {De  Evangelistarum  in  Narrando  ChrisH 
in  Vitam  reditu  dissensione,  1824).  A  numerous 
host  of  theologians,  however,  rose  to  combat  and 
refute  this  writer's  positions;  among  whom  we 
find  the  names  of  Doderlein,  Less,  Semler,  Teller, 
Maschius,  Michaelis,  Plessing,  Eichhorn,  Herder, 
and  others.  Among  those  who  have  more  re- 
cently attempted  to  reconcile  the  different  accounts 
is  Griesbach,  who,  in  his  excellent  Prolusio  de 
Fontibus  unde  Evangelists  suas  de  Resurrec- 
tione  Domini  narrationes  hauserunt,  1793,  re- 
marks that  all  the  discrepancies  are  trifling,  and 
not  of  such  moment  as  to  render  the  narrative 
uncertain  and  suspected,  or  to  destroy  or  even 
diminish  the  credibility  of  the  Evangelists;  but 
rather  serve  to  show  how  extremely  studious 
they  were  of  truth,  'and  how  closely  and  even 
scrupulously  they  followed  their  documents/ 

6.  Literature,  Besides  works  already  referred 
to,  see  Jesus  and  the  Resurrection^  by  Principal 
H.  C.  G.  Moule,  M.  A. ;  G.  D.  Boardman's  Epiph- 
anies of  the  Risen  Lord;  The  True  Site  of  Cal- 
vary and  Suggestions  Relating  to  the  Resurrec- 
tion, by  Fisher  Howe ;  C.  R.  Morrison's  Proofs  of 
the  Resurrection  from  a  Lawyer's  Standpoint;  Dr. 
Kennedy's,  The  Resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ  a 
Historical  Fact;  Dr.  Reuen  Thomas,  Through 
Death  to  Life;  Sermons  by  J.  C.  Hare,  The  Stone 
Rolled  from  the  Door  of  the  Sepulcher. 

BEST7BBE0TI0N  OF  THE  BODY. 

This  expression  is  used  to  denote  the  revivifica- 
tion of  the  human  body  after  it  has  been  forsaken 
by  the  soul,  or  the  reunion  of  the  soul  hereafter 
to  the  body  which  it  had  occupied  in  the  present 
world. 

(1)  Not  Taught  in  Earliest  Works.  It  is  ad- 
mitted that  there  are  no  traces  of  such  a  doctrine 
in  the  earlier  Hebrew  Scripture.  It  is  not  to  be 
found  in  the  Pentateuch,  in  the  historical  books, 
or  in  the  Psalms;  for  Ps  xlix:i5  does  not  relate 
to  this  subject;  neither  does  Ps.  civ:  29,  30,  al- 
though so  cited  by  Theodoret  and  others.  The 
celebrated  passage  of  Job  xix  12$  sq.,  has,  indeed, 
been  strongly  insisted  upon  in  proof  of  the  early 
belief  in  this  doctrine ;  but  the  most  learned  com- 
mentators are  agreed,  and  scarcely  any  one  at 
the  present  day  disputes,  that  such  a  view  of  the 
text  arises  either  from  mistranslation  or  mis* 
apprehension,  and  that  Job  means  no  more  than 
to  express  a  confident  conviction  that  his  then  dis- 
eased and  dreadfully  corrupted  body  should  be 
restored  to  its  former  soundness;  that  he  should 
rise  from  the  depressed  staite  in  which  he  lay  to  his 
former  prosperity ;  and  that  God  would  manifestly 
appear  (as  was  the  case)  to  vindicate  his  up- 
rightness. That  no  meaning  more  recondite  is  to 
be  found  in  the  text  is  agreed  by  Calvin,  Mercier, 
Grotius,  Le  Gere,  Patrick,  Warburton,  Durell, 
Heath,  Kennicott,  Doderlein,  Dathe,  Eichhorn, 
Jahn,  De  Wette,  and  a  host  of  others.  That  ft 
alludes  to  a  resurrection  is  disproved  thus:  (i) 
The  supposition  is  inconsistent  with  the  design 
of  the  poem  and  the  course  of  the  argument,  since 
the  belief  which  it  has  been  supposed  to  express  as 
connected  with  a  future  state  of  retribution,  would 
in  a  great  degree  have  solved  the  difficulty  on 
which  the  whole  dispute  turns,  and  could  not  but 
have  been  often  alluded  to  by  the  speakers.  (2) 
It  is  inconsistent  with  the  connection  of  the  dis- 
course the  reply  of  Zophar  agreeing,  not  with 
the  popular  interpretation  but  with  the  other.  (3) 
It  is  inconsistent  with  many  passages  in  which  the 


same  person  (Job)  longs  for  death  as  the  end  of 
his  miseries,  and  not  as  the  introduction  to  a 
better  life  (iii. ;  vii  :7,  8 ;  x  :20-22 ;  xiv ;  xvii  :ii-i6), 
(4)  It  is  not  proposed  as  a  topic  of  consolation  by 
any  of  the  friencls  of  Job ;  nor  by  Elihu,  who  acts 
as  a  sort  of  umpire ;  nor  by  the  Almighty  himself 
in  the  decision  of  the  controversy.  (5)  The  later 
Jews,  who  eagerly  sought  for  eveiy  intimation 
bearing  on  a  future  life  which  their  Scriptures 
might  contain,  never  regarded  this  as  such;  nor 
is  it  once  referred  to  by  Christ  or  hfs  apostles. 

(2)  The  Doctrine  of  Isaiah  and  Daniel.  Isa- 
iah may  be  regarded  as  the  first  Scripture  writer 
in  whom  such  an  allusion  can  be  traced.  He  com- 
pares the  restoration  of  the  Jewish  people  and 
state  to  a  resurrection  from  the  dead  (ch.  xxvi: 
19,  20) ;  and  in  this  he  is  followed  by  Ezekiel  at 
the  time  of  the  Exile  (ch.  xxxvii).  From  these 
passages,  which  are,  however,  not  very  clear  in 
their  intimations,  it  may  seem  that  in  this,  as  in 
other  matters,  the  twilight  of  spiritual  manifesta- 
tions brightened  as  the  day-spring  from  on  high 
approached ;  and  in  Dan.  xii  :2,  we  at  length  arrive 
at  a  clear  and  unequivocal  declaration,  that  'those 
who  lie  sleeping  under  the  earth  shall  awake, 
some  to  eternal  life,  and  others  to  everlasting 
shame  and  contempt.* 

(3)  In  the  Time  of  Christ.  In  the  time  of 
Christ,  the  belief  of  a  resurrection,  in  connection 
with  a  state  of  future  retribution,  was  held  by  the 
Pharisees  and  the  great  body  of  the  Jewish  people, 
and  was  only  disputed  by  the  Sadducees. 

(4)  Emphasized  by  Christ.  But  although  the 
doctrine  of  the  resurrection  was  thus  prevalent 
among  the  Jews  in  the  time  of  Christ,  it  might 
still  have  been  doubtful  and  obscure  to  us,  had 
not  Christ  given  to  it  the  sanction  of  his  authority, 
and  declared  it  a  constituent  part  of  his  religion 
(e.  g.  Matt,  xxii;  John  v,  viii,  xi). 

(5)  New  Testament  Teaching.  The  principal 
points  which  can  be  collected  from  the  New 
Testament  on  this  subject  are  the  following:  (i) 
The  raising  of  the  dead  is  everywhere  ascribed 
to  Christ,  and  is  represented  as  the  last  work 
to  be  undertaken  by  him  for  the  salvation  of  man 
(John  v:2i;  xi:25"  i  Cor.  xv:22,  sq.;  i  Thess. 
iv:is;  Rev.  i:i8).  (2)  All  the  dead  will  be  raised, 
without  respect  to  age,  rank,  or  character  in  this 
world  (John  v:28,  29;  Acts  xxiv:i5;  i  Cor.  xvs 
22).  (3)  This  event  is  to  take  place  not  before 
the  end  of  the  world,  or  the  general  judgment 
(Jo4in  v:2i;  vi:39,  40;  xi:24:  i  Cor.  xv:22-28; 
I  Thess.  iv:i5;  Rev.  xx:ii).  (4)  The  manner  in 
which  this  marvelous  change  shall  be  accom- 
plished is  necessarily  beyond  our  present  compre- 
hension; and,  therefore,  the  Scripture  is  content 
to  illustrate  it  by  figurative  representations,  or  by 
proving  the  possibility  and  intelligibility  of  the 
leadingr  facts.  Some  of  the  figurative  descriptions 
occur  in  John  v;  Matt,  xxiv;  i  Cor.  xv:52;  i 
Thess.  iv:i6;  Phil.  iii:2i.  The  image  of  a  trum- 
pet-call, which  is  repeated  in  some  of  these  texts, 
is  derived  from  the  Jewish  custom  of  convening 
assemblies  by  sound  of  trumpet.  (5)  The  possi- 
bility of  a  resurrection  is  powerfully  argued  by 
Paul  in  I  Cor.  xv:32  sq.,  by  comparing  it  with 
events  of  common  occurrence  in  the  natural  world. 
(See  also  ver.  12-14,  and  compare  Acts  iv:2.) 

But  although  this  body  shall  be  so  raised  as  to 
preserve  its  identity,  it  must  yet  undergo  certain 
purifying  changes  to  fit  it  for  the  kingdom  of 
heaven,  and  to  render  it  capable  of  immortality 
(i  Cor.  xv:35,  sq.),  so  that  it  shall  become  a 
glorified  body  like  that  of  Christ  (ver.  49;  Rom. 
vi  :g ;  Phil,  iii  :2i )  ;  and  the  bodies  of  those  whom 
the  last  day  finds  alive,  will  undergo  a  similar 


RETRIBUTION 


1454 


REVELATION,  BOOK  OF 


change  without  tasting  death  (i  Cor.  xv:5i,  53; 
2  Cor.  v:4;  i  Thess.  iv:i5,  sq.;  Phil.  iii:2i).  (See 
Knapp,  Christian  Theology,  translated  by  Leonard 
Woods,  D.  D.,  sec.  151- 153;  Hody,  On  the  Resur- 
rection; Drew,  Essay  on  the  Resurrection  of  the 
Human  Body;  Burnet,  State  of  the  Dead;  Hodge, 
S^st,  Theol.;  Raymond,  Syst,  Theol.;  Edersheim, 
Life  of  Jesus.) 

BETBIBXTnON  (r«t'-rl-ba'shiin).  See  Punish- 
ments. 

BEIT  (re'u),  (Heb.  ''^l,  rek-oo',  friend),  son  of 

Peleg,  in  the  ancestry  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xi:i8,  19, 
20,  21;  I  Chron.  i:2j),  B.  C.  about  1950.  He  is 
called  Ragau  (Luke  ni:35).    He  lived  239  years. 

BEX7BEN  (reu'ben),  (Heb.  P'^l,  reh-oo-bane\ 
behold  a  son). 

The  eldest  son  of  Jacob  by  Leah  (Gen.  xxix:32; 
XXXV  :23;  xlvi:8). 

(1)  His  Grime.  His  improper  intercourse  with 
Bilhah,  his  father's  concubine  wife,  was  an  enor- 
mity too  great  for  Jacob  ever  to  forget,  and  he 
spoke  of  it  wkh  abhorrence  even  on  his  dying 
bed  (Gen.  xxxii:22;  xlix:4). 

Some  severe  temptation  there  must  surely  have 
been  to  impel  Reuben  to  an  act  which,  regarded  in 
its  social  rather  than  in  its  moral  aspect,  would 
be  peculiarly  abhorrent  to  a  patriarchal  society, 
and  which  is  specially  and  repeatedly  reprobated 
in  the  Law  of  Moses.  The  Rabbinical  version  of 
the  occurrence  (as  given  in  Targ,  Pseudojon)  is 
very  characteristic,  and  well  illustrates  the  differ- 
ence between  the  spirit  of  early  and  of  late  Jew- 
ish history.  "Reuben  went  and  disordered  the 
couch  of  Bilhah,  his  father's  concubine,  which  was 
placed  right  opposite  the  couch  of  Leah,  and  it  was 
counted  unto  him  as  if  he  had  lain  with  her.  And 
when  Israel  heard  it  it  displeased  him,  and  he 
said,  'Lo !  an  unworthy  person  shall  proceed  from 
me,  as  Ishmael  did  from  Abraham  and  Esau  from 
my  father.*  And  the  Holy  Spirit  answered  him  and 
said,  'All  are  righteous,  and  there  is  not  one  un- 
worthy among  them.'"     (Smith,  Bib.  Diet,) 

(2)  Befriends  Joseph.  The  part  Uken  by 
Reuben  in  the  case  of  Joseph,  whom  he  intended 
to  rescue  from  the  hands  of  his  brothers  and  re- 
store to  his  father,  and  whose  supposed  death  he 
so  sincerely  lamented,  exhibits  his  character  in  an 
amiable  point  of  view  (Gen.  xxxvii:2i,  22,  29, 
30).  We  are,  however,  to  remember  that  he,  as 
the  eldest  son,  was  more  responsible  for  the  safety 
of  Joseph  than  were  the  others;  and  it  would 
seem  that  he  eventually  acquiesced  in  the  decep- 
tion practiced  upon  his  father. 

(3)  In  Egypt.  Subsequently,  Reuben  offered 
to  make  the  lives  of  his  own  sons  responsible  for 
that  of  Benjamin,  when  it  was  necessary  to  pre- 
vail on  Jacob  to  let  him  go  down  to  Egypt  (Gea 

dii:37,  38).  The  fine  conduct  of  Judah  in  after- 
wards undertaking  the  same  responsibility,  is  in 
advantageous  contrast  with  this  coarse,  although 
well-meant,  proposal.  For  his  conduct  in  the  mat- 
ter of  Bilhah,  Jacob,  in  his  last  blessing,  deprived 
him  of  the  pre-eminence  and  double  portion  which 
belonged  to  his  birthright,  assigning  the  former  to 
Judah,  and  the  latter  to  Joseph  (Gen.  xlix:3,  4; 
comp.  ver.  8-10;  xlviii:5). 

(4)  The  Tribe.  The  doom,  Thou  shalt  not  ex- 
cel,' was  exactly  fulfilled  in  the  destinies  of  the 
tribe  descended  from  Reuben,  which  makes  no 
figure  in  the  Hebrew  history,  and  never  produced 
any  eminent  person.  At  the  time  of  the  Exodus, 
this  tribe  numbered  46,500  adult  males,  which 
ranked  it  as  the  seventh  in  population ;  but  at  the 
later  census  before  entering  Canaan,  its  numbers 
had  decreased  to  43,730,  which  rendered  it  the 


ninth  in  population  (Num.  i:2i;  xxvi:5).  The 
Reubenit0B  received  for  their  inheritance  the  fine 
pasture  land  (the  present  Belka)  on  the  east  of 
the  Jordan,  which  to  a  cattle-breeding  people,  as 
they  were,  must  have  been  very  desirable  (Num. 
xxxii:i  sq.;  xxxiv:i4;  Josh.  i:i4:  xv:i7).  This 
lay  south  of  the  territories  of  Gad  (Deut.  iii:i2, 
16),  and  north  of  the  river  Arnon.  Although  thus 
settled  earlier  than  the  other  tribes,  excepting 
Gad  and  half  Manasseh,  who  shared  with  them 
the  territory  beyond  the  Jordan,  the  Reubenites 
willingly  assisted  Iheir  brethren  in  the  wars  of 
Canaan  (Num.  xxxii:27,  29;  Josh.  iv:i2);  after 
which  they  returned  to  their  own  lands  (Josh, 
xxii  :i5)  ;  and  we  hear  little  more  of  them  till  die 
time  of  Hazael,  king  of  Syria,  who  ravaged  and 
for  a  time  held  possession  of  their  country  (2 
Kings  x:33).  The  Reubenites,  and  the  other 
tribes  beyond  the  river,  were  naturally  the  first 
to  give  way  before  the  invaders  from  the  East, 
and  were  the  first  of  all  the  Israelites  sent  into 
exile  by  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  B.  C 
773  (i  Chron.  v:26). 

(5)  Character.  "Reuben  appears  to  have  been 
of  an  ardent,  impetuous,  unbalanced,  but  not  of  an 
ungenerous  nature;  not  crafty  and  cruel,  as  were 
Simeon  and  Levi,  but  rather,  to  use  the  metaphor 
of  the  dying  patriarch,  boiling  up  like  a  vessel  of 
water  over  the  rapid  wood  fire  of  the  nomad  tent, 
and  as  quickly  subsiding  into  apathy  when  the  fuel 
was  withdrawn."     (Smith,  Bib.  Diet.) 

BET7BENITES  (reu'ben-ites),  descendants  of 
Reuben  (Num.  xxvi:7,  etc.). 

BETJEL  (re-O'el),  (Heb.  ^S'»3?1,  reh-oo-ak'. 
friend  of  God). 

!•  One  of  the  descendants  of  Esau  and  Ish- 
mael (Gen.  xxxvi:4,  10,  13,  17;  i  Chron.  i:35, 
37),  B.  C.  after  1963. 

2.  One  of  the  names  of  Moses*  father-in-law. 
who  was  a  Midianitish  priest  and  nomadic  herds- 
man (Exod.  ii:i8).  In  Exod.  iii:i;  iv:i8,  Jethro 
is  called  the  father-in-law  of  Moses.  But  this 
is  another  instance  in  which  the  same  maix  bore 
two  names,  as  Peter,  Simon,  etc.  (See  Dis- 
crepancies, Biblical.) 

3.  Father  of  Eliasaph,  leader  of  the  tribe  of 
Gad  when  the  census  was  taken  in  the  wilderness 
(Num.  ii:i4).  The  name  is  elsewhere  called 
Deuel  (Num.  i:i4),  B.  C.  1209. 

4.  A  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  (i  Chron. 
ix:8),  B.  C.  about  2040. 

BET7HAH  (reu'mah),  (Heb.  •^9'*^1,  reh-oo-maw', 
raised  high). 

Abraham's  brother  Nahor's  concubine.  She 
was  the  mother  of  Tebah  and  others  (Gen.  xxii : 
24),  B.  C.  about  2040. 

BEVELATION,  BOOK  OF  (rgy'^-la'shiSn). 

The  following  topics  in  relation  to  this  book 
demand   examination : 

The  person  by  whom  it  was  written;  its  ca- 
nonical authority,  genuineness,  and  authenticity; 
the  time  and  place  at  which  it  was  written;  its 
unity;  the  class  of  writings  to  which  it  belongs; 
the  object  for  which  it  was  originally  written;  its 
contents;  some  errors  into  which  the  interpreters 
of  it  have  fallen. 

!•  Name  of  Author*  The  author  styles  him- 
self John,  but  not  an  apostle  (i:4,  9;  xxiirS). 
Hence  some  have  attributed  the  book  to  another 
John,  usually  designated  the  presb)rter.  Formerly, 
indeed,  the  existence  of  such  a  person  was  un- 
known or  doubted,  the  historic  grounds  ad- 
duced in  proof  of  his  separate  individuality  being 
impugned  or  otherwise  explained.    (So  Guerike 


REVELATION,  BOOK  OF 


1455 


REVELATION.  BOOK  OF 


in  his  Beitrdge  zur  Historisch-kritischen  Einleit, 
1831,  8vo.)  But  this  writer  has  recently  revoked 
his  doubts,  contented  with  affirming  that  the  his- 
toric basis  on  which  the  existence  of  the  Ephesian 
presbyter  rests,  is  assuredly  feeble. 

(1)  John  the  Presbyter.  The  chief  argument 
for  believing  that  there  was  another  John  besides 
the  apostle,  exists  in  a  passage  from  Papias  of 
Hierapolis,  preserved  in  Eusebius  {Hist.  Eccles. 
iii-  39}-  In  this  fragment,  several  of  the  apostles, 
among  whom  is  John,  are  mentioned;  while,  im- 
mediately after,  the  presbyter  John  is  specified 
along  with  Aristion. 

(2)  John  the  Apostle.  Thus  the  presbyter  is 
clearly  distinguished  from  the  apostle  (see  Wis- 
eler,  in  the  Theol,  Mitarbeiten,  iii.  4,  113,  sq,). 
In  addition  to  Papias,  Dionysius  of  Alexandria 
(Euseb.  Hist.  Eccles.  vii:25),  Eusebius  himself 
(Hist,  Eccles.  iii.  39)  and  Jerome  (Catal 
Scriptor,  Ecclesiast.) ,  allude  to  the  presbyter. 
We  must  therefore  believe  with  Lucke,  Bleek, 
Credner,  Neander,  Hitzig,  and,  indeed,  all  the 
ablest  critics  who  have  had  occasion  to  speak 
of  this  point,  that  there  were  two  Johns ;  one  the 
apostle,  the  other  the  presbyter. 

It  has  been  much  debated  which  of  the  two 
wrote  the  book  before  us.  On  the  continent  the 
prevailing  current  of  opinion,  if  not  in  favor  of 
the  presbyter,  is  at  least  against  the  apostle.  In 
England  the  latter  is  still  regarded  as  the  writer, 
more  perhaps  by  a  kind  of  traditional  belief  than 
as  the  result  of  enlightened  examination. 

2.  Arguments  Against  the  Authorship  of 
John  the  Apostle.  The  arguments  against  as- 
signing the  authorship  to  the  apostle  John  are 
the   following: 

(1)  In  Giving  the  Name  John.  The  Apoca- 
lyptic writer  calls  himself  John,  while  the  Evan- 
gelist never  does  so.  So  Dionysius  of  Alexandria, 
as  related  by  Eusebius  {Hist.  Eccles,  vii.  25).  De- 
Wette  repeats  the  observation  as  deserving  at 
least  of  attention.  In  addition  to  this  circum- 
stance, it  has  been  affirmed  by  Ewald,  Credner 
and  Hitzig,  that  in  chapters  xviii:20,  and  xxi:i4, 
the  apostle  expressly  excludes  himself  from  the 
number  of  the  apostles. 

(2)  Different  from  Fourth  Gospel  in  Lan- 
finiagfe.  The  language  of  the  book  is  entirely 
different  from  that  of  the  fourth  Gospel  and  the 
three  epistles  of  John  the  Apostle.  It  is  charac- 
terized by  strong  Hebraisms  and  ruggedness,  by 
negligences  of  expression  and  grammatical  inac- 
curacies; while  it  exhibits  the  absence  of  pure 
Greek  words,  and  of  the  apostle's  favorite  ex- 
pressions.   So  De  Wette. 

(3)  Different  in  Style.  The  style  is  unlike 
that  which  appears  in  the  Gospel  and  Epistles. 
In  the  latter,  there  is  calm,  deep  feeling;  in  the 
Apocalypse,  a  lively,  creative  power  of  fancy.  In 
connection  with  this  it  has  been  asserted,  that 
the  mode  of  representing  objects  and  images  is 
artificial  and  Jewish.  On  the  contrary,  John  the 
'son  of  Zebedee  was  an  illiterate  man  in  the  Jew- 
ish sense  of  that  epithet ;  a  man  whose  mental 
habits  and  education  were  Greek  rather  than 
Jewish,  and  who,  in  consequence  of  this  character, 
makes  little  or  no  use  of  the  Old  Testament  or 
of  Hebrew  learning.    So  De  Wette. 

(4)  Doctrinal  Aspect.  It  is  alleged  that  the 
doctrinal  aspect  of  the  Apocalypse  is  different 
from  that  of  the  apostle's  acknowledged  writings. 
In  the  latter  we  find  nothing  of  the  sensuous 
expectations  of  the  Messiah  and  the  establishment 
of  his  kingdom  on  earth,  which  are  so  prominent 
in  the  former.    Besides,  the  views  inculcated  or 


implied  respecting  spirits,  demons,  and  angels, 
are  foreign  to  John.  A  certain  spirit  of  revenge, 
too,  flows  and  burns  throughout  the  Apocalypse, 
a  spirit  inconsistent  with  the  mild  and  amiable 
disposition  of  the   beloved  disciple. 

Such  are  the  arguments  advanced  by  De  Wette. 
They  are  chiefly  based  on  the  investigations  of 
Ewald  and  Liicke,  Credner,  who  speaks  with  the 
same  confidence  respecting  the  non-apostolic  ori- 
gin of  the  book,  has  repeated,  enlarged,  and  con- 
firmed them.  It  will  be  observed,  however,  that 
they  are  all  internal,  and  do  no  more  than  prepare 
the  way  for  proving  that  John  the  Presbyter  was 
the  writer.  Let  us  glance  at  the  external  evi- 
dence adduced  for  the  same  purpose. 

J.  .Ascribed  to  John  the  Presbyter.    In  the 

third  century,  Dionysius  of  Alexandria  ascribed 
the  book  to  John  the  Presbyter,  not  to  John  the 
Apostle  (Euseb.  Hist.  Eccles.  vii.  25).  The  tes- 
timony of  this  writer  has  been  so  often  and  so 
much  insisted  on  that  it  is  necessary  to  adduce 
it  at  length. 

(a)  Some  who  were  before  us  have  utterly 
rejected  and  confuted  this  book  criticising  every 
chapter,  showing  it  to  be  throughout  unintelligible 
and  inconsistent;  adding,  moreover,  that  the  in- 
scription is  false,  forasmuch  as  it  is  not  John's; 
nor  is  it  a  revelation  which  is  hidden  under  so 
obscure  and  thick  a  veil  of  ignorance;  and  that 
not  only  no  apostle,  but  not  so  much  as  any  holy 
or  ecclesiastical  man  was  the  author  of  this  writ- 
ing; but  that  Cerinthus,  founder  of  the  heresy 
called  after  him  Cerinthian,  the  better  to  recom- 
mend his  own  forgery,  prefixed  to  it  an  honorable 
name.  For  this  (they  say)  was  one  of  his  par- 
ticular notions,  that  th«  kingdom  of  Christ  should 
be  earthly;  consisting  of  those  things  which  he 
himself,  a  carnal  and  sensual  man,  most  admired 
— ^the  pleasures  of  the  belly  and  of  concupiscence ; 
that  is,  eating  and  drinkmg  and  marriage;  and 
for  the  more  decent  procurement  of  these,  feast- 
ings  and  sacrifices,  and  slaughters  of  victims. 

(b)  But  for  my  part,  I  dare  not  reject  the 
book,  since  many  of  the  brethren  have  it  in  high 
esteem;  but  allowing  it  to  be  above  my  under- 
standing, I  suppose  it  to  contain  throughout  .some 
latent  and  wonderful  meaning;  for  though  I  do 
not  understand  it,  I  suspect  there  must  be  some 
profound  sense  in  the  words;  not  measuring  and 
judging  these  things  by  my  own  reason,  but 
ascribing  more  to  faith,  I  esteem  them  too  sub- 
lime to  be  comprehended  by  me.  Nor  do  I  con- 
demn what  I  have  not  been  able  to  understand; 
but  I  admire  the  more,  because  they  are  above 

my  reach And  having  finished  in  a 

manner  his  prophecy,  the  prophet  pronounceth 
those  blessed  that  keep  it,  and  also  himself.  For 
"blessed  is  every  one,  says  he,  "that  keepeth  the 
words  of  the  prophecy  of  this  book ;  and  I  John, 
who  saw  and  heard  these  things"  (Rev.  xxii: 
7,  8). 

(c)  I  do  not  deny  then  that  his  name  is  John, 
and  that  this  is  John's  book,  for  I  acknowledge  it 
to  be  the  work  of  some  holy  and  divinely  inspired 
person.  Nevertheless,  I  cannot  easily  grant  him 
to  be  the  apostle  the  son  of  Zebedee,  brother  of 
James,  whose  is  the  Gospel  inscribed  according 
to  John  and  the  Catholic  epistle;  for  I  conclude, 
from  the  manner  of  each,  and  the  turn  of  expres- 
sion, and  from  the  conduct  (or  disposition)  of 
the  book,  as  we  call  it,  that  he  is  not  the  same 
person.  For  the  Evangelist  nowhere  puts  down 
his  name,  nor  does  he  speak  of  himself  either 
in  the  Gospel  or  in  the  epistle.  Then  a  little 
after  he  says  again,  John  nowhere  speaks  as 
concerning  himself  nor  as   concerning  another. 


REVELATION,  BOOK  OF 


1456 


REVELATION.  BOOK  OF 


But  he  who  wrote  the  Revelation,  immediately  at 
the  very  beginning  prefixeth  his  name:  "The 
Revelation  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  God  gave  unto 
him  to  show  unto  his  servants  things  which  must 
shortly  come  to  pass.  And  he  sent  and  signified 
it  by  his  angel  unto  his  servant  John,  who  bare 
record  of  the  word  of  God,  and  his  testimony, 
the  things  which  he  saw"  (Rev.  i:i,  2). 

(d)  And  then  he  writes  an  epistle,  "John  unto 
the  seven  churches  in  Asia.  Grace  be  unto  you 
and  peace"  (verse  4).  But  the  Evangelist  has  not 
prefixed  his  name,  no,  not  to  his  (Catholic  epistle; 
but  without  any  circumlocution  begins  with  the 
mystery  itself  of  the  divine  revelation,  "that  which 
was  from  the  beginning,  which  we  have  heard, 
which  we  have  seen  with  our  eyes"  (i  John 
i:i).  And  for  the  like  revelation  the  Lord  pro- 
nounced Peter  blessed,  saying,  "Blessed  art  thou, 
Simon  Bar-jona;  for  flesh  and  blood  has  not 
revealed  it  unto  thee,  but  my  Father  which  is  in 
heaven"  (Matt.  xvi:i7). 

(e)  Nor  yet  in  the  second  or  third  epistle 
ascribed  to  John,  though,  indeed,  they  are  but 
short  epistles,  is  the  name  of  John  prefixed;  for 
without  any  name  he  is  called  the  elder.  But 
this  other  person  thought  it  not  sufficient  to  name 
himself  once  and  then  proceed,  but  he  repeats  it 
again,  "I,  John,  who  am  your  brother  and  com- 
panion in  tribulation,  and  in  the  kingdom  and 
patience  of  Jesus  Christ,  was  in  the  isle  called 
Patmos  for  the  testimony  of  Jesus"  (Rev.  i:9). 
And  at  the  end  he  says  "Blessed  is  he  that  keep- 
•th  the  sayings  of  the  prophecy  of  this  book;  and 
I,  John,  who  saw  and  heard  these  things"  (ch. 
xxii:7,  8).  Therefore,  that  it  was  John  who 
wrote  these  things,  ought  to  be  believed  because 
he  says  so. 

(f)  But  who  he  was  is  uncertain;  for  he  has 
not  said,  as  in  the  (jospel  often,  that  he  is  "the 
disciple  whom  the  Lord  loved ;"  nor  that  he  is  he 
"who  leaned  on  his  breast;"  nor  the  brother  of 
James;  nor  that  he  is  one  of  them  who  saw 
and  heard  the  Lord;  whereas  he  would  have 
mentioned  some  of  these  things  if  he  had  intended 
plainly  to  discover  himself.  Of  these  things  he 
says  not  a  word;  but  he  calls  himself  our 
"brother  and  companion,  and  witness  of  Jesus," 
and  "blessed,"  because  he  saw  and  heard  those 
revelations. 

(g)  And  I  suppose  there  were  many  of  the 
same  name  with  John  the  Apostle,  who  for  the 
love  they  bore  to  him,  and  because  they  admired 
and  emulated  him,  and  were  ambitious  of  being 
beloved  of  the  Lord  like  him,  were  desirous  of 
having  the  same  name ;  even  as  many  also  of  the 
children  of  the  faithful  are  called  by  the  names 
of  Paul  and  Peter. 

(h)  There  is  another  John  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  surnamed  Mark,  whom  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas took  for  their  companion ;  concerning  whom 
it  is  again  said,  "and  they  had  John  for  their 
minister"  (Acts  xiii:5).  But  that  he  is  the  per- 
son who  wrote  this  book,  I  would  not  affirm. 
But  I  think  that  he  is  another,  one  of  them  that 
belong  to  Asia,  since  it  is  said  that  there  are  two 
tombs  at  Ephesus,  each  of  them  called  John's 
tomb.  And  from  the  sentiments  and  WQrds, 
and  disposition  of  them,  it  is  likely  that  he  is 
(diflferent  from  him  that  wrote  the  Gospel  and 
Epistle).  For  the  Gospel  and  Epistle  have  a 
mutual  agreement,  and  begin  alike.  The  one 
says,  "In  the  beginning  was  the  word ;"  the  other, 
"That  which  was  from  the  beginning."  The 
former  says,  "And  the  word  was  made  flesh, 
and  dwelt  among  us,  and  we  beheld  his  glory, 
the  glory  as  of  the  only-begotten  of  the  Father." 


The  latter  has  the  same  with  a  slight  variation: 
"That  which  we  have  heard,  which  we  have  seen 
with  our  eyes,  which  we  have  looked  upon, 
and  our  hands  have  handled,  of  the  word  of  life. 
For  the  life  was  manifested."  He  is  uniform 
throughout,  and  wanders  not  in  the  least  from 
the  points  he  proposed  to  himself,  but  prosecutes 
them  in  the  same  chapters  and  words,  some  of 
which  we  shall  briefly  observe;  for  whoever  reads 
with  attention  will  often  find  in  both  "life;"  fre- 
quently "light,"  the  "avoiding  of  darkness;"  of- 
tentimes "truth,  grace,  joy,  the  flesh  and  the  blood 
of  the  Lord;  judgment,  forgiveness  of  sins,  the 
love  of  God  toward  us,  the  commandment  of  love 
one  toward  another;  the  judgment  of  this  world, 
of  the  devil,  of  antichrist ;  the  promise  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  adoption  of  the  sons  of  God,  the  faith 
constantly  required  of  us,  the  Father  and  the 
Son,"  everywhere.  And,  in  short,  throughout  the 
Gospel  and  Epistle  it  is  easy  to  observe  one  and 
the  same  character. 

(i)  But  the  Revelation  is  quite  different  and 
foreign  from  these,  without  any  affinity  or  re- 
semblance, not  having  so  much  as  a  syllable  in 
common  with  them.  Nor  does  the  Epistle  (for 
I  do  not  here  insist  on  the  Gospel)  mention  or 
give  any  hint  of  the  Revelation,  nor  the  Revela- 
tion of  the  Epistle.  And  yet  Paul,  in  his  Epistles, 
has  made  some  mention  of  his  Revelations, 
though  he  never  wrote  them  in  a  separate  book. 
Besides,  it  is  easy  to  observe  the  difference  of 
the  style  of  the  Gospel  and  the  Epistle  from 
that  of  the  Revelation;  for  they  are  not  only 
written  correctly,  according  to  the  propriety  of 
the  Greek  tongue,  but  with  great  elegance  of 
phrase  and  argument,  and  the  whole  contexture 
of  the  discourse.  So  far  are  they  from  all  bar- 
barism or  solecism,  or  idiotism  of  language,  that 
nothing  of  the  kind  is  to  be  found  in  them;  for 
he,  as  it  seems,  had  each  of  those  gifts,  the  Lord 
having  bestowed  upon  him  both  these,  knowledge 
and  eloquence.  As  to  the  other,  I  will  not  deny 
that  he  saw  the  Revelation,  or  that  he  had  re- 
ceived the  gift  of  Knowledge  and  prophecy.  But 
I  do  not  perceive  in  him  an  accurate  acquaintance 
with  the  Greek  language;  on  the  contrary,  he 
uses  barbarous  idioms,  and  some  solecisms,  which 
it  is  necessary  that  I  should  now  show  particu- 
larly, for  I  do  not  write  by  way  of  ridicule;  let 
none  think  so.  I  simply  intend  to  represent  in 
a  critical  manner  the  difference  of  these  pieces. 

Here  are  critical  arguments  which  the  moderns 
have  not  failed  to  adduce  and  enlarge.  Eusebius 
expresses  himself  in  an  undecided  way  respect- 
ing the  Apocalypse  (Hist.  Eccles.  iii:24,  25),  for 
which  it  is  difficult  to  account,  on  the  supposition 
that  prevalent  tradition  attributed  it  to  the  Apos- 
tle John. 

Thus  all  the  external  evidence  directly  in  favor 
of  John  the  Presbyter  resolves,  itself  into  the 
authority  of  Dionysius,  who  rested  his  proofs  not 
on  the  testimony  of  his  predecessors,  but  on  in- 
ternal ar^ment.  Eusebius  speaks  so  hesitatingly 
that  nothmg  can  be  determined  with  respect  to  his 
real  opinion. 

4.  No  Direct  Evidence  for  John  the 
Presbpter.  On  the  whole,  there  is  no  direct  evi- 
dence in  favor  of  the  opinion  that  John  the  Pres- 
byter wrote  the  Apocal3rpse.  Many  internal  con- 
siderations have  been  adduced  to  show  that  John 
the  Apostle  was  not  the  author;  but  no  direct 
argument  has  been  advanced  to  prove  that  John 
the  Presbyter  was  the  writer.  Indeed,  our  exist- 
ing accounts  of  the  presbyter  are  so  brief  as  to 
afford  no  data  for  associating  the  writing  of  this 
book  with  his  name.    All  that  we  know  from 


REVELATION,  BOOK  OF 


1467 


REVELATION,  BOOK  OF 


antiquity  is,  that  both  joAns  wcie  contemporary, 
that  they  are  called  disciples  of  the  Lord,  that 
they  resided  in  Asia  Minor,  and  that  their  tombs 
were  shown  at  Ephesus.  It  is  vain  to  appeal  to 
the  second  and  third  epistles  of  John  for  compar- 
ing the  Af^ocalypse  with  them,  with  Credner  and 
Jachmann  (Pelts  Mitarbeiten,  1839),  who  think 
that  they  proceeded  from  the  presbyter;  since, 
to  say  the  least,  the  hypothesis  tnat  these  epistles 
were  written  by  John  the  Presbjrter  has  not  ytt 
been  established.  Still,  however,  notwithstandmg 
this  deficiency  of  evidence,  Bleek,  Credner,  and 
Jachmann,  following  Dionysius,  attribute  the  book 
to  John  the  Presbyter. 

Others  think  that  a  disciple  of  John  undertook 
to  write  on  a  subject  which  he  had  received  from 
the  apostle;  and  that  he  thought  himself  justified 
in  introducing  his  instructor  as  the  speaker,  be- 
cause he  wrote  in  his  manner.  So  Ewald,  Lucke, 
Schott,  and  Neander. 

5.  Not  John  Maf%*  Hitzig  has  lately  writ- 
ten a  treatise  to  prove  that  the  writer  is  John 
Mark,  the  same  from  whom  the  second  gospel 
proceeded.  His  arguments  are  mainly  based  on 
parallelisms  of  language  and  construction  (Ueber 
Johannes  Marcus  und  seine  Schriften,  oder  welcher 
Johannes  hat  die  Offenbarung  verfasstf  Zurich, 
8vo,  1843). 

6.  Evidence  Supportini^  John  the  Apostle. 
In  stating  the  evidence  in  favor  of  the  apostle 
as  the  writer,  we  begin  with  the  external. 

Justin  Martyr  is  the  earliest  writer  who  attri- 
butes it  to  John  the  Apostle  {Dial,  cum  Try  ph.) 
Rettig,  indeed,  'has  endeavored  to  impugn  the 
genuineness  of  the  passage  containing  this  testi- 
mony, but  he  has  been  well  answered  by  Liicke, 
and  by  Guerike  (Tholuck's  Literarischer  Anzei- 
ger,  1830).  Tertullian,  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
and  Origen,  ascribe  it  to  the  apostle;  and,  as  De 
Wette  candidly  remarks,  the  testimony  of  the  last 
two  is  the  more  important,  as  they  iwere  not 
millennarians.  When  Irenxus  says  that  it  was 
written  by  John  the  disciple  of  the  Lord,  it  is 
uncertain  whether  he  meant  the  apostle  or  the 
presbyter,  although  the  former  is  far  more  prob- 
able. 

(1)  Begardinc^  the  Kaminrg  of  Himself. 
Why  should  not  a  writer  be  at  liberty  to  name  him- 
self or  not  as  he  pleases?  Above  all,  why  should 
not  a  writer,  under  the  immediate  inspiration  of 
the  Almighty,  omit  the  particulars  which  he  was 
not  promoted  to  record?  How  could  he  reffrain 
from  doing  so  ?  The  Holy  Spirit  must  have  had 
some  g[ood  reason  for  leading  tiie  writer  to  set 
forth  his  name,  although  curiosity  is  not  gratified 
by  assigning  the  reason.  The  Old  Testament 
prophets  usually  prefixed  their  names  to  the 
visions  and  predictions  which  they  were  prompted 
to  record;  and  John  does  the  same.  But  instead 
of  styling  himself  an  apostle,  which  carries  with 
it  an  idea  of  dignity  and  official  authority,  he  mod- 
estly takes  to  himself  the  appellation  of  a  servant 
of  Christ,  the  brother  and  companion  of  the  faith* 
ful  in  tribulation.  This  corresponds  with  the  re- 
lation which  he  sustained  to  Christ  in  the  receiving 
of  such  visions,  as  also  with  the  condition  of  the 
Redeemer  himself.  In  the  Gospel,  John  is  men- 
tioned as  the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved,  for  then 
he  stood  in  an  intimate  relation  to  Clirist,  as  the 
Son  of  man  appearing  in  the  form  of  a  servant; 
but  in  the  book  before  us,  Christ  is  announced  as 
the  glorified  Redeemer  who  should  quickly  come 
to  judgment,  and  Tohn  is  his  servant,  entrusted 
with  the  secrets  of  his  ^ouse.  Well  did  it  become 
the  apostle  to  forget  all  the  honor  of  his  apostolic 
office,  and  to  be  abased  before  the  Lord  of  glory. 
92 


The  resplendent  vision  of  the  Savior  had  such  an 
effect  upon  the  seer,  that  he  fell  at  his  feet  as 
dead;  and  therefore  it  was  quite  natural  for  him 
to  be  clothed  with  profound  humility,  to  designate 
himself  the  servant  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  brother 
and  companion  of  the  faithful  in  tribulation. 
Again,  in  ch.  xviii  :20,  the  prophets  are  said  to  be 
represented  as  already  in  heaven  in  their  glori- 
fied condition,  and  therefore  the  writer  could  not 
have  belonged  to  their  number.  But  this  passage 
neither  affirms  nor  necessarily  implies  that  the 
saints  and  apostles  and  prophets  were  at  that  time 
in  heaven.  Neither  is  it  stated  that  alt  the  apos- 
tles had  then  been  glorified.  Chapter  xxi:i4  is 
alleg:ed  to  be  inconsistent  with  the  modesty  and 
humility  of  John.  This  is  a  questionable  assump- 
tion. The  official  lionor  inseparable  from  the 
person  of  an  apostle  was  surely  compatible  with 
profound  humility.  It  was  so  with  Paul ;  and  we 
may  safely  draw  the  same  conclusion  in  regard  to 
John.  In  describing  the  heavenly  Jerusalem  it 
was  necessary  to  introduce  the  twelve  apostles. 
The  writer  could  not  exclude  himself  (See  Liicke, 
p.  389;  and  Guerike*s  Beitrdget  p.  37,  sq^. 

(2)  Begarding  the  Fourth  Gospel  and  the 
Apocalypse.  The  nature  of  the  Gospel  is  widely 
different  from  that  of  the  Apocalypse.  The  latter 
is  a  prophetic  book — ^a  poetical  composition — while 

^  the  former  is  a  simple  record  in  prose,  of  the  diS' 
courses  of  Jesus  in  the  days  of  his  flesh.  It  is 
apparent,  too,  that  John  in  the  Apocalypse  imi- 
tates the  manner  of  Ezekiel  and  Daniel.  The  New 
Testament  prophet  conforms  to  the  diction  and 
symbolic  features  of  the  former  seers.  If  the 
question  should  be  urged,  why  John  chose  these 
models  ?  the  obvious  answer  is,  that  he  conformed 
to  the  taste  of  the  times  in  which  he  lived. 

The  numerous  apocryphal  works  of  an^  Apoc- 
alyptic nature,  which  were  composed  nearly  at 
the  same  time  with  the  Apocalypse,  such  as  the 
book  of  Enoch,  the  ascension  of  Isaiah,  the  Testa- 
ment of  the  twelve  patriarchs,  many  of  the  sibyl- 
line oracles,  the  fourth  book  of  Ezra,  the  Pastor 
of  Hermas,  and  many  others  which  are  lost — all 
testify  to  the  taste  and  feelings  of  the  times  when, 
or  near  which,  the  Apocalypse  was  written.  If 
this  method  of  writing  was  more  grateful  to  the 
time  in  which  John  lived,  it  is  a  good  reason  for 
his  preferring  it.  In  consequence  of  such  imita- 
tion, the  diction  has  an  Oriental  character;  and 
the  figures  are  in  the  highest  style  of  imagery 
peculiar  to  the  East. 

(3)  John's  lUiteracy.  But  it  is  said  that  John 
was  an  illiterate  man.  Illiterate,  doubtless,  he  was 
as  compared  with  Paul,  who  was  brought  up  at 
the  feet  of  Gamaliel ;  yet  he  may  have  been  capa- 
ble of  reading  the  Old  Testament  books;  and  he 
was  certainly  inspired.  Rapt  in  ecstasy,  he  saw 
wondrous  visions.  He  was  in  ihe  Spirit.  And 
when  writing  the  things  he  beheld,  his  language 
was  to  be  conformed  to  the  nature  of  such  marvel- 
ous revelations.  It  was  to  be  adapted  to  the 
mysterious  disclosures,  the  vivid  pictures,  the 
moving  scenes,  the  celestial  beings  and  scenery 
of  which  he  was  privileged  to  tell.  Hence  it  was 
to  be  lifted  up  far  above  the  level  of  simple  prose 
or  biographic  history,  so  as  to  correspond  with 
the  sublime  visions  of  the  seer.  Nor  should  it 
be  forgotten  that  he  was  not  in  the  circumstances 
of  an  ordinary  writer.  He  was  inspired.  How 
often  is  this  fact  lost  sight  of  by  the  German 
critics  I  It  is  therefore  needless  to  inquire  into 
his  education  in  the  Hebrew  language,  or  his 
mental  culture  while  residing  in  Asia  Minor,  or 
the  smoothness  of  the  Greek  language  as  current 
in  the  place  where  he  lived,  before  and  after  he 


REVELATION,  BOOK  OF 


1458 


REVELATION,  BOOK  OF 


wrote  the  Apocalypse.  The  Holy  Spirit  qualified 
him  beyond  and  irrespective  of  ordinary  means, 
for  the  work  of  writing.  However  elevated  the 
theme  he  undertook,  he  was  assisted  in  employing 
diction  as  elevated  as  the  nature  of  the  subject  de« 
manded.  We  place,  therefore,  little  reliance  upon 
the  argument  derived  from  the  time  of  life  at 
which  the  Apocalypse  was  composed,  though  Ols- 
hausen  and  Guerike  insist  upon  it  Written,  as 
they  think,  twenty  years  before  the  Gospel  or 
epistles,  the  Apocalypse  exhibits  marks  of  inex- 
perience in  writing,  of  youthful  fire,  and  of  an  ar- 
dent temperament.  It  exhibits  the  first  essays  of 
one  expressing  his  ideas  in  a  language  to  which 
he  was  unaccustomed.  This  may  be  true;  but 
we  lay  far  less  stress  upon  it  than  these  authors 
seem  inclined  to  do. 

(4)  The  Hebraized  Diction.  The  strong  He- 
braized diction  of  the  book  we  account  for  on  the 
ground  that  the  writer  was  a  Jew,  and  as  such, 
expressed  his  Jewish  conceptions  in  Greek;  that 
he  imitated  the  later  Old  Testament  prophets, 
especially  the  manner  of  Daniel ;  and  that  the  only 
prophetic  writing  in  the  New  Testament  naturally 
approaches  nearer  the  Old  Testament,  if  not  in 
subject,  at  least  in  coloring  and  linguistic  features. 

These  considerations  may  serve  to  throw  light 
upon  the  language  of  the  book,  after  all  the  ex- 
travagances of  assertion  in  regard  to  anomalies, 
solecisms,  and  ruggednesses,  have  been  fairly  esti- 
mated. For  it  cannot  be  denied  that  many  rash 
and  unwarrantable  assumptions  have  been  made 
by  De  Wette  and  others  relative  to  the  impure 
Greek  said  to  be  contained  in  the  Apocalypse. 
\yiner  has  done  much  to  check  such  bold  asser- 
tions, but  with  little  success  in  the  case  of  those 
who  are  resolved  to  abide  by  a  strong  and  preva- 
lent current  of  opinion.  We  venture  to  affirm, 
without  fear  of  contradiction,  that  there  are  books 
of  the  New  Testament  almost  as  Hebraizing  as 
the  Apocalypse;  and  that  the  anomalies  charged 
to  the  account  of  the  Hebrew  language  may  be 
paralleled  in  other  parts  of  the  New  Testament  or 
in  classkal  Greek.  What  shall  be  said,  for  in- 
stance,  to  the  attempt  of  Hitzig  to  demonstrate 
from  the  language  of  Mark's  Gospel,  as  compared 
with  that  of  the  Apocalypse,  that  both  proceeded 
from  one  author,  viz.,  John  Mark?  This  author 
has  conducted  a  lengthened  investigation  with  the 
view  of  showing  that  all  the  peculiarities  of  lan- 
guage found  in  the  Apocalypse  are  equally  pre- 
sented in  the  second  Gospel,  particularly  that  the 
Hebraisms  of  the  one  correspond  with  those  of 
the  other.  Surely  this  must  lead  to  new  investi- 
gations of  the  Apocalyptic  diction,  and  possibly 
to  a  renunciation  of  those  extravagant  assertions 
so  often  made  in  regard  to  the  harsh,  rugged, 
Hebraized  Greek  of  the  Apocalypse.  Who  ever 
dreamed  before  of  the  numerous  solecisms  of 
Mark's  lan^age?  and  yet  Hitzig  has  demon- 
strated its  similarity  to  the  Apocalyptic  as  plausi- 
bly as  Ewald,  Liicke,  and  others  have  proved  the 
total  dissimilarity  between  the  diction  oi  the  Apoc- 
alypse and  that  of  John's  Gospel. 

The  length  allotted  to  this  article  will  not  allow 
the  writer  to  notice  the  terms  and  phrases  sup- 
posed to  be  peculiar.  This  can  only  be  done  with 
success  by  him  who  takes  a  concordance  to  the 
Greek  Testament  in  his  hand,  with  the  determina- 
tion to  test  each  example ;  along  with  a  good  syn- 
tax of  classical  Greek,  such  as  Bernhardy's.  In 
this  way  he  may  see  whether  the  alleged  Hebra- 
isms and  anomalies  have  not  their  parallels  in 
classical  Greek. 

(5)  Doctrinal  Views.  But  it  is  also  affirmed 
t^at  the  doctrinal  views  and  sentiments  inculcated 


in  the  Apocalypse  are  quite  diflFerent  from  those 
found  in  the  Gospel.  This  may  be  freely  allowed 
without  any  detriment  to  their  identity  of  author- 
ship. How  slow  the  Germans  are  in  learning  that 
a  difference  in  the  exhibition  of  trt^ths  substan- 
tially the  same,  is  far  from  being  a  contradiction  I 
A  difference  of  subject  in  connection  with  a  differ- 
ent plan,  demands  correspondent  dissimilarity  of 
treatment.  Besides,  there  must  be  a  gradual  de- 
velopment of  the  things  pertaining  to  the  kingdom 
of  God  on  earth.  Sensuous  expectations  of  the 
Messiah,  such  as  are  alleged  to  abound  in  the 
Apocalypse,  may  be  perfectly  consistent  with  the 
spirituality  of  his  reign,  though  it  appears  to  us 
that  the  representations  so  designated  are  figura- 
tive, shadowinpf  forth  spiritual  realities  by  means 
of  outward  objects. 

But  what  is  to  be  said  of  the  pneumatological, 
demonological,  and  angelogical  doctrines  of  the 
book?  The  object  for  which  John's  Gospel  was 
primarily  written  did  not  lead  t!ie  apostle  to  in- 
troduce so  many  particulars  regarding  angels  and 
evil  spirits.  The  intervention  of  good  and  the 
malignant  influence  of  evil  spirits  are  clearly  im- 
plied in  the  Old  Testament  prophets,  particularly 
in  Zechariah  and  Daniel.  It  is  therefore  quite  ac- 
cordant with  the  prophetic,  Hebraistic  character  of 
the  Apocalypse,  to  make  angelic  agency  a  promi- 
nent feature  in  the  book.  And  that  such  agency 
is  recognized  in  the  Gospels,  is  apparent  to  the 
most  cursory  reader.  The  special  object  with 
which  the  fourth  Gospel  was  written  was  different 
from  -that  which  prompted  the  composition  of  the 
Apocalypse,  and  therefore  the  subject  matter  of 
both  is  exceedingly  diverse.  But  still  there  is  no 
opposition  in  doctrine.  The  same  doctrinal  views 
lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  the  representations 
contained  in  them.  In  the  one,  the  Redeemer  is 
depicted  in  his  humble  career  on  earth;  in  the 
other,  in  his  triumphs  as  a  king — or  rather,  in  the 
victorious  progress  of  !his  truth  in  the  world,  not- 
withstanding all  the  efforts  of  Satan  and  wicked 
men  to  suppress  it.  As  to  a  spirit  of  revenge  in 
the  Apocalyptic  writer,  it  is  not  found.  The  in- 
spired prophet  was  commissioned  to  pronounce 
woes  and  judgments  as  soon  to  befall  the  enemies 
of  Christ,  in  consequence  of  their  persevering, 
malignant  efforts.  As  well  might  an  evil  disposi- 
tion be  attributed  to  the  blessed  Savior  himself, 
in  consequence  of  his  denunciation  of  the  Scribes 
and  Pharisees.  The  same  John  who  wrote  the 
Apocalypse  says,  in  the  second  epistle,  verse  lo,  If 
there  come  any  unto  you  and  bring  not  this  doc- 
trine, receive  him  not  into  your  house,  neither  bid 
him  Godspeed.  It  must  ever  strike  the  simple 
reader  of  the  Apocalypse  as  a  positive  ground  for 
attributing  the  authorship  to  John  the  Apostle, 
that  he  styles  himself  the  servant  of  God  by  way 
of  eminence,  which  none  other  at  that  time  would 
have  ventured  to  do;  and  that  he  employs  the 
expression,  /,  John,  after  the  manner  of  Daniel,  as 
if  he  were  the  only  prophet  and  person  of  the 
name.  Nor  can  it  be  well  believed  that  a  disciple 
of  the  apostle,  or  any  other  individual,  should  have 
presumed  to  introduce  John  as  the  speaker,  thus 
deceiving  the  readers.  The  apostle  was  well 
known  to  the  Christians  of  his  time,  and  especially 
to  the  Asiatic  churches.  He  did  not  therefore 
think  it  necessary  to  say  John  the  Apostle  for  the 
sake  of  distinguishing  himself  from  any  other. 
(See  Ziillig's  Die  Offenbarung  lohannis,  Stutt- 
gart, i834»  8vo.  p.  136.) 

To  enter  further  into  the  allegations  of  such 
critics  as  deny,  on  the  ground  of  internal  diver- 
sities between  this  writing  and  John's  acknowl- 
edged productions,  that  the  apostle  was  the  au- 
thor, would  be  a  work  of  supererogation.    Even 


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REVELATION,  BOOK  OF 


Eichhorn  and  Bertholdt  made  many  good  remarks 
in  reply,  although  they  did  not  take  the  position 
which  they  were  warranted  to  assume. 

(6)  Weight  of  Argpiment  in  Favor  of  the 
Apostle.  In  view  of  the  whole  question,  we  are 
disposed  to  abide  by  the  ancient  opinion,  that  John 
the  Apostle  wrote  the  Apocalypse.  Ecclesiastical 
tradition  clearly  favors  this  view;  while  the  in- 
ternal grounds  so  carefully  drawn  out  and  earn- 
estly urged  by  recent  German  critics,  do  not  ap- 
pear sufficiently  strong  to  overturn  it.  When  such 
grounds  are  soberly  examined,  after  being  divested 
of  all  the  extravagance  with  which  they  are  asso* 
ciated;  when  the  nature  of  the  subjects  discussed 
is  seen  to  be  such  as  the  fourth  Gospel  does  not 
present;  an  impartial  critic  will  probably  rest  in 
the  opinion  that  both  writings  proceeded  from  the 
same  author.  And  yet  there  are  phenomena  in 
the  Apocalypse,  as  compared  with  John's  gospel, 
which  strike  the  reader's  attention  and  mduce 
suspicions  of  a  different  origin.  It  exhibits  pe- 
culiarities of  language  and  of  symbols,  such  as  no 
other  book  exemplifies.  In  some  respects  it  is 
unique.  Hence  an  air  of  plausibility  attaches  to 
the  arguments  of  recent  German  writers,  althougii 
it  is  preposterous  to  look  for  a  stereotyped  imi- 
formity  in  the  writings  of  the  same  author.  How 
different  are  the  language  and  representations 
that  characterize  some  of  Paul's  epistles,  as  com- 
pared with  otihers!  Place,  for  example,  the  epis- 
tle to  the  Ephesians  by  the  side  of  that  addressed 
to  iflie  Romans,  and  how  dissimilar  are  their 
features ! 

7.  Canonicat  Authority,  Etc.  The  Alogi  or 
Antimontanists  in  the  second  century,  ascribed 
all  John's  writings,  including  the  Apocalypse,  to 
Cerinthus,  as  Epiphanius  relates.  It  is  obvious 
that  no  weight  can  be  attached  to  these  assertions. 
Caius  of  Rome,  from  opposition  to  Montanism, 
ventured  to  make  the  same  statement,  as  we 
learn  frcwn  Eusebius  {Hist,  Eccles,  iii:28). 

(1)  Adverse  External  Testimony.  His 
statement  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion, 
some  affirming  that  the  revelations  spoken  of  by 
him  do  not  mean  the  present  Apocalypse  of 
John,  but  invented  revelations  bearmg  some  re- 
semblance to  it.  We  agree  with  Lticke  and  De 
Wette  in  their  view  of  the  meaning,  in  opposition 
to  Twells,  Paulus,  Hartwig,  and  Hug.  They  re- 
fer it  rightly  to  our  present  book.  The  85th 
of  the  'Apostolic  Canons,'  which  are  supposed 
to  belong  to  the  fourth  century,  does  not  mention 
the  Apocalypse  among  the  apostolic  writings. 
In  the  'constitutions'  also,  which  probably  origi- 
nated in  Syria  and  the  adjacent  regions,  there  is 
no  notice  of  the  book.  It  has  been  inferred, 
from  the  circumstance  of  the  Apocalypse  being 
wanting  in  the  Peshito,  that  it  did  not  belong  to 
the  canon  of  the  Syrian  church.  It  has  also  been 
thought  that  the  theologians  of  the  Antipchenian 
school,  among  whom  are  Chrysostom,  Theodoret, 
and  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  omitted  it  out  of 
the  catalogue  of  canonical  writings.  But  in  re- 
gard to  the  first,  if  we  rely  on  the  testimony  of 
Suidas,  he  received  the  Apocalypse  as  divine; 
and  as  to  Theodoret,  there  is  no  reason  for  as- 
suming that  he  rejected  it  (Liicke,  p.  348).  Prob- 
ably Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  did  not  acknowl- 
edge it  as  divine.  It  appears  also  to  have  been 
rejected  by  the  theological  school  at  Nisibis, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  a  continuation  of  the 
Antiochenian.  Junilius  does  not  mention  it  in 
his  list  of  prophetic  writings.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem 
has  omitted  it  in  his  Catecheses;  as  also  Gregory 
of  Nazianzen,  and  the  60th  canon  of  the  Lao- 
dicean Synod.     Amphilochius    of    Iconium  says 


that  some  regarded  it  as  a  divine  production,  but 
that  others  rejected  it  Eusebius  testimony  re- 
specting the  Asiatics  is  that  some  rejected  the 
Apocalypse,  while  others  placed  it  among  the 
acknowledged  books,  Euthalius,  when  dividing 
parts  of  the  New  Testament  stichometrically,  says 
nothing  whatever  of  the  book;  and  Cosmas  In- 
dicopleustes  excludes  it  from  the  list  of  the  canon- 
ical. In  like  manner  Nioephorus,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  in  the  ninth  century,  appears  to 
have  placed  it  amori^  the  Abtilegomena.  The 
witnesses  already  quoted  to  remove  the  author- 
ship from  John  the  Apostle  do  not  belong  here, 
although  many  seem  to  have  entertained  the 
opinion  of  their  present  appropriateness. 

(2)  Controversy  at  the  Bef  ormation.  At  the 
time  of  the  Reformation,  the  controversy  respect- 
ing the  Apocalypse  was  revived.  Erasmus  speaks 
suspiciously  concerning  it,  while  Luther  expresses 
himself  very  vehemently  against  it.  There  are 
various  and  abundant  reasons,'  says  he,  'why  I 
regard  this  book  as  neither  apostolical  nor  pro- 
phetic. First,  the  apostles  do  not  make  use  of 
visions,  but  prophesy  in  clear  and  plain  language 
(as  do  Peter,  Paul,  and  Christ  also,  in  the  Gos- 
pel) ;  for  it  is  becoming  the  apostolic  office  to 
speak  plainly,  and  without  figure  or  vision,  re- 
specting Christ  and  his  acts.  Moreover,  it  seems 
to  me  far  too  arrogant  for  him  to  enjoin  it  upon 
his  readers  to  regard  this  his  own  work  as  of 
more  importance  than  any  other  sacred  book,  and 
to  threaten  that  if  any  one  shall  take  aught  away 
from  it,  God  will  take  away  from  him  his  part  in 
the  book  of  life  (Rev.  xxiiiig).  Besides,  even 
were  it  a  blessed  thing  to  believe  what  is  con- 
tained in  it,  no  man  knows  what  that  is.  The 
book  is  believed  in  (and  is  really  just  the  same  to 
us)  as  though  we  had  it  not;  and  many  more 
valuable  books  exist  for  us  to  believe  in.  But  let 
every  man  think  of  it  as  his  spirit  prompts  him. 
My  spirit  cannot  adapt  itself  to  the  production, 
and  this  is  reason  enough  for  me  why  I  should 
not  esteem  it  very  highly.*  This  reasoning  is 
manifestly  so  inconsequential,  and  the  style  of 
criticism  so  bold,  as  to  render  animadversion  un- 
necessary. The  names  of  HafTenreffer,  Heer- 
brand,  and  John  Schroder  are  obscure,  but  they 
are  all  ranged  against  the  book.  With  Semler  a 
new  opposition  to  it  began.  That  distinguished 
critic  was  unfavorable  to  its  authenticity.  He 
was  followed  by  Oeder,  Merkel,  Michaelis,  Hein- 
richs,  Bretschneider,  Ewald,  De  Wette,  Schott, 
Bleek,  Lucke,  Neander,  Credner,  E.  Reuss,  Hit- 
zig,  Tinius,  etc.  It  should,  however,  be  dis- 
tinctly observed,  that  most  of  these  recent  critics 
go  no  farther  than  to  deny  that  John  the  Apostle 
was  the  writer;  which  may  certainly  be  done 
without  impugning  its  indirectly  apostolic  author- 
ity. They  do  not  exclude  it  from  the  canon  as  a 
divinely  inspired  writing;  although  in  attacking 
its  direct  apostolicity,  some  may  imagine  that  they 
ruin  its  canonical  credit.  , 

S.  Direct  Argument  for  Canonicitp.    (1) 

Early  Witnesses.  Wt  shall  now  allude  to  the 
evidence  in  favor  of  its  canonicity.  The  earliest 
witness  for  it  is  Papias,  as  we  learn  from  An- 
dreas and  Arethas  of  Cappadocia.  in  their  preface 
to  Commentaries  on  the  Apocalypse.  According 
to  these  writers,  Papkis  regarded  it  as  an  inspired 
book.  It  is  true  that  Rettig  (Studien  und  Kriti- 
ken,  1831),  followed  by  Lucke,  has  endeavored  to 
weaken  their  testimony ;  but  since  the  publication 
by  Cramer,  of  an  old  scholion  relating  to  the 
words  of  Andreas,  it  is  indubitable  that  Papias's 
language  refers  to  the  present  Apocalypse  of  John 
(Havernick's    Lucubrationes    Critica    ad    Apoc, 


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1460 


REVELATION.  BOOK  OF 


spectantes,  Regiom.  1842,  8vo.  No.  i,  p.  4,  sq,). 
(a)  Melito,  Bishop  of  Sardis,  one  of  the  seven 
apocalyptic  churches,   wrote  a  work  exclusively 
on  this  book.    Eusebius  thus  speaks  of  his  pro- 
duction (Hist,  Eccles.  iv  126)  ;  and  concerning  the 
devil  and  the  apocalypse  of  John,     From  these 
words  Semler  endeavors  to  show  that  the  books 
concerning  the  devil   and   the  Apocalypse  were 
tone  and  the  same,  a  conclusion  which,  if  it  were 
valid,  would  go  to  weakeij  the  testimony.     But 
Melito  calls  it  the  Apocalypse  of  John,  implying 
that  he  regarded  it  as  such ;  for  had  he  suspected 
the  book,  Eusebius  would  hardly  have  omitted 
that  circumstance,     (b)  Jerome,  in  his  catalogue 
of  illustrious   men,   explicitly   distinguishes   two 
works,  one  respecting  the  devil,  the  other  relative 
to  the  Apocalypse,     (c)   Theophilus,  Bishop  of 
Antioch  (Euseb.  iv;24),  in  his  book  against  Her- 
mogenes,  drew  many  proofs  and  arguments  from 
the  Revelation;  so  also  Apollonius  of  Ephesus, 
according    to    the    same    ecclesiastical    historian 
(verse  18).     (d)  The  testimony  of  Irenaeus  is 
most  important,  because  he  was  in  early  life  ac- 
quainted with  Polycarp,  who  was  John's  disciple, 
and  because  he  resided   in   Asia  Minor,  where 
John  himself  abode  during  the  latter  part  of  his 
life.    In  one  place  he  says:  *It  was  seen  no  long 
time  ago,  but  almost  in  our  age,  towards  the  end 
of  Domitian*s  reign;*  while  he  frequently  quotes 
it  elsewhere  as  the  Revelation  of  John,  the  dis- 
ciple of  the  Lord,    It  is  true  that  De  Wette  and 
Credner  seek  to  cast  suspicion  on  this  father's 
testimony,  because  he  states  that  it  was  written 
under  Domitian,  which  they  regard  as  incorrect; 
but  this  point  shall  be  noticed  hereafter,  (e)  To 
these  may  be  added  the  testimony  of  the  martyrs 
at  L^ons,  of  Nepos   (Euseb.  vii:23),  Methodius 
of  Tyre,  Didymus  of  Alexandria,  (Typrian,  Lac- 
tantius,  Augustine,  Athanasius,  Basil  the  Great, 
Epiphanius  of  Cyprus,  Jerome,  Ephrem  the  Syr- 
ian, Rufinus  the  presbyter,  Isidore  of  Pelusium, 
Hilary  of  Poictou,  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  Arethas 
and  Andreas  of  Cappadocia,  and  also  of  the  Synod 
of  Hippo,  A.  D.  393,  canon  36,  the  Synod  of  To- 
ledo, A.  D.  633,  the  third  council  of  Carthage.  A. 
D.  397»  Victorin  of  Pettaw  in  Pannonia,  Dionysius 
the  Areopagite,  Sulpicius  Severus,  Joh.  Damasce- 
nus,  CEcumenius,  Amphilochius,  Novatus  and  his 
followers,    the    Manichees,    the    Donatists,    the 
Arians,  the  latter  Arnobius,  Rhaban  Maurus,  Isi- 
dore of  Spain,  Commodian,  and  others,    (f)  It 
has  been  disputed  whether  Chrysostom  rejected  the 
book  or  not.    The  presumption  is  in  favor  of  the 
latter,  as  Liicke  candidly  allows.    A  similar  pre- 
sumption may  be  admitted  in  the  case  of  Theo- 
doret,  although  nothing  very  decisive  can  be  af- 
firmed in  relation  to  his  opinion.     Perhaps  some 
may  be  inclined  to  dispute  the  testimony  ot  Jerome 
in  favor  of  the  canonical  authoritv.  because  he 
says  in  his  annotations  on  the  149th  Psalm,  The 
Apocalypse  which   is  read  and  received  in  the 
churches  is  not  numbered  among  the  apocryphal 
b6oks,  but  the  ecclesiastical'    *In  the  strict  sense 
of  the  term,'  says  Hug,  'an  ecclesiastica  scriptura 
is  a  book  of  only  secondary  rank.     It  is  well 
known  that  a  contemporary  of  Jerome  divides  the 
books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  together 
with  those  which  make  any  pretensions  to  be 
such,  into    canonici,    ecclesiasttci,    et    apocryphi 
Now  if  Jerome  affixed  the  same  meaning  as  this 
writer  to  the  expression  liber  ecclesiasticus,  we 
have  here  a  very  singular  fact,     (g)  The  Latins 
then  placed  this  book  in  the  second  class  among 
the  disputed  books.     Thus  it  will  have  been  as- 
signed to  each  of  the  three  classes.    But  Jerome 
does  not  attach  to  this  word  the  strict  significa- 


tion which  it  bears  with  his  contemporary ;  for,  in 
his  Epistle  to  Dardanus,  he  says,  "If  the  Latins 
do  not  receive  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  among 
the  canonical  Scriptures,  so,  with  eoual  freedom, 
the  Greek  churches  do  not  receive  John's  Apoc- 
alypse. I,  however,  acknowledge  both,  for  1  do 
not  follow  the  custom  of  the  times,  but  the  au- 
thority of  older  writers,  who  draw  arguments 
froni  both,  as  being  canonical  and  ecclesiastical 
writings,  and  not  merely  as  apocryphal  books  are 
sometimes  used."  Here  Jerome  has  so  expressed 
himself,  that  we  must  believe  he  made  no  differ- 
ence between  canonical  and  ecclesiastical,  and  af- 
fixed no  stronger  signification  to  the  one  than  to 
the  other'  (Hug's  Introd.,  translated  by  Fosdick, 
pp.  661-2).  (h)  It  is  also  necessary  to  attend  to 
the  testimony  of  Ephrem  definitely  ascribing  the 
Revelation  to  John,  the  Theologian,  in  connection 
with  the  fact  of  the  book's  absence  from  the 
Peshito,  and  from  Ebedjesu's  catalogue  of  the 
books  of  Scripture  received  by  the  Syrians.  (Cer- 
tainly its  absence  from  this  ancient  version  does 
not  prove  its  want  of  canonicity;  else  the  «ame 
might  be  affirmed  of  John's  two  epistles,  and  that 
of  Jude,  none  of  which  is  found  in  the  same  ver- 
sion. Probably  the  Peshito  was  made,  not.  as 
Liicke  and  others  affirm,  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
second  or  commencement  of  the  third  centiUTr, 
but  in  the  first,  before  the  Apocalypse  was  writ- 
ten, (i)  That  the  Syrian  church  did  not  reject 
the  book  mav  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the 
inscription  of  the  current  Sj^riac  version  assigns 
it  to  John  the  Evangelist.  The  witnesses  already 
adduced  for  ascribing  the  authorship  to  John  the 
Apostle  also  belong  to  the  present  place,  since  in 
attesting  the  apostolic,  they  equally  uphold  the 
divine  origin  of  the  book. 

(2)  The  Period  of  the  Beformation.  At  the 
period  of  the  Reformation,  Flacius  strenuously 
upheld  the  authority  of  the  Apocalypse,  and  since 
his  day  able  defenders  of  it  have  not  been  want- 
ing. Twells,  C.  F.  Schmid,  J.  F.  Reuss,  Knittel, 
Storr,  Luderwald,  Hartwig,  Kleuker,  Herder, 
Donker,  Curtius,  Hanlein,  Bertholdt,  Eichhorn, 
Hug,  Feilmoser,  Kolthoff,  Olshausen,  J.  P.  Lange 
(Tholuck's  Lit.  Anseig,  1838),  Dannemann,  Ha- 
vernick  (Evangel.  KirchenzeU,  1834,  and  Lucub. 
Critica),  Guerike,  Schnitzer  (Allgem,  Literatur- 
seit,  1841),  Zeller  (Deutsche  Jahrb.,  1841),  and 
others.  Most  of  these  writers  seem  to  rest  all  the 
credit  and  authority  of  the  book  on  the  fact  of 
its  being  written  by  John  the  Apostle,  while  one 
or  two  of  the  later  critics  attribute  it  to  the  apos- 
tle, for  the  sake  of  invalidating  and  ruining  the 
fourth  Gospel.  The  external  evidence  in  favor  of 
its  authenticity  and  genuineness  is  overwhelming. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  in  regard  to  the  Latin 
church.  In  the  Greek  doubts  were  more  preva- 
lent, until  they  were  lost  in  the  dark  night  of  the 
middle  ages.  Montanism  first  aroused  and  drew 
attention  to  the  question,  for  the  adherents  of  that 
false  system  based  their  tenets  almost  exclusively 
on  the  Revelation.  Hence  we  may  account  in 
some  degree  for  the  sentiments  of  Dionysius  of 
Alexandria,  who  contended  against  the  millen- 
narian  Nepos. 

Thus  the  general  tenor  of  the  external  evidence 
is  clearly  in  favor  of  the  canonical  authority,  while 
internal  circumstances  amply  confirm  it.  The 
style,  language,  and  manner  of  the  book,  cannot 
be  mistaken.  In  dignity  and  sublimity  it  is  equal 
to  any  of  the  New  Testament  writings,  if  not  su- 
perior to  them  all.  The  variety  and  force  of  the 
images  impress  the  mind  of  every  reader  with 
conceptions  of  a  divine  origin.  Surely  no  unin- 
spired man  could  have  written  in  such  a  strain. 


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1461 


REVELATION,  BOOK  OF 


9.  Time  and  Place  of  Writing.  In  ascer- 
taining these  points  there  is  considerable  diffi- 
culty. 

(1)  Varied  Opinions.  The  prevalent  opinion 
is  that  the  book  was  written  A.  D.  96  or  97,  at 
Patmos  or  Ephesus,  after  Domitian's  death,  i.  e,, 
under  Nerva.  So  Mill,  Le  Clerc,  Basnage,  Lard- 
ner,  Woodhouse,  and  others.  This  is  supposed 
to  be  in  accordance  with  the  tradition  that  John 
was  sent  into  Patmos  towards  the  end  of  Domi- 
tian's  reign,  and  that  he  there  received  the  Reve- 
lation, agreeably  to  the  statement  in  chap.  i:9. 
The  fact  that  John  was  banished  to  Patmos  is  at- 
tested by  antiquity,  and  seems  to  be  hinted  at  in 
verse  9,  in  which  we  must  believe,  in  opposition 
to  Neander,  that  there  is  a  necessary  reference  to 
sufferings  on  account  of  the  Gospel.  It  is  men- 
tioned by  Irenaeus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Ter- 
tullian,  Origen,  Eusebius,  and  Jerome. 

The  time,  however,  is  very  differently  stated. 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  attribute  the  exile  to  Domi- 
tian ;  the  Syriac  version  of  the  Apocalypse,  Theo- 
phylact,  and  the  younger  Hippolytus,  assign  it  to 
Nero;  Epiphanius  to  Claudius;  while  Tertullian, 
Clement,  and  Origen  give  it  no  name.  It  has 
been  conjectured  that  Domitius  (Nero)  and  Domi- 
tian  were  early  interchanged,  and  that  even  the 
testimony  of  Irenaeus  refers  rather  to  Domitius 
(Nero)  than  to  Domitian. 

But  whatever  plausibility  there  be  in  this  con- 
jecture (and  there  seems  to  be  none),  the  lan- 
guage of  Tertullian,  Qement,  and  Origen  is  more 
appropriate  to  Nero  than  to  Domitian.  Besides, 
if  Peter  and  Paul  suffered  from  the  cruel  tyrant, 
it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  John  could  have 
eluded  notice  or  persecution.  Indeed,  early  eccle- 
siastical tradition  is  as  favorable  to  the  assumption 
that  John  was  sent  into  banishment  by  Nero,  as 
it  is  to  the  opinion  that  he  was  exiled  by  Domi- 
tian. Thus  Eusebius,  who  in  his  Chromcon  and 
Ecclesiastical  History  follows  Irenaeus,  in  his 
Demon.  Evangel.,  associates  the  Patmos-exile 
with  the  death  of  Peter  and  Paul  who  suffered 
under  Nero.  But  we  are  not  left  to  external 
grounds  on  the  question  before  us,  else  the  deci- 
sion might  be  uncertain,  for  the  tradition  of  the 
early  church  in  regard  to  the  banishment  of  John 
i.s  neither  consistent  nor  valuable;  it  will  not 
stand  the  test  of  modern  criticism.  Hence  the 
view  of  those  who  think  that  it  was  manufactured 
solely  from  chap.  i:9  is  exceedingly  probable. 
Taken  from  such  an  origin,  it  was  shaped  in 
various  ways.  The  passage  in  question  certainly 
implies  that  John  had  been  a  sufferer  for  the  Gos- 
pel's sake,  and  that  he  either  withdrew  to  Patmos 
before  the  fury  of  persecution  burst  upon  him,  or 
that  he  was  compelled  to  betake  himself  to  that 
lonely  island  in  consequence  of  positive  opposi- 
tion. 

The  language  of  the  fathers  in  recording  this 
tradition  also  shows  that  they  did  not  carefully 
distinguish  between  the  time  of  writing  the  visions 
and  the  time  when  they  were  received.  Some- 
times it  is  said  that  the  Apocalypse  was  written 
in  Patmos,  but  much  more  frequently  it  is  simply 
stated  that  revelations  were  there  made  to  the 
seer. 

(2)  Internal  Evidence.  In  the  absence  of 
definite  external  evidence,  internal  circumstances 
come  to  our  aid.  These  show  that  Jerusalem  had 
not  been  destroyed.  Had  such  a  catastrophe  al- 
ready happened,  it  would  scarcely  have  been  left 
unnoticed.  An  event  pregnant  with  momentous 
consequences  to  the  cause  of  truth  and  the  for- 
tunes of  the  early  church,  would  most  probably 
have  been  mentioned  or  referred  to.     But  there 


are  distinct  references  to  the  impending  destruc- 
tion of  the  city.  In  chap,  xi  :i  it  is  commanded  to 
measure  the  temple,  obviously  presupposing  that  it 
still  stood.  In  verse  2  the  holy  city  is  about  to 
be  trodden  by  the  Gentiles  forty-two  months; 
and  in  the  13th  verse  of  the  same  chapter  the 
same  event  is  also  noticed.  Besides,  the  sixth 
emperor  was  still  sitting  on  the  throne  when  the 
writer  was  favored  with  the  visions  (xviirio). 
Five  kings  or  emperors  had  already  fallen;  one 
was  then  reigning,  and  the  other  had  not  come. 
The  most  natural  interpretation  of  the  sixth  king 
is  that  which,  beginning  the  series  with  Julius 
Caesar,  fixes  upon  Nero ;  so  Bertholdt  and  fcoeh- 
ler.  Galba  is,  of  course,  the  seventh,  and  agree- 
ably to  the  prophecy  he  reigned  but  seven  months. 
That  such  was  the  usual  mode  of  computation, 
Koehler  has  attempted  successfully  to  show  from 
the  fourth  book  of  Ezra  and  Josephus's  Antiqui- 
ties, which  is  confirmed  by  Suetonius's  Twelve 
Ccesars,  and  by  the  Sibyilline  oracles,  fifth  book. 
We  are  aware  that  Eichhorn  reckons  from  Au- 
gustus, and  makes  the  sixth  Vespasian— Otho, 
Galba,  and  Vitellius  being  passed  over;  and  that 
Ewald,  Liicke,  and  others,  beginning  also  with 
Augustus,  make  Galba  the  sixth,  the  emperor 
*that  is;'  but  it  was  contrary  to  the  usual  method 
of  reckoning  among  the  Jews  and  Romans  to 
commence  with  that  emperor. 

Yet  the  opinion  that  the  sixth  emperor  was 
Nero  is  liable  to  objection.  The  eighth  and 
eleventh  verses  appear  to  contradict  it,  for  they 
state  that  'he  was,  and  is  not.*  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  in  these  verses  an  explanation  re- 
specting the  beast  is  given,  couched  in  the  lan- 
guage of  current  report.  The  words  amount  to 
this — The  beast  which  thou  sawest  is  the  em- 
peror, of  whom  it  is  commonly  believed  that  he 
shall  be  assassinated,  recover  from  the  wound,  go 
to  the  East,  and  return  from  it  to  desolate  the 
church  and  inflict  terrible  punishments  on  his 
enemies.  Nero  is  described,  according  to  the 
common  belief— a  belief  that  prevailed  before  his 
death.'  In  chap,  xiii  13  it  is  not  implied  that  Nero 
was  then  dead,  for  the  holy  seer  beheld  things 
which  were  about  to  occur,  as  well  as  things 
which  were;  and  the  passage  is  descriptive  of  a 
vision,  not  explanatory  of  one  previously  por- 
trayed. We  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  apostle 
saw  the  visions  during  the  reign  of  the  bloody  and 
cruel  Nero.  Still,  however,  he  may  have  written 
the  book  not  at  Patmos,  but  immediately  after  his 
return  to  Ephesus,  if  so  be  that  he  did  return 
thither  before  Nero  ceased  to  live. 

(3)  Agfe  of  Nero.  In  view  of  all  circum- 
stances we  are  inclined  to  assume  that  the  Apoca- 
lypse was  written  during  the  reign  of  Nero,  when 
persecution  had  commenced,  as  many  passages 
imply,  and,  therefore,  at  Patmos.  It  weighs  noth- 
ing with  us  that  Eichhorn,  Bleek,  and  De  Wette 
conjecturally  assume  that  the  place  mentioned  in 
i  :9  may  be  a  poetical  fiction ;  even  Ewald  opposes 
such  a  thought. 

Before  leaving  this  subject  it  is  necessary  to 
glance  at  the  circumstances  supposed  to  show 
that  the  book  was  not  written  till  after  Nero's 
death.  The  general  expectation  of  his  return 
(xvii'.ii),  and  the  allusions  to  the  prosecutions 
of  Christians  under  him  (vi:9;  xvii:6),  as  also 
the  presupposed  fact  of  most  of  the  apostles  being 
dead  (xviii:2o),  are  stated  by  De  Wette.  But  in 
xvii:ii  the  apostle  merely  describes  Nero  accord- 
ing to  the  common  report — a  report  current  before 
his  death,  the  substance  of  which  was,  that  after 
reigning  a  while  he  should  appear  again,  and  make 
an  eighth,  though  one  of  the  seven.  The  passages 
(vi:9  and  xvii:6)  allude  to  diflFerent  events,  t>.e 


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1462 


REVELATION,  BOOK  OF 


former  to  the  souls  of  the  martyrs  that  had  been 
slain  by  the  Jews,  the  latter  to  the  persecutions  of 
imperial  Rome  generically.  According  to  the  right 
reading  of  xviii  :20,  it  does  not  imply  that  most  of 
the  apostles  were  already  dead. 

(4)  Under  Domitiazi.  In  conformity  with  the 
testimony  of  Irenxus,  understood  in  the  ordinary 
acceptation,  it  has  been  very  generally  believed 
that  the  book  was  written  under  Domitian,  A.  D. 
96  or  97.  But  the  vague  report  of  the  apostle's 
banishment,  current  among  early  writers  in  dif- 
ferent and  varying  forms,  must  not  be  allowed 
to  set  aside  internal  evidence,  especially  the 
clearly  defined  chronological  elements  of  the  elev- 
enth and  seventeenth  chapters. 

The  arguments  adduced  in  favor  of  Domitian's 
reign  arc  the  following ; 

(a)  Nero's  persecution  did  not  reach  the  prov- 
inces, (b)  The  Nicolaitans  did  not  form  a  sect 
when  the  book  was  written,  although  they  arc 
spoken  of  as  such,  (c)  The  condition  of  the 
seven  churches,  as  portrayed  in  the  Apocalypse, 
shows  that  they  had  been  planted  a  considerable 
time,  (d)  Mention  is  made  of  the  martyr  Antipas 
at  Pergamos,  who  could  not  have  suffered  death 
in  Nero's  reign,  because  the  persecution  did  not 
reach  the  provinces  (Lenfant  and  Beausobre's 
Preface  sur  VApoc.  de  S.  Jean,  pp.  613-14,  and 
Vitringa.  in  Apoc,  cap.  i,  v:2,  p.  9-11). 

(5)  John's  Banishment,  (a)  In  order  to  ac- 
count for  John's  banishment  to  Patmos,  it  is  not 
needful  to  believe  that  the  spirit  of  persecution 
raged  at  Ephesus.  While  it  was  so  active  at  Rome 
we  may  fairly  infer  that  the  Christians  in  the  prov- 
inces trembled  for  their  safety.  Whatever  affected 
the  capital  so  fearfully  would  naturally  affect  the 
distant  parts  of  the  empire  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent;  and  John's  retirement  to  Patmos  does  not 
necessarily  presuppose  the  horrors  of  fire  and 
sword.  The  storm  was  seen  to  lower ;  the  heathen 
magistrates,  as  well  as  the  Jews,  put  forth  their 
enmity  in  various  forms,  even  when  the  edicts 
of  emperors  forbade  violence  to  the  persons  of 
Christians,  and  the  Apostle  in  consequence  with- 
drew for  a  time  from  the  scene  of  his  labors. 

(b)  The  most  probable  interpretation  is  that 
Nicolaitans  is  a  symbolic  name,  signifying  cor- 
rupters  of  the  people,  equivalent  to  Balaam  in 
Hebrew.  It  is  true  that  Irenaeus  speaks  of  such 
a  sect  in  his  time,  deriving  the  appellation  from 
the  deacon  Nicolaus  (Acts  ii),  and  representing 
the  allusion  in  the  Apocalypse  as  belonging  to  it. 
The  sect  called  the  Nicolaitans,  spoken  of  by 
Gement,  is  probably  not  the  same  as  that  men- 
tioned in  the  Apocalypse  (Neander,  Kirchengesch 
1.2,  p.  775.  sq.). 

(c)  A  close  examination  of  the  language  ad- 
dressed to  each  of  the  seven  churches  will  show 
that  it  may  have  been  appropriate  in  the  year  of 
our  Lord  68.  It  does  not  by  any  means  imply 
that  there  had  been  an  open  persecution  in  the 
provinces.  About  A.  D.  61  the  church  of  Ephesus 
IS  commended  hy  Paul  for  their  faith  and  love 
(Eph.  1:15),  which  is  quite  consistent  with  Rev. 
ii:2,  3;  while  both  are  in  agreement  with  the 
censure  that  the  members  had  left  their  first  love. 
In  the  lapse  of  a  very  few  years,  and  especially  in 
trying  circumstances,  the  ardor  of  their  love  had 
cooled.  The  patience  for  which  they  are  com- 
mended refers,  as  the  context  shows,  to  the  temp- 
tations which  they  suffered  from  wicked  and  cor- 
rupting teachers,  and  the  difficulties  attendant 
upon  the  faithful  exercise  of  discipline  in  the 
church.  Similar  was  the  case  with  the  church  at 
Smyrna,  their  tribulation  having  chief  reference 
to  the  blasphemy  of  Satan's  synagogue. 


(d)  Ih  regard  to  Antipas  nothing  is  known. 
He  suffered  at  Pergamos,  but  under  what  em- 
peror, or  in  what  circumstances,  is  uncertain.  It 
IS  not  at  all  necessary  to  our  hypothesis  to  assume 
that  he  was  put  to  death  during  Nero's  persecu- 
tion. Individual  Christians  were  put  to  death 
even  in  the  provinces  before  the  time  of  Nero. 
On  the  whole,  we  see  no  good  ground  for  believ- 
ing that  the  book  was  written  in  the  time  of 
Claudius,  or  Galba,  or  Vespasian,  or  Domitian, 
or  Trajan,  or  Adrian,  though  all  these  have  been 
advocated;  nor  is  there  sufficient  reason  for  sepa- 
rating the  time  of  the  writing  from  that  of  the 
receiving  of  the  visions.  In  view  of  all  circum- 
stances we  assign  it  to  the  time  of  Nero,  ana  the 
locality  of  Patmos,  A.  D.  67  or  68.  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  long  ago  fixed  upon  the  same  date. 

tOm  Unitp  of  the  Boolt*  A  few  writers  have 
thought  that  the  Apocalypse  was  written  at  differ- 
ent times  by  the  same  author,  as  Grotius,  Ham- 
mond, and  Bleek;  or  by  different  authors,  as 
Vogel.  Such  dismemberment  is  now  abandoned. 
Even  De  Wette  allows  that  no  reasonable  doubts 
can  be  entertained  of  its  unity. 

(1)  Begular  Strncture.  The  entire  book  is  so 
regular  in  its  structure,  so  intimately  connected 
is  one  paragraph  with  another,  that  all  must  have 
proceeded  from  the  same  writer. 

(2)  Prophetic  Perspective.  If  the  nature  of 
prophetic  perspective  be  rightly  understood,  all 
will  appear  to  be  natural  and  easy.  John  saw 
things  past,  present,  and  future  at  once.  He  did 
not  need  to  wait  for  the  progress  of  events — for 
events  were  presented  to  his  vision  just  as  the 
Spirit  willed.  Hence  the  present  tense  is  so  much 
used  in  place  of  the  future.  The  hypotheses  of 
Grotius,  Vogel,  and  Bleek  have  been  refuted  by 
Lucke;  and  that  of  Hammond  requires  not  now 
the  like  examination. 

11.  The  Class  of  Writings  to  Which  it  Be- 
longs. (1)  Dramatic.  Parens  seems  to  have 
been  the  first  who  started  the  idea  of  its  being  a 
dramatic  poem.  The  same  opinion  was  also  ex- 
pressed by  Hartwig.  But  the  genius  of  Eichhorn 
wrought  out  the  suggestion  into  a  theory  per- 
vaded by  great  symmetry  and  beauty.  Hence  the 
opinion  that  it  forms  a  regular  dramatic  poem  is 
associated  with  his  name  alone.  According  to 
him  the  divisions  are:  i.  The  title,  chap.  i:i-3.  2. 
The  prologue,  1:4;  iii:22.  3.  The  drama,  iv:i; 
xxii  :5.  Act  i.  The  capture  of  Jerusalem,  or  the 
triumph  of  Christianity  over  Judaism,  vii  :6 ;  xii : 
17.  Act  2.  The  capture  of  Rome,  or  the  triumph 
of  Christianity  over  Paganism,  xii:  18;  xx:io.  Act 
3.  The  new  Jerusalem  descends  from  heaven,  or 
the  felicity  which  is  to  endure  forever,  xx:ii; 
xxii  :5.  4.  The  epilogue,  xxii  :6-2i ;  (a)  of  the 
angel,  xxii:6;  (b)  of  Jesus,  xxii:7-i6;  (c)  of 
John,  xxii:i6-20.  The  apostolical  benediction, 
xxii:2i. 

(2)  A  Prophetic  Poem.  As  this  theory  is  now 
abandoned  by  all  expositors,  it  needs  no  refuta- 
tion. It  is  exceedingly  ingenious,  but  without 
foundation.  To  represent  the  book  as  made  up 
of  little  else  than  sublime  scenery  and  fiction,  is 
contrary  to  the  analogy  of  such  Old  Testament 
writings  as  bear  to  it  the  greatest  resemblance. 
Something  more  is  intended  than  a  symbolic  de- 
scription of  the  triumph  of  Christianity  over 
Judaism  and  Paganism.  The  book  contams  his- 
toric narrative.  It  exhibits  real  prophecies, 
which  must  have  had  their  accomplishment  in 
distinct  events  and  individuals.  It  consists  of  a 
prophetic  poem.  Its  diction  is,  with  some  ex- 
ceptions, the  diction  of  poetiy.  It  is  not  made 
up  of  a  series  of  disjointed  visions;  it  is  regular 


REVELATION.  BOOK  OF 


1463 


REVELATION.  BOOK  OF 


in  its  structure  and  artificial  in  its  arrangement. 
According  to  the  rules  of  rhetoric,  it  nearly  ap- 
proaches an  epopee.  Those  who  thoroughly  ex- 
amine it  with  a  view  to  discover  the  arrangement 
and  connection  of  parts  will  observe  unity  and 
artificiality  in  the  disposition  of  the  whole. 

(3)  Analogy  to  Old  Testament  Prophecy.  It 
bears  an  analogy  to  the  prophetic  writings  of  the 
Old  Testament,  especially  to  those  of  Daniel.  It 
is  obvious,  therefore,  that  a  deep  and  thorough 
study  of  the  Old  Testament  prophets  should  pre- 
cede the  study  of  the  Apocalypse.  If  it  bear  a 
close  resemblance  in  many  of  its  features  to  the 
inspired  productions  of  a  former  dispensation ;  if 
the  writer  evidently  imitated  the  utterances  of 
Daniel,  Ezekiel  and  Zechariah ;  if  his  language  be 
more  Hebraistic  than  that  of  the  New  Testament 
generally,  the  interpreter  of  the  book  should  be 
previously  qualified  by  a  familiar  acquaintance 
with  the  symbols,  imagery,  diction,  and  spirit  of 
the  Old  Testament  poets  and  prophets. 

12.  Object  of  the  Book.  (1)  Instruction. 
The  books  of  the  New  Testament,  like  those  of 
the  Old,  were  designed  to  promote  the  instruction 
of  God*s  people  in  all  ages.  They  were  adapted  to 
teach,  exhort  and  reprove  all  mankind.  They  do 
not  belong  to  the  class  of  ephemeral  writings  that 
have  long  since  fulfilled  the  purpose  for  which 
they  were  originally  composed.  Their  object  was 
not  merely  a  local  or  partial  one.  So  of  the  Apoc- 
alypse. It  is  suited  to  all.  'Blessed  is  he  that 
readeth,  and  they  that  hear  the  words  of  this 
prophecy.'  But  this  general  characteristic  is  per- 
fectly consistent  with  the  fact  that  it  arose  out  of 
specific  circumstances,  and  was  primarily  meant 
to  subserve  a  definite  end. 

(2)  Adapted  to  Troublous  Times.  When  first 
written,  it  was  destined  to  suit  the  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances of  the  early  Christians.  The  times 
were  troublous.  Persecution  had  appeared  m 
various  forms.  The  followers  of  Christ  were  ex- 
posed to  severe  sufferings  for  conscience  sake. 
Their  enemies  were  fierce  against  them.  Com- 
paratively few  and  feeble,  the  humble  disciples  of 
the  Lamb  seemed  doomed  to  extinction.  But  the 
writer  of  the  Apocalypse  was  prompted  to  present 
to  them  such  views  as  were  adapted  to  encourage 
them  to  steadfastness  in  the  faith — ^to  comfort 
them  in  the  midst  of  calamity— and  to  arm  them 
with  resolution  to  endure  all  the  assaults  of  their 
foes.  Exahed  honors,  glorious  rewards,  are  set 
before  the  Christian  soldier  who  should  endure  to 
the  end.  A  crown  of  victory— the  approbation  of 
the  Redeemer— everlasting  felicity— these  are  pre- 
pared for  the  patient  believer.  In  connection  with 
such  representations,  the  final  triumph  of  Chris- 
tianity and  the  Messiah's  peaceful  reign  with  his 
saints,  form  topics  on  which  the  writer  dwells 
with  emphatic  earnestness  (see  chap.  i:i-3;  im; 

iii:22;  xxii:6,  7.  10-17).         ^      ...      ^. 

The  suffering  Christians  of  primitive  times  may 
have  sorrowfully  thought  that  they  should  never 
be  able  to  stand  the  shock  of  their  bitter  and 
bloody  assailants,  the  power  and  plicy  of  the 
world  being  leagued  against  them— but  the  state- 
ments of  the  writer  all  tend  to  the  conclusion  that 
truth  should  make  progress  in  the  earth,  and  the 
church,  emerging  out  of  all  struggles,  wax  stronger 

and  stronger.  ,      .     .    ,    •       r  ^u^ 

If  such  be  the  primary  and  principal  aim  of  the 
book,  it  follows  that  we  should  not  look  m  it  for 
a  history  of  the  kingdoms  of  the  world.  To  com- 
pose a  civil  history  did  not  comport  with  the 
writer's  object.  The  genius  of  Christ  s  kingdom 
is  totally  different  from  that  of  the  kingdoms  of 
the  world.  It  advances  steadily  and  silently,  inde- 
pendently of,  and  frequently  in  opposition  to  them. 


Hence  the  Apocalypse  cannot  contain  a  history  of 
the  world. 

(3)  A  History  of  the  Church.  It  exhibits  a 
history  of  the  church,  specially  of  its  early  strug- 
gles with  the  powers  of  darkness  and  the  malice 
of  superstition.  This  last  remark  leads  to  an- 
other of  chief  importance  to  the  interpreter  of  the 
book  before  us,  viz.,  that  it  principally  relates  to 
events  past,  present  and  speedily  to  happen  in 
connection  with  the  Christian  religion  as  viewed 
from  the  writer's  standpoint.  The  glances  at  the 
past  are  brief,  but  references  to  the  circumstances 
of  the  church  at  the  time  are  numerous  and  di- 
versified, while  rapidly  coming  catastrophes  and 
triumphs  are  portrayed  in  full  and  vivid  colors. 
Trials  impending  over  the  church,  and  judgments 
over  her  enemies,  in  the  time  of  the  apostle — 
these  form  the  burden  of  the  prophecy.  This  con- 
clusion is  fully  sustained  both  by  the  prologue  and 
epilogue,  although,  strange  to  say,  it  has  been 
overlooked  by  the  majority  of  expositors.  What 
language  can  be  more  explicit  than  this:  'Blessed 
is  he  that  readeth,  and  they  that  hear  the  words  of 
this  prophecy,  for  the  time  is  at  hand.*  'The  rev- 
elation of  Jesus  Christ,  which  God  gave  unto  him, 
to  show  unto  his  servants  things  which  must 
shortly  come  to  pass.'  'He  which  testifieth  these 
things  saith,  Surely  I  come  quickly.  Amen,  even 
so,  come  Lord  Jesus.' 

IS.  Its  Contents.  The  body  of  the  work  is 
contained  in  chapters  iv-xxii:6,  and  is  almost  en- 
tirely a  series  of  symbolic  representations.  To 
this  is  prefixed  a  prologue  (i-iv).  A  brief  epi- 
logue is  subjoined  (xxii:6-2i). 

(1)  The  Prologue.  The  prologue  is  of  consid- 
erable length,  embracing  separate  epistles  to  the 
seven  churches  in  Asia  Minor.  John  had  lived 
and  labored  for  a  time  in  the  region  where  these 
churches  were  planted.  Probably  he  was  person- 
ally known  to  many  of  the  believers  of  which  they 
were  composed.  Now  that  the  other  apostles  were 
dispersed  or  dead,  the  care  of  them  devolved  upon 
himself.  As  their  spiritual  superintendent,  he  nat- 
urally felt  the  most  intense  and  lively  interest  in 
their  growing  prosperity  and  steadfastness  in  the 
faith.  The  storm  of  persecution  had  fallen  upon 
the  apostles  and  believers  at  Rome,  striking  fear 
into  their  brethren  in  the  remote  provinces  of  the 
empire.  It  is  highly  probable,  from  other  sources, 
that  the  Christians  in  these  regions  had  been  al- 
ready visited  with  such  trials  (see  first  Epistle  of 
Peter) . 

(2)  Body  of  the  Work.  After  the  prologue  of 
introduction,  which  is  peculiarly  fitted  to  admon- 
ish and  console  amid  suffering,  we  come  to  the 
body  of  the  work  itself,  commencing  with  the 
fourth  chapter.  This  may  be  appropriately  divided 
into  three  parts:  (a)  iv-xi;  (b)  xii-xix;  (c) 
xx-xxii:5.  The  first  narrates  the  fortunes  and 
fate  of  Christ's  followers  to  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  when  the  coming  of  the  Savior  took 
place.  Here  the  triumph  of  Christianity  over 
Judaism  is  exhibited,  as  the  conclusion  demon- 
strates. The  following  particulars  are  comprised 
in  this  portion. 

(3)  Vision  of  Glory.  A  vision  of  the  divine 
glory  in  heaven,  analogous  to  the  vision  which 
Isaiah  had,  as  recorded  in  the  6th  chapter  of  his 

prophecies. 

(4)  The  Sealed  Book.  An  account  of  the  sealed 
book,  with  seven  seals,  which  none  but  the  Lamb 
could  open,  and  the  praises  of  the  Lamb  sung  by 
the  celestial  inhabitants. 

(5)  Opening  of  the  Seals.  The  opening  of  the 
first  six  seals.  Before  the  opening  of  the  seventh, 
144,000  are  sealed  out  of  the  tribes  of  the  children 


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1464 


REVELATION.  BOOK  OF 


of  Israel,  and    an    innumerable    multitude    with 
palms  in  their  hands  are  seen  before  the  throne. 

(6)  Sounding  of  the  Trumpets.  After  the 
opening  of  the  seventh  the  catastrophe  is  delayed 
by  the  sounding  of  seven  trumpets,  the  first  six  of 
which  cause  great  plagues  and  hasten  on  the  judg- 
ment Yet.  before  the  last  trumpet  sounds,  a 
mighty  angel,  with  a  rainbow  round  his  head,  ap- 
pears with  an  open  book  in  his  hand,  announcing 
that  the  mystery  of  God  should  be  finished  when 
the  seventh  angel  should  begin  to  sound.  On  this 
he  gives  the  book  to  the  seer,  commanding  him  to 
eat  it  up.  and  to  prophesy  hereafter  concerning 
many  people,  countries,  and  kings.  After  this  the 
interior  of  the  temple,  with  its  Jewish  worshipers, 
is  measured  by  the  prophet,  while  the  outer  court 
is  excepted  and  given  over  to  the  heathen  for  the 
space  of  forUr-two  months.  But,  notwithstanding 
the  long-suffering  mercy  of  God,  the  Jews  con- 
tinue to  persecute  the  faithful  witnesses,  so  that 
they  are  punished  by  the  fall  of  a  tenth  part  of 
the  holy  city  in  an  earthquake.  Hence,  seven  thou- 
sand men  perish,  and  the  remainder,  affrighted, 
give  glory  to  God.  After  this  the  seventh  angel 
sounds,  and  the  Lord  appears,  to  inflict  the  final 
blow  on  Jerusalem  and  its  inhabitants.  The  catas- 
trophe takes  place ;  the  heavenly  choir  'gives 
thanks  to  God  for  the  victory  of  Christianity;  and 
the  temple  of  God  is  opened  in  heaven,  so  that  he 
is  accessible  to  all,  being  disclosed  to  the  view  of 
the  whole  earth  as  their  God,  without  the  inter- 
vention of  priest  or  solemnity,  as  in  the  abrogated 
economy.  Thus  the  Jewish  ritual  is  done  ;iway; 
the  Jews  as  a  nation  of  persecutors  are  destroyed, 
and  free  scope  is  given  to  the  new  religion. 

(7)  Downfall  of  Jerusalem.  This  portion, 
therefore,  of  the  prophetic  book  depicts  the  down- 
fall of  Jerusalem,  and  the  triumph  of  Christianity 
over  Judaism.  The  Son  of  Man  came  in  fearful 
majesty  to  punish  the  guilty  nation,  as  had  been 
predicted. 

We  are  aware  that  some  deny  the  existence  of 
a  catastrophe  in  the  eleventh  chapter.  Schott  says 
that  it  is  procrastinated,  although  the  reader  here 
expects  it.  But  Grotius  long  ago  saw  the  point 
in  its  true  light,  and  remarked:  'Solet  apostolus 
mala  ^ravia  brevibus  verbis,  sed  eMcacibus,  pr<B- 
terveht,  bona  eloqui  liberaliter* 

The  twenty-fourth  chapter  of  Matthew,  with  the 
corresponding  paragraphs  of  the  other  two  Gos- 
pels, treats  of  the  same  subject,  though  in  much 
briefer  compass.  It  may  be  regarded  as  the 
groundwork  of  chapters  iv-xi  of  the  Apocalypse, 
and  should  be  carefully  compared  by  the  inter- 
preter. 

(8)  Suffering^  of  the  Cliurcli.  The  second 
division  (chaps,  xii-xix)  depicts  the  sufferings  in- 
flicted on  the  church  by  the  heathen  Roman  power, 
and  the  triumph  of  Christianity  over  this  formid- 
able enemy  also.  Here  the  writer  has  special  ref- 
erence to  the  cruel  Nero,  as  chap,  xviirio,  ii, 
which  can  only  be  consistently  interpreted  of  him, 
detnonstrates.  This  part  commences  with  a  de- 
scription of  the  Savior's  birth,  who  is  represented 
as  springing  from  the  theocracy  or  theocratic 
church,  and  of  Satan's  malignity  against  him. 
Cast  out  of  heaven  by  Michael  and  the  good 
angels,  Satan  turns  his  rage  upon  the  followers  of 
Christ  on  earth.  Hitherto  there  is  no  account  of 
the  Romish  persecuting  power ;  and  it  is  an  inquiry 
worthy  of  attention,  why  John  commences  with 
the  birth  of  the  Savior  and  Satan's  opposition  to 
the  early  church,  thus  reverting  to  a  period  prior 
to  that  which  had  been  gone  over  already.  Why 
does  not  the  seer  carry  on  the  series  of  symbolic 
predictions  from  the  destruction  of  the  Jewish 
power?    Why  does  he  not  commence  at  a  point 


where,  in  the  preceding  chapter,  he  had  left  oflF? 
The  question  is  not  easily  answered.  It  cannot 
well  be  doubted  that  the  brief  notice  of  the 
Savior's  birth,  and  of  Satan's  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt upon  heaven  and  the  holy  child  is  merely 
introductory  to  the  proper  subject.  Perhaps  John 
carries  the  reader  back  to  the  origin  of  Chris- 
tianity, when  Satan  was  peculiarly  active,  in  order 
to  link  his  malignant  opposition  as  embodied  in 
the  persecuting  violence  of  heathen  Rome,  to  his 
unceasing  attacks  upon  the  truth  even  from  the 
very  birth  of  Christ.  This  would  serve  to  keep 
up  in  the  reader's  recollection  the  memory  of 
Satan's  past  opposition  to  religion,  and  also  pre- 
pare for  a  readier  apprehension  of  symbols  de- 
scriptive of  his  further  malevolence.  The  second 
part  therefore  begins,  properly  speaking,  with  the 
thirteenth  chapter,  the  twelfth  being  simply  pre- 
paratory. 

(9)  The  Living  Creatures.  A  beast  rises  out 
of  the  sea  with  seven  heads  and  ten  horns.  To  it 
the  dragon  gives  power.  The  heathen  power  of 
Rome,  aided  by  Satan,  makes  war  upon  the  saints 
and  overcomes  them.  Presently  another  beast  ap- 
pears to  assist  the  former,  with  two  horns,  as  a 
lamb,  but  speaking  as  a  dragon.  This  latter  sym- 
bolizes the  heathen  priests  assisting  the  civjl 
power  in  its  attempts  to  crush  the  Savior's  ad- 
herents. 

(10)  Vision  of  the  Lamb.  Then  comes  the 
vision  of  the  Lamb  and  the  144,000  elect  on  Mount 
Sion.  Doubtless  this  vision  is  introduced  at  the 
present  place  to  sustain  and  elevate  the  hopes 
of  the  struggling  Christians  during  the  dominance 
of  this  power.  Such  as  had  passed  triumphant 
through  the  fiery  trials  sing  a  new  song  of  victory, 
in  the  undisturbed  possession  of  everlasting  happi- 
ness. 

(11)  Ang^Uc  Proclamations.  Three  angels 
are  now  introduced  with  proclamations  of  the 
speedy  downfall  of  heathenism,  and  of  divine 
judgments  on  the  persecuting  power.  The  first 
announces  that  the  everlasting  Gospel  should  be 
preached ;  the  second,  that  the  great  city  Rome  is 
fallen.  The  third  speaks  of  terrible  judgments 
that  should  befall  those  who  apostatized  to 
heathenism;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  a  voice 
from  heaven  proclaims  the  blessedness  of  such  as 
die  in  the  Lord.  But  the  final  catastrophe  is  yet 
delayed;  it  is  not  fully  come.  The  Savior  again 
appears  sitting  on  a  white  cloud,  with  a  sharp 
sickle  in  his  hand.  Three  angels  also  appear  with 
sickles,  and  the  harvest  is  reaped.  The  catas- 
trophe rapidly  approaches. 

(12)  Seven  vials.  Seven  angels  are  seen  with 
seven  vials,  which  are  successively  poured  out  on 
the  seat  of  the  beast.  The  first  six  are  repre- 
sented as  tormenting  and  weakening  the  Roman 
power  in  different  ways,  until  it  should  be  over- 
thrown. At  last  the  seventh  angel  discharges  his 
vial  of  wrath,  and  heaven  resounds  with  the  cry. 
It  is  done,  while  voices,  thunders,  lightnings,  and 
a  mighty  earthquake,  conspire  to  heighten  the 
terror  and  complete  the  catastrophe.  Rome  is 
divided  into  three  parts ;  the  cities  of  the  heathen 
fall;  the  islands  nee  away,  and  the  mountains 
sink.  Men,  tormented,  blaspheme  Crod. 

(13)  Destruction    of    the    Boman    Power. 

After  this  the  destruction  of  the  Romish  power 
is  described  more  particularly.  The  writer  enters 
into  detail.  An  angel  takes  the  seer  to  show  him 
more  closely  the  desolation  of  the  church's  enemy. 
The  Roman  power  then  reigning  is  indicated  some- 
what mysteriously,  though  in  such  a  way  as  would 
be  intelligible  to  the  Christians  whom  John  ad- 
dressed. 
This  power  is  embodied  and  personified  in  Nero^ 


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1466 


REVELATION,  BOOK  OF 


who,  though  not  named,  is  yet  not  obscurely  des- 
ignated. He  is  the  beast  'that  was,  and  is  not,  and 
yet  is.'  The  story  that  Nero  was  not  really  dead, 
but  had  retired  to  the  Euphrates,  and  would  re- 
turn again  from  thence,  appears  here  more  fully 
delineated  by  a  Christian  imagination.  He  is  the 
monster  to  whom  Satan  gave  all  his  power,  who 
returns  as  Antichrist  and  the  destroyer  of  Rome, 
who  will  force  all  to  worship  his  image.  The  Ro- 
man empire  at  that  time  is  set  forth  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  heathenism,  and  of  ungodly  power  per- 
sonified; and  in  this  connection,  under  the  image 
of  the  beast  with  seven  heads  (the  seven  emperors 
which  would  succeed  one  another  till  the  appear- 
ance of  Antichrist), Nero  is  signified  as  one  of  these 
heads  (xiii:3),  which  appeared  dead,  but  whose 
deadly  wound  was  healed,  so  that  to  universal  as- 
tonishment he  appeared  alive  again.  Nero,  re- 
appearing after  it  had  been  believed  that  he  was 
dead,  is  the  beast  'which  was,  and  is  not,  and  shall 
ascend  out  of  the  bottomless  pit — and  yet  is'  (Rev. 
xvii:8).  (Neander,  History  of  the  Planting  and 
Training  of  the  Christian  Church,  translated  by 
Ryland,  vol.  ii.  p.  58,  note.)  After  this,  Babylon 
or  the  Roman  power,  is  represented  as  fallen, 
and  the  few  remaining  believers  are  exhorted  to 
depart  out  of  her.  A  mighty  angel  casts  a  great 
stone  into  the  sea,  an  emblem  of  the  ruin  of  that 
power.  At  the  catastrophe  heaven  resounds  wjth 
praises.  The  marriage  supper  of  the  Lamb  is  an- 
nounced, and  the  church  is  permitted  to  array  her- 
self in  fine  linen.  But  the  destruction  is  not  yet 
completed.  Another  act  in  the  great  drama  re- 
mains. A  battle  is  to  be  fought  with  the  combined 
powers  of  the  empire.  Heaven  opens.  The  con- 
queror on  the  white  horse  appears  again,  and  an 
angel  calls  upon  the  fowls  to  come  and  eat  the 
flesh  of  the  Lord's  enemies,  for  the  victory  is  cer- 
tain. Accordingly,  the  beast  and  the  false  prophet 
are  taken  and  cast  alive  into  the  lake  of  fire  and 
brimstone.  The  congregated  hosts  are  slain  by  the 
word  of  the  Redeemer.  Such  is  the  second  great 
catastrophe,  the  fall  of  the  persecuting  heathen 
power — the  triumph  of  Christianity  over  pagan- 
ism. 

(14)  Christ's  Kingdom.  The  third  leading  di- 
vision of  the  book  reaches  from  chaps,  xx  to  xxii : 
6,  inclusive.  This  is  the  only  portion  that  stretches 
to  a  period  far  remote  from  the  time  of  the  writer. 
It  is  added  to  complete  the  delineation  of  Christ's 
kingdom  on  earth.  Though  his  main  design  was 
accomplished  in  the  preceding  chapters,  John  was 
reluctant,  so  to  speak,  to  leave  the  sublime  theme 
without  glancing  at  distant  times,  when  the 
triumphs  of  righteousness  should  be  still  more 
marked  and  diffusive,  when  Satan's  power  should 
be  remarkably  restrained,  and  the  last  great  con- 
flict of  heathen  and  antichristian  power  with  the 
Redeemer  should  terminate  forever  the  church's 
existence  on  earth;  ushering  in  the  general  judg- 
ment, the  everlasting  woe  of  the  wicked,  and  the 
glorified  state  of  the  righteous.  Here  the  writer's 
sketches  are  brief  and  rapid.  But  when  we  con- 
sider the  place  in  which  they  are  introduced,  the 
inconceivable  nature  of  the  happiness  referred  to, 
and  the  tendency  of  minds  the  most  Christianized 
to  attach  sensuous  ideas  to  figures  descriptive  of 
everlasting  misery  and  endless  felicity,  their  brev- 
ity is  amply  justified.  A  glorious  period  now 
commences,  but  how  long  after  the  preceding 
events  is  not  affirmed.  That  a  considerable  inter- 
val may  be  assumed  we  deduce  from  the  descrip- 
tion itself.  Satan  is  bound,  or  his  influences  re- 
strained, a  thousand  years  throughout  the  seat  of 
the  beast.  Christianity  is  spread  abroad  and  pre- 
vails in  the  Roman  empire.  But  after  the  thou- 
sand years  arc  expired,  Satan  is  set  free  and  be- 


gins again  to  practice  his  deceptions.  He  incites 
Gog  and  Magog  to  battle.  The  camp  of  the  saints 
and  the  beloved  city  are  invaded  by  the  assem- 
bled hosts.  But  fire  from  heaven  devours  the 
adversaries,  while  the  devil  is  again  taken  and 
cast  into  the  lake  of  fire.  After  this  (how  long  is 
unknown)  comes  the  general  resurrection,  the  last 
judgment,  and  the  doom  of  the  wicked.  For  the 
righteous  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth  are  pre- 
pared, in  which  they  shall  be  perfectly  free  from 
sin  and  corruption.  With  this  the  visions  end,  and 
an  epilogue  closes  up  the  book. 

From  the  preceding  outline  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  body  of  the  work  consists  of  three  leading 
divisions,  in  which  are  portrayed  the  proceedings 
of  God  towards  the  Jews;  the  rise  and  progress 
of  the  Christian  church,  till  through  much  strug- 
gling it  possessed  the  Roman  empire,  partly  by 
converting  and  partly  destroying  the  heathen ;  the 
millennium,  succeeded  by  the  resurrection  and 
judgment,  and  the  glorious  felicity  of  the  saints 
in  the  heavenly  Jerusalem. 

(15)  Varied  Interpretations.  In  this  sum- 
mary view  of  the  contents,  it  has  been  found  in- 
convenient to  introduce  anything  in  the  way  of 
exposition  beyond  general  remarks  and  hints.  As 
to  diversities  of  sentiment  in  regard  Jo  the  inter- 
pretation of  different  portions,  our  limits  will  not 
admit  of  their  statement,  much  less  an  lamina- 
tion of  their  respective  merit 

In  opposition  to  the  majority  of  German  writers, 
as  Bleek,  Schott,  Liicke,  Ewald,  De  Wette,  and 
others,  the  existence  of  a  catastrophe  at  the  ter- 
mination of  the  eleventh  chapter  has  been  as- 
sumed. A  primary  reason  for  doing  so  is  the 
mention  of  j^reat  thunderings  (voices)  in  heaven 
(xi:i5),  which  are  always  the  emblems  of  fearful 
judgments.  Accordingly,  in  the  parallel  phrase 
(x:3),  it  is  said  that  seven  thunders  uttered  their 
voices,  denoting  the  signal  and  complete  blow 
about  to  be  inflicted  on  Jerusalem — ^the  destruc- 
tion consummated  in  the  third  and  last  woe  (xi : 
14).  In  like  manner,  at  the  destruction  of  heathen 
Rome  there  were  'voices  and  thunders  and  light- 
nings' (xvi:i8).  It  were  useless  to  recount  the 
different  expositions  of  chap.  xvii:io.  We  have 
adopted  the  only  one  that  appears  to  be  tenable 
in  connection  with  the  surrounding  context 
Lucke's  view  is  the  most  plausible,  and  has  there- 
fore gained  the  assent  of  Neander,  Reuss,  and* 
others.    Hug's  must  be  regarded  as  unfortunate. 

(16)  The  Millennium.  The  position  of  the 
Millennium  is  a  matter  of  great  difficulty.  Pro- 
fessor Bush  contends  that  it  should  be  regarded 
as  commencing  somewhere  between  A.  D.  395  and 
A.  D.  450,  and  terminating  not  far  from  the  cap- 
ture of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  A.  D.  1453. 
Not  very  dissimilar  is  the  opinion  of  Hammond, 
viz.,  that  the  period  in  question  reaches  from  Con- 
stantine's  edict  in  favor  of  Christianity  to  the 
planting  of  Mohammedanism  in  Greece  by  0th- 
man.    In  either  case  the  Millennium  is  past. 

To  the  h)rpothesis  so  ably  supported  by  Bush 
we  hesitate  to  accede,  because  the  description 
given  in  the  twentieth  chapter  is  extravagantly 
figurative  as  appropriated  to  any  period  of  the 
church's  history  already  past ;  and  also  because  his 
interpretation  of  the  dragon  appears  inconsistent 
with  the  second  verse  of  the  twentieth  chapter. 
According  to  this  ingenious  writer,  the  dragon 
is  the  mystic  name  of  Paganism  in  its  leading 
character  of  idolatrv  and  despotism  combined,  an 
hypothesis  apparently  countenanced  bv  the  twelfth 
chapter,  which  the  reader  is  requested  to  examine. 
But  it  will  be  observed  that  in  the  twentieth  chap- 
ter, the  beast  and  the  false  prophet  are  expressly 
distinguished  from  the  dragon;  so  that  by  the 


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1466 


REVELATION,  BOOK  OF 


dragon  Satan  alone  must  be  n>eant  as  distinct  from 
the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  power  of  heathen  im- 
perial Rome.  The  beast  had  been  already  cast  into 
the  lake  before  Satan  was  thrown  into  the  same 
place,  and  by  the  former  is  obviously  meant  the 
civil  despotism  of  Paganism  (see  Millennium). 
(17)  The  New  Heavens  and  the  New  Earth. 

In  regard  to  the  period  described  in  Rev.  xxi, 
xxii,  denoted  by  the  new  heavens  and  the  new 
earth,  we  are  quite  aware  of  the  opinion  main- 
tained by  Hammond,  Hug,  Bush,  and  others,  viz., 
that  it  comprises  an  earthly  flourishing  state  of  the 
church.  Yet  we  must  freely  confess,  notwith- 
standing the  very  able  manner  in  which  it  has  been 
advocated  by  Bush,  that  there  is  a  degfree  of  un- 
satisfactoriness  about  it.  The  parallelism  insti- 
tuted between  John's  description  and  Isaiah  liv:ii, 
12;  lx:3-ii;  lxv:i7,  18,  19,  20,  is  striking,  but  not 
demonstrative  of  that  for  which  it  is  instituted. 
The  imagery  indeed  is  substantially  the  same,  and 
probably  the  New  Testament  seer  imitated  Isaiah  : 
but  the  strain  of  the  former  rises  far  higher  than 
the  sublime  vision  depicted  by  the  ancient  prophet 

14*  Errors  0/  Expounders*  It  would  not 
be  an  easy  task  to  enumerate  all  the  mistakes  com- 
mitted by  interpreters  in  the  field  of  prophecy  as 
unfolded  in  the  Apocalypse.  We  shall  cursorily 
glance  at  a  few  in  connection  with  their  causes. 

(1)  Historic  Basis  Sometimes  Ignored.  When 
the  historic  basis  is  abandoned,  imagination  has 
ample  range  for  her  wildest  extravagances.  The 
Apocalyptic  visions  are  based  upon  time  and  place 
elements  that  ought  never  to  be  neglected  by  the 
exegetical  in.quirer.  Thus  we  are  informed  that 
the  things  must  shortly  come  to  pass  (Rev.  i:i), 
and  that  the  time  is  at  hand  (verse  3).  So  also  in 
chapter  xxii,  it  is  stated,  that  the  things  must 
shortly  be  done  (verse  6),  while  the  Savior  af- 
firms, 'Behold,  I  come  quickly*  (verse  7,  20). 
These  notices  are  significant  as  to  the  period  to 
which  the  visions  principally  refer;  and  the  com- 
ing of  Christ,  announced  to  take  place  within  a 
short  time,  denotes  those  remarkable  judgments 
which  impended  over  his  enemies.  There  are  also 
mentioned  three  cities  forming  the  theater  of  the 
sublime  and  terrible  occurrences  described,  (a) 
Sodom,  Egypt,  designated  as  the  place  where  our 
Lord  was  crucified,  and  the  holy  city.  This  can 
mean  none  other  place  than  Jerusalem,  (b) 
Babylon,  built  on  seven  hills.  •  This  is  Rome,  (c) 
The  New  Jerusalem.  The  first  two  are  doomed 
to  destruction.  They  also  depict  Judaism  and 
heathenism;  for  when  the  capitals  fell,  the  em- 
pires sank  into  feebleness  and  decay.  The  New 
Jerusalem,  the  kingdom  of  the  blessed,  succeeds 
the  two  former  as  a  kingdom  that  shall  never  be 
moved.  There  are  also  historic  personages  that 
appear  in  the  book.  The  seven  Roman  emperors 
are  mentioned,  while  Nero  in  particular  is  signifi- 
cantly referred  to.  Now,  except  the  interpreter 
keep  to  historic  groijnd,  he  will  assuredly  lose 
himself  in  endless  conjectures,  as  is  exemplified  in 
a  remarkable  manner  by  the  anonymous  author  of 
Hyponoia  (New  York,  1844,  8vo,  who  supposes 
the  book  to  be  *an  unveiling  of  the  mysterious 
truths  of  Christian  doctrine,  with  an  exhibition  of 
certain  opposite  errors — a  revelation  made  by 
Jesus  Christ  of  himself— ^n  intellectual  manifesta- 
tion.' 

(2)  Supposed  to  Be  an  Epitome  of  Church 
History.  Others  have  fallen  into  grievous  error 
by  seeking  a  detailed  history  of  the  church  uni- 
versal in  the  Revelation.  Some  even  find  an  epit- 
ome of  the  church's  entire  history  in  the  Epistles 
to  the  Seven  Churches;  others,  in  the  rest  of  the 
book ;  others  again  in  both.  Agreeably  to  such  a 
scheme,  particular  events  are  assigned  to  particu- 


lar periods,  persons  are  specified,  peoples  arc  char- 
acterized, and  names  assig[ned  with  the  greatest 
particularity.  The  ablest  interpreters  after  this 
fashion  are  Vitringa,  Mede,  and  Faber;  but  the 
entire  plan  of  proceeding  is  inconsistent  with  the 
writer's  original  purpose,  and  leads  to  endless 
mazes. 

(3)  Impossible  Identification.  It  is  obvious 
that  we  should  not  look  for  a  circumstance,  event, 
or  person,  corresponding^  to  every  particular  in  the 
visions  of  the  seer.  *It  is  unnecessary  to  remark,' 
says  Hug,  'that  all  the  particular  traits  and  images 
in  this  large  work  are  by  no  means  significant. 
Many  are  introduced  only  to  enliven  the  represen- 
tation, or  are  taken  from  the  prophets  and  sacred 
books  for  the  purpose  of  ornament ;  and  no  one 
who  has  any  judgment  in  such  matters  will  deny 
that  the  work  is  extraordinarily  rich  and  gorgeous 
for  a  production  of  Western  origin*  (Fosdick's 
Translation,  p.  668). 

(4)  Adoption  of  Synchronisms.  The  prin- 
ciple of  synchronisms  has  been  largely  adopted 
by  interpreters  since  the  times  of  Mede  and  Vit- 
ringa. r  or  an  explanation  and  defense  of  such  a 
system,  we  refer  the  reader  to  Mede's  Clavis  Apoc- 
alyptica  (Works,  fol.  London,  1677,  P-  4i9»  •^^•)' 
where  it  is  fully  drawn  out.  The  methoij  so  in- 
geniously devised  by  this  learned  writer  has  been 
followed  by  the  great  majority  of  English  expos- 
itors, especially  by  Faber  in  his  Sacred  Calendar 
of  Prophecy,  In  this  way  the  same  events  are 
said  to  be  represented  by  a  succession  of  different 
series  of  symbols,  the  S3rmbols  being  varied,  but 
the  things  intended  by  them  remaining  the  same. 
Instead,  therefore,  of  the  book  being  progressive 
continuously,  it  is  progressive  and  retrogressive 
throughout.  Such  a  plan,  so  unlike  that  of  the 
other  prophetic  books  of  Scripture,  is  repugnar*- 
to  the  sober  sense  of  every  intelligent  student  of 
the  Divine  word.  It  introduces  complication  and 
enigma  sufficient  to  ensure  its  rejection.  Not  a 
hint  is  given  by  John  of  any  such  method.  It  was 
left  for  the  ingenuity  of  after  ages  to  decipher; 
and  when  discovered  by  the  'father  of  prophetic 
interpretation,'  as  Mede  is  frequently  called,  it  is 
difficult  to  be  understood  even  by  the  learned 
reader.  There  is  no  good  reason  for  supposing 
that  the  series  of  events  symbolized  does  not 
progress.  The  representation  is  progressive,  just 
as  the  events  recorded  by  history  are  progressive. 

(5)  Speculations  Concerning^  Time.  On  the 
designations  of  time  which  occur  so  frequently  in 
the  Apocalypse,  this  is  not  the  place  to  enlarge. 
The  entire  subject  is  yet  unsettled.  Those  who 
take  a  day  for  a  year  must  prove  the  correctness 
and  scriptural  basis  of  such  a  principle.  This  is 
quite  necessary  after  the  arguments  advanced  by 
Maitland  and  Stuart  to  show  that  a  day  means 
no  more  than  a  day,  and  a  year  a  year.  We 
do  not  suppose  that  all,  or  most  of  the  num- 
bers are  to  be  taken  arithmetically.  The  num- 
bers seven  and  three,  especially,  recur  so  often 
as  to  suggest  the  idea  of  their  being  employed  in- 
definitely for  poetic  costume  alone.  Yet  there  may 
be  special  reasons  in  the  context  of  particular 
passages  for  abiding  by  the  exact  numbers  stated. 

15.  Literature*  By  far  the  greater  number  of 
works  on  the  Apocalypse  are  of  no  value,  the  au- 
thors having  failed  to  perceive  the  primary  pur- 
pose of  the  Apostle.  We  shall  only  mention  a 
few ;  to  enumerate  all  would  be  impossible. 

(a)  Works  on  the  literature  of  the  book. 

(b)  Commentaries. 

(a)  One  of  the  best  books  on  the  literature  of 
the  Apocalypse  is  that  of  Liicke.  It  is  both 
copious  and  excellent.  In  addition  to  it  may 
be    mentioned    the    Introductions    of    Michaelii, 


REVELATIONS.  SPURIOUS 


1467 


REVELATIONS,  SPURIOUS 


Haenlein.  Eichhorn,  Bertholdt,  Hug,  Feilmoser, 
De  Wette,  Credner,  Schott,  Guerike;  Bleek's  Bet- 
trdge  sur  Kritik  der  Offenbarung  Johannis  (in 
the  Zeitschrift  of  Schleiermacher,  De  Wette  and 
Lacke,  ii,  252,  sq.)  ;  Kleuker,  Ueber  Ur sprung 
und  Zweck  der  Offenbar.  Johannis;  Steudel,  'Ue- 
ber die  richtige  Auffassung  der  Apocalypse  (in 
Bengel's  N»  Archiv.,  iv.  2)  ;  the  Treatises  of  Kolt- 
hoff,  Lange,  and  Dannemann,  already  referred  to ; 
Knittel*s  Beitrdge  zur  Kritik  uber  Johannis  Of- 
fenbarung; Vogel's  Commentatio  de  Apoc,  Jo- 
hannis,  pt  i.  vii ;  Neander's  History  of  the  Plant- 
ing and  Training  of  the  Christian  Church;  Ols- 
hausen's  Proof  of  the  Genuineness  of  the  Writings 
of  the  New  Testament  (translated  by  Fosdick, 
Andover) ;  Lardner's  Credibility  of  the  Gospel 
History,  vols.  I  and  III,  4to  edition ;  Bonar's  Bible 
Thoughts  and  Themes. 

(6)  Parens,  Grotius,  Vitringa,  Eichhorn,  Hein- 
richs,  Scholz,  Ewald,  Tinius,  Bossuet,  Alcassar, 
Hentenius,  Salmeron,  Herrenschneider,  Hagen. 
Of  English  works,  Lowman's  Commentary  has 
been  highly  esteemed,  though  his  scheme  is  wrong. 
Mede's  Clavis  and  the  Commentary  attached  to 
it,  have  had  great  influence  on  subsequent  writ- 
ers ;  Faber's  Sacred  Calendar  of  Prophecy  is  able 
and  ingenious,  but  radically  wrong;  Sir  Isaac 
Newton's  Observations  on  the  Apocalypse,  and 
Bishop  Newton's  Remarks,  are  generally  incorrect. 
Cunninghame  has  written  various  treatises  illus- 
trative of  the  Apocalypse,  but  his  lucubrations  are 
dark  and  doubtful.  Woodhouse's'  Commentary 
is  pervaded  by  commendable  diligence  and  sobri- 
ety, though  he  has  greatly  deviated  from  the  right 
mode  of  mterpretation.  We  specially  recommend 
Hammond  and  Lee  (Six  Sermons  on  the  Study  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  London),  who  have  per- 
ceived the  right  principle  lying  at  the  basis  of  a 
correct  exposition ;  to  which  may  be  added  the 
Latin  Notes  of  Grotius,  and  the  perspicuous  Ger- 
man Commentary  of  Tinius.  A  large  and  valuable 
work  on  the  Apocalypse  which  has  appeared  in 
England  is  Elliott's  Horcp  Apocalypiicce,  in  3  vols., 
8vo,  characterized  by  great  research  and  minute 
investigation,  but  proceeding  on  principles  es- 
sentially and  fundamentally  erroneous.  The  latest 
is  Archbishop  Benson's  Apocalypse,  London,  1900. 

Valuable  suggestions  in  regard  to  the  interpreta- 
tion may  be  found  in  Stuart's  Hints  on  the  Inter- 
pretation of  Prophecy;  Bush's  Hierophant;  or 
Monthly  Journal  of  Sacred  Symbols  and  Proph- 
ecy; as  also  in  the  various  Introductions  and 
Treatises  mentioned  under  (o).  S.  D. 

BEVBLATIONS,  SFCmiOTTS  (rgv'Ma'shi&ns, 
spQ'rf-iis) .    See  Apocrypha. 

The  Apocalyptic  character,  which  is  occupied 
in  describing  the  future  splendor  of  the  Messianic 
kingdom  and  its  historical  relations,  presents  it- 
self for  the  first  time  in  the  book  of  Daniel,  which 
is  thus  characteristically  distinguished  from  the 
former  prophetical  books.  In  the  only  prophet- 
ical book  of  the  New  Testament,  the  Apocalypse 
of  St.  John,  this  idea  is  fully  developed,  and  the 
several  apocryphal  revelations  are  mere  imitations, 
more  or  less  happy,  of  these  two  canonical  books, 
which  furnished  ideas  to  a  numerous  class  of 
writers  in  the  first  ages  of  the  (Christian  church. 
The  principal  spurious  revelations  extant  have 
been  published  by  Fabricius,  in  his  Cod.  Pseudep. 
V.  T.,  and  Cod.  Apoc.  N.  T.;  and  their  character 
has  been  still  more  critically  examined  in  recent 
times  by  Archbishop  Lawrence  (who  has  added 
to  their  number),  by  Nitzsch,  Bleek,  and  others; 
and  especially  by  Dr.  Lucke,  in  his  Einleitung  in 
die  Offenbarung  Johan,  und  die  gesammte  apoca- 
lyptische  Litteratur, 


/•  Not  Nob)  ExtanU  The  following  spurious 
apocalyptic  writings  are  no  longer  extant:  (i) 
The  Afjocalypse  of  Elias.  (2)  The  Apocalypse  of 
Zephaniah.  (3)  The  Apocalypse  of  Zechariah. 
(4)  The  Apocalypse  of  Adam.  (5)  The  Apoc- 
alypse of  Abraham.  (6)  The  Apocalypse  of 
Moses.  (7)  The  Prophecies  of  Hystaspes.  (8) 
The  Apocalypse  of  Peier.  (9)  The  Apocalypse  of 
Paul.  (10)  The  Apocalypse  of  Ccrinthus.  (11) 
The  Apocalypse  •£  Thomas.  ( 12)  The  Apocalypse 
of  the  proto-martyr  Stephen. 

2.  Extant.  The  foUor/ing  are  the  extant  spu- 
rious revelations: 

(1)  The  Ascension  and  the  Vision  of  Isaiah. 
(*Kva^ariKb9  kqX  'Opaais  'H^'olov),  although  for  a 
long  time  lost  to  the  world,  was  a  work  well 
known  to  the  ancients,  as  is  indicated  by  the  al- 
lusions of  Justin  Martyr,  Origen,  Tertullian,  and 
Epiphanius.  The  first  of  these  writers  (Dial,  c. 
Tryph,  ed.  Par.  p.  349)  refers  to  the  accoimt 
therein  contained  of  the  death  of  Isaiah,  who  'was 
sawn  asunder  with  a  wooden  saw;'  a  fact,  he 
adds,  *which  was  removed  by  the  Jews  from  the 
sacred  text.* 

The  first  writer,  however,  who  mentions  the 
Ascension  of  Isaiah  by  name  is  Epiphanius,  in 
the  fourth  centuiy,  who  observes  (H(Fres  xl) 
that  the  apocryphal  Ascension  of  Isaiah  was  ad- 
duced by  the  Archonites  in  support  of  their  opin- 
ions respecting  the  seven  heavens  and  their  ar- 
chons,  or  ruling  angels,  as  well  as  by  the  Egyp- 
tian Hieracas  and  his  followers  in  confirmation 
of  their  heretical  opinions  respecting  the  Holy 
Spirit. 

As  to  the  age  of  this  work,  Dr.  Laurence  sup- 
poses, from  the  obvious  reference  to  Nero,  and 
the  period  of  three  years,  seven  months,  and  twen- 
ty-seven days,  and  again  of  332  days,  after  which 
Berial  was  to  be  dragged  to  Gehenna,  that  the 
work  was  written  after  the  death  of  Nero  (which 
took  place  on  the  9th  of  June,  A.  D.  68),  but  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  year  69.  Lticke,  however 
(Einleitung  in  die  Offenbarung  Johan,),  looks 
upon  these  numbers  as  purely  arbitrary  and  apoc- 
alyptical, and  maintains  that  the  dogmatical  char- 
acter of  the  work,  the  allusion  to  the  corruptions 
of  the  church,  the  absence  of  all  reference  to  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  CHiiliastic  view, 
all  point  to  a  later  period.  All  that  can  be  con- 
sidered as  certain  respecting  its  date  is  that  the 
first  portion  was  extant  before  the  time  of  Ori- 
gen, and  the  whole  before  Epiphanius.  It  has 
been  doubted  whether  the  work  does  not  consist 
of  two  independent  productions,  which  were  after- 
wards united  into  one,  as  in  the  Ethiopic  version : 
but  this  is  a  question  impossible  to  decide  in  the 
absence  of  the  original.  The  Latin  fragments  dis- 
covered by  Mai  correspond  literally  with  the 
Ethiopic,  while  they  not  only  differ  from  the 
Venetian  edition  in  single  phrases,  but  the  latter 
contains  passages  so  striking  as  to  induce  the  sup- 
position that  it  is  derived  from  a  later  recension 
of  the  original  text. 

The  author  was  evidently  a  Jewish  Giristian. 
as  appears  from  the  use  made  of  the  Talmudical 
legend  already  referred  to,  as  well  as  by  his  rep- 
resenting the  false  accuser  of  Isaiah  as  a  Samar- 
itan. The  work  also  abounds  in  Gnostic,  Valen- 
tinian,  and  Ophitic  notions,  such  as  the  account  of 
the  seven  heavens,  and  the  presiding  angels  of 
the  first  five,  the  gradual  transmutation  of  Christ 
until  his  development  in  the  human  form,  and 
finally  the  docetic  conception  of  his  history  on 
earth.  All  this  has  induced  Liicke  (ut  supra)  to 
consider  the  whole  to  be  a  Gnostic  production  of 
the  second  or  third  century,  of  which,  however, 


REVELATIONS,  SPURIOUS 


1468 


REVELATIONS,  SPURIOUS 


the  martyrdom  was  first  written.  Dr.  Laurence 
finds  so  strong  a  resemblance  between  the  account 
of  the  seven  hearens  here,  and  in  the  Testament 
of  Levi  (Twelve  Patriarchs),  that  he  suspects  the 
latter  to  'betray  a  little  plagiarism.'  If  this  learned 
divine  were  right  in  his  conjecture  respecting  the 
early  age  of  this  production,  it  would  doubtless 
afford  an  additional  testimony  (if  such  were 
wanting)  to  the  antiquity  of  the  belief  in  the 
miraculous  conception  and  the  proper  deity  of 
Jesus,  who  is  here  called  the  Beloved,  the  Lord, 
the  Lord  God,  and  the  Lord  Christ.  In  respect, 
however,  to  another  passage,  in  which  the  Son 
and  Holy  Spirit  are  represented  as  worshiping 
God,  the  learned  prelate  truly  observes  that  this 
takes  place  only  in  the  character  of  angels,  which 
they  had  assumed. 

Dr.  Liicke  observes  that  the  drapery  only  of 
the  apocalyptic  element  of  this  work  is  Jewish, 
the  internal  character  being  altogether  Christian. 
But  in  both  form  and  substance  there  is  an  evi- 
dent imitation,  if  not  of  the  Apocalypse  of  St. 
John,  at  least  of  the  book  of  Daniel  and  of  the 
Sibylline  Oracles.  The  use  of  the  canonical  Apoc- 
alypse Liicke  (/.  c.  section  i6)  considers  to  be  un- 
deniable in  viii.  45  (comp.  Rev.  xxii  :8,  9 ;  vii  :2i- 
2'j  *  Rev.  xix  *io) 

(2)  Sibylline  Oracles.  Of  the  ancient  Greek 
poems  called  the  Sibylline  Oracles  (written  in 
hexameter  verse),  there  was  formerly  a  consid- 
erable number  in  use,  of  which  but  few  have  de- 
scended to  our  times.  Servius,  in  the  fifth  century, 
mentions  a  hundred  books  (Sermones,  logoi) ; 
and  Suidas,  who  lived  most  probably  in  the  elev- 
enth, speaks  of  twenty-four  books  of  the  Chal- 
daean  sibyls  alone.  But  eight  only  were  known  to 
the  moderns,  until  the  recent  discoveries  of  An- 
gelo  Mai,  who  has  recovered  and  published  an 
eleventh,  twelfth,  thirteenth,  and  fourteenth  book 
from  palimpsests  in  the  Ambrosian  and  Vatican 
libraries  {Script.  Vet.  Nov.  Collect.,  vol.  Ill,  p. 
3).  The  first  eight  books  have  been  shown  to  be 
the  compositions  of  various  writers  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  second  century  B.  C  to  A.  D. 
500.  Of  these,  the  earliest  in  point  of  date  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  third  book,  containing  a  series  of 
connected  predictions  written  by  .an  Alexandrian 
Jew  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  but  containing 
heathen  poems  of  a  still  earlier  period. 

(3)  Testaments  of  the  Twelve  Fatriarclis. 
The  book  called  the  Testaments  of  the  Twelve 
Patriarchs  is  an  ancient  Apocryphal  work 
(founded  most  probably  on  Gen.  xlix:i,  sq.),  in 
which  the  twelve  sons  of  Jacob  are  represented  as 
delivering  their  dying  predictions  and  precepts  to 
their  posterity.  If  we  are  to  credit  the  authority 
of  a  manuscript  in  the  Bodleian  library,  this  work 
was  originally  written  in  Hebrew,  and  translated 
into  Greek  by  St.  Chrysostom.  But  Dr.  Grabe, 
who  first  adduced  this  testimony,  considers  it  very 
doubtful. 

This  work  contains  many  beautiful  passages, 
and,  while  its  form  is  that  of  a  pretended  proph- 
ecy, bears  indirect  testimony  to  the  facts  and  books 
of  the  New  Testament,  the  nativity,  crucifixion, 
resurrection,  ascension,  and  unblemished  character 
of  Jesus,  ascribing  to  him  such  titles  as  evidently 
show  that  his  divinity  was  fully  recognized.  The 
author  testifies  also  to  the  canonical  authority  of 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  St.  Paul's  Epistles, 
and  seems  especially  to  allude  to  the  four  Gospels. 
The  age  of  this  Apocryphal  work  is.  therefore,  of 
considerable  importance  in  sacred  criticism. 

(4)  The  Fourth  Book  of  Ezra.  The  first  ac- 
cording to  the  Ethiopic  and  Arabic  (see  Esdras) 
is,  from  its  Apocalyptic  character,  styled  by  Niceph- 
onis  (Can,  3,  4)  the  Apocalypse  of  Ezra  (*AwoKd, 


Xuftf  "EirBpa),  Its  original  language  (according 
to  Lticke)  was  Greek,  although  it  is  at  present 
extant.only  in  a  Latin,  Ethiopic,  and  Arabic  trans- 
lation, of  which  the  Latin  is  the  most  ancient.  The 
main  body  of  the  work,  viz.,  chapters  iii-xiv,  con- 
tains a  connected  revelation,  which  is  partly  an 
open  imitation  of  Daniel,  and  partly  resembles  the 
New  Testament  Apocalypse.  It  contains  a  mix- 
ture of  Jewish  and  Christian  elements.  This 
work,  as  has  been  formerly  observed,  was  known 
to  Clemens  Alexandrinus  in  the  second  century; 
and  from  the  indication  in  the  Introduction  (chap- 
ter iii.  i),  7«  the  thirtieth  year  of  the  destruction 
of  the  city  I  was  in  Babylon/  Liicke  conjectures 
that  the  author  may  have  written  in  the  thirtieth 
year  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  or  A.  D. 
100;  and  this  date  is  further  confirmed  by  the 
vision  of  the  eagle  (chapters  xi-xii),  which  indi- 
cates the  time  of  Trajan.  He  conceives  the  author 
to  have  been  evidently  a  Jew,  who  lived  out  of 
Palestine,  probably  in  Egypt,  but  that  the  varia- 
tion in  the  several  ancient  versions  of  the  work 
prove  it  to  have  been  interpolated  by  a  Christian 
hand. 

The  author  of  the  last  two  chapters  (xv-xvi) 
seems  to  have  lived  in  the  third  or  fourth  century, 
during  the  Decian  or  Diocletian  persecutions 
(chapter  xv:io).  Rome,  the  Apocalyptic  Babylon 
of  the  author,  approaches  her  downfall  (xv:43, 
sq.) .  Several  passages  of  the  New  Testament  are 
evidently  alluded  to  (comp.  4  Ezra  xvi:29,  sq. 
with  Matt,  xxiv  140,  41 ;  xvi  :42-45,  with  i  Cor.  vii : 
29,  30;  XV :8,  9,  with  Rev.  vino).  The  whole 
chapter  seems,  indeed,  to  be  an  imitation  of  Matt, 
xxiv;  (comp.  also  4  Ezra  i:30  with  Matt,  xxiii: 
37;  ii:ii  with  Luke  xvi  19:  and  ii:i2  with  Rev. 
xxii:2;  also  ii:42  with  Rev.  xiv:i-3;  and  ii:i8 
with  Rev.  xxii:i,  .2). 

(5)  The  Ancient  Bomantic  Fiction^  Entitled 
The  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  is  not  without  its 
Apocalyptic  elements.  These,  however,  are  con- 
fined to  book  i:3,  4;  but  they  are  destitute  of 
signification  or  originality.     (See  Hermas.) 

(6)  The  Book  of  Enoch  is  one  of  the  most 
curious  of  the  spurious  revelations,  resembling  in 
its  outward  form  both  the  book  of  Daniel  and  the 
Apocalypse ;  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  this  latter 
work  or  the  book  of  Enoch  was  first  written.  (See 
Enoch.)  Professor  Moses  Stuart  (Bibhoth. 
Sacra,  No.  2,  p.  z^i)  is  of  opinion  that  the  Book 
of  Enoch,  the  Ascension  of  Isaiah,  the  Testaments 
of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  many  of  the  Sibylline 
Oracles,  the  fourth  Book  of  Ezra,  and  the  Pastor 
of  Hermas,  were  composed  'nearly  at  the  same 
time  with  the  Apocalypse  of  St.  John.* 

(7)  Apocryphal  Bevelation  of  St.  John. 
There  was  an  Apocryphal  Revelation  of  St. 
John  extant  in  the  time  of  Theodosius  the  Granv 
marian,  the  only  one  of  the  ancients  who  mentions 
it,  and  who  calls  it  a  pseudepigraphal  book.  It 
was  not  known  what  had  become  of  it,  until  the 
identical  work  was  recently  published  from  a  Vat- 
ican, as  well  as  a  Vienna  manuscript,  by  Birch,  in 
his  Auctarium,  under  the  title  of  The  Apoc^ilypse 
of  the  Holy  Apostle  and  Evangelist  John  the  Di- 
vine.* From  the  silence  of  the  ancients  respecting 
this  work,  it  could  scarcely  have  been  written  be- 
fore the  third  or  fourth  century.  Liicke  has  pointed 
out  other  internal  marks  of  a  later  age,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  mention  of  incense,  which  he  observes 
first  came  into  use  in  the  Christian  church  after 
the  fourth  century  (although  here  the  author  of 
the  spurious  book  may  have  taken  his  idea  from 
Rev.  v:8;  viii:3)  ;  also  of  images  and  rich  crosses. 
which  were  not  in  use  before  the  'fourth  and  fifth 
centuries.*  The  name  patriarch  applied  here  to  a 
dignitary  in  the  church,  belongs  to  the  same  age. 


REVELINGS 


1469 


REZIN 


The  time  in  which  Theodosius  himself  lived  is 
not  certainly  known,  but  he  cannot  be  placed 
earlier  than  the  fifth  century,  which  Lucke  con- 
ceives to  be  the  most  probable  age  of  the  work  it- 
self. Regarding  the  object  and  occasion  of  the 
work  (which  is  a  rather  servile  imitation  of  the 
genuine  Apocalypse),  in  consequence  of  the  ab- 
sence of  dates  and  of  internal  characteristics,  there 
are  no  certain  indications.  Birch's  text,  as  well 
as  his  manuscripts,  abound  in  errors ;  but  .Thilo 
has  collated  two  Paris  manuscripts  for  his  in- 
tended edition  (see  his  Acta  Thomce,  Proleg.  p. 
Ixxxiii).  Assemann  (Biblioth.  Orient,  tom.  iii. 
pt.  i.  p.  282)  states  that  there  is  an  Arabic  version 
among  the  Vatican  MSS.  W.  W. 

BEVELINaS  (rgv'gl-tngs),  (Gr.  icQfw  ko'mos, 
a  caVousal),  luxurious  feasting  attended  .ith  wan- 
ton songs  and  behavior  (Gal.  v:2i). 

BEVENGE  or  VENGEANCE  (rS-vgnj'),  (Heb. 
•^?W,  «^fe-aw-waw/).  1.  An  angry  resentment  of 
an  injury  that  has  been  or  is  supposed  to  have 
been  done  us  (Jer.  xx:io). 

2.  A  just  censure  of  a  scandal  (2  Cor.  x:6). 

3.  A  hatred  of  sin,  manifested  in  using  all 
proper  methods  to  destroy  it  (2  Cor.  viiiii). 

When  revenge  or  vengeance  is  attributed  to  God, 
it  includes  no  passion,  but  merely  a  righteous  dis- 
position to  punish  evil  doers  (Acts  xxviii:4); 
and  the  just  punishment  inflicted  on  them  (Ps. 
Iviiirio),  or  chastisement  of  his  people  (Ps.  xcix: 
8).  Vengeance  belongeth  only  unto  God;  he  alone 
can  fully  resent  injuries;  he  alone  has  the 
right  to  resent  injuries  done  to  himself,  as 
the  God  and  Supreme  Governor  of  the  world; 
and  he  prohibits  private  persons  from  revenging 
any  injuries  done  them  (Lev.  xix:i7,  18;  Rom. 
xii  :i7,  19)  ;  and  by  the  law  of  requital  he  did  not 
allow,  but  set  bounds  to  private  revenge  (Exod. 
xxi:i3).  When  magistrates  punish  injuries,  or 
when  the  nearest  kinsman  killed  him  who  had 
accidentally  slain  his  friend,  they  acted  as  the 
deouties  of  God,  the  Supreme  Ruler  (Rom.  xiii: 
4;  Num.  XXXV  :i9,  24).  The  punishment  taken 
by  God  on  the  Chaldaeans  for  destroying  his  peo- 
ple and  the  Temple,  is  called  the  vengeance  of  /iij? 
temple  (Jer.  1:28). 

BEVENXTE  (rgv'6-nu),  (Heb.  ^'^,  ieb'oo-aw. 
profit,  income,  Ezra  iv:i3;  Is.  xxiii:3). 

Figurative,  (i)  Christ's  revenue  is  the  bless- 
ings he  gives  to  men,  which  are  more  precious, 
enriching  and  useful,  than  choice  silver  (Prov. 
viii:i9).  (2)  In  the  revenue  of  the  zvicked  is 
trouble;  in  acquiring,  preserving,  and  parting  with 
their  wealth,  they  have  trouble,  and  a  curse  and 
trouble  often  punish  their  reprehensible  manner 
of  procuring  it  (Prov.  xv:6). 

KEVEBENOE  (rgv'Sr-€ns),  (Heb.  ^!?I.  yaw- 
ray'),  a  respectful,  submissive  disposition  of  mind, 
arising  from  aflFection  and  esteem,  from  a  sense  of 
superiority  in  the  person  reverenced. 

Hence  children  reverence  their  fathers,  even 
when  their  fathers  correct  them  by  stripes  (Heb. 
xii  :9)  ;  hence  subjects  reverence  their  sovereign 
(2  Sam.  ix  :6)  ;  hence  wives  reverence  their  hus- 
bands (Eph.  v:33)  ;  and  hence  all  ought  to  rever- 
ence God.  We  reverence  the  name  of  God,  the 
house  of  God,  the  worship  of  God,  etc. ;  we  rever- 
ence the  attributes  of  God,  the  commands,  dis- 
pensations, etc.,  of  God ;  and  we  ought  to  demon- 
strate our  reverence  by  overt  acts,  such  as  are 
suitable  and  becoming  to  time,  place,  and  circum- 
stances ;  for  though  a  man  may  reverence  God  in 
his  heart,  yet,  unless  he  behave  reverentially,  and 
give  proofs  of  his  reverence  by  demeanor,  conduct, 
and   obedience,  he  will  not  easily  persuade  his 


fellow-mortals  that  his  bosom  is  the  residence  of 
this  divine  and  heavenly  disposition ;  for,  in  fact, 
a  reverence  for  God  is  not  one  of  those  lights 
which  burn  under  a  bushel,  but  one  of  those 
whose  sprightly  luster  illuminates  wherever  it  Is 
admitted.  Reverence  is,  strictly  speaking,  per- 
haps, the  internal  disposition  of  the  mind  (Rom. 
xiii  7)  ;  and  honor  the  external  expression  of  that 
disposition.    (See  Adoration.) 

BEVILE,  BEYILEB,  BEVILING  (r^-vfl. 
r6-virer,  r6-viring). 

1.  (Heb. '2i;,  kaw-laV,  to  make  light  of,  to  jest 
at,  Exod.  xxii:28),  "Thou  shalt  not  revile  the 
gods."  Elohim  does  not  mean  either  the  gods  of 
other  nations,  or  rulers,  but  simply  God,  whose 
majesty  was  despised  in  every  breach  of  the  com- 
mandments of  Jehovah. 

2.  (Heb.T^''?,  ghid'doof,  vilification,  Is.  H:;; 
Zeph.  ii:8). 

8.  (Gr.  Xoi5(v>^(ii,  ioy-dor-eh'Ot  to  vilify,  heap 
reproach  upon),  is  used  to  denote  the  treatment 
of  our  Lord  by  his  enemies  (John  ix:28;  i  Pet. 
ii  123).  (See  revilest.  Acts  xxiii:4);  also  "re- 
vilers"  in  the  catalogue  of  evil  doers  (i  Cor.  vi: 
10),  for  this  use  of  the  word. 

4.  In  the  expression,  *They  that  passed  by  re- 
viled him"  (Matt.  xxvii:39),  the  evangelist  uses 
the  Greek  p\aff<prnjj<a,  d/as-Jay-meA'a,  a  very  strong 
term,  signifying  to  rail  at,  calumniate,  showing  an 
utter  want  of  reverence  for  the  divine  sufferer. 
In  Mark  xv  .'32  it  is  recorded,  "And  they  that  were 
crucified  with  him  reviled  him'*  (Gr.  <Jwt5/fw,  on-i- 
did' 20),  meaning  that  they  unjustly  reproached 
him.    {Bdivnts,  Sib,  DicL)    (See  Rail.) 

BEWABD  (r6-ward),  (Gr.  luaeht,  mis-thos\ 
wages,  hire).    It  denotes: 

1.  What  is  gained  by  service;  or  as  the  sub- 
sistence of  ministers  (2  Cor.  xi:8;  i  Tim.  v: 
18)  ;  and  what  is  gained  by  sinful  works  is  the 
"wages  of  unrighteousness"  (2  Pet.  ii:i5). 

2.  The  fruit  of  men's  labors  (Eccl.  ix:5). 

3.  A  bribe  given  to  a  judge  for  his  favor  in  a 
cause  (Deut.  xxvii:25). 

Oeneral  Applications.  The  "reward"  of  the 
godly  from  (jod,  is  the  blessings  he  bestows  on 
them  in  consequence  of  their  good  works,  and 
particularly  the  unmerited  gift  of  eternal  life  in 
heaven,  which  is  bestowed  upon  them  from  the 
mercy  of  God,  and  through  the  righteousness  of 
Jesus  Christ  (Matt.  v:i2).  It  is  not,  therefore,  a 
reward  based  upon  the  actual  merit  of  good  works, 
but  is  of  grace. 

BEZEPH  (rS'zeph),  (Heb.  H^'J,  reh'tsef,  solid,  a 

hearth-stone,  a  pavement),  a  city  which  occurs 
among  those  subdued  by  the  Assyrians  (2  Kings 
xix:i2;  Is.  xxxvii:i2). 

It  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  that  Ptolemy 
mentions  under  the  name  of  Resopha,  as  a  city 
of  Palmyrene  (Geog,  v,  15)  ;  and  this  again  is 
possibly  the  same  with  the  Rasapha  which  Abul- 
feda  places  at  nearly  a  day's  journey  west  of  the 
Euphrates,  and  is  the  modern  Rusafa. 

BEZIA  (re-zf'i),  (Heb.  ^V^\  Hts-yaw',  delight), 

son  of  Ulla,  of  the  tribe  of  Asher  (i  Chron.  vii:39), 
B.  C.  about  1 170. 

BEZIN  (re'zin),  (Heb.  TV*],  rets-een\  pleasure, 
delight). 

1.  The  last  king  of  Damascene  Syria,  slain  by 
Tiglath-pileser  (2  Kings  xv  137;  xvi:5-io;  Is.  vii: 
I ;  viii  :4-7),  B.  C.  about  740.    (See  Damascus.) 

2.  The  head  of  a  family  of  Nethinim  who  re- 
turned from  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii:48;  Neh.  vii: 
50),  B.  C.  before  536. 


REZON 


1470 


RICHES 


REZON  (re'zon),  (Heb.  PI,  rez-one',  prince,  im- 
portance), an  officer  of  Hadadezer,  kingof  Zobah, 
who  established  the  independence  of  Damascus, 
and  made  it  the  seat  of  the  kingdom  of  Damas- 
cene-Syria,  so  often  mentioned  in  the  history  of 
the  Hebrew  kingdoms  (i  Kings  xi:23,  24),  B.  C. 
after  984.    (See  Damascus). 

BHEGIUM  (re'gi-fim),  (Gr.  'Pi/iy»op,  Arayj^- 
ee-on^  probably  broken),  a  city  on  the  coast  of 
Italy,  near  its  southwestern  extremity,  opposite 
Messina  in  Sicilv  (Acts  xxviii:i3).  It  is  now  called 
Reggio,  and  is  the  capital  of  Calabria. 


(re'si),  (Gr.  'Pi7<rd,  hray-sah '),  son  of 
Zorobabel,  of  the  tribe  of  Asher  (Luke  iii:27),  in 
the  genealogy  of  Christ;  probably  the  same  as 
Rephaiah  (I  Chron.  iii:i9-2i). 

BBODA  (rho'da),  (Gr.'P6«i7,  ^r^^ 'ay,  rose-bush), 
a  maid  to  Mary,  who  announced  Peter's  arrival 
(Acts  xii:i3),  A.  D.  44. 

RHODES  (rodz),  (Gr.  *P65os,  hrod'os,  rose). 

An  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  near  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  celebrated  from  the  remotest  an- 
tiquity as  the  seat  of  commerce,  navigation,  litera- 
ture, and  the  arts,  but  now  reduced  to  a  state  of 
abject  poverty  by  the  devastations  of  war  and 
the  tyranny  and  rapacity  of  its  Turkish  rulers. 
It  is  of  a  triangular  form,  about  forty-four  leagues 
in  circumference,  twenty  leagues  long  from  north 
to  south,  and  about  six  broad.  It  was  famed  in 
ancient  times,  and  is  still  celebrated  for  its  delight- 
ful climate  and  the  fertility  of  its  soil.  It  con- 
tains two  cities — Rhodes,  the  capital,  inhabited 
chiefly  by  Turks,  and  a  small  number  of  Jews; 
and  the  ancient  Lindus,  now  reduced  to  a  hamlet, 
peopled  by  Greeks,  who  are  almost  all  engaged 
in  commerce.  Besides  these,  there  are  five  vil- 
lages occupied  by  Turks  and  a  small  number  of 
Jews;  and  five  towns  and  forty-one  villages,  in- 
habited by  Greeks.  The  whole  population  is  esti- 
mated at  20,000,  residing  chiefly  in  the  capital. 

The  city  of  Rhodes  is  famous  for  its  huge  bra- 
zen statue  of  Apollo,  called  Colossus,  which  stood 
at  the  mouth  of  the  harbor,  and  was  so  high  that 
ships  passed  in  full  sail  between  its  legs.  It  stood 
at  the  right  of  the  port  as  vessels  entered,  and  not 
astride  the  channel,  as  so  generally  represented 
in  pictures.  It  was  erected  B.  C.  290,  and  over- 
thrown by  an  earthquake  B.  C.  224-  The  city 
had  also  a  beautiful  temple  of  Apollo,  built  by 
Herod  the  Great.  St.  Paul  appears  to  have  vis- 
ited Rhodes  while  on  his  journey  to  Jerusalem, 
A.  D.  58  (Acts  xxi:i). 

The  antiquities  of  Rhodes  reach  no  further  back 
than  the  residence  of  the  knights  of  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem.  The  remains  of  their  fine  old  fort- 
ress, of  great  size  and  strength,  are  still  to  be  seen; 
the  cells  of  the  knights  are  entire,  but  the  sanctu- 
ary has  been  converted  by  the  Turks  into  a  maga- 
zine for  military  stores. 

In  modern  times  Rhodes  has  been  chiefly  cele- 
brated as  one  of  the  last  retreats  of  this  military 
order,  under  whom  it  obtained  great  celebrity  by 
Its  heroic  resistance  to  the  Turks ;  but  in  the  time 
of  Solyman  the  Great  a  capitulation  was  agreed 
upon,  and  the  island  was  nnally  surrendered  to 
the  Turks,  under  whom  it  has  since  continued. 

G.  M.  B. 

BIB  (Heb.  ^)^,  tsay'iaw\  or  •"'P^S,  tsai-aw% 
nearly  always  rendered  side, 

1.  See  Exod.  xv:i2,  the  side  of  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant ;  also  Exod.  xvi  :20,  26,  27,  35 ;  xxvii  7 ; 
xxxvi:25,  31;  xxxvii:3,  5;  xxxviii:7.  HilbtVe 
in  2  Sam.  xvi  :i3.  His  side,  Job  xviii  :i2.  In  Ezek. 
xli,  it  is  ten  times  rendered  side  chamber. 


2.  The  part  taken  from  Adam  to  form  Eve 
(Gen.  ii:2i,  22).  This  Hebrew  word  is  used 
thirty-eight  times  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  is 
only  twice  rendered  "rib,"  although  in  three  in- 
stances (i  Kings  vi.-g;  vii:3;  Exod.  xxx:4)  the 
marginal  reading  is  ribs. 

Figurative,  (i)  Eve's  being  formed  of  a 
fleshed  rib  taken  out  of  Adam's  side  denoted  the 
equality  and  strong  affection  that  ought  to  exist 
between  husbands  and  their  wives  (Gen.  ii:2i, 
22).  (2)  The  three  kingdoms  of  Lydia,  Babylon, 
Eg)rpt,  conquered  by  Cyrus  and  his  Medo- Persian 
troops,  are  likened  to  "three  ribs  in  the  mouth  of 
a  bear"  (Dan.  viirs). 

BIBAI  (ri'bai),  (Heb.  ^T\  ree-bah  *ee,    whom 

Jehovah  defends),  a  Benjamite,  one  of  David's 
mighty  men,  father  of  Ittai  (2  Sam.  xxiii:29;  i 
Chron.  xi:3i),  B.  C.  before  1020. 

BIBAND    (rib'and),    (Heb.  ^"^n?,  paw-theeV, 

twisted),  the  thread  by  which  the  tassels  were  fas- 
tened to  garments  (Num.  xv:38).   (See  Lace.) 

BIBLAH  (rib'lah),  (Heb.  !^^?1,  rib-law',  fer- 
tility). 

1.  A  town  in  the  land  of  Hamath  (2  Kings 
xxiii:33;  xxv:2i).  The  Egyptians  were  encamped 
there  when  Jehoahaz  was  brought  in  as  a  prisoner 
(xxiii  .-33).  When  Zedekiah  was  captured  after 
his  escape  from  Jerusalem,  he  was  brought  to  Neb- 
uchadnezzar, then  encamped  at  Riblah,  who  put 
out  his  eyes,  and  had  him  bound  to  be  carried  to 
Babylon.  His  sons  and  the  princes  of  Judah  were 
also  slain  at  Riblah  (xxv:6,  7,  21 ;  Jer.  xxxix:5-7; 
lii:9-ii,  27).  Buckingham,  in  i8i6,  met  with  ruins 
at  a  place  called  by  him  Rubla,  but  now  more  gen- 
erally spelled  Ribleh,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Orontes,  about  36  miles  north  by  east  of  Ba'al- 
bek,  in  the  midst  of  the  great  plain  of  Coelesyria, 
very  suitable  for  the  encampment  of  a  great  army, 
and  with  easy  access  southward  or  northward  if 
commotion  arose.  The  ruins  consist  of  low 
mounds  surrounded  by  the  remains  of  old  build- 
infl^  (Davis,  Bib.  Diet.). 

».  A  boundary  city  on  the  east  of  the  land  of 
Israel,  designated  by  Moses  (Num.  xxxiviii).  It 
was  in  the  "land  of  Hamath"  (2  Kings  xxiii  133; 
XXV  :2i;  Jer.  lii:9),  which  was  north  of  Damascus. 
It  is  perhaps  represented  by  the  site  called  Ribleh, 
which  Buckingham  found  thirty  or  forty  miles 
south  of  Hamath  on  the  Orontes  {Arab  Tribes,  p. 
481). 

BIOHES  (rtch'gz),  (Rev.  xviiiri^).  not  plural  but 
singular:  "In  one  hour  so  great  riches  is  come  to 
naught"  (Jer.  xlviii:36).  Tne  wealth  of  the  He- 
brews in  patriarchal  times  consisted  largely  of 
flocks  and  nerds  (Gen.  xxxvi:8). 

HgnratiVe.  (i)  The  riches  of  God  are  his 
unbounded  fullness  of  wisdom,  power,  mercy, 
grace,  and  glory  (Eph.  i:7,  18,  and  ii:7);  or  the 
effects  of  his  power  and  goodness ;  all  which  per- 
tain to  him  as  their  owner  (Ps.  civ:24).  (2) 
The  riches  of  Christ,  are  his  unnumbered  multi- 
tude of  spiritual  and  eternal  blessings  fit  to  be 
bestowed  on  sinful  men  (Prov.  viii:i8;  Eph.  iii: 
8)  ;  and  the  abundant  ascriptions  of  the  praise  and 
glory  thereof  (Rev.  v:i2).  (3)  The  riches  of  the 
glory  of  the  gospel,  are  the  wonderful  mysteries 
revealed  in  it;  and  the  infinite  blessings  it  offers, 
which  render  it  exceedingly  glorious  (Col.  i:27). 
(4)  The  fall  or  diminishing  of  the  Jews,  their 
calamities  and  expulsion  from  the  church  of  God, 
was  the  riches  of  the  gentiles;  occasioned  their  re- 
ceiving the  precious  ordinances  of  the  gospel,  and 
many  of  them  being  admitted  to  the  enriching 
state  of  fellowship  with  God  (Rom.  xi:i2). 


RID 


1471 


RIGHTEOUSNESS 


BID  (Heb.  ^H  naw-tsaP), 

1.  In  particular  (Gen.  xxxvii:22;  Exod.  vi: 
6) ,  to  snatch  away. 

».  In  general,  (i)  to  deliver  from  danger  (Gen. 
xxxvii  :22) ;  (2)  to  clear  away,  destroy  (Lev. 
xxvii:6). 

RIDDANCE  (rfd'dans),  (Heb.  ^^,  kaw4aw\ 

to  end,  finish),  an  utter  destruction  or  putting  of 
things  clean  away  (Zeph.  i:i8;  comp.  Lev.  xxiii:22). 

RIDDLB  (rld'd'l).  (Heb.  •"»T'^,  khee-daw',  liter- 
ally tied  in  a  knot,  something  intricate  or  compli- 
cated), elsewhere  "dark  sentence,"  "hard  question," 
"dark  saying,"  etc. 

(1)  Meaning.  The  Hebrew  word  is  derived 
from  an  Arabic  root  meaning  "to  bend  off,"  to 
twist,"  and  is  used  for  artifice  (Dan.  viii:23),  a 
proverb  (Prov.  i:6),  a  song  (Ps.  xlix:4;  Ixxviii: 
2),  an  oracle  (Num.  xii:8),  a  parable  (Ezek.  xvii: 
2),  and  in  general  any  wise  or  intricate  sentence 
(Ps.  xciv:4;  Hab.  ii:6,  etc.),  as  well  as  a  riddle  in 
our  sense  of  the  word  (Judg.  xiv:i2-i9). 

(2)  Examples.  An  example  of  a  riddle  oc- 
curs in  Judg.  xiv:i2-i9j  where  Samson  proposes 
to  the  thirty  young  Philistines  who  attended  his 
nuptials,  an  enigma,  derived  from  the  circum- 
stance of  his  having  lately  found  a  swarm  of  bees 
and  honey  in  the  skeleton  of  the  lion,  which  he 
had  killed  some  months  before,  when  he  had  come 
to  espouse  his  wife.  (See  Bee.)  This  riddle  or 
enigma,  though  unfair  in  regard  to  those  who  ac- 
cepted the  pledge  to  unravel  it,  because  they  were 
ignorant  01^  the  particular  fact  by  the  knowledge  of 
which  alone  it  could  be  explained  by  them,  never- 
theless answers  to  the  approved  definition  of  an 
enigma,  as  consisting  of  an  artful  and  abstruse 
proposition,  put  in  obscure,  ambiguous,  and  even 
contrary  terms,  in  order  to  exercise  the  ingenuity 
of  others  in  finding  out  its  meaning. 

Other  ancient  riddles  in  verse  are  that  of  the 
Sphinx,  and  that  which  is  said  to  have  caused' the 
death  of  Homer  by  his  mortification  at  being  un- 
able to  solve  it  (Plutarch,  Vit.  Horn.). 

The  pleasure  of  the  propounder  is  derived  from 
perplexing  his  hearers;  and  theirs  from  overcom- 
ing the  difficulty,  which  is  usually  renewed  by 
their  proposing  another  enigma. 

This  kind  of  amusement  seems  to  have  been 
resorted  to,  especially  at  entertainments,  in  all 
ages  among  different  nations;  and  has  even  been 
treated  as  an  art,  and  reduced  to  rules.  The  chief 
writers  on  this  curious  subject  are,  Nic.  Reusner 
{/Enigmatograph^  and  F.  Menestrier. 

(3)  Rules.  The  principal  rules  laid  down  for 
the  construction  of  an  enigma  are  the  following: 
that  it  must  be  obscure,  and  the  more  obscure  the 
better,  provided  that  the  description  of  the  thing, 
however  covered  and  abstract,  and  in  whatever 
remote  or  uncommon  terms,  be  really  correct; 
and  it  is  essential  that  the  thing  thus  described  be 
well  known.  Sometimes,  and  especially  in  a  witty 
enigma,  the  amusement  consists  in  describing  a 
thing  by  a  set  of  truisms,  which  tell  their  own 
meaning,  but  which  confound  the  hearer,  through 
his  expectation  of  some  deep  and  difficult  meaning. 
The  greater  enigma  is  to  be  rendered  more  intri- 
cate and  knotty  by  a  multitude  of  words;  the 
lesser  may  consist  of  only  one  or  two  remote 
words  or  allusions. 

(4J  Further  Illustrations.  The  speech  of 
Lamech  to  his  wives  Adah  and  Zillah  (Gen.  iv:2j, 
24)  is,  possibly,  an  enigmatic  mode  of  communi- 
cating some  painful  intelligence.  It  is  recorded 
(i  lungs  x:i)  that  the  queen  of  Sheba  came  to 
prove  Solomon  i.  e.,  bv  engimas.  Josephus  relates 
that  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  tried  the  skill  of  Solo- 


mon in  the  same  way;  and  quotes  Dius  to  attest 
that  Solomon  sent  riddles  to  Hiram,  and  that  the 
Tyrian  king  forfeited  much  money  to  Solomon 
from  his  inability  to  answer  them,  but  redeemed 
it,  upon  a  man  of  Tyre  named  Abdemon  being 
found  able  to  solve  them  (Antiq,  viiirs,  3).  The 
description  of  the  Messiah  under  the  name  of  the 
Branch,  when  considered  in  regard  to  the  occasion 
and  context,  may  be  considered  as  a  specimen  of 
the  lesser  enigma  (see  Lowth  upon  the  passage). 

'The  number  of  the  beast'  (Rev.  xiii:i8),  may 
be  also  considered  as  an  enigma.  This  belongs  to 
a  class  of  riddles  very  common  among  Egyptian 
mystics,  the  Gnostics,  some  of  the  Fathers,  and  the 
Jewish  Cabalists.  The  other  instances  in  which 
the  Hebrew  word  is  used  all  exhibit  more  or  less 
of  the  enigmatic  character.  They  are  as  follows 
(Num.  xii:8),  where  it  means  *an  oracle  or  vis- 
ion;' (Ps.  xlix:5),  *a  song;'  (Ixxviii :2),  Mark 
sayings;'  (Prov.  i:6),  'intricate  proverbs;  (Ezek. 
xvii;2),  *a  parable;'  (Dan.  viii:23),  'artifices;* 
(Hab.  ii:6),  *a  song.*  In  the  Apocrypha  we  find 
(Wisd.  xlvii'.ij)  (pnigmaia;  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment (i  Cor.  xiii:i2),  in  anigmate,  in  an  enigma, 
which  Bretschneider  points  out  as  a  quotation  of 
Num.  xii:8.  The  word  enigma,  taken  in  the  ex- 
tensive meaning  of  its  root,  ainos,  certainly  applies 
to  an  immense  portion  of  the  sacred  writings,  viz., 
as  a  narrative  or  tale,  having  an  application  to 
present  circumstances;  Odyss.  xiv:5o8,  a  fable, 
bearing  moral  instruction;  Hes.  Oper.  202,  which 
nearly  approaches  to  the  nature  of  a  parable.  (See 
Parable)  ;  a  pointed  sentence,  saying,  or  proverb 
(Theocritus,  xiv:i3).  (See  Proverb;  Prophecy.) 
According  to  Lennep,  the  word  enigma,  taken  sub- 
stantively, means  'anything  obscure.*  As,  speci- 
mens of  the  enigmatical  style  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, Winer  points  out  Prov.  xxx:i2-i9;  Is.  xxi: 
12.  In  the  New  we  may  adduce  our  Lord's  dis- 
course with  Nicodemus  (John  iii  :3),  and  with  the 
Jews  (vi:5i.  etc.),  where  the  enigmatical  style  is 
adopted  for  the  purpose  of  engaging  attention,  in 
an  unrivaled  manner  (Winer,  BtbL  ArchdoL; 
Stuck,  Antiq.  ConvivAii,  17).  J.  F.  D. 

BIDEB  (rid'er),  (Heb.  ^5 '"^,  ro-kade'). 

It  would  seem  natural  that  horses  should  have 
been  used  for  riding  as  early  as  for  draught;  and 
the  book  of  Job  clearly  indicates  such  use  in  the 
description  of  the  chase  of  the  ostrich,  "She  scom- 
eth  the  horse  and  his  rider"  (Job  xxxix:i8).  By 
the  Egyptians,  Babylonians,  and  early  Greeks,  war 
chariots  were  used  instead  of  cavalry,  the  drivers 
of  the  chariot  horses  being  called  "riders"  (Exod. 
XV :i,  21).     (Barnes,  Bib.  Diet.). 

BIE  (ri),  (Ex.  ix:32,  and  Is.  xxviii:25),  spelt  thus 
in  older  editions  of  the  A.  V.    See  Rye. 

BIGHTEOTJSNESS  ( rrchiis-ngs ),  (Heb.  P^?» 
tseh'dek;  Qx.liKia^  dik-ee' ah\  justice,  holiness. 

1.  The  righteousness  of  God  is  the  absolute  and 
essential  perfections  of  his  nature ;  sometimes  it  is 
put  for  his  justice. 

2.  The  righteousness  of  Christ  denotes  not  only 
his  absolute  perfections,  but  is  taken  for  his  per- 
fect obedience  to  the  law,  and  suffering  the  pen- 
altv  thereof  in  our  stead. 

3.  The  righteousness  of  the  law  is  that  obedience 
which  the  law  requires. 

4.  The  righteousness  of  faith  is  the  righteous- 
ness of  Christ  as  received  by  faith. 

5.  The  saints  have  a  threefold  righteousness, 
(a)  The  righteousness  of  their  persons,  as  in 
Christ  (2  Cor.  v:2i;  Eph.  v:27;  Is.  xlv:24)  ;  (b) 
the  righteousness  of  their  principles,  being  derived 
from  and  formed  according  to  the  rule  of  right 
(Ps.  cxixtii);  (c)  the  righteousness  of  their 
lives,  produced  by  the  sanctifying  influence  of  the 


RIMMON 


1472 


RING 


Holy  Spirit,  without  which  no  man  shall  see  the 
Lord  (Heb.  xiiiii;  i  Cor.  vi:ii).  (Buck,  The  oh 
Diet). 

BIMMON  (rtrn'mon),  (Heb.  1^9T,  rim-mone', 
pomegranate). 

1*  A  tree  mentioned  in  numerous  places  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  universally  acknowledged  to 
denote  the  Pomegranate-tree  and  fruit,  being  de- 
scribed in  the  works  of  the  Arabs  by  the  name 
rooman.  The  pomegranate  is  a  native  of  Asia; 
and  we  may  trace  it  from  Syria,  through  Persia, 
even  to  the  mountains  of  Northern  India.  It  is 
common  in  Northern  Africa,  and  was  early  culti- 
vated in  Egypt;  hence  the  Israelites  in  the  desert 
complain  (Num.  xx:5),  *It  is  no  place  of  seed,  or 
of  figs,  or  of  vines,  or  of  pomegranates'  Being 
common  in  Syria  and  Persia,  it  must  have  early 
attracted  the  attention  of  Eastern  nations.  In  the 
present  day  it  is  highly  valued,  and  travelers  de- 
scribe the  pomegranate  as  being  delicious  through- 
out Persia. 

The  pulpy  grains  of  this  fruit  are  sometimes 
eaten  by  themselves,  sometimes  sprinkled  with 
sugar;  at  other  times  the  juice  is  pressed  out  and 
made  into  wine,  or  one  of  the  esteemed  sherbets 
of  the  East  This  seems  also  to  have  been  the 
custom  in  ancient  times,  for  it  is  said  in  Canticles, 
viii  :2,  *I  would  cause  thee  to  drink  of  spiced  wine 
of  the  juice  of  my  pomegranate.'  The  beauty  of 
the  fruit  when  bursting  and  displaying  the  delicate 
colors  of  the  pulpy  grains,  seems  to  be  referred 
to  in  the  following  passage  of  the  same  book  (vi : 
7),  *As  a  piece  of  pomegranate  are  thv  cheeks 
(temples)  within  thy  locks;*  so  also  the  beauty  of 
the  flower-beds  when  first  opening  made  it  an  ob- 
ject of  attraction  (vi:ii),  1  went  into  the  garden 
of  nuts,  etc.,  to  see  whether  the  pomegranates 
budded;'  and  again  in  vii:i2.  Being  valued  as  a 
fruit,  and  admired  as  a  flower,  it  was  to  be  expect- 
ed that  it  should  be  cultivated  in  gardens  and 
orchards;  and  to  this  several  passages  refer,  as 
Canticles  iv:i3.  In  other  places  it  is  enumerated 
with  the  more  valued  and  cultivated  trees  of  the 
country,  such  as  the  vine,  the  fig-tree,  the  palm- 
tree,  and  the  olive,  as  in  Joel  i:i2;  Hag.  xitiQ. 
The  pomegranate  is  not  likely  to  have  been  a  na- 
tive of  Egypt;  it  must,  however,  have  been  culti- 
vated there  at  a  very  early  period,  as  the  Israelites, 
when  in  the  desert,  lamented  the  loss  of  its  fruit. 
That  it  was  produced  in  Palestine  during  the 
same  early  ages  is  evident,  by  the  spies  bring- 
ing some  back  when  sent  into  Canaan  to  see  what 
kind  of  a  land  it  was;  for  we  are  told  that  they 
'came  unto  the  brook  of  Eshcol,  and  cut  down 
from  thence  a  branch  with  one  cluster  of  grapes, 
etc.,  and  they  brought  of  the  pomegranates,  and 
of  the  figs.*    (See  Pomegranate.)        J.  F.  R. 

2.  A  city  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  in  the  south 
of  Palestine  (Josh.  xv:32;  xix:7;  i  Chron.  iv:32; 
Zech.  xivrio).  It  is  identified  with  the  village 
Umer-Rumanim  ("mother  of  pomegranates")  1 
about  thirteen  miles  south  of  Eleutheropolis. 

3.  A  town  on  a  high  conical  chalky  rock  or  peak, 
northeast  of  Gibeah  and  Michmash,  near  xhe 
desert  (Judg[.  xx:45,  47;  xxi:i3).  Here  600  van- 
quished Benjamites  took  refuge  for  four  months. 
The  Onotnasiicon  places  it  fifteen  miles  north  in 
Jerusalem,  which  corresponds  to  the  situation  of 
this  rock,  which  is  still  crowned  by  a  village  bear- 
ing the  name  of  Rummon  (see  Robinson's  Pales- 
tine, ii  :ii3).  Some  suppose  this  the  Rimmon  men- 
tioned in  I  Sam.  xiv:2. 

4.  A  city  of  Zebulun  (Josh,  xix  :i3 ;  i  Chron.  vi : 
77;  Zech.  xivrio).  Methoar  in  A.  V.  of  Josh. 
xix  :i3  is  improperly  regarded  as  part  of  the  name ; 
whereas  it  describes  the  boundary  as  "stretching" 


to  Neah.  The  name  of  the  town  is  preserved  in 
Rummaneh,  a  village  six  miles  north,  slightly  east 
of  Nazareth. 

5.  A  station  of  the  Israelites  after  leaving  Sinai 
(Num.  xxxiii:i9).     (See  Rimmon-Parez.) 

6.  A  Benjamite  of  Beeroth;  the  father  of 
Rechab  and  Baanah  (2  Sam.  iv:2,  5,  9),  B.  C.  be- 
fore 1053. 

7.  An  idol  worshiped  by  the  Syrians  (2  Kings 
v:i8).  As  this  name  is  found  nowhere  but  in  the 
Bible,  and  there  only  in  the  present  text,  nothing 
positive  can  be  affirmed  concerning  the  power  it 
symbolized.  If  it  be  referred  to  the  pomegranate, 
we  may  suppose  that  the  fruit  had  become  the 
symbol  of  some  mysterious  powers  in  nature.  But 
many  commentators  entitled  to  respect,  as .  Le 
Qerc,  Selden,  Vitringa,  and  Rosenmiiller,  would 
rather  seek  the  signification  of  the  word  ramam, 
'the  exalted ;'  in  which  case  we  may  take  it  to  have 
been  a  name  of  eminence  applied  to  the  sun,  or 
rather  to  some  idol  under  which  the  sun  was  rep- 
resented. He  was  numbered  among  the  twelve 
great  deities.  He  was  the  god  of  rain  and  storm, 
lightning  and  thunder.  Sometimes  he  was  dreaded 
as  the  destroyer  of  crops  and  the  scatterer  of  the 
harvest,  and  at  others  was  adored  as  the  lord  of 
fecundity.  He  was  identical  with  Hadad,  the  su- 
preme god  of  the  Syrians.  The  two  names  arc 
combined  in  Hadad-Rimmon. 

BIMMON-METHOAB  ( rTm'mon  -  m^th'o-^r ), 
( Heb.  "^^n^D  l^^l,  rim-mone*    hammetk-o-awr* , 

the  one  marked  off,  Rimmon  the  extensive),  one 
of  the  landmarks  of  .the  eastern  boundary  of  Zebu- 
lun (Josh.  xix:i3.    In  A.  V.  "Remmon.") 

BIMMON-PAILBZ  (rim'mon-pa'rez),  (Heb.  Y^f 
^^T\,  rim-mone'  peh'rets,  pomegranate  of  the 
breach,  or  cleft),  an  encampment  of  Israel  in  the 
wilderness;  from  Rithmah  they  came  to  Rimmon- 
parez,  and  from  hence  went  to  Libnah  (Num 
xxxiii:l9).    Site  not  known. 

BIMMON,  THE  BOCK  OF  (rTm'mon,  rdk  dv). 
(Heb.  3?iQ  T^^").*?,  seh^iah  haw-rim-mone*),  (Judg. 
xx:45,  47;  xxi:i3).  The  rock  to  which  the  Ben- 
jamites fled  after  the  slaughter  at  Gibeah. 

BIKG  (ring),  (Heb.  ni?39,  (ab'bak'a(h\  a  seal). 

Rings  were  either  for  hanging  curtains  or  other 
things  by ;  or  for  ornaments  on  the  hands,  fingers, 
ears,  etc  Judah,  Pharaoh,  the  Midianites,  and 
Hebrew  men  wore  rings  on  their  fingers;  and 
sometimes  they  were  finely  engraved  (Gen. 
xxxviii;i8;  xh:42;  Exod.  xxviiirii;  Num.  xxxi: 
50).  Sometimes  idolatrous  pictures  and  magical 
devices  were  engraven  in  them;  hence,  Jacob  hid 
the  idolatrous  earrings  of  those  in  his  family 
(Gen.  XXXV  :4).  The  Jewish  women  wore  rings, 
not  only  on  their  fingers  and  in  their  ears,  but  in 
their  nostrils.  Persons  of  dignity  sealed  their  let- 
ters and  decrees  with  their  rings;  and  so,  when 
Pharaoh  transferred  authority  to  Joseph,  he  gave 
him  his  rin|:  as  an  emblem  thereof  ((Sen.  xli:42; 
I  Kings  XXI  :8;  Esth.  iii.-io;  Dan.  vi:i7). 

Figurative,  (i)  The  "dreadful  rings  of  the 
wheels"  in  Ezekiel's  vision,  "full  of  eyes,"  may 
denote  the  marvelous  and  wise  turnings  of  divine 
providence,  and  the  maiestic  appearance  of  saints 
m  the  church,  when  filled  with  the  knowledge  of 
Christ  (Ezek.  i:i8).  (2)  The  "ring  on  the  finger^' 
of  the  returning  prodigal  son,  may  denote  the  ev- 
erlasting love  of  God  shed  abroad  in  the  heart, 
whereby  one  is  excited  to  good  works;  or  the 
Spirit  of  God,  whereby  the  saints  are  sealed  up  to 
the  day  of  redemption  (Luke  xv:22).  (3)  To  be 
as  "the  ring  or  signet  on  God's  right  hand"  is  to 


RINGLEADER 


UU 


RIVER 


be  very  familiar  with  and  dear  to  him  ( Jer.  xxii : 
24;  Ha|f.  ii:23).  (4)  A  "gold-ringed  man*' 
(James  ii :2,  A.  V.)  "wtth  a  gold  ring"  was  a  man 
of  wealth. 

BINGLEADEB  (rYng'led'er),  (Gr.  wpm-wrrdnit, 
^roh'tos'tah' tace^  Acts  xxiv:5),  one  who  stands  as 
head  in  ranks  of  leadership.  The  term  was  ap- 
plied to  Paul  by  TertuUus  in  his  speech  before 
Felix.    It  implies  nothing  opprobrious. 

BINaSTBEAKED,    or    STBAKED    (ring'- 

strekt,  or  strakt),  (Heb.  "'p?,  aw-kode\  striped),  a 

name  given  to  the  parti-colored  rams  of  Jacob's 
flock  (Gen.  xxx:35,  etc.). 

BINNAH  (rfn'nah),  (Heb.  *^i\  rin-naw*,  a  cry 

of  jov,  or  wailing),  a  son  of  Shimon,  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah  (i  Chron.  iv:2o),  B.  C.  before  1618. 

BIOT,  BIOTING  (rl'ut.  ri'fit-tng),  (Gr.  d<r«r(o, 
aS'O'tee' ah\  excessive  and  expensive  feasting,  (2 
Pet.  ii:i3,  Rom.  xiii:i3);  Riotous,  intemperate, 
lascivious  (Prov.  xxviii:7). 

BIPHATH   (rl'phith),  (Heb.  ^\  ree-fath'. 

spoken;  in  i  Q\ixon.\:6,^^^\ray'fath*\  a  north- 
ern people  descended  from  Gomer  (Gen.  x:3). 
(See  Nations,  Dispersion  of.) 

BISING   (rlz'tng),   (Heb.™^,  seh-ayth'.  Lev. 

xiii:2,  etc.),  a  tumor,  swelling,  a  leprous  scab.  The 
word  is  still  used  colloquially  as  a  medical  term. 

BISSAH  (ris'sah),  (Heb.  ^T^,  ris-saw',  a  ruin), 

the  twentieth  stopping  place  of  the  Hebrews  in 
the  wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii:2i,  22).  The  site  is 
unknown. 


(rith'mah).  (Heb.  J^^H^.  rith-maw\ 

Blace  of  the  broom),  the  seventeenth  station  of  the 
[ebrews  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  xxxiii:i8,  19). 
It  was  perhaps  close  to  Kadesh  in  the  wady  Abu 
Retemat,  which  retains  the  ancient  name. 

BIVEB  (rlv'er).  All  the  rivers  mentioned 
in  Scripture  are  in  this  work  described  under  their 
respective  names,  except  such  as  are  included  in 
the  article  Palestine.  The  Nile  is  also  described 
under  Egypt;  River  of  Egypt;  and  Gihon  and 
PisoN  are  also  considered  under  Paradise. 

It  may  be  desirable  to  discriminate  the  words 
which  are  applied  to  different  kinds  of  rivers  in 
Scripture. 

1.  Neh-ore*  (Heb.  ''^^),  which  appears  to  have 

been  of  Egyptian  origin,  denotes  a  *fosse,'  or 
'river*  (it  was  expressed  by  loro  in  the. dialect  of 
Memphis,  and  by  lero  in  that  of  Thebes,  while  it 
appears  as  lor  in  the  Rosetta  inscription).  This 
name  is  applied  exclusively  in  Scripture  to  'the 
river  of  Egypt,'  excepting  in  Dan.  xiirs,  6,  7, 
where  it  denotes  another  river.  This  'river  of 
Egypt*  is  undoubtedly  the  Nile ;  and  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  'brook  of  Egypt,*  mentioned 
below. 

2.  Naw-hawr*  (Heb.  *^?J)  is  the  word  gener- 
ally used  to  express  any  river  or  perennial  stream. 
The  Scripture  must  mean  the  Euphrates  and  its 
canals,  where  it  speaks  of  the  rivers  (naharoth) 
of  Babylon*  (Ps.  cxxxviiii). 

8.  Nakh'al  (Heb.  'OJ)  denotes  a  stream,  brook 

or  torrent,  whether  perennial  or  not,  but  mostly 
not,  as  most  of  the  brooks  of  Palestine  are  tor- 
rents, flowing  only  in  winter.  (See  Palestine.) 
See  a  picturesque  allusion  to  such  brooks  in  Job 
vi:i5.  When  the  word  stands  alone  it  seems  to 
denote  a  mere  winter  torrent,  a  permanent  stream 


being  indicated  by  the  addition  of  the  word  per- 
ennial,  as  in  Ps.  Ixxiv:i5;  Deut.  xi:24;  Amos 
v:24.  A  few  brooks  are  specially  designated,  as 
'the  Brook  of  Willows'  (Is.  xv:7),  a  stream  on 
the  east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  probably  the  present 
Wady-el-Ahsy,  which  descends  from  the  eastern 
mountains,  and  enters  the  eastern  end  of  the  Dead 
Sea ;  the  Arnon  (see  the  word)  ;  the  Jabbok 
(which  see) ;  the  Besor  (the  cold),  a  torrent 
emptying  itself  into  the  Mediterranean  near  Gaza 
(I  Sam.  XXX :9,  10,  21)  ;  the  Kidron,  the  Kishon 
(see  the  two  words)  ;  and  theKANAH,a  stream  on 
the  borders  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  (Josh,  xvi : 
8;  xvii:9).  *The  Brook  of  Egypt,'  mentioned  in 
Num.  xxxiv  :$ ;  Josh,  xv  :4,  47 ;  i  Kings  viii  165 ;  2 
Kings  xxiv:7;  Is.  xxvii:i2;  which  is  also  called 
simply  'the  brook*  (Ezek.  xlvii:i9;  xlviii:28),  and 
described  as  on  the  confines  of  Palestine  and 
Egypt,  is  unquestionably  the  Wady-el-Arish,  near 
the  village  of  that  name,  which  was  anciently 
called  Rhinocorura.  The  'river  (jeor)  of  Egypt* 
is,  however,  the  Nile;  and  it  is  unfortunate  that 
the  two  are  not  so  well  distinguished  in  the  Au- 
thorized Version  as  in  the  original. 

4.  The  word  nakhal  sometimes  occurs  in  the 
sense  of  the  Arabic  wady,  that  is,  a  valley  watered 
by  a  brook  or  torrent.  Such  are  the  valley  of 
EsHcoL  (which  see)  ;  the  valley  of  Gerar  (Gen. 
xxvi  :i7)  ;  and  as  nachal  signifies  both  a  brook  and 
the  valley  in  which  it  flows,  the  same  terms  may 
be  understood  of  either,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
*brook*  Zered  in  Deut.  ii:  13,14;  which  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  same  word  as  the  'valley'  of  Zered 
in  Num.  xxi:i2;  and  in  some  cases  it  is  difficult 
to  say  which  is  meant,  as  in  Josh.  xv:7;  xix:i4; 
comp.  II.  The  valley  of  Sorek  (Judg.  xvi  14), 
so  called  probably  from  its  vineyards,  Eusebius 
and  Jerome  place  north  of  Eleutheropolis,  and 
near  to  Zorah.  The  valley  of  Shittim  ('acacias*) 
was  in  Moab,  on  the  borders  of  Palestine  (Joel 
iii:i8;  comp.  Num.  xxv:i;  Josh.  ii:i;  iii:i;  Mic. 
vi:5).  The  vallev  of  Zered  was  in  the  territory 
of  Moab,  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Num.  xxi:i2; 
Deut.  ii:i3,  14),  probably  the  same  with  'the 
Brook  of  Willows. 

Figurative,  (i)  God  is  likened  to  "broad 
rivers/**  how  large  and  abundant  the  refreshing 
influence  he  bestows  on  his  people;  and  how  fufl 
his  protection  of  them  I  (Is.  xxxiii:2i).  (2)  Christ 
is  likened  to  "rivers  of  water''  in  a  dry  place; 
how  plentiful,  free  and  constant  the  cleansing  and 
renewing  influence  of  his  blood  and  Spirit!  (Is. 
xxxii  :2).  (3)  The  gospel,  and  its  ordinances  and 
blessings,  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  his  influences,  and 
the  joys  of  .the  heavenly  state,  are  likened  to  "a 
river,''  to  denote  their  plenty,  purity,  perpetuity, 
purifying  and  defensive  influence  (Ps.  xlvi:4; 
Ezek.  xlvii:5,  9;  Joel  iii:i8;  John  vii:38;  iv: 
14).  (4)  (jod  "shakes  his  hand  over  the  river," 
i.  e.,  he  "smites  its  streams,"  and  "dries  up  riv- 
ers," when  as  difficulties  they  lie  in  the  way  of 
the  execution  of  his  purpose,  and  of  the  salvation 
and  deliverance  of  his  people  (Is.  xi:i5;  xliv: 
27).  (5)  To  pass  through  the  land  "as  a  Hver," 
is  to  flee  off  as  speedily  as  possible,  in  multitudes, 
not  to  return  (Is.  xxiiirio).  (6)  Pharaoh's  "riv- 
er" made  by  him,  may  denote  his  power  and 
wealth  (Ezek.  xxix:3).  (7)  Whatever  is  very 
plentiful  is  likened  to  "a  river,"  as  plenty  of  tears, 
or  of  peace,  of  oil,  or  of  pleasure  (2  Sam.  ii:i8; 
Job  xxix:6;  Ps.  xvitii;  Is.  xlviii:i8).  (8)  Be- 
hemoth's large  draught  of  water  is  called  "a 
river"  (Job  xl:23);  and  plentiful  rain  is  called 
the  "river  of  God"  (Ps.  lxv:9).  (9)  "Rivers  of 
living  water"  flow  out  of  the  saints*  hearts,  when 
their  inward  fullness  of  spiritual  grace  appears  in 
the  multitude  of  their  good  works  (John  vii  :38). 


RIVER  OF  EGYPT 


1474 


ROAD 


RIVEB  OP  EGYPT  (rfv'er  6v  e'jypt),  (Heb. 
D?!)5E9  ^li,  neh'har  mits-rah' yim), 

(1)  The  Nile  (Gen.  xv:i8),  and  specifically  the 
most  eastern  channel,  the  Pelusiac  branch  (Gen. 
xv:i8}.  (See  Sihor.)  In  this  passage  the  two 
great  rivers,  the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates,  are 
named  broadly  as  the  boundaries  of  the  promised 
land.  The  brook  of  Egypt,  or  Wady  cl-*Arish, 
was  commonly  regarded  as  the  southwestern 
limit  of  Palestine;  but  the  country  between  this 
wady  and  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Nile  was 
mainly  desert,  and  the  Nile  was  virtually  on  the 
boundary  of  Egypt.  The  passage  means  that  the 
descendants  of  Abraham  should  possess  the  land 
as  far  as  Egypt.  The  distinction  between  the 
Nile  and  the  Wady  el-'Arish  is  well  established; 
for  the  former  is  a  nahar  and  the  latter  a  wxhaV 
(Davis,  Bib   Diet.) 

(2)  Nalial  Mizraim.    Nakh'al  (Heb.  ^!?3,  val- 

ley,  Num.  xxxiv:5;  Josh,  xv:^,  4,  47;  i  Kings 
viii:65;  2  Kings  xxiv:7).  This  phrase  does  not 
denote  a  perennial  stream,  but  usually  a  torrent 
bed,  either  partially  or  totallv  dry  in  summer,  and 
having  a  running  stream  only  in  the  rainy  season. 
Nahat,  therefore,  exactly  corresponds  with  the 
Arabic  word  wddy,  for  which  we  have  no  En- 
glish equivalent.  Hence,  "Nahal  Mizraim,"  or 
"torrent  of  Egypt,"  is  generally  used  in  Scripture 
to  designate  the  old  boundary  between  Palestine 
and  Egypt,  and  is  identified  with  the  modern 
IVddy  el'Arish,  which  drains  the  great  central 
basin  of  the  desert,  between  the  passes  of  Jebel 
et-Tih  and  Sinai.  The  various  wddies  of  this 
region  unite  in  one,  but  without  forming  a  peren- 
nial stream,  and  the  torrent-bed  reaches  the  Medi- 
terranean about  forty  miles  southwest  of  Gaza, 
and  nearly  midway  between  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
eastern  branch  of  the  Nile.    (See  Nile.) 

(rrz'pah),  (Heb.'"'??1,  r/7r./aa/',a  coal). 


A  concubine  of  Saul,  memorable  for  the  touching 
example  of  maternal  affection  which  she  afforded, 
in  watching  the  dead  bodies  of  her  sons,  and  driv- 
ing the  birds  away  from  them,  when  they  had 
been  gibbeted  by  the  Gibeonites  (2  Sam.  iii:7; 
xxi:8,  10,  II),  B.  C.  about  980. 

Every  one  can  appreciate  the  love  and  endur- 
ance with  which  the  mother  watched  over  the  bod- 
ies of  her  two  sons  and  her  five  relatives,  to  save 
them  from  an  indignity  peculiarly  painful  to  the 
whole  of  the  ancient  world  (see  Ps.  Ixxix  :2;  Horn. 
Iliad,  i,  4,  5,  etc.)  But  it  is  questionable  whether 
the  ordinary  conception  of  the  scene  is  accurate. 
The  seven  victims  were  not,  as  the  A.  V.  implies, 
"hung;"  they  were  crucified.  The  seven  crosses 
were  planted  in  the  rock  on  the  top  of  the  sacred 
hill  of  Gibeah ;  the  hill  which,  though  not  Saul's 
native  place,  was  through  his  long  residence  there 
so  identified  with  him  as  to  retain  his  name  to  the 
latest  existence  of  the  Jewish  nation  (i  Sam.  xi: 
4,  etc.,  and  see  Joseph.  De  Bell.  Jud.  v,  2,  section 
i).  The  whole  or  part  of  this  hill  seems  at  the 
time  of  this  occurrence  to  have  been  in  some  spe- 
cial manner  dedicated  to  Jehovah,  possibly  the 
spot  on  which  Ahiah  the  priest  had  deposited  the 
Ark  when  he  took  refuge  in  Gibeah  during  the 
Philistine  war  (i  Sam.  xiv:i8).  The  victims 
were  sacrificed  at  the  beginning  of  barley-harvest 
— the  sacred  and  festal  time  of  the  Passover — and 
in  the  full  blaze  of  the  summer  sun  they  hung  till 
the  fall  of  the  periodical  rain  in  October.  During 
the  whole  of  that  time  Rizpah  remained  at  the  foot 
of  the  crosses  on  which  the  bodies  of  her  sons  were 
exposed;  the  Mater  dolorosa,  if  the  expression 
may  be  allowed,  of  the  ancient  dispensation.  She 
had  no  tent  to  shelter  her  from  the  scorching  sup 


which  beats  on  that  open  spot  all  day,  or  from  the 
drenching  dews  at  night,  but  she  spread  on  the 
rocky  floor  the  thick  mourning  garment  of  black 
sackcloth  which  as  a  widow  she  wore,  and  crouch- 
ing there  she  watched  that  neither  vulture  nor 
jackal  should  molest  the  bodies.  We  may  surely 
be  justified  in  applying  to  Rizpah  the  words  with 
which  another  act  of  womanly  kindness  was  com- 
mended, and  may  say,  that  "wheresoever  the  Bible 
shall  go,  there  shall  also  this,  that  this  woman 
hath  done,  be  told  for  a  memorial  of  her."  (George 
Grove,  Smith's  Bib.  Diet.) 

BOAD  (reJd),  (Heb.  ^^?,/aw-jAfl/'.  to  spread 
out),  a  highway  for  travel. 

In  the  East,  where  traveling  is  performed  mostly 
on  some  beast  of  burden,  certain  tracks  were  at  a 
very  early  period  customarily  pursued;  and  that 
the  rather  as  from  remote  ages  commerce  and 
traveling  went  on  by  means  of  caravans,  under  a 
certain  discipline,  and  affording  mutual  protection 
in  their  passage  from  city  to  city,  and  from  land 
to  land.  Now  wherever  such  a  band  of  men  and 
animals  had  once  passed  they  would  form  a  track 
which,  especially  in  countries  where  it  is  easy  for 
the  traveler  to  miss  his  way,  subsequent  caravans 
or  individuals  would  naturally  follow;  and  the 
rather  inasmuch  as  the  original  route  was  not 
taken  arbitrarily,  but  because  it  led  to  the  first 
cities  in  each  particular  district  of  country.  And 
thus  at  a  very  early  period  were  there  marked  out 
on  the  surface  of  the  globe  lines  of  inter-communi- 
cation, running  from  land  to  land,  and  in  some 
sort  binding  distant  nations  together.  These,  in 
the  earliest  times,  lay  in  the  direction  of  east  and 
west,  that  being  the  line  on  which  the  trade  and 
the  civilization  of  the  earth  first  ran. 

The  purposes  of  war  seem,  however,  to  have 
furnished  the  first  inducement  to  the  formation  of 
made,  or  artificial  roads.  War,  we  know,  afforded 
to  the  Romans  the  motive  under  which  they 
formed  their  roads;  and  doubtless  they  found 
them  not  only  to  facilitate  conquest,  but  also  to  in- 
sure the  holding  of  the  lands  they  had  subdued; 
and  the  remains  of  their  roads  which  are  still  to 
be  seen  in  England,  show  with  what  skill  they  laid 
out  a  country,  and  formed  lines  of  communica- 
tion. To  the  Romans,  chiefly,  was  Palestine  in- 
debted for  such  roads. 

(1)  Early  Beads.  There  seem,  indeed,  to  have 
been  roads  of  some  kind  in  Palestine  at  an  earlier 
period.  Language  is  employed  which  supposes 
the  existence  of  artificial  roads.  In  Is.  xl:3  are 
these  words,  'Prepare  ye  the  way  of  the  Lord, 
make  straight  in  the  desert  a  highway  for  our 
God.  Every  valley  shall  be  exalted,  and  every 
mountain  and  hill  shall  be  made  low;  and  the 
crooked  shall  be  made  straight,  and  the  rough 
places  plain.'  There  cannot  be  a  more  graphic 
description  of  the  operations  and  results  connected 
with  the  formation  of  a  long  and  important  road. 
That  this  is  the  language  of  prophetic  inspiration 
affords  no  objection,  but  rather  confirms  our  view; 
for  poetry,  as  being  an  appeal  to  widely-spread 
feelings,  grounds  itself,  in  such  a  case  as  this,  on 
fact ;  nor  could  such  imagery  as  we  find  here  have 
been  employed,  had  artificial  roads  been  unknown 
in  Palestine.  Nor  is  the  imagery  unusual  (cpmp. 
Is.  xi:i6;  xix:23;  xxxiii:8;  xxxv:8;  xlixrii; 
lxii:io).  In  i  Sam.  vi  :i2  we  read,  The  kine  went 
along  the  highway,  lowing  as  they  went,  and 
turned  not  aside  to  the  right  hand  or  to  the  left.' 
In  Numbers  also  (xx:i7),  *We  will  go  by  the 
kind's  highway,*  etc.  (xxi:22;  Deut.  ii:27;  Lev. 
xxvi:22).  Whether  or  not  these  were  roads  in 
the  modem  acceptation  of  the  term,  we  know  from 
the  Jaw  regarding  a  free,  open,  and  good  passage 


ROAD 


1476 


ROB,  ROBBER,  ROBBERY 


to  the  cities  of  refuge  (see  that  article,  and  Deut. 
xix:3,  compared  with  Mishna,  tit.  Maccoth),  that 
the  minds  of  the  Israelites  were  early  familiarized 
with  the  idea. 

(2)  From  Ptolex&ais  to  Damascus.  The  first 
road  in  Palestine  which  we  mention  ran  from 
Ptolemais,  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  to 
Damascus.  This  road  remains  to  the  present  day. 
Beginning  at  Ptolemais  (Acco),  it  ran  southward 
to  Nazareth,  and  continuing  south  and  east,  passed 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon  on  the  north;  after  which, 
turning  north  and  east,  it  came  to  Tiberias,  where, 
running  along  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  it  reached  Ca- 
pernaum, and  having  passed  the  Jordan  somewhat 
above  the  last  place,  it  went  over  a  spur  of  the 
Anti-Libanus  (Jebel  Heish),  and  keeping  straight 
forward  east  by  north,  came  to  Damascus.  This 
road  was  used  for  the  purposes  both  of  trade  and 
war.  In  the  history  of  the  Crusades  it  bears  the 
name  of  Via  Maris.  It  connected  Europe  with 
the  interior  of  Asia.  Troops  coming  from  Asia 
over  the  Euphrates  passed  along  this  way  into  the 
heart  of  Palestine.  Under  the  Romans  it  was  a 
productive  source  of  income.  It  was  on  this  road, 
not  far  from  Capernaum,  that  Jesus  saw  Matthew 
sitting  at  *the  receipt  of  custom,'  and  gave  him 
his  call  to  the  apostleship. 

(3)  Into  Egypt.  Another  road  passed  along 
the  Mediterranean  coast  southward  into  Egypt. 
Beginning  at  Ptolemais,  it  ran  first  to  Caesarea, 
thence  to  Diospolis,  and  so  en  through  Ascalon 
and  Gaza  down  into  Egypt.  This  was  also  an  im- 
portant line  of  communication,  passing,  as  it 
did,  through  cities  of  great  importance,  running 
along  the  coast  and  extending  to  Egypt.  A  glance 
at  the  map  will  show  how  important  it  was  for 
trade  by  land  and  by  sea,  as  well  as  for  the  pas- 
sage of  troops.  A  branch  of  this  road  connected 
the  sea  with  the  metropolis,  leading  from  th«  same 
Caesarea  through  Diospolis  to  Jerusalem.  Down 
this  branch  Paul  was  sent  on  his  way  to  Felix 
(Acts  xxiii:23,  26).  The  band  went  through  An- 
tipatris,  and  thence  to  (Taesarea. 

(4)  Galilee  with  Judaea.  A  third  line  of  road 
connected  Galilee  with  Judaea,  running  through 
the  intervening  Samaria  (Luke  xviiiii;  John  iv: 
4;  Joseph.  Antiq,  xx,  6,  i;  Vita,  sec.  32),  The 
journey  took  three  days.  Passing  along  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon,  the  traveler  entered  Samaria  at 
Ginea  (Jenin),  and  was  thence  conducted  to  Sa- 
maria (Sebaste),  thence  to  Shechem  (Nablous), 
whence  a  good  day's  travel  brought  him  to  Jeru- 
salem. This  last  part  of  the  journey  has  been 
described  l?y  Maundrell   {Journey,  p.  85,  sq.). 

(5)  Three  Boads  from  Jenisalem.  There 
were  three  chief  roads  running  from  Jerusalem. 
(a)  One  passed  in  a  northeasterly  direction  over 
the  Mount  of  Olives,  by  Bethany,  through  open- 
ings in  hills  and  winding  ways  on  to  Jericho,  near 
which  the  Jordan  was  passed  when  travelers  took 
their  way  to  the  north,  if  they  wished  to  pass 
through  Peraea,  which  was  the  road  the  Galilean 
Jews,  in  coming  to  and  returning  from  the  festi- 
vals in  the  capital,  were  accustomed  to  take,  thus 
avoiding  the  unfriendly  territory  of  Samaria ;  (b) 
or  travelers  turned  their  faces  towards  the  south, 
if  they  intended  to  go  towards  the  Dead  Sea. 
This  road  was  followed  by  the  Israelites  when 
they  directed  their  steps  towards  Canaan.  Through 
Peraea  the  Syrian  and  Assyrian  armies  made  their 
hostile  advances  on  Israel  (2  Kings  viii:28;  ix: 
14;  x:32,  sq.;  i  Chron.  v:26).  (c)  A  second  road 
led  from  Jerusalem  southward  to  Hebron,  whence 
travelers  went  through  the  wilderness  of  Judaea 
to  Alia,  as  the  remains  of  a  Roman  road  still 
show ;  or  tfiey  might  take  a  westerly  direction  •n 


to  Gaza,  a  way  which  is  still  pursued,  and  is  of 
two  days*  duration. 

The  ordinary  way  from  Jerusalem  to  Gaza  ap- 
pears, in  the  Roman  period,  to  have  lain  through 
Eleutheropolis  and  Ascalon.  From  Gaza  through 
Khinocorura  and  Pelusium  was  the  nearest  road 
down  into  Egypt  from  Jerusalem  {Atttiq.  xiv,  14, 
2).  Along  this  road  many  thousand  prisoners, 
made  by  Vespasian  in  his  capture  of  Jerusalem, 
were  sent  to  Alexandria  in  order  to  be  shipped 
for  Rome.  Of  these  two  roads  from  Jerusalem  to 
Gaza,  one  went  westward  by  Ramlah  and  Ascalon ; 
the  other  southward  by  Hebron.  This  last  road 
RsLumer  (Pa/ds^tna,  p.  191;  see  also  his  Beitrdge^ 
published  after  Robinson's  work  on  Palestine, 
namely,  in  1843,  correcting  or  confirming  the  views 
in  his  Paldstina,  1838),  is  of  opinion  was  that 
which  was  taken  by  Philip  (Acts  viii:26,  sq,)^ 
partly  because  tradition  states  that  the  eunuch  was 
baptized  in  the  vicinity  of  Hebron,  and  this  road 
from  Jerusalem  to  Hebron  runs  through  the 
'desert'  Thekoa  (Thecua)  in  the  Onomasticon, 
And  here  he  finds  the  reason  of  the  angel's  com- 
mand to  go  'towards  the  south;*  for  Hebron  lay 
south  of  Jerusalem ;  whereas  but  for  this  direc- 
tion Philip  might  have  gone  westward  by  Ramlah. 
Robinson,  admitting  that  there  is  a  road  from 
Jerusalem  to  Hebron,  maintains  (ii,  640;  i,  320) 
that  Philip  went  by  a  third  road,  which  led  down 
Wady  Musurr  to  Betogabra  (Eleutheropolis),  and 
thinks  that  he  has  found  at  Tell-el-Hasy  the  spot 
where  the  eunuch  received  baptism.  But,  says 
Raumer  (Beitrdge,  p.  41),  this  road  ran  in  a  south- 
westerly direction,  and  Philip  was  commanded  to 
go  towards  the  south,  for  which  purpose  he  must 
have  gone  by  Hebron.  Raumer  then  proceeds  to 
confirm  his  original  position.  Jerome,  in  his  Lxje 
of  Paula,  testifies  that  a  road  from  Jerusalem  to 
Gaza  went  through  Hebron.  Paula  traveled  from 
Jerusalem  to  Bethlehem,  which  lay  south  of  the 
city:  'When  she  reached  Bethlehem  she  quick- 
ened the  pace  of  her  horse  and  took  the  old  road 
which  leads  to  Gaza.'  This  road  conducted  to 
Bethsur  (a  little  north  of  Hebron),  'where,'  says 
Jerome,  'while  he  read  the  Scriptures,  the  eunuch 
found  the  Gospel  fountain.'  'This,'  adds  Raumer, 
'is  the  same  Bethsur  of  which  Jerome,  in  the 
Onomasticon,  says,  "As  you  go  from  Aelia  to 
Hebron,  at  the  twentieth  milestone,  you  meet 
Bethsoron,  near  which,,  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain, 
is  a  fountain  bubbling  out  of  the  soil.  The  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  state  that  the  chamberlain  of  Queen 
Candace  was  baptized  in  it  by  Philip."  From 
Bethsur  Paula  proceeded  to  Hebron.  The  Itiner- 
arium  Hierosolymitanum  (of  the  year  335)  men- 
tions Bethsur  as  the  place  where  the  baptism  was 
performed.'     (See  Philip.) 

There  only  remains  for  us  to  mention  what 
Winer  reckons  the  third  of  the  three  great  roads 
which  ran  from  Jerusalem ;  this  third  road  went  to 
the  Mediterranean  at  Joppa  (Jaffa),  a  way  which 
from  the  time  of  the  Crusades  has  been  taken  by 
pilgrims  proceeding  to  the  Holy  City  from  Egypt 
and  from  Europe. 

BOAST  (r6st),  (Heb.  ^]^,  gaw-zale').  See  Food. 

BOB,  BOBBEB,    BOBBEBY    (rdb,  rdb'ber. 

r6b'ber-y),  (Heb.  'I|,  gaw-zaie*). 

Both  in  the  sense  of  plunder  and  organized 
theft,  robbery  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture (Gen.  xvi:i2;  i  Sam.  xxvi:6,  12;  Job  i:i5,  17; 
Gen.  xxxiv:28,  29;  Num.  xxxi:32-54;  Judg.  ii:i4; 
vi:3,  4;  I  Sam.  xi,  xv;  2  Sam.  viii,  x;  2  Kings 
v:2;  I  Chron.  v:io,  18-22;  Judg.  ix:25;  i  Sam. 
xxiiri,  2;  xxiii:i9-25;  xxvi:i;  xxviii:6-io;  xxx: 
I). 


ROBE 


1476 


ROD,  STAFF,  SCEPTER 


In  New  Testament,  Gr.  Xt?<m}f,  iace-tace',  plun- 
derers, robbers,  bandits,  (2  Cor.  xi:26);  Gr.  Kkhrrrii, 
kiep'iace,  thief,  sneak-thief,  Qohn  x:8). 

Figurative,  (i)  Men  **rob**  God  when  they 
withhold  his  due  tithes,  offerings,  or  worsh^ 
(MaL  iii:8,  9).  (2)  Paul's  "robbing  of  other 
churches"  was  his  receiving  supply  from  them,  to 
maintain  him,  while  preaching  the  gospel  at  Cor- 
inth (2  Cor.  xi:26).  (3)  False  teachers  are  those 
who  attempt  to  rob  God  of  his  honor,  Christ  oi 
his  office,  and  men  of  their  happiness  and  outward 
wealth  (John  x).  (4)  Christ  "thought  it  no  rob- 
bery*' (Gr.  Aprayjjis,  har-pag-mos\  the  act  of 
seizings  with  the  secondary  sense  of  a  thing 
to  be  seised)  to  be  equal  with  God;  he  claimed 
equal  honors  with  the  Father  (Phil.  ii:6). 

BOBE  (rob).    See  Dress. 

BOBOAM  (ro-b5'to),  (Gr.  'Po^od/u,  hrob-d-amX 
Grecized  form  (Matt.  \\^)  of  King  Rehoboam. 
See  Rehoboam. 

BOOK  (r6k),  (Heb.  1^2t,  tsoor,  a  cliff  or  sharp 
rock,  a  hill). 

Indicative  of  large  masses  of  stone,  connected 
together,  either  above  or  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Rocks  standing  out  above  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  were  very  common  in  Canaan,  and 
many  of  them  were  a  shelter  for  the  inhabitants 
in  time  of  danger.  In  Scripture  we  find 
mentioned  the  rocks  of  Lebanon  and  Her- 
mon,  in  the  north;  and  the  rocks  of  the 
hills  by  the  river  Arnon,  on  the  east  (Num. 
xxiii:9;  Jer.  xviii:i4);  Oreb  near  Mount  Tabor 
(Judg.  vii:25);  and  Zoheleth,  Bozez,  Seneh,  and 
Rimmon,  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin;  and  the  rocks 
of  En^edi,  Adullam,  Selah-hammalekoth,  and 
Etam,  m  the  tribe  of  Judah;  of  the  rock  Jok- 
theel  in  the  land  of  Edom ;  and  indeed  the  whole 
country  abounded  with  rocks,  as  did  Arabia  the 
Rocky;  though  we  read  in  Scripture  of  no  more 
there  but  the  rock  of  Horeb,  and  of  Meribah  in 
Rephidim,  and  of  Kadesh.  From  these  last  two 
God  supplied  the  Hebrews  with  water  the  most  of 
the  time  they  were  in  the  desert.  According  to 
Thevenot,  Shaw,  Pocock,  and  other  travelers  of 
credit,  the  rock  of  Meribah,  in  Rephidim,  seems 
to  have  been  a  cleft  fallen  off  from  the  side  of 
Sinai,  and  lies  like  a  large  loose  stone  in  the  midst 
of  the  valley.  It  is  of  red  granite,  of  the  hard- 
ness of  flint,  and  is,  according  to  Shaw,  about  six 
yards  square;  though  Pocock  says  it  is  fifteen  feet 
long,  twelve  high,  and  ten  broad;  and  there  are 
twelve  openings  in  it ;  Pocock  says  twelve  on 
every  side,  whence  the  water  issued  out,  for  the 
thirty-nine  years'  supply  of  the  Hebrews ;  and  the 
stone  is  worn  where  the  water  had  run  down. 
Many  dpubts  arc  now  entertained  whether  the 
rock  usually  styled  the  rock  of  Moses  be  in  real- 
ity the  rock  in  Rephidim.  It  appears  to  have  been 
farther  from  Sinai  than  the  now  so-called  rock  of 
Moses  (Exod.  xvii:6). 

Figurative.  ( i )  God  is  called  a  rock,  and  a  rock 
of  ages;  he  is  a  high,  firm,  never-failing  founda- 
tion, hiding-place,  and  source  of  blessings  to  his 
people  (Ps.  xviii:2;  Is.  ii:io).  (2)  Jesus  Christ 
is  the  rock  on  which  his  church  and  people  are 
built;  he  alone  bears  their  weight  and  all  their 
concerns ;  he  is  their  refuge,  their  occasion  of  wide 
prospects  in  divine  things,  and  the  source  of  all- 
purifying  and  refreshing  influence  to  them  (Is. 
xxxh:2;  Matt.  vii:25).  (3)  As  rocks  are  barren 
and  unfruitful  places  (Job  xxix:6;  Ps.  xviii:i6), 
hard-hearted  smners,  unfruitful  in  good  works, 
are  compared  to  rocks  (Luke  viiiiia)  (4)  As 
rock  denotes  a  quarry  out  of  which  stones  are 
digged,  Abraham  and  Sarah,  who  were  once  likely 


to  have  no  children,  are  likened  to  a  rock  and 
pit  (Is.  li:i). 

BOD,  STAFF,  SCEFTEB   (Heb.  •"'^O.  tnat- 

teh\  branch;  also  ^5?,  shay'beU  a  stick  for  pun- 
ishment.) 

1*  In  general  it  denotes  a  twig,  or  small  branch 
of  a  tree. 

2.  It  means,  in  the  hand  of  one  walking,  a  staff, 
to  support  and  assist  on  a  journey  (Exod.  iv:2; 
vii  .'9 ;  I  Sam.  xiv  :27). 

3.  It  signifies  in  the  hand  of  an  offended  per- 
son an  instrument  to  beat,  correct,  or  punish  the 
offender  (Exod.  xxi:2o;  2  Sam.  vii:  14;  Job  ix:34, 
etc.;  Prov.  x:i3,  etc.;  Is.  xi:4,  etc.;  Jer.  x:i6; 
li:i9). 

4.  In  the  hand  of  a  surveyor  it  signifies  his 
measure  for  meting  fields;  and  so  the  thing 
measured  is  called  the  rod, 

5.  In  the  hand  of  a  thrasher  it  denotes  a  ffail, 
or  thrashing  staff  (Is.  xxviii:27). 

6.  In  the  hand  of  a  warrior  it  signifies  the 
truncheon,  the  staff  of  his  spear,  or  his  walking 
staff  (2  Sam.  xxiii:2i). 

7.  In  the  hand  of  a  ruler,  it  is  a  scefter,  or 
badge  of  authority,  to  direct,  govern,  chastise,  and 
reward  (Esth.  viii:4). 

8.  In  the  hand  of  the  shepherd  it  is  an  instru- 
ment of  defense  (Ps.  xxiii:4). 

Figurative,  (i)  Jesus  Christ  is  called  a  Rod 
or  Branch  (Is.  xi:i).  (2)  The  rod  (Gen.  xxx: 
Z7)  is  also  used  for  tribes;  because  they  grow  as 
branches  from  a  common  root.  And  the  two 
sticks  of  Judah  and  Ephraim  becoming  one,  de- 
notes the  junction  of  the  tribes  o-f  Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin, which  were  one  kingdom,  with  those  of 
Ephraim  and  his  fellows,  which  formed  another 
(Ezek.  xxxvii:i5-22).  (3)  The  rod  is  put  for 
power  and  authority  (Is.  xiv  15) ;  and  also  for  the 
rulers  themselves;  so  where  we  have  Shebet  in 
one  place,  we  have  judges  in  the  parallel  place 
(comp.  2  Sam.  vii:7;  i  Chron.  xvii:6).  (4)  The 
princes  of  Judah  are  called  rods  because  with 
authority  they  ruled  and  corrected  others  (Ezek. 
xix:i4).  (5)  Church  censures  and  punishment 
are  called  a  rod  (Mic.  vi:9,  and  vii:  14;  i  Cor.  iv: 
21;  Prov.  xxix:i5).  (6)  God's  chastisements  of 
his  people  are  called  the  rod  of  men;  as  they  are 
inflicted  with  the  kindness  and  compassion  of  a 
father  (2  Sam.  vii:  14).  (7)  The  rod  of  Christ's 
strength  sent  out  of  Zion  is  the  gospel,  attended 
with  miraculous  and  saving  influences,  for  the 
conversion  of  multitudes  and  the  support  and  di- 
rection of  saints  (Ps.  cx:2).  It  is  a  scepter  of 
righteousness,  by  which  the  righteousness  of  God's 
nature  and  law  is  glorified  to  the  highest ;  Christ's 
righteousness  is  brought  near,  offered,  and  ap- 
plied to  us;  and  by  which  we  are  effectually  made 
righteous  in  all  manner  of  conversation.  This 
scepter  may  also  denote  our  Lord's  righteous  ex- 
ecution of  his  whole  oflfice  (Ps.  xlv:6).  (8) 
God's  rod  and  staff  that  comfort  his  people  are 
his  gospel  truths,  and  his  supporting  influence,  by 
which  he  preserves  and  draws  them  to  himself 
(Ps.  xxiii:4).  (9)  Christ's  rod  of  iron,  with 
which  he  rules  the  nations,  is  his  absolute  author- 
ity over  them,  and  his  righteous  judgments  exe- 
cuted upon  them,  particularly  in  the  overthrow 
of  the  Jewish  nation,  the  ruin  of  heathenism  in 
the  Roman  empire,  and  of  Antichrist  and  Ma- 
homet (Ps.  ii:9;  Rev.  xix:i5).  (10)  The  saints, 
by  their  prayers  and  otherwise,  have  a  share 
in  ruling  the  nations  with  this  rod  of  iron 
(Rev.  ii:27).  (11)  The  Assyrians  ana  their 
conquests  are  called  the  rod  of  God's  anger, 
and  a  staff  in  his  hand;  and  they  corrected 
with  a  rod;  afflicted,  but  could  not  destroy  the 


RODANIM  14 

Jews  (Is.  ix:4;  x:5,  IS,  and  xx)t:33).  {12) 
Nebuchadnezzar  and  his  army  are  called  the 
blossoming  rod,  and  rod  of  wickedness;  they 
prospered  in  I  heir  conquests,  but  were  very 
wicked ;  by  them  God  punished  the  increasing 
pride  atid  growing  violence  of  the  Jews  (Ezek. 
vii;lO,  II).  (13)  The  kincdom  of  Moab  is  lik- 
ened to  a  strong  staff  and  beautiful  rod,  for  their 
strong  and  beauiiful  appearance,  their  ruling  over 
others,  and  being  instruments  of  God's  wrath 
against  them.  God  broke  this  rod,  and  the  staff 
of  the  wicked,  when  he  ruined  the  authority  and 
power  of  the  Moabites  and  Oialdatans  (Jer. 
xlviii:i7;  Is.  xivis).  (14)  The  contemned  rod 
of  God's  Son  may  signify  the  royal  family  of 
Judah,  and  their  authority  over  his  peculiar  peo- 
ple, which  were  contemned  by  the  Chaldseans,  and 
depressed  by  the  calamities  which  they  inflicted 
{Ezek.  xxi:io,  13).  (15)  The  rod  of  the  wicked 
is  their  authority,  power,  and  oppressive  usage  of 
others  (Pa.  cxxvij).  (16)  The  rod  of  pride  In 
the  mouih  of  the  foolish  is  proud,  passionate  lan- 
guage, which  wounds  the  soul,  credit,  health,  or 
property  of  themselves  and  others  (Prov.  xivij). 
(17)  The  grounded  staff  denotes  the  appointed 
judgments  of  God,  inflicted  on  the  Jews  or  As- 
syrians (Is.  XXX :32). 

HODANIH  (rfid'a-nim).  See  Dodanih.  (I 
Cbron.i:?). 

BODON  (rd'don),  (Or.  ^ttit*  hrih'ddn,  rose), 
occurs  only  in  the  Apocryphal  books  of  Eccles- 
iasticus  and  the  Book  of  Wisdom. 

In  the  English  translation  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures 'rose'  occurs  also  in  the  Song  of  Solomon 
(xi:i)  and  in  Isaiah  (xxxv:i);  but  in  neither  of 
these  passages  is  there  any  proof  that  the  word 
Chabbazzeleth  ought  to  be  so  rendered.  Indeed, 
by  many  the  narcissus  is  thought  lo  be  intended. 
In  the  books  of  the  Apocrypha,  written  in  Greek, 
the  word  ^or,  rodtm,  may  seem  to  indicate  the 
same  plant  that  it  did  among  the  Greeks,  namely, 
the  rose. 

The  rose  was  as  highly  esteemed  among  an- 
cient, as  it  \%  among  modern  nations,  if  we  may 
judge  by  the  frequent  references  to  it  in  the 
poets  of  antiquity.  As  we  know  that  it  continues 
to  be  the  favorite  flower  of  the  Persians,  and  is 
much  cultivated  in  Egypt,  we  might  expect  more 
frequent  mention  of  some  of  its  numerous  species 
and  varieties  in  the  Jewish  writings.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  case,  and  probably  arises  from  its 
being  less  common  in  a  wild  state  in  a  cornpara- 
tively  dry  and  warm  climate  like  (hat  of  Syria. 
It  is,  however,  indigenous  in  some  parts.  Monro, 
as  quoted  by  Kitto  in  the  Physical  History  of 
Palestine,  'found  in  the  valley  of  Baalbec,  a 
creeping  rose  of  a  bright  yellow  color  in  full' 
bloom,  about  the  end  or  May.  About  the  same 
time,  on  advancing  towards  Rama  and  Joppa 
from  Jerusalem,  the  hills  are  found  to  be  to  a 
considerable  extent  covered  with  white  and  pink 
roses.  The  gardens  of  Rama  itself  abound  in 
roses  of  a  powerful  fragrance.'  Mariti,  as  stated 
by  RosenmuUer,  foutid  the  greatest  quantity  of 
roses  in  the  hamlet  of  St.  John,  in  the  desert  of 
the  same  name.  'In  this  place  the  rose  plants 
form  small  forests  in  the  gardens.  The  greatest 
part  of  the  roses  reared  there  are  brought  to  Jeru- 
salem, where  rose  water  is  prepared  from  ihem, 
of  which  the  scent  is  so  very  exquisite,  that  in 
every  part  of  Lycia,  and  also  in  Cyprus,  it  is  in 
request  above  all  other  rose  waters.'  Burckhardt 
was  struck  with  the  number  of  rose  trees  which 
he  found  amonc  the  ruins  of  Bozra  beyond  the 
Jordan,  That  the  rose  was  cultivated  in  Damas- 
cus is  well  known.  Indeed,  one  species  is  named 
Rosa  Damascena  from  being  supposed  to  be  in- 


1  ROHGAH 

digenous  there.  'In  the  gardens  of  the  city  roses 
are  still  much  cultivated.  Monro  says  that  in 
size  they  are  inferior  lo  our  damask  rose,  and 
less  perfect  in  form|  but  that  their  odor  and 
color  are  far  more  rich.  The  only  variety  that 
exists  in  Damascus  is  a  white  rose,  which  appears 
to  belong  to  the  same  species,  differing  only  in 
color'  (Kitto,  /.  e.  p.  384).    (See  Rose.) 

,  J.  F.  R. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  roe  of  the  Scrip- 
tures is  the  gazelle.  Roes  are  found  chiefly  In 
Western  Asia  and  Northern  Africa,  and  are  very 
common  in  Palestine,  especially  in  the  wilderness 
of  Judxa.  They  are  the  most  beautifut  and 
graceful,  and  the  fleetest  of  all  animals.  They  are 
small,  slender,  and  of  a  sandy  color,  with  a  band 
of  white  down  the  face,  and  a  white  rump  and 


The  roe  was  considered  a  "clean"  animal,  and 
therefore  its  flesh  was  used  for  food  (Deut.  xti  :I5, 
22;  xiv:5;  xv  \22).  King  Solomon  had  roe's  flesh 
on  the  royal  table  (i  Kings  iv:23),  with  "harts, 
fallow  deer,  and  fatted  fowl." 

Their  swiftness,  grace,  and  gentleness  are  men- 
tioned numerous   times  in  the    Scriptures.     We 


find  "as  light  of  foot  as  a  wild  roe"  (2  Sam, 
ii:i8),  and  "as  swift  as  the  roe  upop  the  moun- 
tains" (i  Chron.  xii:8).  Its  timidity  is  referred 
to,  "It  shall  be  as  the  chased  roe.  and  as  a  sheep 
that  no  man  taketh  up"   (Is.  xiii:i4}. 

From  the  feminine  of  this  word  is  derived  the 
Hebrew  female  name  "Tabilha,"  and  the  Greek 
"Dorcas"  or  "gazelle"   (Acts  ix:36).     (See  An- 

BOEBTTCK  (rO'biik),  a  wrong  translation  of 
the  Heb.  *?V,  Ueb-ee',  signifying  Gazelle.  The 
roebuck  (Latin  cervus  caprtolus,  Heb.  "'^"T-- 
yaAh-moof^).  is  found  in  Palestine. 

It  is  in  the  A.V.  translated  "fallow  deer"  (Deut. 
xivis;  I  Kings  iv;23).  While  it  seems  to  have 
been  common  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  it  is  now 
found  but  rarely  in  Carmel  and  in  the  woods  of 
Gilead.     (See  Antelope.) 


BOOELIH  (ro-gS'lim),  (Heb. 


B'ba-i 


ro-gel-ei 


.u..t.  =  place),  the  home  of  Bariillal  in  Gilead, 
The  Bite  is  unknown  (1  Sam.  xviiia?;  xix:3i).  The 
same  word  occurs  as  En-Rogel. 

BOHOAS  (rOh'gah),  (Heb,  '^JH^,  ro-hag-at^, 
outcry),  son  of  Shamer,  of  Asher,  and  fifth  in 
descent  from  that  patriarch  (i  Chron.  vii:34).  B.  C 
about  1658. 


ROLL 


1478 


ROMAN  EMPIRE 


BOLL  (r5l),  (Heb.  ^^?^,  meg-il-law' :  ^^,  sef- 

mr't  a  book,  as  elsewhere  rendered;  T^^?,  ghil-law- 
yone\  a  tablet^  Is.  viii:i). 

Books  in  ancient  times  were  prepared  in  the 
form  of  long  rolls,  twelve  or  fourteen  inches 
wide»  and  fastened  at  each  end  to  sticks  (like 
the  rollers  to  which  maps  are  attached),  and 
which  were  rolled  together  till  they  met  midway. 
Sometimes  these  leaves  were  connected  in  the 
form  of  modern  books,  and  opened  in  the  same 
way.  In  this  case  the  sheets  were  fastened  to 
rods,  and  these  rods  passed  through  rings,  and 
thus  formed  the  back  of  the  book. 

The  writing  was  generally  in  capital  letters 
and  without  punctuation  or  division  «of  words; 
and  when  used  the  reader  unrolled  the  manu- 
script as  far  as  the  place  which  he  wished  to  find, 
and  kept  before  him  just  so  much  as  he  would 
read.     (See  Book;  Writing.) 

ROLLER  (rol'er),  (Heb.  bvin,  khit'tooV,  ban- 
dage, Ezek.  XXX  :2 1 ),  so-called  from  being  wrapped 
around  a  fractured  limb. 

ROIiLING  THINO  (rSl'Ing  thing),  (Heb.  ^'t>h 

^^/-^a/'),  translated  "wheel"  in  Ps.  Ixxxiii:i3;  Is. 
v:28;  Ezek.  x:2,  6. 

It  is  rendered  in  R.  V.  "whirlwind"  in  Ps. 
Ixxvii:i8.  In  Is.  xvii:i3  it  is  translated  "like  a 
rolling  thing  before  the  whirlwind."  Thomson, 
Land  and  Book,  p.  357-358,  says:  "I  have  long 
suspected  that  this  wild  artichoke  is  the  gaigal^ 
which,  in  Ps.  lxxxiii:M,  is  rendered  wheel,  and  in 
Isaiah  xvii:i3,  a  rolling  thing.  Evidently  our 
translators  knew  not  what  to  call  it.  The  first 
passage  reads  thus:  "O  my  God,  make  them  like 
a  wheel— ^<i^^/— as  the  stubble  before  the  wind"; 
and  the  second,  "Rebuke  them,  and  they  shall 
flee  far  off,  and  shall  be  chased  as  the  cnaff  of 
the  mountains  before  the  wind,  and  like  a  roll- 
ing thing— ^(fiijfa/— before  the  whirlwind."  Now 
from  the  nature  of  the  parallelism,  the  galgal 
cannot  be  a  "wheel,"  but  something  correspond- 
ing to  chaff.  It  must  also  be  something  that  does 
not  fly  like  the  chaff,  but,  in  a  striking  manner, 
rolls  before  the  wind.  The  signification  oi  gal- 
gal in  Hebrew,  and  its  equivalent  in  other  She- 
mitic  dialects,  requires  this,  and  this  rolling  arti- 
choke meets  the  case  most  emphatically,  and  es- 
pecially when   it  rolls  before  the  whirlwind.    * 

♦  ♦  ♦  The  extraordinary  behavior  of  this 
"rolling  thing"  riveted  my  attention.  Hundreds  of 
these  globes,  all  bounding  like  gazelles  in  one 
direction  over  the  desert,  would  suddenly  wheel 
short  round  at  the  bidding  of  a  counter-blast, 
and  dash  away  with  equal  speed  on  their  new 
course.  An  Arab  proverb  addresses  this  "rolling 
thing''  thus :  "Ho !  'akkub,  where  do  you  put  up 
to-night?"  to  which  it  answers  as  it  flies,  "Where 
the  wind  puts  up."  They  also  derive  one  of  their 
many  forms  of  cursing  from  this  plant :  "May 
you  be  whirled,  like  the  'akkub.  before  the  wind, 
until  you  are  caught  in  the  thorns,  or  plunged 
into  the  sea."  If  this  is  not  the  "wheel"  of  David 
and  the  "rolling  thing"  of  Isaiah,  from  which  they 
also  borrowed  their  imprecations  upon  the 
wicked,  I  have  seen  nothing  in  the  country  to 
suggest  the  comparison. 

BOKAMTI  -  EZEB    (ro-mam'tY-e'zer),    (Heb. 

"^.J?  "I?^^"!,    rO'fnam*tee'eh*2er,     I    have    exalted 

help),  son  of  Heman  and  chief  of  the  24th  division 
of  singers  in  the  temple  in  David's  time  (i  Chron. 
XXV  :4,  31),  B.  C.  about  1014. 

ROMAN  (r5'mmi),  (Gr. 'Pw/iatbt,  hro-mah' yos\2i 
citizen  of  the  Roman  empire  (John  311:48;  Acts 


ii:io;  xvi:2i,  37,  38;  xxii:25-29;  xxiii:27;  xxv:i6; 

xxviii:i7). 

ROMAN  EMPIBE  (r5'm^n  Sm'plr),  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Romans  as  conducted  by  the 
emperors,  of  whom  Augustus  was  the  first. 

The  term  may  be  taken  with  some  latitude  of 
meaning,  as  representing  the  Roman  state  since 
the  Romans  came  into  contact  with  the  Jews  be- 
fore the  commencement  of  the  imperial  sway. 
We  have,  however,  no  intention  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  the  rise,  progress,  and  decline  of  the 
Roman  power,  but  merely  to  set  forth  a  few  of 
the  more  essential  facts,  speaking  a  little  less 
briefly  of  the  relations  formed  and  sustained  be- 
tween the  Romans  and  the  Jews. 

(1)  Belations  with  Jews.  The  proconsuls, 
propraetors,  and  propraetorial  lieutenants,  when 
about  to  proceed  into  their  several  provinces,  re- 
ceived instructions  for  their  guidance  from  the 
emperor;  and  in  cases  in  which  these  were  found 
insufficient  they  were  to  apply  for  special  direc- 
tions to  the  imperial  head  of  the  state.  A  speci- 
men of  such  application  may  be  found  in  Pliny's 
letter  to  Trajan,  with  the  emperor's  rescript,  re- 
garding the  conduct  which  was  to  be  observed 
towards  the  already  numerous  and  rapidly  grow- 
ing sect  of  Christians.  The  administration  01  jus- 
tice, so  far  as  it  did  not  belong  to  the  province 
itself,  was  in  the  governor  or  lieutenants  assem- 
bled in  a  conventus;  an  appeal  lay  from  this 
court  to  the  proconsul,  and  from  him  to  Caesar. 
Criminal  justice  was  wholly  in  the  hands  of  the 
local  governor,  and  extended  not  only  over  the 
provincials,  but  the  Roman  citizens  as  well;  in 
important  cases  the  governers  applied  for  a  deci- 
sion to  the  emperor.  As  the  Romans  carefully 
abstained  from  making  any  changes  in  religious 
matters,  so  in  Palestine  the  judgfing  of  crimes 
against  religion  was  left  by  them  to  the  high- 
priest  and  the  Sanhedrim,  even  so  far  as  condem- 
nation to  death ;  but  the  execution  of  the  sentence 
depended  on  the  procurator  (Joseph.  Antiq.  xx, 
9,  I ;  Mark  xiv:53,  55,  62-65 ;  John  xviii  :3i).  The 
Jews,  at  least  during  the  time  covered  b^  the 
Gospels,  enjoyed  the  free  exercise  of  their  re- 
ligion. They  had  their  synagogues  or  temples  of 
public  worship,  where  they  served  God  without 
molestation,  streaming  thither  at  their  great  fes- 
tivals from  all  parts  of  the  land,  and  making 
what  offerings  or  contributions  they  pleased. 

They  had  their  high-priests,  council  or  senate, 
and  inflicted  lesser  punishments;  they  could  ap- 
prehend men  and  bring  them  before  the  council; 
and  if  a  guard  of  soldiers  was  needful  could  be 
assisted  by  them  upon  asking  the  governor  for 
them;  they  could  bind  men  and  keep  them  in  cus- 
tody; the  council  could  summon  witnesses,  take 
examinations,  and,  when  thev  had  any  capital 
offenders  carry  them  before  tne  governor.  This 
governor  usually  paid  a  regard  to  what  they  of- 
fered, and,  if  they  brought  evidence  of  the  fact, 
pronounced  sentence  according  to  their  laws.  He 
was  the  proper  judge  in  all  capital  causes. 

In  the  second  period,  the  Scriptures  do  not 
make  it  clear  that  there  was  any  Roman  officer  in 
Judaea.  In  the  main  the  condition  of  the  prov- 
ince was  not  dissimilar  to  what  it  was  in  the  first 
period.  The  case  of  Stephen,  who  was  stoned  to 
death,  may  seem  to  be  an  exception;  but  it  may 
be  considered  as  the  result  of  offended  bigotry 
and  of  the  outbreak  of  popular  fury. 

The  facts  connected  with  the  third  period  offer 
no  difficulty,  and  may  be  found  in  Acts  xii. 
Every  order  and  act  of  Herod,  here  mentioned — 
his  killing  James  with  the  sword,  imprisoning 
Peter  with  intent  to  bring  him  forth  to  the  peo- 
ple, commanding  the  keepers  to  be  put  to  death— 


ROMAN  EMPIRE 


1479 


ROMAN  EMPIRE 


are  undeniable  proofs  of  his  sovereign  authority 
at  this  time  in  Judaea. 

In  the  fourth  period  the  main  thing  is  the  treat- 
ment of  Paul  in  Judaea,  so  far  as  there  is  any 
appearance  of  legal  procedure.  The  case  was 
this:  A  man  was  in  danger  of  being  killed  in  a 
popular  tumult  in  Jerusalem;  a  Roman  officer 
rescues  him,  takes  him  into  his  own  hands,  and 
lodges  him  in  a  castle;  afterwards,  that  his  pris- 
oner might  be  safer,  he  removes  him  to  Caesarea, 
the  residence  of  the  governor,  before  whom  there 
are  divers  hearings.  There  was,  therefore,  at 
the  time  a  Roman  governor  in  Judea.  A  Jewish 
council  also  appears — one  not  void  of  authority. 
The  charge  was  of  a  religfious  nature,  yet  it  is 
heard  before  Felix  and  Festus,  whose  authority 
is  acknowledged  on  all  sides.  Paul  appealed  to 
the  Roman  emperor.  The  general  conclusion  is, 
that  if  causes  of  a  religious  nature  did  not  ex- 
clusively belong  to  the  Romans,  they  had  supreme 
power  over  the  Jews  in  civil  matters.  These  de- 
ductions, made  from  the  Evangelists  themselves, 
Lardner  corroborates  by  an  appeal  to  independent 
authorities,  namely,  the  opinions  of  Roman  law- 
yers concerning  the  power  of  the  governors  of 
provinces;  the  statements  of  historians  relating 
to  the  condition  of  Judaea  in  particular,  and  simi- 
lar information  touching  the  state  of  the  people 
in  other  provinces.  Before,  however,  we  speak  of 
the  connection  in  this  period  between  Rome  and 
Judaea,  we  must  go  back  a  little  in  order  to  show 
under  what  preliminary  circumstances  Judaea  be- 
came a  part  of  the  great  Roman  empire. 

(2)  Political  Contact.  The  Romans  and  Jews 
first  came  into  political  contact  about  B.  C.  i6i, 
when  Judas  Maccabaeus,  being  moved  by  the 
great  and  widely  spread  military  renown  of  the 
Romans,  sent  an  embassy  to  Rome,  and  formed 
with  them  a  treaty  offensive  and  defensive,  but 
with  the  special  view  of  obtaining  help  against 
'the  Grecians;*  that  is,  Demetrius,  king  of  Syria 
(i  Mace,  viii;  Joseph.  Antiq.  xii.  lo,  6;  Justin 
xxxvi.  3).  The  contests,  however,  which  soon 
ensued  in  Syria,  for  the  throne,  gave  the  Jews 
respite  from  their  neighbors,  and  even  weight  in 
the  political  scale,  so  that  the  treaty  was  not  much 
called  into  operation  (i  Mace.  x.  ii).  Jonathan 
renewed  and  confirmed  the  connection  with  the 
Romans  ( I  Mace,  xii;  Joseph.  Antiq.  xiii.  5,  8)  ; 
as  did  Simon,  who  'sent  Numenius  to  Rome  with 
a  great  shield  of  gold,  of  a  thousand  pounds 
weight,  to  confirm  the  league  with  them'  (i  Mace, 
xiv.  24).  A  very  favorable  answer  was  returned 
in  the  name  of  'Lucius,  consul  of  the  Romans.' 
The  Jews  thus  attained  the  honor  of  being  ad- 
mitted into  the  rank  of  friends  (socii)  of  the 
Roman  people — a  dangerous  distinction,  but  which 
seems  to  have  had  an  immediately  beneficial  in- 
fluence in  restraining  the  Syrian  kings,  who  at 
once  recognized  the  high-priest  Simon  (i  Mace, 
xiv.  38,  sq.;  xiv.  16,  sq.). 

Julius  Caesar,  whom  political  considerations  led 
into  the  East,  confirmed  Hyrcanus  in  the  high 
priesthood,  and  showed  himself  well-disposed 
towards  the  Jews  by  several  decrees,  but  asso- 
ciated with  Hyrcanus  Antipater,  an  Idumaean, 
who,  under  the  title  of  procurator  of  Judaea,  was 
in  reality  the  sole  governor  (Antiq.  xiv.  10,  10; 
xiv.  8,  5).  The  Jews  were  anew  declared  friends 
of  the  Roman  people,  being  in  reality  their  sub- 
jects. 

(3)  Herod  Declared  King  of  the  Jews.  In 
the  year  B.  C.  40  the  Roman  senate  declared 
Herod  king  of  the  Jews.  Archelaus,  Herod's 
son,  being  banished  by  Au^stus  (A.  D.  6  or  7), 
Judaea  was  put  under  the  immediate  government 
of    Rome.     Josephus    says,    'The    dominion    of 


Archelaus  being  reduced  to  a  province,  Coponius, 
a  person  of  the  equestrian  order  among  the 
Romans,  is  sent  thither,  invested  by  Caesar  with 
the  power  of  life  and  death'  (De  Bell.  Jud.  ii  .8, 
l).  In  his  Antiquities  (xvii.  13,  5)  he  adds,  'Cyre- 
nius  also  came  into  Judaea,  it  being  annexed  to 
the  province  of  Syria.' 

The  procurators,  under  whom  Judaea  had  now 
fallen,  had  their  official  residence  at  Caesarea. 
When  Cyrenius  came  into  Syria  he  took  an  ac- 
count of  the  substance  of  the  Jews.  At  first  they 
were  unwilling  to  endure  this  badge  of  subjec- 
tion, but  submitted  with  difficulty  (Antiq.  xviii. 
I,  i).  From  this  time,  however,  they  continued 
tributary  to  Rome  (Lardner,  i.  80).  In  order  to 
enforce  the  taxes  and  generally  aid  the  procura- 
tor, a  body  of  Roman  soldiers  (a  cohort)  was 
put  at  his  disposal,  which  had  their  quarters  per- 
manently in  the  country,  their  head  station  being 
at  Caesarea.  In  Acts  x:i  mention  is  made  of  the 
Italian  band  at  Caesarea,  which  was  so  termed 
because  composed  of  Italian  soldiers,  while  the 
other  troops  in  Syria  and  Judaea  consisted  of 
natives  (Schwarz,  De  Cohort e  Italica,  Altorf, 
1720). 

A  portion  of  the  troops  was  always  stationed  in 
Jerusalem  at  the  Passover,  in  order  to  aid  in 
preserving  the  peace;  they  had  their  quarters  in 
the  citadel  Antonia,  which  commanded  the  Tem* 
pie,  and  so  controlled  the  city  (Antiq.  xix.  9,  2; 
XX.  4,  3;  Acts  xxi.  31,  sq.;  xxii.  24;  xxiii.  23). 

(4)  Procurators  of  Judaoa.  The  first  pro% 
curator  entrusted  with  the  government  of  Judaea 
was  Coponius;  he  was  followed  bjr  Marcus  Am- 
bivius;  then  came  Annius  Rufus,  in  whose  time 
Augustus  died,  A.  D.  14.  The  next  was  Valerius 
Gratus,  who  was  appointed  by  Tiberius ;  he  con- 
tinued in  the  province  eleven  years,  and  was  then 
succeeded  by  Pontius  Pilate,  whose  government 
lasted  ten  years.  Lardner  is  of  opinion  that  Pon- 
tius Pilate  left  Judaea  before  the  Passover,  A.  D. 
S6.  During  the  ensuing  four  or  five  years  it  may 
be  questioned  whether  the  Jews  had  a  procurator 
residing  amongst  them  with  power  of  life  and 
death,  as  they  had  from  A.  D.  7  to  A.  D.  36 
or  37.  They  were,  however,  subject  to  the 
Romans.  Lardner  inclines  to  the  opinion  that 
they  had  no  procurator  residing  among  them 
from  the  time  of  Pilate's  removal  to  Agrippa's 
accession.  During  this  time  they  were  imme- 
diately under  the  government,  first  of  Vitellius, 
and  then  of  Petronius,  presidents  of  Syria. 

(5)  Treatment  of  Chrlstiaiis.  Hence  some 
degree  of  license  would  be  assumed  by  the  Jew- 
ish authorities,  which  was  manifested  in  their 
treatment  of  the  first  Christian  missionaries,  as 
shown  in  the  stoning  of  Stephen,  and  the  perse- 
cution which  immediately  broke  out.  In  Acts  ix : 
31  a  different  state  of  things  is  recorded — 'Then 
had  the  churches  rest  throughout  all  Judaea,  and 
Galilee,  and  Samaria.'  This  appears  to  have 
arisen  from  the  Jews  themselves  being  in  distress. 
In  Alexandria  their  houses  of  prayer  were  all  de- 
stroyed. In  the  third  year  of  Caligula,  A.  D.  39, 
Petronius  was  sent  into  S3rria  with  orders  to  set 
up  the  emperor's  statue  in  the  Temple  at  Jerusa- 
lem. This  rest  of  the  churches  seems  to  have 
reached  some  way  into  Herod  Agrippa's  reign. 
When  he  ascended  the  Jewish  throne,  as  we  have 
already  intimated,  the  Jews  had  a  king  of  their 
own,  but  he  was  a  vassal  king. 

(6)  Boman  Customs.  The  Romans,  during 
their  dominion,  introduced  into  Judaea  many  of 
their  manners  and  customs;  their  money  be- 
came current;  their  weights  and  measures  were 
adopted;  their  mode  of  reckoning  time  was  cm- 


ROMAN  RELIGION  1* 

ployed.  Yet  none  of  these  things  obtained  more 
than  partial  prevalence. 

(7)  Latin  lAn^ase.    The  Latin  language  no 

longer  remained  unknown,  especially  among  the 
higher  classes.  In  judicial  proceedings  and  pub- 
lic documents  the  Latin  was  used.  It  must  have 
been  extensively  spoken  in  Jerusalem,  since 
(John  xix;20)  the  tille  which  bore  the  allegation 
on  which  our  Lord  was  ostensibly  put  to  death 
was  written  in  Latin,  as  well  as  in  Greek  and 
Hebrew  (Val.  Max.  ii.  2,  a).  These  three  tongues 
were  indeed  used,  but  in  what  proportion  cannot 
now  be  ascertained.  Many  Latinisms  are  found 
in  the  diction  of  the  New  Testament,  though  they 
may  not  be  so  numerous  as  was  once  supposed 
(Olearius,  De  Stylo  N.  T.,  p.  368,  sq.;  Georgi,  in 
the  second  part  of  his  Hieroerit.  N.  T.,  Viterb. 
1733;  Michaelis,  Einieit.  N.  T.,  i.  173.  sq.;  Winer, 
Grammatik  des  Real  Sprach.,  ed.  Leipzig,  1844, 
Erst.  Abschnitl).  The  language  which  our  Lord 
spoke  has  been  much  disputed.  The  Latin 
(Wernsdorf,  De  Christo  Latine  toguente)  has  put 
in  its  claim.  The  Greek  has  done  the  same  (D. 
Diodaii,  De  Christo  Grace  loquenie,  by  Dobbin, 
London,  1843) .  There  can,  however,  be  little 
doubt  that  he  ordinarily  employed  the  language 
of  the  people,  which  .was  neither  Greek  nor  Latin, 
but  Aramaic,  a  dialect  of  the  Hebrew. 

(8)  Jewlali  Freedom.  Not  only  in  Judsea,  but 
in  other  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  Jews 
enjoyed  full  freedom  of  worship,  and  were 
excused  from  military;  service  on  the  express 
ground  of  their  religious  observances  (Joseph. 
Antiq.  xiv.  10;  xix.  5,  3;  Philo.  De  Leg.  p.  1036). 
In  Alexandria  special  favor  was  shown  to  the 
numerous  Jews  settled  there  by  their  Roman  mas- 

The  right  of  citizenship  is  spoken  of  in  Acts 
xxii:28,  where  we  find  the  chief  captain  declar- 
ing, in  relation  to  Paul's  claim  of  being  a  Roman, 
'With  a  great  sum  obtained  I  this  freedom.'  In 
the  preceding  twenty-fifth  verse  we  learn  that  it 
was  unlawful  to  scourge  'a  man  that  was  a 
Roman,  and  uncondemned.'  These  statements 
are  in  strict  accordance  with  what  we  learn  from 
independent  sources.     (See  Citizenship.) 

(9)  Litornture.  Arnold's  History  of  Rome 
and  standard  histories.  Much  information  may 
be  found  by  the  English  reader,  on  the  state  of 
manners  in  the  first  centuries  after  Christ,  in  the 
following  fictions;  Lockhart's  Valerius;  Bulwer's 
Pompeii;  Ware's  Palmyra;  and  Milman's  His- 
tory of  Christianity.  J.  R.  B. 

BOIUN  BBIilOION  (rO'mon  rS-Uj'fln). 

The  Romans  distinguished  their  own  divinities 
as  Gods  of  Heaven,  Gods  of  Earth,  and  Gods 
of  the  Underworld,  and  in  that  order  let  us 
conside'  them. 

(1)  The  Qoda  of  Heaven.  The  Romans,  like 
all  their  kindred  races,  inherited  from  their  Indo- 
Germanic  forefathers  the  germs  out  of  which 
their  own  religion  grew ;  nature- worship,  ances- 
tor-worship, animism,  totemism — all  were  Ihfre, 
developed  in  Italy's  peculiar  way  and  involved  in 
Rome's  minute  legal  ritualism.  While  the  Greek 
religion,  in  aecordance  with  the  character  of  the 
people,  developed  in  the  direction  of  beauty, 
poetry,  art,  humanity,  the  Roman  religion,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  character  of  that  people,  de- 
veloped in  the  direction  of  the  practical  and 
formal,  of  law  and  politics.  The  old  Roman 
was  wholly  lacking  in  poetry  and  imagination; 
he  was  too  serious,  too  devoted  to  "busine.^s ;" 
and  so,  while  we  have  a  distinctively  Roman 
religion,  we  have  no  Roman  theogony.  cosmog- 
ony, or  mythology,  until  these  were  imported 
from  Greece. 


0  ROMAN  RELIGION 

The  Romans  had  originally  no  system  of 
(twelve)  Great  Gods ;  and  when  we  Rnd  such  a 
system  formulated,  it  is  due  to  Greek  influence. 
The  first  mention  of  Twelve  Great  Gods  in  Italy 
was  contained  in  the  Sybiltine  Books;  and  even 
in  Greece  such  a  grouping  is  comparatively  late, 
for  it  is  not  known  in  Homer.  From  the  prece- 
dence of  the  different  priests  in  Rome  we  discover 
that  the  greatest  deities  were,  in  the  order  of 
rank,  Janus,  Jupiter,  Mars,  Quirinus,  Vesta;  and 
so  the  general  form  for  prayers  begins  with  Janus 
and  ends  with  Vesta.  According  to  that,  the 
highest  god  of  Rome  was  originally  not  Jupiter, 
but  Janus.  This  old  Sun-god,  as  his  name  (de- 
rived, like  Dyaus,  Zeus  and  Jupiter,  from  div, 
"to  shine")  implies,  was  originally  the  Bright 
One;  he  was  the  "Oldest' god,"  the  "Beginning  of 
All  Things,"  the  "Creator."  In  the  form  of 
prayers  he  is  named  before  Jupiter,  the  father 
of  Lights,  the  Bright  Sky.  But  these  Iwo  were 
in  nature  and  being  so  closely  akin  that  the 
one  must  in  time  yield  to  the  other;  and  so 
when  Janus  became  supplanted  in  part  by  his 
great  rival,  Jupiter,  as  the  protector  of  united 
Rome,  he  passed  into  story  as  the  first  king  of 
Italy,  the  beginning  of  Italian  history  and  tradi- 
tion, while  Jupiter,  as  Oplimus  Maximus,  "the 
Highest  and  Best,"  continued  as  the  center  of  the 
Roman  state  religion. 


The  female  counterpart  of  Jonas  was  Jana 
(identical  with  Diana,  likewise  from  div,  "to 
shine"),  the  great  light  of  the  night.  Janus  and 
Jana,  Jupiter  and  Juno,  Saturnus  and  Ops,  Mars 
and  Vesia,  Faunus  and  Vedius — these  were  the 
original  greater  gods  of  the  Romans,  After  the 
tinion  with  the  Sabines,  there  were  added  the 
gods  of  the  Sabines :  Quirinus,  Saticus,  Sol,  Luna, 


ROMAN  RELIGION 


1481 


ROMAN  RELIGION 


Flora,  Minerva  (who  was  only  the  "function"  of 
thinking),  and  a  host  of  abstractions  like  For- 
tuna,  "Fortune,"  Fama,  "Fame,"  Fides,  "Faith." 
etc.  From  the  time  of  Tarquin  on,  the  three  gods 
of  the  Capitoline  were  grouped  into  a  great  trin- 
ity, Jupiter  Optimus  Maximus^Juno  ^nA  Minerva, 
corresponding  to  the  Homeric  Trinity  {Zeus, 
Apollo  and  Athena), 

Gods  unmodifiedly  Roman  in  almost  every  fea- 
ture, and  suggestive  of  the  simple  old  agfricul- 
tural  life,  were  Mars  and  Vesta,  Mars  {mar, 
"shiiie,  be  bright"),  the  god  of  the  spring-time, 
to  whom  March  and  April  were  sacred,  a  sun-god 
like  the  Greek  Apollo,  whose  influence  was  now 
blissful,  now  baleful,  was  a  great  tribal  god  of 
primeval  Italy,  patron  of  agriculture,  herding, 
colonization,  war,  and  with  the  Capitoline  trin- 
itv,  the  real  national  god  of  Rome.  The  Latin 
Mars,  with  his  cult  upon  the  Palatine,  was  iden- 
tical with  the  Sabine  Quirinus,  whose  temple 
adorned  the  Quirinal ;  but  when  Quirinus  became 
identified  with  Romulus,  he  sank  into  the  rank 
of  a  demigod  subordinate  to  Mars;  and  when  the 
Hellenizing  came,  Mars  was  identified  with  Ares, 
Quirinus  with  Enyalius. 

His  female  counterpart  was  Venus,  "the 
Lovely,"  the  goddess  of  the  spring-time,  of  the 
gardens,  of  the  starting  buds  and  flowers,  and 
the  promise  of  fruits  and  increase;  her  later 
development  into  the  goddess  of  feminine  charms, 
of  love  and  pleasure,  and  her  identification  with 
Aphrodite,  were  quite  natural. 

But  even  more  deeply  rooted  in  the  patriotic 
hearts  of  the  people  was  the  worship  of  Vesta, 
As  Vulcan  was  usually  the  wild,  untamed,  de- 
structive power  of  fire,  so  Vesta  (vas,  "burn," 
not  vas,  "to  dwell")  was  the  beneficent,  civilizing 
force  of  fire — the  fundamental  principal  of  the 
home  life.  She  is  the  goddess  of  pttrity,  and 
purity  was  the  essence  of  her  cult ;  and  she,  with 
Vulcan,  the  Lares  and  Penates,  makes  up  the 
circle  of  the  home  gods  whose  altar  was  the 
hearth  and  to  whom  the  family  prayers  were 
addressed. 

In  the  case  of  some  of  their  gods  the  Romans 
purposely  concealed  their  names;  in  the  case  of 
ail  the  gn'c^ter  S^ds  the  names  are  so  mysterious 
that  we  can  gain  but  little  help  from  them :  e.  g., 
Janus  and  Jana,  Jupiter  and  Juno  are  simply 
"the  Bright,  the  Heavenly  Ones;"  Faunus  and 
Fauna  (fay,  "favor"'),  "the  Good,  the  Kindly 
Ones."  With  such  indefiniteness  and  imperson- 
ality it  is  no  wonder  that  the  whole  theology  was 
so  readily  Hellenized.  The  god's  nature  was  ex- 
pressed only  when  he  received  an  epithet  or  "by- 
name:" Jupiter  Tonans  {the  thunder er),  Jupiter 
Victor,  Jupiter  Siator,  Imferator,  Triumphator, 
Urbis  Custos  (guardian  of  the  city),  and  three 
hundred  more  by  which  Jupiter  is  characterized 
rather  than  understood. 

All  these  greater  gods  were  at  first  personifica- 
tions of  the  forces  of  nature,  but  later  they  became 
something  more.  While  they  continued  to  repre- 
sent the  physical  world,  they  were  also  busied  with 
regulating  and  directing  human  life ;  they  became 
the  defenders  of  law  and  justice,  bringing  pros- 
perity or  adversity,  rewardmg  the  good  and  ijun- 
ishing  the  bad.  Jupiter  was  the  god  of  the  bright 
skies,  Diespiter,  "the  Father  of  Lights,"  but  he 
was  also  the  upholder  of  equity,  on  whom  the 
stability  of  the  state  depended.  The  Fatherhood 
of  God  was  an  omnipresent  thought  to  the  Ro- 
mans as  they  prayed  to  Janus  Pater,  Ju-piter, 
Liber  Pater,  Mars-piter,  etc. 

But,  on  the  whole,  the  Roman  gods  were 
merely  abstractions  or  functions,  endowed  with 
just  enough  personality  to  give  them  sex,  but 


not  enough  to  systematize  them  into  a  family  or 
families;  they  were  not  quite  personal  gods,  but 
rather  divine  entities  (numina,  "powers").  There 
was  no  limit  to  the  number  of  such  "functional 
deities."  Every  object,  animate  or  inanimate, 
every  idea,  abstract  or  concrete,  became  endowed 
with  a  spirit  of  its  own.  The  religion  of  Rome 
was  a  pandaemonism,  "a  belief,  not  in  one  god, 
pervading  all  nature  and  identified  with  nature, 
but  in  millions  of  gods,  a  god  for  every  object, 
every  act."  For  they  had  a  separate  divinity  not 
only  for  every  object,  but  fcM-  every  possible  hu- 
man action  or  condition  or  experience  from  the 
cradle  to  the  grave. 

(2)  The  Ck)ds  of  Earth.  The  chief  trait  of  the 
religion  of  Rome  is  this  universal  animism  of  nat- 
urism.  To  the  Roman  mind  each  phenomenon  of 
nature  and  of  life,  everything  that  exists,  abstract 
or  concrete,  seemed  pervaded  by  its  special  deity, 
its  peculiar  genius.  In  the  heavens  above  him 
he  saw  a  powerful  but  distant  god  and  protector, 
Jupiter,  the  Father  of  Lights;  in  the  unfolding 
of  the  flower,  the  opening  of  the  day,  the  clearing 
of  the  sky,  as  in  the  begmning  of  any  human  en- 
terprise, he  saw  the  working  of  his  god  Janus, 
But  these  great  gods  of  heaven  were  remote 
from  the  heart  of  mankind;  the  people  felt  in- 
significant in  their  presence,  and  sought  for 
humbler,  more  familiar  deities,  whom  they  found 
in  unlimited  numbers  inhabiting  the  world  imme- 
diately about  them. 

Another  striking  characteristic  of  the  Roman, 
in  his  religion  as  in  ever3rthing  else,  was  his  prac- 
tical, utilitarian  trend.  The  "spirits"  were  every- 
where about  him;  but  the  divinities  of  mountain 
or  ocean  were  of  little  concern  to  him,  as  com- 
pared with  the  powers  that  might  help  or  hinder 
his  every  act  in  life — the  Genii,  the  Lares  and 
Penates. 

Intermediate  between  gods  and  men  was  the 
Genius,  or  Spirit,  of  each  individual  man,  or 
object,  or  locality.  This  Genius  was  conceived 
as  a  product  of  deity,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  procreator  of  the  man,  now  his  spiritual 
counterpart,  and  again  his  ^ardian  angel.  The 
Genius  is  a  divine,  life-originating  power,  and  is 
alsOjperhaps,  the  self-perpetuating  principle  of  the 
family;  in  his  very  nature  as  the  self-preserving 
and  procreating  principle,  he  belongs  only  to  men ; 
his  symbol  was  originally  the  serpent,  and  he  was 
guardian  of  the  marriage-bed.  Women  had  thejr 
Junos  instead  of  the  Genius.  The  Genius  was, 
therefore,  the  man's  own  god,  and  to  him  sacri- 
fice was  offered.  This  made  an  easy  step  to  the 
worship  of  the  Genius  of  departed  members  of 
the  family,  which  had  its  culmination  in  im- 
perial times  in  the  deification  of  the  emperors. 

Of  kindred  nature  was  the  Lar  Familiaris  or 
household  god,  whose  worship  formed  the  most 
important  part  of  the  religion  of  the  home.  So 
closely,  indeed,  was  he  connected  with  the  idea 
of  home  that  the  word  lar  itself  came  to  signify 
"home."  The  real  nature  of  the  Lar  (or  plural, 
LMres)  it  is  hard  to  discover,  because  of  the 
slightness  of  Roman  tradition  in  regard  to  all 
their  gods.  Not  being  fixed  by  tradition  and  lit- 
erature, many  of  them  changed  greatly  in  the 
course  of  time.  But  the  iMr  Familiaris  seems  to 
be  the  presiding  spirit  or  deity  of  the  family.  His 
are  the  family  concerns;  he  goes  with  them,  if 
they  move.  Sometimes  it  is  one  iMr  (i.  e..  Lord)  ; 
but  more  frequently  the  word  is  plural,  especially 
in  the  later  period.  The  L^res  are  present  at  the 
family  meals  and  are  themselves  served  with  a 
portion  of  the  meat  and  drjnk.  Libation  and  in- 
cense are  their  approved  portion,  while  on  holi- 
days their  images  were  crowned  with  flowers  and 


ROMAN  RELIGION  14 

sometimes  the  sacrifice  of  a  pig  was  offered  them. 
Another  conception  gives  us  the  Lares  of  the  fam- 
ily as  its  departed  ancestors,  themselves  perform- 
ing for  it  the   same  functions  as  did   the  Lar 

Familiaris. 

Besides  the  Lares  of  individual  families  there 
were,  closely  related  to  them  in  general  character, 
the  Lares  Compitales,  worshiped  in  the  country 
at  every  crossroad.  They  were  the  especial  guar- 
dians of  the  neighborhood  immediately  around. 
There  were  two  in  each  place,  and  they  were 
honored  with  shrines ;  their  worship  was  merry 
and  was  shared  in  by  the  poorest  and  humblest; 
slaves  and  thei;.  masters  met  there  on  equal 
terms. 

Always  reckoned  with  the  Lares  in  the  house- 
hold worship  were  the  Penates,  or  gods  of  the 
household  goods  that  were  stored  away  in  the 
great  store-chamber  (cella  penaria)  of  the  house. 
The  office  of  the  Penates  was  to  crown  the  house 
with  blessings,  to  provide  the  daily  bread.  The 
hearth  was  their  altar,  shared  with  them  by 
Vesla  and  Lares;  and  close  by  it  stood  t-heir 
images — always  two  in  number,  as  their  name  is 
always  plural ;  (he  singular  of  the  name  does  not 
occur.  Indeed,  the  real  name  of  these  divinities, 
as  the  real  name  of  the  guardian  genius  of  the 
Roman  city  was  never  spoken,  for  fear  that  an 
enemy  might  hear  it  and  win  away  the  favor  of 
theproteciing  powers. 

Tne  Lares  and  Penates  together  were  the  guar- 
dians of  the  fortunes  of  the  individual  family. 
But  the  great  Roman  Family,  the  stale,  had  its 
Public  Lares  and  Public  Penates,  as  it  had  its 
Public  Genius  of  the  Roman  People.  The  Public 
Lares  provided  for  (he  stability  of  (he  state  as  a 
whole;  their  altar  was  the  state  hearth,  and  their 
priest  was  (he  Pontifex  Maximus. 

In  the  same  way  the  Public  Penates  were  the 
Genii  who  presided  over  the  material  goods  of 
the  sta(e  as  a  whole,  the  symbol  of  the  unity  and 
good  fortune  of  that  supreme  household  which 
included  all  Rome.  To  them  the  consuls,  prsetors 
and  dictators  made  sacrifice  when  they  took  their 
oath  of  office  and  again  when  they  laid  their 
office  down. 

In  addition  to  these,  we  have  as  Gods  of  Earth 
all  the  rural  deities,  Silvanus,  "Forest -god"; 
Limpa  (or  Graecized,  Lympha),  "Stream-god- 
dess," while  each  forest  had  its  own  peculiar  Sil- 
vanus and  each  stream  its  own  Limpa;  also  Ter- 
minus, the  "Boundary-god,"  and  all  the  host  of 
the  gods  of  the  indigilamenia,  even  to  name  whom 
with  the  signification  of  their  names  would  ex- 
ceed the  limit  of  our  article. 

But  there  were  also  greater  gods  of  earth  than 
these,  albeit  even  these  greater  ones  were  only 
functional  deilies,  foo.  The  old  Italians  were  an 
agricultural  race.  They  had  observed  the  double 
nature  of  the  earth,  the  generating  and  the  pro- 
ducing powers.  Accordingly  the  Gods  of  Earth 
appear  as  male  and  female :  Salurnus,  (he  God  of 
sowing,  and  Ops,  (he  Goddess  of  the  rich  harvest; 
Tellumo,  the  generating  force,  and  Tellus,  (he 
conceiving,  nursing  power  of  the  Earth;  while 
Ceres,  as  her  name  implies  (from  the  same  root 
as  crescere,  "grow,"  and  cre-are,  "create"),  was 
nothing  more  or  less  than  the  female  productive 
function  of  Mo(her  Earth.  It  was  she,  above 
all  others,  whom  they  worshiped  for  rich  crops 
and  increase  of  plant  and  animal  wealth. 

The  sphere  of  the  functional  deities  frequently 
became  more  extended.  So  Saturnus,  who  was 
originally  god  of  sowing  only,  came  to  be  also 
the  gnd  of  agriculture  m  its  widest  sense.  In 
this  larger  capacity  he  became  the  mythical  in- 
ventor of  agriculture,  and  dweh  among  men,  and 


2  ROMAN  RELIGION 

his  reign  on  earth  was  the  happy  golden  age.  So 
his  festival,  the  Saturnalia,  December  17-24, 
marked  the  renewal  of  natnre,  the  feast  of  free- 
dom and  plenty — a  return  to  (he  golden  age,  when 
all  human  beings  were  free  and  equal  and  happy. 
It  was  a  season  of  rejoicing,  of  feasting,  and  of 
giving  gifts.  No  wonder  that  out  of  it  grew  our 
Christmas  celebrations — dolls,  candles,  nuts  and 
all. 

Ops,  Ceres,  Tellus,  Terra  Mater,  Dea  Dia  (the 
bright  goddess),  Bona  Dea  (the  good  goddess), 
and  many  more  are  simply  so  many  i 
of  the  fostering  Mother  Earth. 


(3)  Th«  Oods  of  the  tTnderwoTld.  As  the  Ro- 
man religion  had  no  bright  Olympus  as  home  of  the 
ever-blessed  gods,  so  also  it  had  no  gloomy  Hades 
with  its  dark,  dank  ways.  The  poets'  picture  of 
the  underworld,  with  its  rivers,  its  Elysium  and 
Its  Tartarus,  is  thoroughly  Greek.  But  the  Ro- 
mans did  riOt  fail  to  recognize  the  secret  powers 
working  beneath  the  earth,  making  the  seed  to 
grow  and  affording  an  abiding  place  to  the  souls 
of  the  dead. 

As  the  bodies  of  the  dead  were  laid  away  in 
the  grave,  that  was  their  dwelling-place.  And 
from  this  conception  of  the  individual  grave  the 
notion  of  a  common  home  for  all  was  naturally 
developed — subterranean,  dark,  like  the  grave 
itself.  The  souls  of  the  dead  were  divine;  they 
were  gods,  and  their  dwelling-place  was  holy, 
inviolate,  like  any  other  temple.  But  as  the  tem- 
ple was  the  dwelling-place  of  the  god,  while  he 
himself  was  omnipresent,  so  it  was  also  with  the 
grave  and  with  the  disembodied  spirit,  which 
dwelt,  not  with  the  body  in  the  grave,  hut  in  the 
world  below,  moving  at  times  also  in  the  world 
above.  It  was  universal  belief  that  the  life  there 
was  but  a  continuation  of  the  life  here.  Accord- 
ingly, ^ifts  of  food,  drink,  weapons,  tools,  cloth- 
ing, toilet -articles,  and  in  the  older  times  slaves 
and  wives,  accompanied  the  departing  souls. 
Gods  also  they  must  have.    And  they  had  them 


ROMAN  RELIGION 


1483 


ROMAN  RELIGION 


— gods  in  form  and  nature  as  indistinct  as  any 
of  those  above.  The  only  male  god  is  Orcus 
(Dis  Pater  is  foreign,  and  his  name  is  but  a 
translation  of  the  Greek  Pluto,  the  god  of  hidden 
riches);  he  is  the  personification  of  the  might 
of  death  and  is  king  of  the  underworld;  while 
Lara,  Larunda,  Mater  Larum,  "the  Mother  of 
the  Lares,"  Terra  Mater,  "Mother  Earth,"  are 
only  the  motherly  attendants  of  the  souls  of  the 
dead — all  of  them  but  so  many  different  names 
for  kindly  Mother  Earth. 

The  well-being  of  the  souls  below  depended 
upon  the  manner  in  which  they  and  their  gods 
were  honored  by  their  surviving  kindred.  Ac- 
cordingly some  worship  was  due  those  gods,  but 
far  more  important  were  the  divine  honors  paid 
to  the  Manes,  the  pure,  the  bright,  the  good,  the 
disembodied  souls  themselves.  Herein  we  find 
among  the  Romans  an  unmistakable  evidence  for 
ancestor  worship.  The  dejparted  soul  was  a  god ; 
hence  the  appellation  Dti  Manes,  "the  Bright 
Gods,"  and  Dii  Parentes,  "Parental  Gods." 

Their  service  consisted  in  sacrificial  offerings, 
prayer,  and  in  general,  due  meed  of  reverence 
from  the  surviving  members  of  their  own  house- 
hold ;  if  these  were  withheld,  horrors  of  the  night 
might  in  consequence  visit  tihe  offender,  sickness 
and  death  would  be  his  portion.  Another  ex- 
pression of  their  worsh^)  is  found  in  the  great 
festivals  in  honor  of  the  Dii  Inferi,  "Nether  Gods" 
— ^the  Secular  Games,  the  Ludi  Terentini,  Ludi 
Taurii,  the  Dies  Parentales  (an  all-souls*  feast, 
February  13-21)  ;  and  this  cult  was  also  responsi- 
ble for  the  institution  of  the  gladiatorial  exhibi- 
tions. An  awful  feature  of  their  cult  was  the 
ancient  devotio,  a  vow  to  the  powers  of  the  un- 
derworld which  meant  the  death  and  total  destruc- 
tion of  an  enemy,  public  or  private. 

The  counterpart  of  the  Dii  Manes,  "the  Bright 
Ones,"  were  the  souls  which  never  reached  the 
spirit-realm — souls  of  men  whose  bodies  were  not 
properly  buried,  of  suicides,  of  murderers,  and 
of  the  murdered.  These  remained  on  earth  as 
ghosts  and  goblins.  Larvae  and  Lemures,  to  haunt 
and  torment  the  wicked  and  to  be  propitiated  by 
the  good. 

Even  the  good  spirits  could  come  back  to  earth 
on  the  gfreat  feast  days  of  the  dead,  when  the 
gates  of  the  lower  world  were  opened  for  them, 
and  necromancy  might  conjure  them  up  at  any 
time. 

(4)  Temples  and  Priests.  At  first  the  Roman 
religion  had  no  image,  no  temple,  and  no  or- 
dained priest.  The  gods  were  spirits,  approach- 
able alike  to  their  greatest  and  their  humblest 
servants ;  their  sanctuaries  were  the  sun-lit  moun- 
tain-tops, the  devious  streams,  the  broad  forest, 
the  familiar  flame.  Groves,  above  all,  were  sacred 
places,  wherein  dwelt  the  spirit  of  the  god  and 
the  spirits  of  deified  ancestors;  and  there  the 
worshiper  came  from  sacrifice,  for  prayer  and  for 
holy  meditation.  The  chief  sanctuary  of  Jupiter 
even  in  Romulus'  days,  was  the  great  oak  tree 
that  crowned  the  Capitoline.  Many  of  the  old 
trees  and  groves  continued  in  veneration  even 
into  the  period  of  the  empire.  But  all  this  was 
of  the  intellect  rather  than  of  the  heart.  The 
Romans'  gods  demanded  sacrifice,  not  love;  they 
did  not  even  feed  the  imagination  as  did  the 
Greek  gods. 

As  the  Romans  knew  no  images  of  their  gods 
for  one  hundred  and  seventy  years  after  the 
founding  of  Rome,  so  they  had  no  temples.  In- 
stead, they  had  symbols — stones  for  Jupiter, 
staves  and  spears  for  Mars,  etc.,  and  sacred  ani- 
mals (survivals  of  former  totemlsm).    The  Ro- 


man, left  to  himself,  had  no  desire  to  reduce  his 
vague  deity  to  a  visible  and  tangible  form.  His 
god  was  not  a  man,  but  a  numen,  "power."  But 
his  own  notion  was  swept  away  by  the  swelling 
tide  of  Grecian  influence,  and  one  temple  only, 
Vesta's,  received  no  image,  even  when  Greece 
was  plundered  to  furnish  statues  for  Roman  sanc- 
tuanes. 

After  King  Numa  the  Roman  religion  was  one, 
not  of  feeling,  bqt  of  form.  It  was  not  emo- 
tional, but  legal;  it  was  not  for  the  salvation  of 
the  individusu,  but  for  the  establishment  of  the 
state.  Its  want  of  story,  of  art,  and  of  feeling 
was  compensated  for  by  a  superabundance  of  the 
most  minute  ritual — ^the  observance  of  certain 
rites  to  be  performed  in  a  certain  manner  at  cer- 
tain times  and  in  certain  places.  It  was  not  a 
matter  of  faith  or  creed,  but  of  punctilious  per- 
formance. The  real  nature  of  the  Roman  wor- 
ship is  suggested  by  the  gtezt  number  of  relinous 
festivtals;  there  were  more  than  twenty  to  mars 
alone. 

But  the  two  principal  expressions  of  worship 
were  sacrifice  and  prayers,  of  thanksgiving  and 
of  expiation.  In  neither  act  of  devotion  was  the 
mediation  of  a  priest  required.  In  Rome  the 
role  of  the  priest  was  very  much  curtailed;  he 
was  but  a  Roman  citizen  in  an  office  to  serve 
the  state.  But  anyone's  sacrifice  or  prayer  would 
ascend  to  heaven,  if  only  it  was  offered  in  due 
form.  Each  individual  was  his  own  priest;  the 
paterfamilias  was  priest  for  his  household;  the 
king — while  kings  lasted — was  high-priest  for  his 
gn'cat  household,  the  state.  In  reputjlican  times 
the  consul  offered  prayer  and  sacrifice  for  his 
people ;  the  priest  might  stand  by,  but  the  most  h© 
did  was  to  suggest  the  forms  to  be  employed.  To 
represent  the  king,  and  under  his  direction,  there 
were  three  Greater  Flamines,  "fire-fanners,"  and 
a  Rex  Sacrorum,  "king"  or  "director  of  the  sacri- 
fices" (who  once,  no  doubt,  was  the  head  of  the 
whole  state,  political  as  well  as  religious),  to  su- 
perintend the  worship  of  the  greater  gods,  while 
later,  as  new  worships  were  introduced,  twelve 
Lesser  Flamens  were  added.  But  even  before 
the  begfinning  of  the  republic  the  Pontifex  Max- 
imus,  the  president  of  the  0)llege  of  Pontiffs, 
had  become  in  place  of  the  king  a  sort  of  cultus- 
minister,  or  pope,  the  head  of  the  whole  religious 
system  of  Rome. 

One  of  the  oldest  religious  colleges  was  the 
sisterhood  of  the  Vestal  Virgins,  who  kept  alive 
the  sacred  fire  on  the  hearth  of  the  state  in 
Vesta's  temple,  and  preserved  the  Roman  Penates. 
Their  prayers  were  supposed  to  have  especial 
potency,  and  so  they  prayed  every  day  for  the 
general  weal  of  the  whole  people  and  offered 
special  prayers  in  time  of  public  distress. 

Other  state  priesthoods  were  the  dbllege  of 
Augurs,  whose  business  it  was  to  discover  from 
the  flight  or  voices  of  birds  whether  the  gods 
were  6vorable  or  unfavorable  to  any  state  pro- 
posal— a  sort  of  state  counsel  to  all  public  offi- 
cials— and  the  religious,  close  corporations  of  the 
Luperci  (in  the  service  of  Faunus),  the  Salii  (in 
the  service  of  Mars-Quirinus),  the  Arval  Brothers 
(in  the  service  of  the  Dea  Dia) ;  but  none  of 
these  last  had  any  function  to  perform  save  on 
festal  occasions  connected  with  their  particular 
deity.  Thus  there  were  priests  enough,  but  the 
priests  were,  after  all,  officers  of  the  law  rather 
than  of  religion  in  our  sense  of  tlie  word.  They 
dictated  no  creeds,  preached  no  sermons,  never 
tried  to  move  the  feelings  of  worshipers,  and 
they  could  rarely  mediate  between  an  individual 
and  his  god.    Their  mediation  was  necessary  only 


ROMAN  RELIGION 


wfien  a  common  sacrifice  was  to  be  made  or  a 

common  prayer  offered. 

Everyone  miglit  offer  his  own  sacrifice  or 
prayer ;  and  the  Romans  were  much  given  to 
prayer;  they  prayed  regularly  every  morning  and 
evening,  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  every 
meal.  No  sacrifice,  of  whatever  sort,  was  unac- 
companied by  prayer.  Besides  this,  the  pioui 
Roman  prayed  in  private  before  undertaking  any 
business  of  importance,  and  joined  in  the  priests' 
prayers  in  public  celebrations  of  a  religious  char- 
acter. The  assembly  of  the  people,  the  meeting 
of  the  senate,  the  preparations  for  war,  the  public 
games,  election,  even  the  theater— all  these  were 
opened  with  prayer. 

(5)  Sacrifice  and  Prayer,  Anyone  might  sac- 
rifice and  pray ;  but  every  sacrifice  and  ever; 
prayer,  to  be  efficacious,  must  conform  exactly  to 
the  specifications  of  the  religious  law.  When 
anyone  had  a  favor  to  ask  from  heaven,  he  must 
know  first  just  whom  to  ask.  And  that  was  no 
small  difficulty;  for,  considering  the  almost  count- 
less hosts  of  the  Roman  panlheon,  the  most  min- 
ute knowledge  of  the  specialty  of  each  one  of  the 


4  ROMAN  RELIGION 

because  of  some  insignificant  slip  of  the  tongue 
or  hand  the  same  rite  had  to  be  performed  again 
from  thir^  to  fifty  times  before  it  was  exactly 
correct.  To  be  perfectly  exact — and  nothing  else 
would  do— demanded  information  not  possessed 
by  ordinary  men.  Therein  lay  the  power  of  the 
pontifical  guild.  Its  members  were  the  attorneys 
and  counselors  in  religious  law,  as  they  were  also 
jurisconsults.  They  alone  had  access  to  the  names 
of  the  gods  and  their  functions ;  they  alone  pos- 
sessed the  requisite  knowledge  of  all  the  infinite 
details  of  worship  and  of  the  books  in  which  were 
contained  the  forms  of  prayer  for  every  occasion. 
These  books  were  called  the  Itidigilametila  {»»- 
digitare,  "to  point  out"),  because  they  pointed 
out  the  right  gods  and  the  right  prayers  to  use. 

The  Romans'  prayers  were  diffuse.  The  prayer, 
once  uttered,  was  repeated  over  in  a  new  form, 
for  they  could  not  afford  to  be  misunderstood. 
Small  words  were  very  important ;  and  so  In 
serious  cases  of  the  public  weal  the  worshiper, 
not  daring  to  trust  mere  memory,  had  one  priest 
by  him  to  dictate  the  forms,  another  with  the 
book  to  see  that  nothing  was  added  or  omitted,  a 


immortals  and  of  the  funeiions  that  each  per- 
formed was  indispensable. 

The  worshiper  must,  therefore,  discover  not 
only  the  attributes  and  the  specialty  of  the  god 
to  whom  he  would  sacrifice  and  pray,  but  also  his 
true  name;  or,  at  least,  the  one  by  which  the  god 
preferred  .to  be  called ;  for,  if  called  by  any  other 
name,  he  might  not  hear,  or,  worse  still,  might 
misunderstand.  So  Romans  never  addressed  a 
prayer  without  using  a  variety  of  names  to  im- 
prove the  chances  of  getting  the  right  one,  add- 
mg  often :  "Be  thou  god  or  goddess,  man  or 
woman,  whoever  thou  art,  and  by  whatever  name 
thou  wilt  be  called."  Even  when  they  prayed  to 
Jupiter  they  took  pains  to  say :  "Almi^ty  Jupiter, 
or  by  whatever  other  name  thou  wilt  rather  be 
called." 

When  all  this  had  been  accurately  discovered, 
the  next  step  was  to  know  the  proper  form  in 
which  the  prayer  was  to  be  couched.  For,  as  in 
legal  matters,  the  plea  was  thrown  out  of  court,  if 
it  was  not  presented  in  proper  form,  so  in  re- 
ligious affairs  the  slightest  inaccuracy  of  expres- 
sion or  gesture  would  render  the  whole  proceed- 
ing null  and  void,  or  even  work  the  opposite  of 
what  was  desired.    It  is  a  matter  of  record  that 


i  guar      „  ,  ,  .    .    ..  ,     

a  fiute-player  went  up  and  down  to  drown  out 
any   profane    speech    that    might   happen   to  be 

The  Roman  also  carried  his  business  principles 
into  his  religion.  His  prayer  or  sacrifice  was  a 
contract  to  make  the  god  such  and  such  return 
for  such  and  such  favors,  and  when  properly 
littered  it  was  a  contract  binding  upon  both 
pariies;  the  amount  given  the  god  was  considered 
a  fair  exchange.  It  was  this  principle  of  ex- 
change that  led  to  the  fulfilling  of  so  many  vota, 
"vows" — promises  of  offerings  to  the  gods  for 
favors  to  be  received.  Among  no  other  people 
do  we  find  tfus  form  of  religious  service  carried 
so  far. 

It  all  these  minute  conditions  were  met  and 
everything  performed  with  absolute  conformity 
to  the  letter  of  the  law,  the  Roman  believed  his 
prayer  or  sacrifice  had  power  enough  to  compel 
the  desired  answer ;  there  were  prayers,  he 
thought,  of  power  enough  to  bring  Jupiter  him- 
self down  from  heaven.  Numa  had  done  it; 
Tullus  Hostillius  had  tried  it,  but  by  a  slip  in 
the  form  had  brought  the  lightning  down  upon 
his  own  head.    As  to  the  state  of  mind  and  heart 


ROMAN  RELIGION  U 

with  which  the  Roman  was  to  approach  his  god, 
that  played  no  pari  in  his  religion.  The  most  re- 
ligious Roman  was  the  one  who  observed  most 
diligently  the  rites  and  ceremonies  prescribed  by 
the  Roman  slate.  And  that  is  what  the  Latin 
religio,  "religion,"  means,  "a  re- selecting,"  "pains- 
taking repetition"  of  the  prescribed  forms  and 
rites;  of  the  same  root  is  dttigens,  diligentia,  "ex- 
actness," "painstaking." 

The  same  complex  and  minute  ritual  regu- 
lated the  sacrifices;  particular  animals  of  specified 
color,  age,  and  sex  were  prescribed  for  the  vari- 
ous sacrifices  of  blood.  But  if  the  animal  speci- 
fied could  not  conveniently  be  found,  the  sacrifice 
of  a  waxen  image  of  it  satisfied  the  letter  of  the 
law.  Human  sacrifices  were  not  uncommon  in 
the  earlier  times,  and  were  not  unknown  in  the 
last  days  of  the  Republic,  though  this  horror  had 
been  displaced  by  the  symbolic  sacrifice  of  human 
images,  which  satisfied  the  letter  of  the  law. 

On  the  whole,  the  religion  of  Rome  was  formal 


B  ROMAN  RELIGION 

tional  and  religious,  was  evidently  Sabine,  Tar- 
quin's  was  Grsco- Etruscan  or  genuinely  Greek. 
From  the  Grxco-Etruscan  source  sprang  some 
forms  of  divination,  the  Roman  Games,  the  first 
rude  temples  and  statues;  while  the  genuinely 
Greek  elements  were  the  introduction  of  art  and 
of  the  Sybilline  Books,  written  in  Greek  and 
brought  from  the  Greek  city  of  Cumae.  Herewith 
was  planted  in  the  soil  of  Rome's  religion  new 
seed  that  was  to  take  possession  of  the  entire 
field.  These  Greek  oracles  found  a  place  in  the 
new  temple  of  Capilotine  Jupiter;  the  two  chief 
men  in  the  college  that  had  charge  of  them  were 
native  Greeks;  and  they  were  consulted  by  the 
state  in  times  of  great  distress,  when  Rome's  own 
religion  could  afford  no  hope  and  no  salvation. 
The  oracles  they  gave  generally  brought  relief 
only  through  the  establishment  of  new  cults  or 
new  forms,  and  these,  of  course,  were  invariably 
Hellenic.  The  Sybils  were  priestesses  and  proph- 
etesses   of    Apollo.      Very    naturally,    therefore, 


iDterior  ot  the  Foram  Romui 

and  cold;  it  suggested  more  fears  than  hopes— less 
still  of  love  either  from  or  towards  its  gods; 
while  omens  to  be  averted  were  everywhere.  And 
yet  this  religion  had  its  happy  side — its  games  and 
its  many  happy  festivals,  with  sacrifices,  music, 
and  dancing.  Though  originally  only  sixty-five 
in  number,  there  were  at  the  beginning  of  the  em- 
pire even  more  "holy  days"  (some  two  hundred 
in  stl)  than  in  the  "orthodox"  calendar,  with 
feasts  and  sacrifices,  to  make  the  idle  Roman 
happy. 

(6)  Foreign  InflusncwB.  The  essence  of  the 
first  religion  of  Italy  was  the  inheritance  from 
Indo-Germanic  times.  The  Latins,  Sabines,  etc., 
as  sister  tribes,  had  religiously  much  in  common; 
and  as  they  all  became  more  and  more  united 
with  Rome,  many  compromises  were  necessarily 
made  in  points  where  their  religious  develop- 
ment had  varied.     Numa's  legislation,  constitu* 


:    Temples  ot  Sitarn  aad  VeBptsuD. 

the  first  oracle  of  the  newly  acquired  Books 
brought  to  Rome  the  worship  of  Apollo  Paean, 
the  Healer  of  body,  mind  and  soul,  with  all  his 
Helleniiing  influences.  Then  came  Ceres,  Liber 
and  Libera,  i.  e.,  Demeter,  Dionysus  and  Perse- 
phone, whgse  temple  was  the  first  built  in  Rome 
by  Greek  architects,  and  whose  cultus  was  wholly 
Greek;  then  came  also  Asclepius  with  his  ser- 
pent from  Epidaurus,  and  Cybele,  in  her  Hellen- 
ized  form,  from  Pessinus,  More  Greek  temples 
and  temple  statues,  the  gods  in  idealized  human 
form,  followed  as  a  matter  of  course. 

Of  Oriental  and  Egyptian  cults  that  came  np 
mention  need  be  made.  They  were  always  "for- 
eign" cults,  of  which  Rome  was  very  tolerant  as 
long  as  they  caused  no  conflicts  with  established 
forms  and  ceremonies.  Indeed,  whenever  Rome 
took  ill  a  conquered  people,  she  took  not  only  its 
goods,  but  its  gods  as  well. 


ROMANS,  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE        1486        ROMANS.  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE 


But  finally  came  Greek  philosophy;  for  it  was 
from  Greece  that  Rome  learned,  not  only  re- 
ligious and  theological,  but  also  philosophical, 
speculation.  From  the  time  that  Greek  philos- 
ophy— ^the  rationalism  of  Euhemerus,  the  skep- 
ticism of  Euripides  and  the  Pyrrhonists,  the  ag- 
nosticism of  Protagoras  and  the  atheism  of  Diag- 
oras  and  Theodorus — ^began  to  affect  the  im- 
pressible Roman  mind,  the  old  religion  began 
visibly  to  fail.  The  pure  theism  and  perfect  vir- 
tue of  the  Stoics  had  no  attractions  for  the  ordi- 
nary Roman.  The  state  and  its  patriots,  like 
Cato,  Aelius  Stilo  and  Varro,  tried  to  save  the 
old  forms  and  usages  in  the  interest  of  the  Re- 
public, but  their  reforms  failed,  because  the  re- 
formers themselves  did  not  believe  in  the  truth 
of  what  they  tried  to  preach.  Varro  himself  said 
that  the  worship  was  ill-planned,  and  that,  if  it 
could  be  made  over,  it  could  be  made  better. 
So  reformers  confined  themselves  to  urging  the 
observance  of  the  time-honored  Practices;  as  to 
personal  conviction — the  law  said  nothing  about 
that,  and  all  had  equal  freedom  of  thought. 

The  comic  poets,  Plautus  especially  and  Lucil- 
ius,  made  all  manner  of  fun  of  the  religious 
notions  of  their  contemporaries,  and  their  au- 
diences no  doubt  laughed.  Polybius  not  only  ig- 
nores Providence  and  Fate  in  the  affairs  of  men, 
but  even  goes  so  far  as  to  declare  that  the  Roman 
religion  was  a  clever  invention  of  shrewd  poli- 
ticians, and  he  congratulates  them  upon  their 
success  in  discovering  so  excellent  a  scheme  for 
holding  them  together. 

Scipio,  Laelius,  Lucilius,  and  Polybius  might 
well  as  Roman  citizens  defend  that  which  as  men 
they  did  not  scruple  to  attack.  Those  times  saw 
no  hypocrisy  in  such  a  course.  Cato,  himself  an 
augur,  is  notorious  for  having  "wondered  how 
one  soothsayer  could  meet  another  without  smil- 
ing." And  Cotta,  as  the  great  High  Priest  of 
Rome,  believed  in  the  gods ;  but,  as  a  philosopher, 
he  was  an  atheist  or  an  agnostic.  A  magistrate, 
in  the  function  of  his  office,  should  show  a  proper 
attitude  toward  the  existing  laws;  he  must  to  a 
certain  extent  put  down  his  own  likes  and  dislikes 
and  beliefs  and  perform  what  the  law  dictates. 

The  masses  did  not  lose  their  religion  so  soon 
as  the  educated  Romans,  but  they  did  early  lose 
everything  but  the  forms,  and  to  those  they  clung 
out  of  patriotic  motives  only.  They  sacrificed  to 
gods  in  whom  they  did  not  believe;  they  went 
through  archaic  formulas  that  had  no  longer  any 
meaning;  their  rites  had  lost^  significance;  the 
very  science  of  taking  the  auspices  was  forgotten 
in  Cicero's  day,  except  for  purposes  of  political  in- 
trigue; their  temples  fell  into  ruins;  the  con- 
tents were  plundered  and  the  lands  appropriated 
for  private  ends;  they  had  forgotten  who  many 
of  their  gods  were — Veiovis,  and  the  Lares  even — 
and  the  divine  names  became  a  subject  for  arch- 
aeological study  instead  of  worship.  W.  M. 

ROMANS,  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE. 

This  epistle  claims  our  interest  more  than  the 
other  didactic  epistles  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  be- 
cause it  is  more  systematic,  and  because  it  ex- 
plains especially  that  truth  which  became  subse- 
quently the  principle  of  the  reformation,  viz., 
righteousness  through  faith.  Melanchthon  was  so 
fond  of  this  epistle  that  he  made  it  the  subject  of 
constant  lectures,  and  twice  copied  it  out  with  his 
own  hand,  just  as  Demosthenes  copied  Thucyd- 
ides  (comp.  Strobel's  Liter&rgeschichte  der  loci 
Theologici  des  Melanchthon,  p.  13)  ;  in  these  lec- 
tures he  explained  the  leading  dogmatical  and 
ethical  ideas,  t.  e.,  the  loci  Theologici,  whichj  at  a 


later  period,  gave  rise  to  the  dogmatical  work 
bearing  this  title. 

(1)  The  Author.  At  the  period  when  the  apos- 
tie  wrote  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  he  had 
passed  through  a  life  full  of  experience.  About 
four  years  after  the  composition  of  this  letter 
Paul  calls  himself  Prfisbutas  'the  aged*  (Phile- 
mon, verse  9).  Paul  was  at  this  time  between 
fifty  and  sixty  years  old.  After  having  spent  two 
years  and  a  half  at  Ephesus,  he  planned  a  journey 
to  Macedonia,  Achaia,  Jerusalem,  and  Rome  (Acts 
xix:2i).  Having  spent  about  three  months  in 
traveling,  he  arrived  at  Corinth,  where  he  re- 
mained three  months  (Acts  xx:2);  and  during 
this  second  abode  at  Corinth  he  wrote  the  Epistle 
to  the  Romans  (comp.  i  Cor.  xvi:i-3,  and  2  Cor. 
ix  with  Rom.  xv:25).  Paul  dispatched  this  letter 
by  a  Corinthian  woman,  who  was  just  then  travel- 
ing to  Rome  (xvi:i),  and  sent  greetings  from  an 
inhabitant  of  Corinth  (xvi:23;  comp.  i  Cor.  i:i4). 

(2)  When  Written.  The  data  in  the  life  of 
the  apostle  depend  upon  the  year  in  which  his  con- 
version took  place.  Consequently  we  must  have 
a  settled  opinion  concerning  the  date  of  this  event 
before  we  speak  about  the  date  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans.  The  opinions  of  the  learned  fluc- 
tuate concerning  the  date  of  the  conversion ;  some 
think  that  this  event  took  place  as  early  as  A.  D. 
31  or  41 ;  but  it  is  by  far  more  probable  that  the 
epistle  was  written  about  the  year  58  or  59.  The 
congregation  of  Christians  at  Rome  was  formed 
at  a  very  early  period,  but  its  founder  is  unknown. 
Paul  himself  mentions  two  distinguished  teachers 
at  Rome,  who  were  converted  earlier  than  him- 
self. According  to  Rom.  i  :8,  the  Roman  congre- 
gation had  then  attained  considerable  celebrity,  as 
their  faith  was  spoken  of  throughout  the  whole 
world.  From  chap,  xvi,  we  learn  that  there  were 
a  considerable  number  of  Christian  teachers  at 
Rome;  from  which  we  infer  that  the  congregation 
had  existed  there  for  some  time;  and  it  is  most 
likely  that  the  Jews  at  Rome  were  first  converted 
to  (Christianity.  Under  Augustus  there  were  so 
many  Jews  at  Rome,  that  this  emperor  appointed 
for  them  quarters  beyond  the  Tiber.  These  Jews 
consisted  mostly  of  freedmen,  whom  Pompey  had 
carried  to  Rome  as  slaves:  some  of  the  early 
Christians  at  Rome  followed  mercantile  pursuits. 

(3)  To  Whom  Written.  At  the  time  when 
this  epistle  was  written  there  were  also  Gentile 
Christians  in  the  Roman  church;  and  from  pas- 
sages like  xi:i3;  xv:i6;  1:7  and  13,  we  learn  that 
the  Gentile  Christians  were  then  more  numerous 
than  the  converted  Jews.  It  is  well  known  that 
in  those  times  many  heathens  embraced  Judaism 
(Tacitus,  Annal.  xv.  44;  Juvenal,  Sat.  xiv.  96). 
These  converts  to  Judaism  were  mostly  women. 
Such  proselytes  formed  at  that  period  the  point 
of  coalescence  for  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles. 
Among  the  converts  from  Judaism  to  Christianity 
there  existed  in  the  days  of  Paul  two  parties. 
The  congregated  apostles  had  decreed,  according 
to  Acts  XV,  that  the  converts  from  paganism 
were  not  bound  to  keep  the  ritual  laws  of  Moses. 
There  were,  however,  many  converts  from  Juda- 
ism who  were  disinclined  to  renounce  the  author- 
ity of  the  Mosaic  law,  and  appealed  erroneously 
to  the  authority  of  James  (Gal.  ii:9;  comp.  Aots 
xxi  :25)  ;  they  claimed  also  the  authority  of  Peter 
in  their  favor.  Such  converts  from  Judaism,  men- 
tioned in  the  other  epistles,  who  continued  to 
observe  the  ritual  laws  of  Moses,  were  not  preva- 
lent in  Rome;  however,  Dr.  Baur  of  Tiibingen 
supposes  that  this  Ebionitic  tendency  prevailed  at 
that  time  in  all  Christian  congregations,  Rome 
not  excepted.    He  thinks  that  the  converts  from 


ROMANS,  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE       1487      ROMANS,  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE 


Judaism  were  then  more  numerous  than  the  Gen- 
tile Christians,  and  that  all  were  compelled  to 
submit  to  the  Judaizing  opinions  of  the  majority 
(comp.  Baur's  Abhandlung  uber  Zweck  und 
Veranlassung  des  Rdmerbriefs,  in  der  Tilbinger 
Zeitschrift,  1836).  However,  we  infer  from  the 
passages  above  quoted  that  the  Gentile  Chris- 
tians were  much  more  numerous  at  Rome  than 
the  converts  from  Judiasm.  Neander  has  also 
shown  that  the  Judaizing  tendency  did  not  prevail 
in  the  Roman  church  (comp.  Neander's  P fan- 
sung  der  Christlichen  Kirche,  3rd  ed.  p.  388). 
This  opinion  is  confirmed  by  the  circumstance, 
that,  according  to  ch.  xvi,  Paul  had  many  friends 
at  Rome.  Dr.  Baur  removes  this  objection  only 
by  declaring  ch.  xvi  to  be  spurious.  He  appeals 
to  ch.  xiv  in  order  to  prove  that  there  were 
Ebionitic  Christians  at  Rome;  it  appears,  how- 
ever, that  the  persons  mentioned  in  ch.  xiv  were 
by  no  means  strictly  Judaizing  zealots,  wishing 
to  overrule  the  Gentile  Christians,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  some  scrupulous  converts  from  Juda- 
ism, upon  whom  the  Gentile  Christians  looked 
down  contemptuously.  There  were,  indeed,  some 
disagreements  between  the  converts  from  Juda- 
ism and  the  Gentile  Christians  in  Rome.  This  is 
evident  from  ch.  xv:6-9,  and  xi:i7,  18;  these  de- 
bates, however,  were  not  of  so  obstinate  a  kind 
as  among  the  Galatians;  otherwise  the  apostle 
could  scarcely  have  praised  the  congregation  at 
Rome  as  he  does  in  ch.  i:8  and  12,  and  xv:i4. 
From  ch.  xvi:  17-20  we  infer  that  the  Judaizers 

had  endeavored  to  find  admittance,  but  with  little 
success. 

(4)  Occasion  and  Object.  The  opinions  con- 
cerning the  occasion  and  object  of  this  letter 
differ  according  to  the  various  suppositions  of 
those  who  think  that  the  object  of  the  letter  was 
supplied  by  the  occasion,  or  the  supposition  that 
the  apostle  selected  his  subject  only  after  an 
opportunity  for  writing  was  offered.  In  earlier 
times  the  latter  opinion  prevailed,  as  for  instance, 
in  the  writings  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  Luther,  Me- 
lanchthon,  Calvin.  In  more  recent  times  the  other 
opinion  has  generally  been  advocated,  as,  for  in- 
stance, by  Hug,  Eichhorn,  and  Flatt.  Many  writ- 
ers suppose  that  the  debates  mentioned  in  chap- 
ters xiv  and  xv  called  forth  this  epistle.  Hug, 
therefore,  is  of  opinion  that  the  theme  of  the  whole 
epistle  is  the  following— Jews  and  Gentiles  have 
EQUAL  CLAIM  TO  THE  KINGDOM  OF  GoD.  According 
to  Eichhorn,  the  Roman  Jews,  being  exasperated 
against  the  disciples  of  Paul,  endeavored  to 
demonstrate  that  Judaism  was  sufficient  for  the 
salvation  of  mankind ;  consequently  Eichhorn  sup- 
poses that  the  polemics  of  St.  Paul  were  not  di- 
rected against  Judaizing  converts  to  Christianity, 
as  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  but  rather 
against  Judaism  itself.  This  opinion  is  also  main- 
tained by  De  Wette  (Einleitung  ins  Neue  Tes- 
tament, 4th  ed.  sec.  138) . 

According  to  Credner  (Einleitung,  sec.  141), 
the  intention  of  the  apostle  was  to  render  the 
Roman  congregation  favorably  disposed  before  his 
arrival  in  the  chief  metropolis,  and  he  therefore 
endeavored  to  show  that  the  evil  reports  spread 
concerning  himself  by  zealously  Judaizing  Chris- 
tians were  erroneous. 

This  opinion  is  nearly  related  to  that  of  Dr. 
Baur,  who  supposes  that  the  real  object  of  this 
letter  is  mentioned  only  in  chaps,  ix  to  xi.  Ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Baur,  the  Judaizing  zealots  were 
displeased  that  Iw  the  instrumentality  of  Paul 
such  numbers  of  Gentiles  entered  the  kingdom  of 
God,  that  the  Jews  ceased  to  appear  as  the  Mes- 
sianic people.  Dr.  Baur  supposes  that  these  Juda- 
izers are  more  especially  refuted  in  chapters  ix- 


xi,  after  it  has  been  shown  in  the  first  eight  chap- 
ters that  it  was  in  general  incorrect  to  consider 
one  people  better  than  another  and  that  all  had 
equal  claims  to  be  justified  by  faith. 

Against  the  opinion  that  the  apostle,  in  writing 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  had  this  particular 
polemical  Sim,  it  has  been  justly  observed  by 
Riickert  (in  the  second  ed.  of  his  Commentar.), 
Olshausen,  and  De  Wette,  that  the  apostle  him- 
self states  that  his  epistle  had  a  general  scope. 
Paul  says  in  the  introduction  that  he  had  long 
entertained  the  wish  of  visiting  the  metropolis,  in 
order  to  confirm  the  faith  of  the  church,  and  to  be 
himself  comforted  by  that  faith  (chap.  i:i2).  He 
adds  (i:i6),  that  he  was  prevented  from  preach- 
ing in  the  chief  city  by  external  obstacles  only. 
He  says  that  he  had  written  to  the  Roman  Chris- 
tians in  fulfillment  of  his  vocation  as  apostle  to 
the  Gentiles.  The  journey  of  Phoebe  to  Rome 
seems  to  have  been  the  external  occasion  of  the 
epistle;  Paul  made  use  of  this  opportunity  by 
sending  the  sum  and  substance  of  the  Christian 
doctrine  in  writing,  having  been  prevented  from 
preaching  in  Rome.  Paul  had  many  friends  in 
Rome  who  communicated  with  him ;  consequently 
he  was  the  more  induced  to  address  the  Romans, 
although  he  manifested  some  hesitation  in  doing 
so  (xv:i5).  These  circumstances  exercised  some 
influence  as  well  on  the  form  as  upon  the  con- 
tents of  the  letter;  so  that,  for  instance,  its  con- 
tents differ  considerably  from  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians,  although  this  also  has  a  general  scope. 
The  especial  bearings  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans are  particularly  manifest  in  chaps,  xiii  to 
xvi;  Paul  shows  to  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  the 
glory  of  Christianity  as  being  absolute  religion, 
and  he  especially  endeavors  to  confirm  the  faith  of 
the  converts  from  Judaism  (iv)  ;  Paul  refers  to 
the  circumstances  that  in  Rome  the  number  of 
Gentile  Christians  was  much  greater  than  that  of 
the  converted  Jews,  and  he  explains  how  this  was 
consistent  with  the  counsel  of  God.  He  endeavors 
to  re-establish  peace  between  the  contending  par- 
ties; consequently  he  had  to  produce  many  argu- 
ments which  might  be  converted  into  polemics 
(polemik)  against  the  Jews,  but  it  does  by  no 
means  follow  that  such  polemics  were  the  chief 
aim  of  the  apostle. 

(5)  Contents.  It  belongs  to  the  characteristic 
type  of  St.  Paul's  teaching  to  exhibit  the  Gospel 
in  its  Wstorioal  relation  to  the  human  race.  In 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  also,  we  find  that  pe- 
culiar character  of  St.  Paul's  teaching,  wljich 
induced  Schelling  to  call  St.  Paul's  doctrine  a 
philosophy  of  the  history  of  man.  The  real  pur- 
pose of  the  human  race  is  in  a  sublime  manner 
stated  by  St.  Paul  in  his  speech  in  Acts  xvii:26, 
27 ;  and  he  shows  at  the  same  time  how  Crod  had, 
by  various  historical  means,  promoted  the  attain- 
ment of  his  purpose.  St.  Paul  exhibits  the  Old 
Testament  dispensation  under  tlie  form  of  an 
institution  for  the  education  of  the  whole  human 
race,  which  should  enable  men  to  terminate  their 
spiritual  minority,  and  become  truly  of  age  (Gal. 
iii:24,  and  iv:i-4).  In  the  Epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans also,  the  aphostle  commences  by  describing 
the  two  great  divisions  of  the  human  race,  viz., 
those  who  underwent  the  preparatory  spiritual 
education  of  the  Jews,  and  those  who  did  not 
undergo  such  a  preparatory  education.  We  find 
a  similar  division  indicated  by  Christ  himself 
(John  x:i6),  where  he  speaks  of  one  flock  sep- 
arated by  hurdles.  The  chief  aim  of  all  nations^ 
according  to  St.  Paul  should  be  the  dikaiosuna 
enopion  tou  Theou,  righteousness  before  the  face 
of  God,  or  absolute  realization  of  the  moral  law. 
According  to  St.  Paul,  the  heathen  also  have  their 


ROMANS,  THE  fiPlSTLE  TO  THE        1488 


ROME 


scw,  as  well  as  a  more  religious  internal  revela- 
tion (Rom.  i:i9,  32;  ii:i5).  The  heathen  have, 
however,  not  fulfilled  that  law  which  they  knew, 
and  are  in  this  respect  like  the  Jews,  who  also 
disregarded  their  own  law  (ii).  Both  Jews  and 
Gentiles  are  transgressors,  or  by  the  law  separated 
from  the  grace  and  sonship  of  God  (Rom.  ii:i2; 
iii  :2o)  ;  consequently  if  blessedness  could  only  be 
obtained  by  fulfillinj^  the  demands  of  God,  no  man 
could  be  blessed.  God,  however,  has  gratuitously 
given  righteousness  and  blessedness  to  all  who  be- 
lieve in  Christ  (iii:2i-3i);  the  Old  Testament 
also  recognizes  the  value  of  religious  faith  (iv)  ; 
thus  we  freely 'attain  to  peace  and  sonship  of  God 
presently,  and  have  before  us  still  greater  things, 
viz.,  the  future  development  of  the  kingdom  of 
God  (v.  i-ii).  The  human  race  has  gained  in 
Christ  much  more  than  it  lost  in  Adam  (v:i2, 
21).  This  doctrine  by  no  means  encourages  sin 
(vi)  ;  on  the  contrary,  men  who  are  conscious 
of  divine  grace  fulfill  the  law  much  more  ener- 
getically than  they  were  able  to  do  before  having 
attained  to  this  knowledge,  because  the  law  alone 
is  even  apt  to  sharpen  the  appetite  for  sin,  and 
leads  finally  to  despair  (vii)  ;  but  now  we  fulfill 
the  law  by  means  of  that  new  spirit  which  is  given 
unto  us,  and  the  full  development  of  our  salva- 
tion is  still  before  us  (viii:i-27).  The  sufferings 
of  the  present  time  cannot  prevent  this  develop- 
ment, and  must  rather  work  for  good  to  them 
whom  (jod  from  eternity  has  viewed  as  faithful 
believers;  and  nothing  can  separate  such  be- 
lievers from  the  eternal  love  of  God  (viii:28-39). 
It  causes  pain  to  behold  the  Israelites  themselves 
shut  out  from  salvation;  but  they  themselves  are 
the  cause  of  this  exclusion,  because  they  wanted 
to  attain  salvation  by  their  own  resources  and 
exertions,  by  their  descent  from  Abraham,  and 
by  their  fulfillment  of  the  law ;  thus,  however, 
the  Jews  have  not  obtained  that  salvation  which 
God  has  freely  offered  under  the  sole  condition 
of  faith  in  Christ  (ix)  ;  the  Jews  have  not  en- 
tered upon  the  way  of  faith,  therefore  the  (jen- 
tiles  were  preferred,  which  was  predicted  by  the 
prophets.  However,  the  Jewish  race,  as  such, 
has  not  been  rejected;  some  of  them  obtain  salva- 
tion by  a  selection  made  not  according  to  their 
works,  but  accQiding  to  the  grace  of  God.  If 
some  of  the  Jews  are  left  to  their  own  obduracy, 
even  their  temporary  fall  serves  the  plans  of  God, 
viz.,  the  vocation  of  the  Gentiles.  After  the  mass 
of  the  Gentiles  shall  have  entered  in,  the  people  of 
Israel  also,  in  their  collective  capacity,  shall  be 
received  into  the  church   (xi). 

(6)  Authenticity  and  Integrity.  The  authen- 
ticity of  this  epistle  has  never  been  questioned. 
The  epistle  to  the  Romans  is  quoted  as  early 
as  the  first  and  second  century  by  Qem- 
ens  Romanus  and  Polycarp.  Its  integrity 
has  been  attacked  by  theologians  who  pretend 
chapters  xv  and  xvi  are  spurious,  but  only,  as 
we  have  observed  above,  because  these  chapters 
do  not  harmonize  with  the  supposition  that  the 
Christian  church  at  Rome  consisted  of  rigid 
Judaizers.  Schmidt  and  Reiche  consider  the 
doxology  at  the  conclusion  of  ch.  xvi  not  to  be 
genuine.  In  this  doxology  the  anacolouthical 
and  unconnected  style  causes  some  surprise,  and 
the  whole  has  been  deemed  to  be  out  of  its  place 
(verses  26  and  27).  We,  however,  observe,  in 
reply  to  Schmidt  and  Reiche,  that  such  defects 
of  style  may  be  easily  explained  from  the  circum- 
stance, that  the  apostle  hastened  to  the  conclu- 
sion, but  would  be  quite  inexplicable  in  additions 
of  a  copyist  who  had  time  for  calm  consideration. 
The  same  words  occur  in  different  passages  of 
the  Epistle,  and  it  must  be  granted  that  such  a 


fluctuation  sometimes  indicates  an  interpolation. 
In  the  Codex  i,  in  most  of  the  Codices  Minusculi, 
as  well  as  in  (^hrysostom,  the  words  occur  at  the 
conclusion  of  ch.  xiv.  In  the  Codices  B.  C.  D. 
E.,  and  in  the  Syrian  translation,  this  doxology 
occurs  at  the  conclusion  of  ch.  xvi.  In  Codex  A 
it  occurs  in  both  places;  whilst  in  Codex  D  the 
words  are  wanting  entirely,  and  they  seem  not 
to  fit  into  either  of  the  two  places.  If  the  dox- 
ology be  put  at  the  conclusion  of  ch.  xiv,  Paul 
seems  to  promise  to  those  Christians  weak  in 
faith,  of  whom  he  had  spoken,  a  confirmation  of 
their  belief.  But  it  seems  unfit  {unpassend)  in 
this  connection  to  call  the  Gospel  an  eternal  mys- 
tery, and  the  doxology  seems  here  to  interrupt 
the  connection  between  chapters  xiv  and  xv;  and 
at  the  conclusion  of  chapter  xvi  it  seems  to  be  su- 
perfluous, since  the  blessing  had  been  pronounced 
already  in, verse  24.  We,  however,  say  that  this 
latter  circumstance  need  not  have  prevented  the 
apostle  from  allowing  his  animated  feelings  to 
burst  forth  in  a  doxology,  especially  at  the  con- 
clusion of  an  epistle  which  treated  amply  on  the 
mystery  of  redemption.  We  find  an  analogous  in- 
stance in  Ephes.  lii  :20,  21,  where  a  doxology  oc- 
curs after  the  mystery  of  salvation  had  been  men- 
tioned ;  we  are  therefore  of  opinion  that  the  dox- 
ology is  rightly  placed  at  the  conclusion  of  chap, 
xvi,  and  that  it  was  in  some  codices  erroneously 
transposed  to  the  conclusion  of  chap,  xiv,  because 
the  copyist  considered  the  blessing  in  xvi  :24  to  be 
the  real  conclusion  of  the  Epistle.  In  confirma- 
tion of  this  remark  we  observe  that  the  same  cod- 
ices in  which  the  doxology  occurs  in  chap,  xvi 
either  omit  the  blessing  altogether,  or  place  it 
after  the  doxology. 

(7)  Literature.  The  principal  English  works 
on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  are:  Jones,  The 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  analyzed,  from  a  develop- 
ment of  the  circumstances  by  which  it  was  occa- 
sioned, 1801 ;  Cox,  Horc^  Romance,  1824  (transla- 
tion with  notes)  ;  Turner,  Notes  on  the  Epistle 
to  the  Romans,  New  York,  1824  (exegetical,  for 
the  use  of  students)  ;  Terrot,  The  Epistle  of  Paul 
to  the  Romans,  1828  (Greek  text,  paraphrase, 
notes,  and  useful  prolegomena).  Stuart's  Com- 
mentary on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  Lon- 
don, 1853,  is  undoubtedly  the  greatest  work 
on  this  Epistle  which  has  been  produced  in  the 
English  language,  and  may  be  regarded  as  next 
in  importance  to  the  admirable  Commentary  by 
the  writer  of  the  above  article  (Dr.  Tholuck),  a 
translation  of  which,  by  the  Rev.  R.  Menzies,  has 
been  given  in  the  Edinburgh  Biblical  Cabinet. 
Among  American  commentators  are  Dr.  Chas. 
Hodge,  Philadelphia,  1864;  S.  H  Turner,  New 
York,  1853;  and  the  popular  notes  of  Albert 
Barnes.  For  a  full  view  of  the  literature  on  this 
epistle,  see  the  American  translation  of  Lange*s 
Der  Brief  Pauli  an  die  R'dmer,  New  York,  1869; 
also  the  American  translation  of  Lange's  Com- 
mentary. A.  T. 

ROME  (r6m),  (Lat.  Roma ;  Gr.  *V^ii%  hro'may, 
strength). 

(1)  Location.  The  famous  capital  of  the  West- 
ern World,  and  the  present  residence  of  the  Pope, 
stands  on  the  river  Tiber,  about  fifteen  miles  from 
its  mouth,  in  the  plain  of  what  is  now  called  the 
Campagna  (Felix  ilia  Campania,  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat 
iii,  6),  in  lat.  41**  54'  N.;  long.  i2*»  28^  E.  The 
country  around  the  city  is  not  a  plain,  but  a  sort 
of  undulating  table-land,  crossed  by  hills,  while 
it  sinks  towards  the  southwest  to  the  marshes  of 
Maremma,  which  coast  the  Mediterranean.  In 
ancient  geography  the  country  in  the  midst  of 
which  Rome  lay  was  termed  Latium,  which,  in 
the  earliest  times,  comprised  within  a  space  of 


ROME 


1489 


ROME 


about  four  geographical  square  miles  the  country 
Jying  between  the  Tiber  and  the  Numicius,  ex- 
tending from  the  Alban  Hills  to  the  sea,  having 
for  its  chief  city  Laurentum. 

(2)  Founding.  Here,  on  the  Palatine  Hill, 
was  the  city  of  Rome,  founded  by  Romulus  and 
Remus,  grandsons  of  Numitor,  and  sons  of  Rhea 
Sylvia,  to  whom,  as  the  originators  of  the  city, 
mythology  ascribed  a  divine  parentage.  The  origin 
of  the  term  Rome  is  in  dispute.  Some  derive 
it  from  the  Greek  hroh-may,  'strength,*  consid- 
erinar  that  this  name  was  given  to  the  place  as 
being  a  fortress.  Cicero  {De  Repub.  ii,  7)  says 
the  name  was  taken  from  that  of  its  founder 
Romulus. 

(8)  Extent.  At  first  the  city  had  three  gates, 
according  to  a  sacred  usage.  Founded  on  the 
Palatine  Hill,  is  was  extended,  by  degrees,  so  as 
to  take  in  six  other  hills,  at  the  foot  of  which  ran 
deep  valleys  that,  in  early  times,  were  in  part 
overflowed  with  water,  while  the  hillsides  were 
covered  with  trees.  In  the  course  of  the  many 
years  during  which  Rome  was  acquiring  to  her- 
self the  empire  of  the  world,  the  city  underwent 
great,  numerous,  and  important  changes.  Under 
its  first  kings  it  must  have  presented  a  very 
different  aspect  from  what  it  did  after  it  had 
been  beautined  by  Tarquin. 

(4)  Growth.  The  destruction  of  the  city  by 
the  Gauls  (U.  C.  365)  caused  a  thorough  altera- 
tion in  it;  nor  could  the  troubled  times  which 
ensued  have  been  favorable  to  its  being  well  re- 
stored. It  was  not  till  riches  and  artistic  skill 
came  into  the  city  on  the  conquest  of  Philip  of 
Macedon,  and  Antiochus  of  Syria  (U.  C.  565). 
that  there  arose  in  Rome  large  handsome  stone 
houses.  The  capture  of  Corinth  conduced  much 
to  the  adorning  of  the  city ;  many  fine  specimens 
of  art  being  transferred  from  thence  to  the  abode 
of  the  conquerors.  And  so,  as  the  power  of  Rome 
extended  over  the  world,  and  her  chief  citizens 
went  into  the  colonies  to  enrich  themselves,  did 
the  masterpieces  of  Grecian  art  flow  towards 
the  capital,  together  with  some  of  the  taste  and 
ski41  to  which  they  owed  their  birth.  Augustus, 
however,  it  was,  who  did  most  for  embellishing 
the  capital  of  the  world,  though  there  may  be 
some  sacrifice  of  truth  in  the  pointed  saying  that 
he  found  Rome  built  of  brick  and  left  it  marble. 
Subsequent  emperors  followed  his  example,  till 
the  place  became  the  greatest  repository  of  archi- 
tectural, pictorial,  and  sculptural  skill  that  the 
world  has  even  seen;  a  result  to  which  even 
Nero's  incendiarism  indirectly  conduced,  as  af- 
fording an  occasion  for  the  city's  being  rebuilt  un- 
der the  higher  scientific  influences  of  the  times. 

Originally  the  city  was  a  square  mile  in  cir- 
cumference. In  the  time  of  Pliny  the  walls  were 
nearly  twenty  miles  in  circuit;  now,  they  are 
from  fourteen  to  fifteen  miles  round.  Its  original 
gates,  three  in  number,  had  increased  in  the  time 
of  the  elder  Pliny  to  thirty-seven.  Modern  Rome 
has  sixteen  gates,  some  of  which  are,  however, 
built  up.  Thirty-one  great  roads  centered  in 
Rome,  which,  issuing  from  the  Forum,  traversed 
Italy,  ran  through  the  provinces,  and  were  termi- 
nated only  by  the  boundary  of  the  empire.  As  a 
starting  point  a  gilt  pillar  (Milliariutn  Aureum) 
was  set  up  by  Augustus  in  the  middle  of  the 
Forum.  This  curious  monument,  from  which  dis- 
tances were  reckoned,  was  discovered  in  1823. 
Eight  principal  bridges  led  over  the  Tiber;  of 
these  three  are  still  relics.  The  four  districts 
into  which  Rome  was  divided  in  early  times, 
Augustus  increased  to  fourteen. 
94 


(5)  The  Campus  Martins.  Large  open  spaces 
were  set  apart  in  the  city,  called  Campi,  for  as- 
semblies of  the  people  and  martial  exercises,  as 
well  as  for  games.  Of  nineteen  which  are  men- 
tioned, the  Campus  Martius  was  the  principal. 
It  was  near  the  Tiber,  whence  it  was  called  Tiber- 
inus.  The  epithet  Martius  was  derived  from  the 
plain  being  consecrated  to  Mars,  the  god  of  war. 
In  the  later  ages  it  was  surrounded  by  several 
magnificent  structures,  and  porticos  were  erecte^. 
under  which,  in  bad  weather,  the  citizens  could 
go  through  their  usual  exercises.  It  was  also 
adorned  with  staitues  and  arches. 

(6)  The  Fora.  The  name  of  Fora  was  given 
to  places  where  the  people  assembled  for  the 
transaction  of  business.  The  Fora  were  of  two 
kinds — fora  venalia,  'markets;'  fora  civilia,  iaw 
courts,'  etc.  Until  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar  there 
was  but  one  of  the  latter  kind,  termed  by  way 
of  distinction  Forum  Romanum,  or  simply  Forum. 
It  lay  between  the  Capitoline  and  Palatine  Hills; 
it  was  eight  hundred  feet  wide,  and  adorned  on 
all  sides  with  porticos,  shops  and  other  edifices, 
on  the  erection  of  which  large  sums  had  been 
expended,  and  the  appearance  of  which  was  very 
imposing,  especially  as  it  was  much  enhanced  by 
numerous  statues.  In  the  center  of  the  Forum 
was  the  ^ain  called  the  Curtian  Lake,  where  Cur- 
tius  is  .>aid  to  have  cast  himself  into  a  chasm 
or  gulf,  which  closed  on  him,  and  so  he  saved  his 
country.  On  one  side  were  the  elevated  seats 
or  suggestus,  a  sort  of  pulpit  from  which  magis- 
trates and  orators  addressed  the  people — usually 
called  Rostra,  because  adorned  with  the  beaks  of 
ships  which  had  been  taken  in  a  sea  fight  from 
the  inhabitants  of  Antium. 

(7)  Comitium  and  Capitol.  Near  by  was  the 
part  of  the  Forum  called  the  Comiiium,  where 
were  held  the  assemblies  of  the  people  called 
Comitia  Curiata.  The  celebrated  temple,  bearing 
the  name  of  Capitol  (of  which  there  remain  only 
a  few  vestiges),  stood  on  the  Capitoline  Hill,  the 
highest  of  the  seven;  it  was  squafe  in  form,  each 
side  extending  about  two  hundred  feet,  and  the 
ascent  to  it  was  by  a  flight  of  one  hundred  steps. 
It  was  one  of  the  oldest,  largest,  and  grandest 
edifices  in  the  city.  Founded  by  Tarquinius  Pris- 
ons, it  was  several  times  enlarged  and  embel- 
lished. Its  gates  were  of  brass,  and  it  was 
adorned  with  costly  gildings;  whence  it  is  termed 
'golden'  and  'glitterjng,*  aurca.  fulgens.  It  en- 
closed three  structures,  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Cap- 
itolinus  in  the  center,  the  temple  of  Minerva  on 
the  right,  and  the  temple  of  Juno  on  the  left.  The 
Capitol  also  comprehended  some  minor  temples  or 
chapels,  and  the  Casa  Romuli,  or  cottage  of  Rom- 
ulus, covered  with  straw.  Near  the  ascent  to  the 
Capitol  was  the  asylum.    (See  Cities  of  Refuge.) 

(8)  The  Basilicsd.  We  also  mention  the  Ba- 
silicae,  since  some  of  them  were  afterwards  turned 
to  the  purposes  of  Christian  worship.  They  were 
originally  buildings  of  great  splendor,  being  appro- 
priated to  meetings  of  the  senate,  and  to  judicial 
purposes.  Here  counsellors  received  their  clients, 
and  bankers  transacted  their  business.  The  ear- 
liest churches  bearing  the  name  of  Basilicae  were 
erected  under  Constantine.  He  gave  his  own 
palace  on  the  Caelian  Hill  as  a  site  for  a  Christian 
temple. 

(9)  Churches  and  Other  Structures.  Next  in 
antiquity  was  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  on  the  Vati- 
can Hill,  built  A.  D.  324.  on  the  site  and  with  the 
ruins  of  temples  consecrated  to  Apollo  and  Mars. 
It  stood  about  twelve  centuries,  at  the  end  of 
which  it  was  superseded  by  the  modern  church 
bearing  the  same  name.    The  Circi  were  buildings 


ROME 


1490 


ROME 


oblong  in  shape,  used  for  public  games,  races,  and 
beast  fights.  The  Theatra  were  edifices  designed 
for  dramatic  exhibitions;  the  Amfhitheatra  (dou- 
ble theatres,  buildings  in  an  oval  form)  served  for 
gladiatorial  shows  and  the  fighting  of  wild  ani- 
mals. 

(10)  The  Coliseum.  That  which  was  erected 
by  the  Emperor  Titus,  and  of  which  there  still 
exists  a  splendid  ruin,  was  called  the  Coliseum, 
from  a  colossal  statue  of  Nero  that  stood  near  it. 
With  an  excess  of  luxury,  perfumed  liquids  were 
conveyed  in  secret  tubes  round  these  immense 
structures,  and  diffused  over  the  spectatorsr,  some- 
times from  the  statues  which  adorned  the  interior. 
In  this  vast  theater  games  of  various  sorts  and 
gladiatorial  shows  were  held,  and  within  its  arena 
many  Christians,  during  the  ages  of  persecution, 
fought  with  wild  beasts,  and  many  were  slain  for 
their  faith. 

(11)  The  Gardens  of  Kero.  The  Gardens  of 
Nero  were  in  the  Vatican,  near  St.  Peter's.  Within 
these,  in  the  Neronian  persecution.  A.  D.  64,  after 
the  great  conflagration,  Christians,  wrapped  in 
skins  of  beasts,  were  torn  by  dogs,  or,  clothed  in 
inflammable  stuffs,  were  burned  as  torches  during 
the  midnight  games;  others  were  crucified.  • 

(12)  The  Jews  in  Borne.  The  connection  of 
the  Romans  with  Palestine  caused  Jews  to  settle 
at  Rome  in  considerable  numbers.  On  one  occa- 
sion, in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  when  the  Jews  were 
banished  from  the  city  by  the  emperor,  for  the 
misconduct  of  some  members  of  their  body,  not 
fewer  than  four  thousand  enlisted  in  the  Roman 
army  which  was  then  stationed  at  Sardinia  (Sue- 
ton.  Tib.  36;  Joseph.  Antiq.  xviii,  3,  4).  These 
appear  to  have  been  emancipated  descendants  of 
those  Jews  whom  Pompey  had  taken  prisoners  in 
Judaea  and  brought  captive  to  Rome  (Philo.  De 
Leg.  ad  Cai.  p.  1014).  From  Philo  also  it  appears 
that  the  Jews  in  Rome  were  allowed  the  free  use 
of  their  national  worship,  and  generally  the  ob- 
servance of  their  ancestral  customs.  Then,  as 
now,  the  Jews  lived  in  a  part  of  the  city  appro- 
priated to  themselves  (Joseph.  Antiq.  xiv,  10,  8), 
where,  with  a  zeal  for  which  the  nation  had  been 
some  time  distinguished,  they  applied  themselves 
with  success  to  proselytizing  (Dion.  Cass,  xxxvii, 
17).  They  appear,  however,  to  have  been  a  rest- 
less colony;  for  when,  after  their  expulsion  under 
Tiberius,  numbers  had  returned  to  Rome,  they 
were  again  expelled  from  the  city  by  Claudius 
(Suet.  Claud.  25).  The  Roman  biographer  does 
not  give  the  date  of  this  event,  but  Orosius  (yii, 
6)  mentions  the  ninth  year  of  that  emperor's  reign 
(A.  D.  50).  The  precise  occasion  ot  this  expul- 
sion, history  does  not  afford  us  the  means  of  de- 
termining. The  words  of  Suetonius  are,  *Jud(POs, 
intpulsore  Chresto,  assi  due  tumultuantes,  Roma 
expulif — *He  expelled  from  Rome  the  Jews  con- 
tinually raising  disturbances  under  the  impulse  of 
(Threstos.* 

(13)  Reference  to  Christ  and  Christians. 
The  cause  here  assigned  for  their  expulsion  is 
that  they  raised  disturbances,  an  allegation  which, 
at  first  view,  does  not  seem  to  point  to  a  religfious, 
still  less  to  a  (Christian,  influence.  And  yet  we 
must  remember  that  the  words  bear  the  coloring 
of  the  mind  of  a  heathen  historian,  who  might 
easily  be  led  to  regard  activity  for  the  diffusion  of 
Christian  truth,  and  the  debates  to  which  that 
activity  necessarily  led,  as  a  noxious  disturbance 
of  the  peace  of  society.  The  Epicurean  view  of 
life  could  scarcely  avoid  describing  religious  agi- 
tations by  terms  ordinarily  appropriated  to^  martial 
pursuits.  It  must  equally  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  diffusion  of  the  (Jospel  in  Rome— then  the 


very  center  and  citadel  of  idolatry — ^was  no  holi- 
day task,  but  would  call  forth  on  the  part  of  the 
disciples  all  the  fiery  energy  of  the  Jewish  char- 
acter, and  on  the  part  of  the  i'agans  all  the 
vehemence  of  passion  which  ensues  from  pride, 
arrogance,  and  hatred.  Had  the  ordinary  name 
of  our  Lord  been  employed  by  Suetonius,  we 
should,  for  ourselves,  have  found  little  difficulty 
in  understanding  the  words  as  intended  to  be  ap- 
plied to  Jewish  Christians.  But  the  biographer 
uses  the  word  Chrestus.  The  us  is  a  mere  Latin 
termination ;  but  what  are  we  to  make  of  the  root 
of  the  word,  Chrest  for  Christ?  Yet  the  change 
is  in  only  one  vowel,  and  Chrest  might  easily  be 
used  for  Christ  by  a  Pagan  writer.  A  slight 
difference  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  word  as 
vocalized  by  a  Roman  and  a  Jew  would  easily 
cause  the  error.  And  we  know  that  the  Romans 
often  did  make  the  mispronunciation,  calling 
Christ  Chrest  (Tertull.  Apol.  c.  3;  Lactant.  Inst. 
iv,  17;  Just.  Mart.  Apol.  c,  2).  The  point  is  im- 
portant, and  we  therefore  give  a  few  details,  the 
rather  that  Lardner  has,  under  Claudius  (vol.  i, 
259),  left  the  question  undetermined.  Now  in 
Tacitus  {Annal.  xv,  44)  Jesus  is  unquestionably 
called  Chrest  {quos  per  Hagitia  invisos  vulgus 
Christianos  appellabat.  Auctor  nominis  ejus 
Chrestus)  in  a  passage  where  his  followers  are 
termed  Christians.  Lucian,  too,  in  his  Philopatris, 
so  designates  our  Lord,  playing  on  the  word 
Chrestos,  which,  in  Greek,  signifies  *good;'  these 
are  his  words:  'Since  a  Chrest  (a  good  man)  is 
found  among  the  Gentiles  also.*  And  Tertullian 
treats  the  difference  as  a  case  of  ignorant  mispro- 
nunciation. The  mistake  may  have  been  the  more 
readily  introduced  from  the  fact  that,  while  f  hrist 
was  a  foreign  word,  Chrest  was  customary;  lips 
therefore  that  had  been  used  to  Chrest  would 
rather  continue  the  sound  than  change  the  vocali- 
zation. The  term  Chresto  occurs  on  inscriptions 
(Heumann,  Sylloge  Diss.,  i,  536),  and  epigrams  in 
which  the  name  appears  may  be  found  in  Martial 
vii,  55;  ix,  28).  In  the  same  author  (xi,  91)  a 
diminutive  from  the  word,  namely,  (Threstillus, 
may  be  found.  The  word  assumed  also  a  femi- 
nine form,  Chresta.  There  can,  therefore,  be  little 
risk  in  asserting  that  Suetonius  intended  to  indi- 
cate Jesus  Christ  by  Chrestus;  and  we  have  al- 
ready seen  that  the  terms  which  he  employs  to 
describe  the  cause  of  the  expulsion,  though,  pecu- 
liar, are  not  irreconcilable  with  a  reference  on  the 
part  of  the  writer  to  Christians.  The  terms  which 
Suetonius  employs  are  accounted  for,  though  they 
may  not  be  altogether  justified  by  those  passages 
in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  in  which  the  collision 
between  the  Jews,  who  had  become  Christians, 
and  those  who  adhered  to  the  national  faith,  is 
found  to  have  occasioned  serious  disturbances 
(Kuinoel.  Acts  xviii  :2;  Rorsal,  De  Christo  per 
errorem  in  Chrest.  Comm.,  Groning.  1717).  This 
interpretation  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  a 
Christian  church,  consisting  of  Jews,  Proselytes, 
and  Pagan  Romans,  had  at  an  early  period  been 
formed  in  Rome,  as  is  evident  from  the  Epistle 
of  Paul  to  the  Romans ;  which  Christian  commu- 
nity must  have  been  in  existence  a  long  time  when 
Paul  wrote  (about  A.  D.  59)  that  epistle  (see 
Rom.  i  :8-i3)  ;  and  Meyer  (Commentar  der  Brief 
an  die  Romer  Einleit.,  sec.  2)  is  of  opinion  that 
the  foundations  of  the  church  in  Rome  may  have 
been  laid  even  during  the  lifetime  of  our  Lord.  It 
is  also  worthy  of  notice  that  Luke,  in  the  book  of 
Acts  (xviii  :2),  when  speaking  of  the  decree  of 
Claudius  as  a  banishment  of  all  the  Jews  from 
Rome,  adverts  to  the  fact  as  a  reason  why  two 
Christians,  Aquila  and  Priscilla.  whom  we  know 
(Rom.  xvi:3)  to  have  been  members  of  the  Ro- 


ROME 


1491 


ROOT 


man  church,  had  lately  come  from  Italy ;  these 
the  apostle  found  on  his  arrival  at  Corinth  in  the 
year  A.  D.  51.  Both  Suetonius  and  Luke,  in 
mentioning  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews,  seem  to 
have  used  the  official  term  employed  in  the  de- 
cree ;  the  Jews  were  known  to  the  Roman  magis- 
trate; and  Christians,  as  being  at  first  Jewish 
converts,  would  be  confounded  under  the  general 
name  of  Jews;  but  that  the  Christians  as  well  a> 
the  Jews  strictly  so-called  were  banished  by  Clau- 
dius appears  certain  from  the  book  of  Acts;  and, 
independently  of  this  evidence,  seems  very  prob- 
able, from  the  other  authorities  of  which  mention 
has  been  made. 

(14)  The  Catacombs.  These  are  vast  subter- 
ranean galleries  (whether  originally  sandpits  or 
excavations  is  uncertain).  Their  usual  height  is 
from  eight  to  ten  feet  and  their  width  from  four 
to  six  feet,  and  they  extend  for  miles,  especially 
in  the  region  of  the  Appian  and  Nomentane 
Ways.  The  Catacombs  were  early  used  by  the 
Christians  as  places  of  refuge,  worship  and 
burial.  More  than  four  thousand  inscriptions 
have  been  found  in  these  subterranean  passages, 
which  are  considered  as  belonging  to  the  period 
between  the  reign  of  Tiberius  and  that  of  the 
Emperor  Constantine.  Among  the  oldest  of  the 
inscriptions  in  the  Catacombs  is  one  dated  A.  D. 
71.  The  names  of  twenty-four  Christians  at 
Rome  are  given  in  the  salutations  contained  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  The  house  of  Clement 
of  Rome,  where  the  early  Christians  probably 
met  for  worship,  has  recently  been  discovered 
beneath  the  church  of  St.  Clement. 

(15)  Founding  of  the  Christian  Church. 
The  question.  Who  founded  the  church  at  Rome? 
is  one  of  some  interest  as  between  Catholic  and 
Protestant.  The  former  assigns  the  honor  to 
Peter,  and  on  this  grounds  an  argument  in  favor 
of  the  claims  of  the  papacy.  There  is,  however, 
no  sufficient  reason  for  believing  that  Peter  was 
ever  even  so  much  as  within  the  walls  of  Rome. 

(16)  Past  Biblical  History.  The  Christian 
church  at  Rome,  which  appears  to  have  been 
founded  before  the  visit  of  the  apostle,  probably 
by  Roman  Jews  who  had  heard  the  gospel  in 
Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii:io), 
was  strengthened  by  Paul,  and  the  metropolitan 
character  of  the  city  gave  the  church  a  position 
of  importance  and  gradually  increasing  power, 
until  it  became  the  seat  of  a  metropolitan  bish- 
opric, and  then  of  the  papal  see.  The  earliest  re- 
ligious centers  under  Christianity  were  Ephesus, 
Antioch,  Alexandria,  and  Rome.  Each  of  these 
gradually  claimed  superior  powers  in  the  Church, 
and  their  decrees  were  accepted  as  law.  Soon  the 
bishop  at  Rome,  from  his  position  in  the  capital 
of  the  world,  and  from  an  assumption  that  he 
was  the  spiritual  successor  of  Peter,  claimed  su- 
preme power  in  the  Church,  and,  after  long  re- 
garding themselves  as  his  equals  in  rank  and 
authority,  the  patriarchs  of  Antioch,  Alexandria, 
and  Constantinople  were  led  to  acknowledge  the 
claim  of  the  Roman  bishop  to  a  primacy  of 
honor,  but  not  to  a  supremacy  of  jurisdiction 
(about  A.  D.  451-604).  Since  the  ninth  century 
the  great  schism  divided  Christendom  into  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  and  the  Greek  Church, 
independent  of  the  papal  power  of  Rome.  The 
popes  ruled  Europe  with  varying  degrees  of 
power  and  ability  until  the  Reformation  broke 
out,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  since  which  era  the 
papal  power  has  gradually  declined  at  Rome.  The 
French  army  entered  Italy  in  1796.  and  later  the 
pope  became  a  prisoner,  first  at  Rome,  then  in 
France,   and   Rome   was   formally  governed  by 


France  (1806).  In  1814  the  pope  returned  to  his 
palace,  but  in  1848  the  people  rebelled,  and  es- 
tablished a  republic.  France  again  interfered; 
the  republic  ended.  The  pope  returned,  but  when 
the  French  troops  were  withdrawn  in  1870,  Italy 
became  united  under  Victor  Emmanuel,  Rome 
was  made  the  political  capital  of  the  nation 
(1871),  and  the  temporal  power  of  the  Holy  See 
was  abolished.  The  pope  still  occupies  the  Vati- 
can, and  is  supported  by  contributions  of  Roman 
Catholics  of  France,  Austria,  Belgium,  England, 
the  United  States  and  other  countries.  Pius  IX 
indignantly  refused  the  government  pension,  and 
called  himself  a  prisoner  in  the  Vatican.  Leo 
XIII,  though  firm  in  maintaining  his  claim  to  the 
"patrimony  of  Peter,"  is  more  peaceable  and  con- 
ciliatory.    (Schaff,  Bib.  Diet.) 

Archbishop  John  Ireland  has  recently  written 
strongly  in  favor  of  restoring  the  temporal  power 
of  the  pope. 

(17)  Modern  Borne.  The  site  occupied  by 
modern  Rome  is  not  precisely  the  same  as  that 
which  was  at  any  period  covered  by  the  ancient 
city;  the  change  of  locality  being  towards  th§ 
northwest,  the  city  has  partially  retired  from  the 
celebrated  hills.  About  two-thirds  of  the  area 
within  the  walls  (traced  by  Aurelian)  is  now 
desolate,  consisting  of  ruins,  gardens,  and  fields, 
with  some  churches,  convents,  and  other  sacred 
habitations. 

The  ground  on  which  the  modern  city  is  built 
covers  about  one  thousand  acres,  or  one  mile  and 
a  half  square;  its  walls  form  a  circuit  of  fifteen 
miles,  and  embrace  an  area  of  three  thousand 
acres.  Three  of  the  seven  hills  are  covered  with 
buildings,  but  are  only  thinly  inhabited.  The 
greatest  part  of  the  population  is  now  comprised 
within  the  limits  of  the  Campus  Martins.  The 
ancient  city,  however,  was  more  than  treble  the 
size  of  the  modern,  for  it  had  very  extensive  sub- 
urbs beyond  the  walls.  Gibbon  estimated  the 
population  of  the  city  during  the  reign  of  Augus- 
tus as  1,500,000.  Its  population  is  now  about 
300,000. 

Figurative.  Rome,  as  a  persecuting  power, 
IS  referred  to  by  the  "seven  heads"  and  "seven 
mountains"  in  Rev.  xvii  ig,  and  described  under 
the  name  of  "Babylon"  elsewhere  in  the  same 
book  (Rev.  xiv:8;  xvirig;  xviirs;  xviii:2,  21). 

B00P(r66f).    See  House. 

Figurative*  To  receive  beneath  one's  roof 
denotes  hospitality  (see  Gen.  xix:8;  Matt.  viii:8). 

BOOM  (r(50m],  (Ps.  xxxi:8),  space,  place.  In 
Luke  xiv:7-io,  oy  room  is  meant  a  place  at  a 
table.    (See  House.) 

BOOT  (ro&t),  (Heb.  ^1^,  sho'resh\  Gr.  ^/^», 
htidzah). 

1.  That  part  of  a  plant  which  is  fastened  in 
the  earth  (Job  xiv:8). 

2.  A  foundation  which  establishes  what  is 
built  on  it  (Job  xxviiiip). 

Figurative,  (i)  That  from  which  anything 
proceeds;  so  the  love  of  money  is  the  root  or 
cause  of  all  evil  (i  Tim.  vino).  (2)  A  wicked 
person,  or  vile  error,  is  a  root  of  bitterness,  which 
secretly  infects  and  corrupts  others  with  the 
poison  of  sin  (Deut.  xxix:i8).  (3)  Christ  is 
called  the  Root  of  Jesse,  or  David,  as  he  is  the 
author  of  their  being,  and  immutably  establishes 
the  glory  of  their  family  (Is.  xi:lo;  Rev.  v:S, 
and  xii:i6).  (4)  If  the  root  be  holy,  so  are  the 
branches;  if  the  ancient  patriarchs,  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob,  the  parents  of  the  Hebrews, 
were  in  covenant  with  Grod,  their  children  must 


ROPE 


1492 


ROSH 


be  consecrated  to  his  service,  and  not  cast  off 
forever  (Rom.  xi:i6).  (5)  The  root  of  nations 
goes  up  as  rottenness,  and  their  blossoms  as  dust, 
and  they  have  neither  root  nor  branch  left,  when 
there  is  an  utter  destruction  both  of  parents  and 
children  (Is.  v:24;  Mai.  i:4).  (6)  To  be  rooted 
and  grounded  in  Christ,  is  to  be  firmly  united  to 
him,  and  well  established  in  the  faith  and  expe- 
rience of  his  truth  (Col.  ii:7).  (7)  The  root  of 
the  matter  is  in  one  when  he  has  a  real  habit  or 
principle  of  grace,  and  a  firm  belief  of  the  funda- 
mental doctrines  of  the  gospel,  from  which  the 
fruit  of  good  works  proceeds  (Job  xix:28).  (8) 
To  take  root,  spread  out  the  roots,  or  to  have  the 
root  by  great  waters,  is  to  become  seemingly  fixed 
in  great  prosperity  (2  Kings  xix:30;  Job  xxix: 
19;  Ezek.  xxxi:7).  (9)  The  roots  of  hypocrites 
are  wrapped  about  the  heap,  and  he  seeth  the  place 
of  stones;  his  condition  is  seemingly  established, 
and  though  he  has  no  proper  root  of  grace,  he 
expects  a  high  raised  happiness  (Job  viii:i7). 
(10)  The  royal  family  of  Judah  had  their  roots 
under  the  king  of  Egypt,  and  towards  the  king  of 
Babylon;  by  submission  to  Pharaoh-necho,  Je- 
hoiakim  obtained  the  kingdom,  and  by  solemn  en- 
gagement of  subjection,  Zedekiah  got  the  crown 
from  Nebuchadnezzar  (Ezek.  xviiro,  7).  (11)  To 
be  rooted  out,  plucked  up  by  the  roots,  or  to  have 
the  roots  driea,  or  killed  with  famine,  is  to  meet 
with  fearful  destruction,  that  ruins  the  principal 
men,  and  overturns  the  constitution  of  the  state 
(Deut.  xxix:28;  Hos.  ix:i6;  Is.  xiv:3o). 

BOFB  (rOp),  (Heb.  ^^^,  khekbel,  twisted;  ^^ 

ab'Oth\  twined;  Gr.  <rxoiptow,  skhoy-nee' on,  grass 
withe).  Ropes,  strings,  and  various  kinds  oif  twine 
were  made  oy  the  ancients  of  flax  and  other  ma- 
terials. 

The  Scripture  references  to  rope  are  but  few: 
The  binding  of  .Samson  with  them  by  Delilah 
(Judg.  xvi:ii,  12);  in  Ahithopel's  counsel  to 
drag  down  with  ropes  the  supposed  place  of  Da- 
vid's retreat  (2  Sam.  xvii:i3);  the  servants  of 
the  defeated  Syrian  king,  Ben-hadad,  coming  to 
Ahab  with  ropes  round  their  necks  (i  Kings  xx: 
31,  32),  as  a  sign  of  absolute  surrender;  and  in 
the  account  of  Paul's  shipwreck  (Acts  xxvii:32). 

Figurative.  Isaiah  directs  a  woe  against  those 
guilty  of  impiety,  thus:  "Woe  unto  them  that 
draw  iniquity  with  cords  of  vanity,  and  sin  as  it 
were  with  a  cart  rope"  (v:i8).  "There  is  a  bit- 
ter sarcasm  involved  in  the  bold  figure  employed. 
They  were  proud  of  their  unbelief,  but  this  unbe- 
lief was  like  a  halter  with  which,  like  beasts  of 
burden,  they  were  harnessed  to  sin,  and  therefore 
to  the  punishment  of  sin,  which  they  went  on 
drawing  farther  and  farther,  in  ignorance  of  the 
wa5[on  behind  them"  (Delitzsch,  Com.,  under  the 
subject  cited). 

BOSS  (rOz),  (Heb.  ^^^3^,  khah-ats-tsek' leth). 

The  meaning  of  the  original  excludes  from 
our  consideration  the  true  rose  and  several  other 
plants  suggested.  It  is  the  opinion  of  some  of  the 
best  stuthorities  that  the  polyanthus  narcissus 
(Narcissus  taxetta)  is  intended  in  Cant.  ii:i,  and 
Is.  XXXV  :i,  where  alone  the  rose  is  mentioned. 
This  beautiful  and  fragrant  narcissus  grows  in 
the  plain  of  Sharon^  as  is  required  by  these  refer- 
ences, and  during  its  season  of  bloom  is  sold  in 
the  bazaars  of  the  East  and  carried  by  everybody 
as  a  specially  favorite  flower. 

The  "rose  of  Sharon"  of  modern  writers  is  a 
•  rose-like  species  of  cistus,  while  the  "rose  of 
Jericho"  is  a  small  woody  plant  with  minute  cru- 
ciferous flowers.  True  wild  roses  are  rarely  seen 
except  in  the  extreme  north  of  Palestine. 


Toumefort  mentions  fifty-three  kinds  of  roses, 
of  which  the  damask  rose,  and  the  rose  of  Sharon, 
are  among  the  finest.  The  essence  of  damask 
roses  is  an  excellent  perfume. 

Figurative,  (i)  Jesus  Christ  is  called  the 
Rose  of  Sharon;  how  unbounded  his  comeliness, 
delightfulness,  and  efficacy,  for  the  healing  of  our 
souls  (C^nt.  ii:i).  (2)  The  wilderness  blossoms 
as  the  rose;  through  the  preaching  of  the  gospel, 
the  gentile  world  shall  be  converted  to  Christ,  and 
flourish  with  saints  and  graces  (Is.  xxxvri). 

BOSH  (rdsh),  (Heb.  tth,  rash,  the  head),  oc- 
curs in  several  places  of  the  Old  Testament. 

!•  The  word  is  thought  originally  to  signify 
'poison,'  and  is  therefore  supposed  to  indicate  a 
poisonous  plant.  But  this  has  not  yet  been  ascer- 
tained. It  is  sometimes  translated  gall,  some- 
times bitter  or  bitterness,  but  is  generally  con- 
sidered to  signify  some  plant.  This  we  may  infer 
from  its  being  frequently  mentioned  along  with 
laanah  or  'wormwood,'  as  in  Deut.  xxix:  18,  'lest 
there  should  be  among  you  a  root  that  beareth  gall 
(rosh)  and  wormwood  (laanah')  ;  so  also  in  Jer. 
ix:i5;  xxiii:i5;  and  in  Lam.  iii:i9,  'Remembering 
mine  affliction  and  my  misery,  the  wormwood  and 
the  gall.*  That  it  was  a  berry-bearing  plant,  has 
been  inferred  from  Deut.  xxxii:32,  'For  their 
vine  is  of  the  vine  of  Sodom,  and  their  grapes 
are  grapes  of  gall  (rosh),  their  clusters  are  bit- 
ter.' In  Jer.  viii:i4,  'water  of  gall'  (rosh),  is 
mentioned;  which  may  be  either  the  expressed 
juice  of  the  fruit  or  of  the  plant,  or  a  bitter  in- 
fusion made  from  it:  *aqu(B  Kosch  dicuntur,  quia 
sunt  succus  herbcB,  quam  Rosch  appellant,'  That 
it  was  a  plant  is  very  evident  from  Hos.  x:4, 
where  it  is  said  'their  judgment  springeth  up  as 
hemlock  (rosh)  in  the  furrows  of  the  field.*  Here 
we  observe  that  rosh  is  translated  hemlock  in  the 
Authorized  Version,  as  it  is  also  in  Amos  vi:i2, 
'For  ye  have  turned  judgment  into  gall  (laanah, 
'wormwood'),  and  the  fruit  of  righteousness  into 
hemlock'  (rosh). 

Though  rosh  is  generally  acknowledged  to  indi- 
cate some  plant,  yet  a  variety  of  opinions  have 
been  entertained  respecting  its  identification; 
some,  as  the  Authorized  Version,  in  Hos.  x:4, 
and  Amos  vi:i2,  consider  cicuia  or  hemlock  to  be 
the  plant  intended.  Tremellius  adopts  this  as  the 
meaning  of  rosh  in  all  the  passages,  and  is  fol- 
lowed by  Celsius  (Hierobot  ii:49).  The  cicuta 
of  the  Romans,  the  kohneion  of  the  Greeks,  is 
generally  acknowledged  to  have  been  what  we 
now  call  hemlock,  the  conium  maculatum  of  bot- 
anists. There  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  poisonous 
nature,  but  there  does  not  appear  any  necessity 
for  our  considering  rosh  to  have  been  more  poi- 
sonous than  laanah  or  wormwood,  with  which  it 
is  associated  so  frequently  as  to  appear  like  a 
proverbial  expression  (Deut.  xxix:  18;  Jer.  ix: 
is;  xxiii:i5;  Lam.  iii:i9;  Amos  vi:i2).  Some 
have  erroneously  translated  it  wormwood,  from 
which  it  is  sufficiently  distinguished  in  the  above 
passages.  The  Septuagint  translator  renders  it 
agrostis,  intending  some  species  of  grass.  Hence 
some  have  concluded  that  it  must  be  lolium  te- 
mulentum,  or  darnel,  the  zizanium  of  the  an- 
cients, which  is  remarkable  among  grasses  for  its 
poisonous  and  intoxicating  properties.  It  is,  how- 
ever, rather  sweetish  in  taste,  and  its  seeds  being 
intermixed  with  com,  are  sometimes  made  into 
bread.  It  is  well  known  to  grow  in  cornfields, 
and  would  therefore  suit  the  passage  of  Hosea; 
but  it  has  not  a  berry-like  fruit,  nor  would  it 
yield  any  juice;  the  infusion  in  water,  however, 
might  be  so  understood,  though  it  would  not  be 
very  bitter  or  disagreeable  in  taste.    Hiller,  in  his 


ROT.  ROTTEN,  ROTTENNESS 


1493 


ROW 


Hierophyticon  (ii,  54),  adduces  the  centaury  as  a 
bitter  plant,  which  corresponds  with  much  of 
what  is  required.  Two  kinds  of  centaury,  the 
larger  and  smaller,  and  both  conspicuous  for  their 
bitterness,  were  known  to  the  ancients.  The  lat- 
ter, the  Erythraa  centaurium,  is  one  of  the  family 
of  gentians,  and  still  continues  to  be  employed  as 
a  medicine  on  account  of  its  bitter  and  tonic 
properties.  We  may  also  mention  that  an  old 
name  of  this  centaury  was  'Rha  capitatum.'  From 
the  extreme  bitterness  of  taste,  from  growing  in 
fields,  and  being  a  native  of  warm  countries,  some 
plant  like  centaury,  and  of  the  tribe  of  gentians, 
might  answer  all  the  passages  in  which  rosh  is 
mentioned,  with  the  exception  of  that  (Deut. 
xxxii  132)  where  it  is  supposed  to  have  a  berried 
fruit.  Dr.  Harris,  quoting  Blaney  on  Jer.  viii: 
14,  says,  *In  Ps.  lxix:2i,  which  is  justly  consid- 
ered as  a  prophecy  of  our  Savior's  sufferings, 
it  is  said,  "they  gave  me  rosh  to  eat,"  which  the 
Septuagint  have  rendered  kholane,  gall,  and  ac- 
cordingly it  is  recorded  in  the  history  (Matt,  xxvii: 
34),  "They  gave  him  vinegar  to  drink,  min- 
gled with  gall."  But  in  the  parallel  passage 
(Mark  xy:23)  it  is  said  to  be  "wine  mingled  with 
myrrh,"  a  very  bitter  ingredient.  From  whence 
I  am  induced  to  think  that  kholay,  and  perhaps 
rosh,  may  be  used  as  a  general  name  for  whatever 
is  exceedingly  bitter ;  and,  consequently,  when  the 
sense  requires,  it  may  be  put  specially  for  any 
bitter  herb  or  plant,  the  infusion  of  which  may  be 
called  Aqua  Rosch,     (See  Gall;  Myrrh.) 

J.  F.  R. 

2.  The  seventh  son  of  Benjamin,  and  head  of 
a  family  in  Israel  ((Jen.  xlvi:2i),  B.  C.  about 
1880.  Perhaps  identical  with  Rapha,  i  (i  Chron. 
viii:2). 

3.  In  Ezek.  xxxviii:2,  3;  xxxixri  the  Hebrew 
word  rosA,  translated  "prince,"  should  be  read, 
doubtless,  as  "prince  of  Rosh."  It  was  applied 
probably  to  a  northern  nation,  and  according  to 
(jesenius  the  name  is  an  early  form  of  Russ  or 
Russia  Roume. 

BOT,  BOTTEN,  BOTTENNESS  (rdt,  r5t't*n, 
rot't'n-n€s),  the  rendering  of  several  Hebrew  words, 
used  mostly  figuratively. 

(i)  The  name  of  the  wicked  rots;  is  forgot- 
ten, and  becomes  infamous  (Prov.  x:7).  (2)  God 
was  as  rottenness  to  the  house  of  Judah,  gradu- 
ally wastmg  th^ir  numbers,  glory,  and  strength, 
and  rendering  them  contemptible  (Hos.  v:i2). 
(3)  A  bad  wife  is  rattenness  to  her  husband;  she 
gradually  wastes  his  reputation,  usefulness  and 
wealth,  and  is  a  means  of  hastening  his  death 
(Prov.  xii:4).  (4)  Envy  is  the  rottenness  of  the 
bones;  it  weakens  the  faculties  of  the  soul,  wastes 
the  physical  constitution,  increases  spiritual  decay 
and  hastens  natural  death  (Prov.  xiv:3o). 

BOTHEM    (rS'thSm),   written   also    BOTEM 

(Heb.^^,  ro-them'),  occurs  in  four  passages  of  the 

Old  Testament,  in  all  of  which  it  is  translated 
juniper  in  the  Auth.  Vers.,  though  it  is  now  consid- 
ered very  clear  that  a  kind  of  broom  is  intended. 

Belon  mentions  finding  it  in  several  places 
when  traveling  in  the  East.  Burckhardt  also  fre- 
quently mentions  the  shrub  rethem  in  the  deserts 
to  the  south  of  Palestine,  and  he  thought  it  to  be 
the  same  plant  as  the  Genista  ratcem  of  Forskal. 

He  states  that  whole  plains  are  sometimes  cov- 
ered with  this  shrub,  and  that  such  places  are 
favorite  places  of  pasturage,  as  sheep  are  re- 
markably fond  of  the  pods.  Lord  Lindsay  again, 
while  traveling  in  the  middle  of  the  valleys  of 
Mount  Sinai,  says,  The  rattam  a  species  of 
broom,  bearing  a  white  flower,  delicately  streaked 


with  purple^  afforded  me  frequent  shelter  from 
the  sun  while  in  advance  of  the  caravan.'  Mr. 
Kitto  on  this  well  observes,  Tt  is'  a  remarkable, 
because  undesigned,  coincidence,  that  in  travel- 
ing to  the  very  same  Mount  of  Horeb,  the 
prophet  Elijah  rested,  as  did  Lord  Lindsay,  un- 
der a  rattam  shrub.'  There  can  be  no  reasonable 
doubt,  therefore,  that  the  Hebrew  rothem  de- 
notes the  same  plant  as  the  Arabic  retem,  though 
it  has  been  rendered  juniper  in  the  English,  and 
several  other  translations  as  in  i  Kings  xix:4; 
'but  he  (Elijah  or  Elias)  himself  went  a  day's 
journey  into  the  wilderness,  and  came  and  sat 
down  under  a  juniper  (rothem)  tree,'  etc.;  'And 
as  he  lay  and  slept  under  a  juniper  tree,'  etc. 

In  the  other  passages  the  meaning  is  not  so 
clear,  and  therefore  different  interpretations  have 
been  given.  Thus,  Job  (xxx  14)  says  of  the  half- 
famished  people  who  despised  him,  'who  cut  up 
mallows  by  the  bushes,  and  juniper  {rothem) 
roots  for  their  food.'  Though  the  broom  root 
may  perhaps  be  more  suitable  for  diet  than  the 
juniper,  yet  they  are  both  too  bitter  and  medicinal 
to  be  considered  or  used  as  nutritious,  and,  there- 
fore, some  say,  that  'when  we  read  that  roSem 
roots  were  their  food,  we  are  to  suppose  a  great 
deal  more  than  the  words  express,  namely,  that 
their  hunger  was  so  violent,  as  not  to  refrain  even 
from  these  roots,'  which  were  neither  refreshing 
nor  nourishing.  Ursinus  supposes,  that  instead  of 
the  roots  of  Siis  broom,  we  are  to  understand  a 
plant  which  grows  upon  these  roots,  as  well  as 
upon  some  other  plants,  and  which  is  well  known 
by  the  English  name  of  broom-rape,  the  oro- 
banche  of  botanists.  These  are  sometimes  eaten. 
Thus  Dioscorides  (ii,  136)  observes  that  the  oro- 
banche,  which  grows  from  the  roots  of  broom, 
was  sometimes  eaten  raw,  or  boiled  like  asparagus. 
Celsius  again  suggests  an  amendment  in  the  sen- 
tence, and  thinks  that  we  should  understand  it  to 
mean  that  the  broom  roots  were  required  for  fuel, 
and  not  for  food,  as  the  Hebrew  words  signifying 
fuel  and  food,  though  very  similar  to  each  other, 
are  very  different  in  their  derivation:  'Diverse 
igitur  sunt  voces  Lachmam,  pants  eorum,  et  Lach- 
mam,  ad  calefaciendum  se,  scriptione  licet  et 
Uteris  atque  punctis  exacte  conveniant;'  and  this 
sense  is  confirmed  by  some  of  the  Talmudical 
writers,  as  R.  Levi  Ben  Gcrson,  who  commenting 
on  this  passage  says:  'ut  significet,  ad  calefacien- 
dum se;  quia  opus  habebant,  quo  calefierent,  quod 
versarentur  in  locis  frigidis,  sine  ullo  perfugio' 
The  broom  is  the  only  fuel  procurable  in  many 
of  these  desert  situations,  as  mentioned  by  several 
travelers.  Thus  Thevenot,  'Puis  nous  nous  re- 
posdmes  en  un  lieu  ou  il  y  avoit  un  peu  de  genets, 
car  ils  ne  nous  faisoient  point  reposer  qu'en 
des  lieux  ow  il  y  eut  de  quoi  dni/er,  tani 
pour  se  chauffer,  que  pour  faire  cuire  le  cabvh 
et  leur  mafrouca,'  In  Ps.  cxx:4,  David  observes 
that  the  calumnies  of  his  enemies  were  'like  ar- 
rows of  the  mighty,  with  coals  of  juniper' 
{rothem).  The  broom,  being,  no  doubt,  very 
commonly  used  as  fuel  in  a  country  where  it  is 
abundant,  and  other  plants  scarce,  might  readily 
suggest  itself  in  a  comparison;  but  it  is  also  de- 
scribed as  sparkling,  burning  and  crackling  more 
vehemently  than  other  wood.    (See  Juniper.) 

J.  F.  R. 

BOW  (r5),  (Heb.  "^T^,  tee-raw\  usually  a  wall, 

Ezek.  xlvi:23).  "It  was  made  with  boiling  places 
under  the  rows  round  about."  Row  here  means  a 
row  or  shelf  of  brickwork  which  had  separate 
shelves  under  which  hearths  for  cooking  were 
placed. 


BTIBT  (ru'bj),  (Heb.  0^*?,/, 


VersiOQ    (Job    xxviiinS;    Pr _„.    _. 

xx:i5;  xxxi:iQ;  Lam.  iv:?)  appears  rather  to 
indicate  'pearls.'  The  ruby  is,  however,  gener- 
ally supposed  to  be  represented  by  kadkode,  which 
occurs  in  E^ek.  xxvii:6  and  Is.  Iiv:i2,  where 
the  Authorized  Version  renders  it  'agate,'  An 
Arabic  word  of  similar  sound  (kadskaisal)  sig- 
nifies 'vivid  redness;'  and  as  the  Hebrew  word 
may  be  derived  from  a  root  of  like  signification, 
it  is  inferred  that  it  denotes  the  Oriental  ruby, 
which  is  distinguished  for  its  vivid  red  color,  and 
was  regarded  as  the  most  valuable  of  precious 
stones  next  after  the  diamond. 


B'trDSX:il-BAin>S  (rud'dcr-bSnds).    See  Ship, 

BtTDDT  (riSd'df),  (Heb.  'i'^'^^,  ad-mo-nee' ,  from 
^^,  aw-dam',  to  be  red),  applied  to  David  (i  Sam. 
xvi:i2:  xvii:42). 

It  is  a  term  used  to  denote  either  the  color  of 
David's  hair  or  of  his  complexion.  It  seems 
rather  to  refer  to  the  complexion.  This  view  is 
confirmed  bjr  the  application  of  kindred  words,  as 
"Her  Nazarites  were  purer  than  snow,  they  were 
whiter  than  milk,  they  were  more  ruddy  in  body 
than  rubies"  (Lam.  :v :?) ;  and  "My  beloved  is 
white  and  ruddy"  (Cant.  v:io),  who  is  imme- 
diately described  as  black-haired  (v:ii). 

BTTOE  (rud).  (Gr.  HiiSti?!,  id-ei-o' tace),  means 
properly  a  private  person  in  distinction  from  a 
magistrate.  In  the  New  Testament  it  means  illit- 
erate, unlearned  (2  Cor,  xi:6). 


Kge  (Ruta  Crmtstm.    Ktlti  CarrmherB^ 

BUDIUEHT8  (ru'dl-mrats),  (Gr.  trroix'i":  Hoy- 
kkfon,  any  first  thing),  the  first  and  simplest  prin- 
ciples of  a  science  or  literature. 

The  word  is  translated  "rudiments"  or  "ele- 
ments" without  distinction,  as  both  mean  the  same 
thing  (Gal.  iv:3,  9;  Col.  ii:ao>.  (See  Ele- 
ments.) 


M  RUST 

BUB  (tu),  (Gr.  Tih-aror,  pay'ean-on),  spoken  o( 
only  once  in  the  Bible  (Luke  xi:42). 

It  is  a  well-known  herb  (,Ruta  graveoletu) 
which  often  grows  wild  in  Palestine,  and  was  also 
cultivated  for  its  disinfectant  and  other  medicinal 
properties.  Our  Savior  reproaches  the  Pharisees 
with  their  superstitious  affectation  of  paying  the 
tithe  of  rue.  which  was  not  in  reality  subject  to 
the  law  of  tithe,  while  they  neglected  the  more 
essential  parts  of  the  law. 

Btims  (ru'fus),  (Gr.'PoS^ot,  Arao'/os,  red). 

A  person  of  this  name  was  one  of  the  sons  of 
Simon  the  Cyrenian,  who  was  compelled  to  bear 
the  cross  of  Christ  (Mark  xv:2i);  he  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  same  with  the  Rufus  to  whom 
Paul,  in  writing  to  the  Romans,  sends  his  greet- 
ing in  the  remarkable  words,  'Salute  Rufus, 
chosen  in  the  Lord,  and  his  mother  and  mine' 
(Rom.  xviiij).  The  name  is  Roman;  but  the 
man  was  probably  of  Hebrew  origin.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  one  of  the  seventy  disciples,  and 
eventually  to  have  had  charge  of  the  church  at 
Thebes  (A.  D.  29). 

BUHAKAH  (ru'ha-mah),  (Heb.  ■"'5?'^,  from 
^^1,  raio-kham',  finding  mercy,  or  having  ob- 
tained "mercy")  (Hos.  ii:I),  a  symbolical  title  of 
Israel,  like  Lo-ruhamah. 

BUIM"  (ruTn),  the  translation  of  some  very  ex- 
pressive Hebrew  terms: 

1.  (Heb.  ^5},  naw-M,  to  fall),  the  ruin  of  a 
city  by  dilapidation,  separating  all  its  stones  (Is. 
XXV :2,  "Thou  hast  made  of  a  fenced  city  a  ruin;" 
xvii;i);  so  of  a  country  (Is.  xxiii:i3;  Ezek. 
xxxi:i3;  comp.  xxviiia?). 

2.  Mekk-it-taiv'  (Heb.  '"I^O?,  dissolution). 
"Thou  hast  brought  his  strongholds  10  ruins" 
(Ps.  lxxxix:4o).  The  word  also  means  terror, 
and  expresses  the  alarm  occurring  upon  taking  x 
fortified  place. 

8.  Haw-ras'  (Heb.  ^5^,  of  tear  down),  refer- 
ring to  "ruined  cities"  (Ezek.  xxxvi:3S,  36;  comp. 
Amos  ix:io).     (Mc.  &  Str.  Bib.  Diet.) 

FigaratiV.  Ruin  is  symbolical  of  a  fall  or 
stumbling  because  of  sin,  or  temptation  to  sin. 
(I)  "The  ruin"  of  Ahaz  (see  2  Chron.  xxviii:23; 
comp.  Ezek.  xviii:3o;  xxi:i5),  "who  knoweth  the 
ruin  of  them  both"  (Prov.  xxiv:22).  (2)  "A 
nattering  mouth  worketh  ruin"  (Prov.  xxvi  128). 
(3)  "Let  this  ruin  be  under  thine  hand;"  that  is, 
take  thou  care  of  this  disordered  and  perishing 
state  (Is.  iii:6). 

BUIiEB  (rul'er).    See  King. 

BUMAH  (ru'mah),  (Heb.  ^?",  roo-matt>;  high, 
exalted),  the  native  place  of  Pedaiah,  the  father  of 
Zebudab  (2  Kings  xxiii:36). 

BUMP  (rtSmp),  (Heb.  "^Vi*,  aZ-^aa/'), or  rather 
tail. 

The  rump  or  tail  of  rams,  offered  in  sacrifice, 
was  burnt  on  the  altar,  because  it  consisted  chiefly 
ot  fat  (Exod.  xxix:22).  It  was  considered  the 
most  delicate  portion  ot  the  animal.  (See 
Sheep.) 

BUW,  EUWWIH'a(riin,  rOn'ning).    Sec  Games. 

BUSH  (Hjsh).    See  AgmoN;  Reed. 

BUST  (h 

OS').  This  U  .    .    

words  in  Matt.  vi:i9,  20.  and  in  James  v:3.  In 
the  former  passage  the  word  f'rosis  has  by  some 
been  understood  to  denote  the  larva  of  some 
moth    injurious   to   corn.       The    allusion    of   St. 


RUTH 


1495 


RYE 


James  is  to  the  corroding  nature  of  eeos  on  met- 
als. Rust  is,  however,  generally  used,  as  almost 
everywhere  in  Greek  writers,  of  that  which  is 
eaten,  food  (Heb.  xii:i6;  2  Cor.  ix:io). 

BX7TH  (ruth),  (Heb.  T\T\,  rooih,dL  female  friend). 

A  Moabitish  woman,  brought,  under  pectdiar 
circumstances,  into  intimate  relation  with  the 
stock  of  Israel,  and  whose  history  is  given  in  one 
of  the  books  of  the  sacred  canon  which  bears  her 
name.  The  narrative  that  brings  her  into  the 
range  of  inspired  story  is  constructed  with  idyllic 
simplicity  and  pathos,  and  forms  a  pleasant  relief 
to  die  somber  and  repulsive  shades  of  the  picture 
which  the  reader  has  just  been  contemplating  in 
the  later  annals  of  the  Judges. 

(1)  History  of  Tamily.  It  is  the  domestic 
history  of  a  family  compelled,  by  the  urgency  of 
a  famine,  to  abandon  the  land  of  Canaan,  and 
seek  an  asylum  in  the  territories  of  Moab.  Elime* 
lech,  the  head  of  the  emigrating  household,  dies 
in  the  land  of  his  sojourn,  where  his  two  surviving 
sons  (B.  C.  about  1070)  *took  them  wives  of  the 
women  of  Moab;  the  name  of  the  one  was  Orpah, 
and  the  name  of  the  other  Ruth.'  On  the  death 
of  the  sons,  the  widowed  parent,  resolving  to 
return  to  her  country  and  kindred,  the  filial  affec- 
tion of  the  daughters-in-law  is  put  to  a  severe  test, 
and  Ruth  determines  at  all  hazards  to  accompany 
Naomi. 

(2)  Buth  and  Boaz.  She  accordingly  arrives 
at  Bethlehem  with  her  mother,  where,  in  the  ex- 
tremity of  want,  she  goes  to  glean  after  the  reap- 
ers in  the  harvest-field  of  Boaz,  a  wealthy  kinsman 
of  her  deceased  father-in-law,  Elimeleoh. 

Attracted  by  her  appearance,  and  informed  of 
her  exemplary  conduct  towards  her  mother-in- 
law,  Boaz  bade  her  return  from  day  to  day,  and 
directed  his  servants  to  give  her  a  coyrteous  wel- 
come. An  omen  so  propitious  could  not  but  be 
regarded  as  a  special  encouragement  to  both,  and 
Naomi  therefore  counseled  Ruth  to  seek  an  op- 
portunity for  intimating  to  Boaz  the  claim  she  had 
upon  him  as  the  nearest  kinsman  of  her  deceased 
husband.  A  stratagem,  which  in  other  circum- 
stances would  have  been  of  very  doubtful  pro- 
priety, was  adopted  for  compassing  this  object; 
and  though  Boaz  entertained  the  proposal  favor- 
ably, yet  he  replied  that  there  was  another  person 
more  nearly  related  to  the  family  than  himself, 
whose  title  must  first  be  disposed  of.  Without 
delay  he  applied  himself  to  ascertain  whether  the 
kinsman  in  question  was  inclined  to  assert  his 
right— a  right  which  extended  to  a  purchase  of 
the  ransom  (at  the  Jubilee)  of  Elimelech's  estate. 
Finding  him  indisposed  to  the  measure,  he  ob- 
tained from  him  a  release,  ratified  according  to 
the  legal  forms  of  the  time,  and  then  proceeded 
himself  to  redeem  the  patrimony  of  Elimelech,  and 
espoused  the  widow  of  his  son  (B.  C.  about  1060) 
in  order  *to  raise  up  the  name  of  the  dead  upon 
his  inheritance.' 

(8)  Ancestor  of  David.  From  this  union 
spranfl^  David,  the  illustrious  king  of  Israel,  whofe 
line  the  writer  traces  up,  in  conclusion,  throuoli 
Boaz,  to  Pharez,  son  of  Judah. 

The  principal  difficulty  in  regard  to  the  book 
arises,  however,  from  this  very  genealogy,  in 
which  it  is  stated  that  Boaz,  who  was  the  hus- 
band of  Ruth,  and  the  great-grapdfather  of  David, 
was  the  son  of  Salmon  by  Rachab.    Now,  if  by 


Rachab  we  suppose  to  be  meant,  as  is  usually  un- 
derstood, Rahab  the  harlot,  who  protected  the 
spies,  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive  that  only  three 
persons — Boaz,  Obed  and  Jesse,  should  have  in- 
tervened between  her  and  David,  a  period  of  near 
400  years.  But  the  solution  of  Usher  is  not  im- 
probable, that  the  ancestors  of  David,  as  persons 
of  preeminent  piety,  were  favored  with  extraordi- 
nary longevity.  Or  it  may  be  that  the  sacred 
writers  have  mentioned  in  the  genealogy  only 
such  names  as  were  distinguished. 

(4)  Practical  Lessons.  The  practical  lessons 
of  the  book  are  manifold  and  impressive — the 
sure  reward  of  filial  devotion  and  trust  in  God; 
the  true  use  of  the  calamities  of  life;  the  over- 
ruling providence  of  God  in  the  private  affairs 
of  a  humble  family  as  well  as  in  the  palace  of 
princes  and  the  public  events  of  nations.  It  also 
shows  that  God  had  children  outside  of  Canaan 
and  the  Jewish  theocracy,  and  the  incorporation 
of  Ruth  into  the  Church  of  the  Old  Testament 
may  be  regarded  as  an  intimation  of  the  future 
call  of  the  Gentiles  to  the  gospel  salvation. 

BUTH,  BOOK  OP.  The  Book  of  Ruth  is  in- 
serted in  the  Canon,  according  to  the  Enii:ltsh 
arrangement,  between  the  book  of  Judges  and 
the  books  of  Samuel,  as  a  sequel  to  tlie  former 
and  an  introduction  to  the  latter.  Among  the 
ancient  Jews  it  was  added  to  the  book  of  Judges, 
because  they  supposed  that  the  transactions  which 
it  relates  happened  in  the  time  of  the  judges  of 
Israel  (Judg.  i:i).  Several  of  the  ancient  fathers, 
moreover,  make  but  one  book  of  Judges  and  Ruth. 
But  the  modern  Jews  commonly  place  in  their 
bibles,  after  the  Pentateuch,  the  five  Megillpth — 
(i)  The  Song  of  Solomon;  (2)  Ruth;  (3)  The 
Lamentations  of  Jeremiah;  (4)  Ecclesiastes ;  (5) 
Esther.  Sometimes  Ruth  is  placed  the  first  of 
these,  sometimes  the  second,  and  sometimes  the 
fifth. 

(1)  Date  and  Authorship.  The  true  date  and 
authorship  of  the  book  are  alike  unknown,  though 
the  current  of  authority  is  in  favor  of  Samuel 
as  the  writer.  That  it  was  written  at  a  time 
considerably  remote  from  the  events  it  records, 
would  appear  from  the  passage  in  ch.  iv:7,  which 
explains  a  custom  referred  to  as  having  been  'the 
manner  in  former  time  in  Israel  concerning  re- 
deeming and  concerning  changing'  (comp.  Deut. 
XXV  :9).  That  it  was  written,  also,  at  least  as  late 
as  the  establishment  of  David's  house  upon  the 
throne,  appears  from  the  concluding  verse — ^*And 
Obed  begat  Jesse,  and  Jesse  begat  David.'^  The 
expression,  moreover  (ch.  i:i),  when  the  judges 
ruled,'  marking  the  period  of  the  occurrence  of 
the  events  indicates,  no  doubt,  that  in  the  writer's 
days  kings  had  already  be^n  to  reign.  Add  to 
this  what  critics  have  considered  as  certain  Chal- 
daisms  with  which  the  language  is  interspersed, 
denoting  the  composition  at  a  period  considerably 
later  than  that  of  the  events  themselves. 

(2)  Canonical  Authority.  The  canonical 
authority  of  Ruth  has  never  been  questioned,  a 
sufficient  confirmation  of  it  being  found  in  the 
fact  that  Ruth,  the  Moabitess,  comes  into  the 
genealogy  of  the  Savior,  as  distinctly  given  by 
the  Evangelist  (Matt.  i:6). 

BYE  (rl).   (Heb.  ri^?^,   koos-seh'tnetk,   A.  V. 

•fitches',  Ezek.  iv:p).  The  R.  V.  renders  it  'spelt' (Is. 
xxviii:25;  Exod.  ixiy). 


SABACHTHANI 


149ft 


SABBATH 


S 


SABACHTHANI  (sa-b^'tha-nl,  or  sa'bak-tha'nl) , 
(Gr.  ffapaxOavl,  sab-akh-than-ee',  for  Heb.  ^^PDj??^, 

thou  hast  left  me),  a  Greek  form  of  the  Chaldee 
shabakiani,  quoted  by  Christ  on  the  cross  from 
the  Targum  on  Ps,  xxii:2  (Matt.  xxvii:46;  Mark 
xv;34). 

SABiBAKS  (sa-ba'anz),    See  Sabeaks. 

SABAOTH  (sab'4.6th,  or  sa-ba'oth),  (Gr.  (ra^aiLd, 
sab-ah'dwth' ,  for  Heb.  ^'^??,  iseh-baw-oth' ,YiOsXs), 

spoken  of  only  twice  in  the  Bible  (Romans  ix:29; 
James  v:4),  sometimes  supposed  to  be  synonymous 
with  Sabbath,  which  is  not  true,  Sabaoth  being 
the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  word  as  above  for 
armies  or  hosts. 

SABBATH  (s^b'bath).  The  original  word 
^5^,  shab'bawth'),  signifies  simply  rest,  cessation 

from  labor  or  employment. 

The  term,  however,  became  appropriated  in  a 
specific  religious  sense,  to  sigfnify  the  dedication 
of  a  precise  portion  of  time  to  cessation  from 
worldly  labor,  and  a  peculiar  consecration  by 
virtue  of  which  a  sanctity  was  ascribed  to  the 
portion  of  time  so  set  apart. 

(1)  Sabbath  Before  the  Law.  Was  there  any 
Sabbath  before  the  Law?  This  is  a  question 
which  lies  at  the  root  of  all  the  differences  of 
opinion  which  have  been  entertained.  For  the 
affirmative  it  is  alleged  on  the  authority  of  Gen. 
ii:3  that  the  Sabbath  was  instituted  by  God  in 
commemoration  of  his  resting  on  the  seventh  day 
from  the  work  of  creation,  and  given  to  our  first 
parents. 

This  text  has  indeed  usually  been  regarded  as 
conclusive  of  the  whole  question;  but  those  who 
hold  that  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath  originated 
under  the  Law  observe  that  this  passage  contains 
no  express  command,  addressed  to  any  parties, 
nor  any  specific  mention  of  the  nature  of  siuch 
implied  solemnization;  still  less  any  direct  allu- 
sion to  rest  from  labor,  or  to  religious  worshii). 

It  is  also  urged  that  some  of  the  ablest  divines, 
even  of  older  times,  regard  the  passage  (Gen. 
ii  :3)  as  proleptical  or  anticipatory,  and  referring 
to  the  subsequent  institution  recorded  in  Exodus. 

The  early  Christian  writers  are  generally  as 
silent  on  this  subject  of  a  primitive  Sabbath  as  on 
that  of  primitive  sacrifice  (see  Sacrifice^.  Stjch 
examination  as  we  have  been  able  to  institute  has 
disclosed  no  belief  in  its  existence,  while  some  in- 
dications are  found  of  a  notion  that  the  Sabbath 
began  ivith  Moses.  Thus,  Justin  Martyr  says 
that  the  patriarchs  'were  justified  before  God  not 
keeping  the  Sabbaths ;'  and  again,  'from  Abraham 
originated  circumcision,  and  from  Moses  the  Sab- 
bath, and  sacrifices  and  offerings,*  etc.  {Dial,  con. 
Tryph.,  2^6,  261).  Irenaeus  observes,  'Abraham, 
without  circumcision,  and  without  observance  of 
Sabbaths,  believed  in  God,'  etc.  (iv:30).  And 
Tertullian  expresses  himself  to  the  same  effect 
{Adv,  Jud,  ii,  4).  While,  on  the  other  hand,  they 
regard  the  institution  as  wholly  peculiar  to  the 
Israelites.  Justin  Martyr,  in  particular,  expresses 
himself  pointedly  to  the  effect  that  'it  was  given 
to  them  on  account  of  their  lawlessness  (Avo/i/ai') 
and  hardness  of  heart'  {Dial,  cum  Tryph.,  235). 

(2)  The  Jewish  Saboath.  Under  the  Mosaic 
law  itself  the  case  is  perfectly  free  from  all  doubt 


or  ambiguity.  The  Sabbath,  as  consisting  in  a 
rigid  cessation  from  every  species  of  labor,  was 
enjoined  expressly  'for  a  perpetual  covenant!  and 
as  *a  sign  between  God  and  the  children  of  Israel 
forever'  (£xod.  xxxi:i6).  And  the  same  idea  is 
repeated  in  many  other  passages,  all  showing  both 
the  exclusive  announcement  and  peculiar  object 
and  application  of  the  institution  to  the  people  of 
Israel,  as  particularly  Ezek.  xx:io;  Neh.  ix:i4, 
etc.  And  this  is  further  manifest  in  the  constant 
association  of  this  observance  with  others  of  the 
like  peculiar  and  positive  nature,  as  with  rever- 
encing the  sanctuary  (Lev.  xix:3o),  keeping  the 
ordinances  (Ezek.  xlv:i7),  solemnizing  the  new 
moons  (Is.  i:i3;  lxvi:23),  and  other  feasts  (Hos. 
ii:ii).  And  obviously  with  the  same  view  it  was 
expressly  made  one  of  the  primary  obligations  of 
proselytes  who  joined  themselves  to  the. Lord,  as 
taking  hold  of  the  covenant'  thereby  (Is.  lvi:6). 

The  degree  of  minute  strictness  with  which  it 
was  to  be  observed  is  laid  down  in  express  literal 
precepts,  as  against  kindling  fire  (Exod.  xxxv:3) 
or  preparing  food  (xvi  :5,  22).  A  man  was  put  to 
death  for  gathering  sticks  (Num.  xv:32).  Buy- 
ing and  selling  were  also  unlawful  (Neh.  x:3i). 

To  these  a  multitude  of  more  precise  injunctions 
were  added  by  the  traditions  of  the  Rabbis,  such 
as  the  prohibition  of  traveling  more  than  twelve 
miles,  afterwards  contracted  to  one  mile,  and 
called  a  Sabbath  day's  journey,  and  not  only 
buying  and  selling,  but  any  kind  of  pectmiary 
transaction,  even  tor  charitable  purposes,  or  so 
much  as  touching  money  (see  Vitringa,  De  Syna- 
gogd^  translated  by  Bernard,  p.  76). 

It  is  admitted  that  there  is  no  other  direct  men- 
tion of  a  Sabbath  in  the  book  of  (genesis;  but 
there  are  traces  of  a  period  of  seven  days,  which 
are  usually  regarded  as  indicating  the  presence 
of  a  Sabbath.  Thus,  in  (Jen.  iv  13,  the  words  ren- 
dered 'in  process  of  time,'  have  been  held  to  sig- 
nify 'the  end  of  days,'  and  this  supposed  to  mean 
a  week — when  the  offerings  of  Cain  and  Abel 
were  made — and  hence  the  Sabbath.  Again,  they 
refer  to  the  periods  of  seven  days,  occurring  in 
thehistory  of  Noah  (Gen.  vii:io;  viii:io)  ;  yet  the 
term  'week'  is  also  used  in  the  contract  between 
Jacob  and  Laban  ((jen.  xxix  127,  28)  ;  and  Job 
and  his  friends  observed  the  term  of  seven  days 
Job  ii:i3);  all  of  which,  it  is  alleged,  goes  to 
prove  that  the  blessing  of  a  Sabbath  was  not  with- 
held from  the  primitive  world. 

The  terms  in  which  the  appointment  of  the 
Sabbath  to  the  Israelites  is  made  before  the  de- 
livery of  the  rest  of  the  law  (Exod.  xvi  123 ),  have 
also  been  supposed  to  imply  that  it  was  not  a  new 
institution,  as  also  the  use  of  the  word  'remem- 
ber,' introducing  the  injunction  in  the  Decalogue. 
But,  on  the  other  side,  it  is  answered  that  in  giv- 
ing an  injunction,  the  monitory  word  'remember' 
is  as  commonly  used  in  reference  to  the  future 
recollection  of  the  precept  so  given,  as  to  anything 
past.  That  there  is  nothing  extraordinary  in  the 
institution  of  one  particular  observance  of  the  law 
before  the  rest  of  it  was  delivered;  the  same  ar- 
gument would  show  a  previous  obligation  to  ob- 
serve the  Passover  or  circumcision.  That  with 
regard  to  the  reckoning  of  time  by  weeks,  this 
does  not  at  all  necessarily  imply  any  reference  to 
a  Sabbath.    And  that  the  employment  of  any  par- 


SABBATH 


1497 


SABBATH 


ticular  mode  of  reckoning  by  a  historian,  is  no 
proof  that  it  was  used  by  the  people,  or  in  the 
times  he  is  describing. 

It  is  powerfully  urged  by  the  believers  in  a 
primitive  Sabbath,  that  -we  find  from  time  im- 
memorial the  knowledge  of  a  week  of  seven  days 
among  all  nations — Egyptians,  Arabians,  Indians 
— in  a  word,  all  the  nations  of  the  East,  have  in 
all  ages  made  use  of  this  week  of  seven  days,  for 
which  it  is  difficult  to  account  without  admitting 
that  this  knowledge  was  derived  from  the  com- 
mon ancestors  of  the  human  race. 

On  the  other  side  it  is  again  denied  that  the 
reckoning  of  time  by  weeks  implies  any  reference 
to  a  Sabbath.  The  division  of  time  by  weeks,  as 
it  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  universal,  so  is 
it  one  of  the  most  obvious  inventions,  especially 
among  a  rude  people,  whose  calendar  required  no 
very  nice  adjustments.  Among  all  early  nations 
the  lunar  months  were  the  readiest  large  divisions 
of  time,  and  though  the  recurrence  of  the  lunar 
period  in  about  29^^  days  was  incompatible  with 
any  exact  subdivision,  yet  the  nearest  whole  num- 
ber of  days  which  could  be  subdivided  into 
shorter  periods,  would  be  either  thirty  or  twenty- 
eight;  of  which  the  latter  would,  of  course,  be 
adopted,  as  admitting  of  division  into  4,  cor- 
responding nearly  to  those  striking  phenomena, 
the  phases  or  quarters  of  the  moon.  Each  of 
these  would  palpably  correspond  to  about  a  week; 
and  in  a  period  of  about  5^^  lunations,  the  same 
phases  would  return  very  nearly  to  the  same  days 
of  the  week.  In  order  to  connect  the  reckoning 
by  weeks  with  the  lunar  month,  we  find  that  all 
ancient  nations  observed  some  peculiar  solemni- 
ties to  mark  the  day  of  the  new  moon.  Accord- 
ingly, in  the  Mosaic  law  the  same  thing  was  also 
enjoined  (Num.  x:io;  xxviiiiii,  etc.),  though  it 
is  worthy  of  remark  that,  while  particular  observ- 
ances are  here  enjoined,  the  idea  of  celebrating 
the  new  moon  in  some  way  is  alluded  to  as  if 
already  familiar  to  them. 

In  other  parts  of  the  Bible  we  find  the  Sab- 
baths and  new  moons  continually  spoken  of  in 
conjunction;  as  (Is.  1:13,  etc)  the  division  of 
time  by  weeks  prevailed  all  over  the  East,  from 
the  earliest  periods  among  the  Assyrians,  Arabs, 
and  Egyptians — to  the  latter  people  Dion  Cassius 
ascribes  its  invention.  It  was  found  among  the 
tribes  in  the  interior  of  Africa  by  Oldendorf 
(Jahn's  Arch.  Bibl,  art.  'Week').  The  Peru- 
vians counted  their  months  by  the  moon,  their 
half-months  by  the  increase  and  decrease  of  the 
moon,  and  the  weeks  by  quarters,  without  having 
any  particular  names  for  the  week  days.  Their 
cosmogony,  however,  does  not  include  any  refer- 
ence to  a  six  days*  creation  (Garcilasso  de  la 
Vega,  Hist,  of  the  Incas,  in  Taylor's  Nat.  Hist,  of 
Society,  i :2gi).  The  Peruvians,  besides  this. have 
a  cycle  of  nine  days,  the  approximate  third  part 
of  a  lunation  (16.  p.  292),  clearly  showing  the 
common  origin  of  both.  Possibly,  also,  the  "nun- 
dinae"  of  the  Romans  may  have  had  a  similar 
origin. 

The  Mexicans  had  a  period  of  five  days  (An- 
tonio de  Solis,  Conquest  of  Mexico,  quoted  by 
Norman  on  'Yucatan,'  p.  185).  They  had  also 
periods  of  thirteen  days;  their  year  was  solar, 
divided  into  eighteen  months  of  twenty  days  each, 
and  five  added  (Laplace,  Hist.  d'Astron.  p.  65). 
Some  writers,  as  Acosta  and  Baron  Humboldt, 
have  attributed  the  origin  of  the  week  to  the 
names  of  the  primary  planets  as  known  to  the  an- 
cients. It  is  certain  that  the  application  of  the 
names  of  the  planets  to  the  days  originated  in  the 
astrological  notion,  that  each  planet  in  order  pre- 


sided over  the  hours  of  the  day;  this  we  learn 
expressly  from  Dion  Cassius  (lib.  xxvii).  Ar- 
ranging the  planets  in  the  order  of  their  distances 
from  the  earth,  on  the  Ptolemaic  system,  Saturn, 
Jupiter,  Mars,  the  Sun,  Venus,  Mercury,  the 
Moon — then  e.  g.  Saturn  presided  over  the  first 
hour  of  Saturday;  and  assigning  each  planet  to 
an  hour  in  succession,  the  twenty-second  hour 
will  fall  to  Saturn  again,  the  twenty-third  to 
Jupiter,  the  twenty-fourth  to  Mars;  and  thus  the 
first  hour  of  the  next  day  would  fall  to  the  Sun, 
and  so  on.  This  mode  of  designation  was  adopted 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  from  the  East,  and  is 
found  among  the  Brahmins  (see  Useful  Knowl- 
edge Society's  Life  of  Galileo,  p.  12;  also  Laplace, 
Precis  de  I' Hist,  de  I'Astron.,  p.  16). 

Those  who  take  the  view  adverse  to  the  exist- 
ence of  a  primitive  Sabbath,  regard  it  as  a  cir- 
cumstance worthy  of  remark,  that  in  the  reestab- 
lishment  of  the  human  race,  after  the  Flood,  we 
find  in  Gen.  ix  a  precise  statement  of  the  cov- 
enant which  God  is  represented  as  making  with 
Noah,  in  which,  while  several  particulars  are  ad- 
verted to,  no  mention  whatever  is  made  of  the 
Sabbath. 

This  will  be  the  place  also  to  mention,  how- 
ever briefly,  the  extension  of  the  idea  of  a  sev- 
enth period  of  rest,  in  the  institution  of  the  Sab- 
batical Year;  or  the  injunction  of  a  fallow  or  ces- 
sation of  tillage  for  the  land  every  seventh  year. 
Not  only  were  the  labors  of  agriculture  sus- 
pended, but  even  the  spontaneous  productions  of 
the  earth  were  to  be  given  to  the  poor,  the  trav- 
eler and  the  wild  animals  (see  Lev.  xxv:i-7; 
Deut.  xv:i-io).  This  prohibition,  however,  did 
not  extend  to  other  labors  or  trades,  which  were 
still  carried  on.  There  was,  however,  in  this  year 
an  extraodinary  time  devoted  to  the  hearing  of 
the  law  read  through  (see  Deut.  xxxi:io,  18). 
As  Moses  predicted  (Lev.  xxvi:34),  this  institu- 
tion was  afterwards  much  neglected  (2  Chron. 
xxxvi:2i). 

Closely  connected  with  this  was  the  observance 
of  the  year  following  seven  Sabbatic  years  (».  e. 
the  fiftieth  year)  called  the  year  of  Jubilee;  but 
this  has  been  fully  treated  under  the  article  Jubi- 
lee. 

(3)  The  Christian  Sabbath.  The  question  as 
to  the  continued  obligation  of  the  Sabbath  under 
the  Christian  dispensation  is  one  on  which  great 
difference  of  opinion  has  been  entertained,  not 
only  by  Christian  churches,  but  by  theologians  of 
the  same  church. 

The  Jewish  prophets  in  several  places  de- 
scribe in  lofty  imagery  a  future  condition  of  glory 
and  prosperity,  connected  with  the  reign  of  the 
promised  Messiah.  These  predictions  are  in  a 
great  degree  conveyed  under  the  literal  repre- 
sentation of  temporal  grandeur,  to  be  attained  by 
the  Jewish  nation,  and  the  restoration  of  their 
temple  and  worship  to  the  highest  pitch  of  splen- 
dor, while  proselytes  should  come  in  from  all  na- 
tions, until  the  whole  world  should  own  its  spir- 
itual sway  (as  Amos  ix:ii;  Micah  iv:i;  Zech. 
viii:2o).  In  the  course  of  these  representations 
reference  is  made  to  the  observance  of  Sabbaths 
(Is.  lvi:6,  7;  lxvi:23). 

In  the  interpretation  of  these  passages  some 
difference  of  opinion  has  prevailed.  The  Jews 
themselves  have  always  understood  them  in  their 
strictly  literal  sense.  Among  Christians  they  have 
been  regarded  as  literally  predicting  some  future 
restoration  of  the  people  of  Israel,  or  perhaps  as 
applying  in  a  Urst  or  literal  sense  to  the  temporal 
restitution  of  the  Jews  after  the  captivity  (which 
was  to  a  great  degree  fulfilled  before  the  coming 


SABBATH 


1498 


SABBATH 


of  Christ),  and  the  extraordinary  accession  of 
proselytes  from  all  nations  which  had  at  that 
period  taken  place,  while  in  a  second  or  figurative 
sense  they  refer  to  the  final  extension  of  Christ's 
spiritual  kingdom  over  the  whole  world. 

These  passages  have  been  adduced  in  proof  of 
the  continued  and  permanent  obligation  of  the 
Sabbath  under  all  circumstances  of  the  church  of 
God ;  but  those  who  dispute  this,  call  attention  to 
the  fact  that  in  these  the  Sabbath  is  always 
coupled  with  other  observances  of  the  Mosaic 
law ;  and  they  allege  that  if  the  whole  description 
be  taken  literally,  then  by  common  consistency 
the  Sabbaths  must  be  also  taken  literally  as  apply- 
ing to  the  Jews  and  the  proselytes  to  their  re- 
ligion; if  figuratively,  the  Sabbaths  must  by  par- 
ity of  reason  be  taken  figuratively  also,  as  imply- 
ing spiritual  rest,  cessation  from  sin,  and  the 
everlasting  rest  of  the  faithful. 

The  teaching  of  Christ  himself  on  this  subject 
was  of  precisely  the  same  kind  as  on  all  other 
points  connected  with  the  law.  He  was  address- 
ing exclusively  Jews  living  under  that  law  still 
in  force.  He  censured  the  extravagant  rigor 
with  which  the  Pharisees  endeavored  to  enforce 
it;  he  exhorted  to  a  more  special  observance  oi 
its  weightier  matters,  and  sought  to  lead  his  fol- 
lowers to  a  higher  and  more  spiritual  sense  of 
their  obligations;  but  he  in  no  degree  relaxed, 
modified,  or  abrogated  any  portion  of  the  Mosaic 
code.  On  the  contrary,  he  expressly  upheld  its 
authority,  enlarging  indeed  on  many  precepts, 
but  rescinding  none  (Matt.  v:i7,  i8;  xxiii:i-29; 
xviii:i7,  etc.). 

So  in  regard  to  the  more  particular  precept  of 
the  Sabbath,  while  he  reproved  the  excessive 
strictness  of  the  Pharisaical  observance — and  to 
this  end  wrought  miracles  upon  it,  and  vindicated 
works  of  mercy  and  necessity  by  reason  of  the 
case,  and  instances  from  the  Old  Testament  (as 
in  Matt.  xii:i;  Luke  xiii;i5;  John  v:9,  etc.) — 
still  he  in  no  way  modified  or  altered  the  obli- 
gation beyond  what  the  very  language  of  the  law 
and  the  prophets  clearly  sanctioned.  He  used 
indeed  the  remarkable  declaration,  The  Sabbath 
was  made  for  ,the  man  (dia  ton  anthropon),  not 
the  man  (ho  anthropos)  for  the  Sabbath,*  which 
is  usually  regarded  as  the  most  conclusive  text  in 
favor  of  the  universal  obligation  of  the  Sabbath, 
and  it  must  have  been  so  regarded  by  our  trans- 
laitors,  seeing  that  they  omit  the  article.  It  is 
commonly  understood  in  the  following  sense:  'It 
was  made  for  man,  not  as  he  may  be  a  Jew,  or  a 
Christian,  but  as  man,  a  creature  bound  to  love, 
worship,  and  serve  his  God  and  maker  in  time 
and  in  eternity.'  To  this  it  is  answered,  that 
we  must  not  overlook  the  article  in  the  original, 
where  the  man  must  mean  *those  for  whom  it 
was  appointed,'  without  specifying  who  they  were, 
much  less  implying  man  in  general;  that  'the 
man  was  not  made  for  it,*  as  manifestly  implies 
that  it  was  not  a  dutv  of  an  essential  and  un- 
changeable nature,  such  as  those  for  which  man 
is  especially  constituted  and  ordained — in  other 
words,  that  it  was  an  institution  enjoined  by 
way  of  adaptation  to  the  case  of  those  to  whom 
the  precept  was  given.  An  intermediate  view, 
which  lays  no  particular  stress  upon  the  definite 
article,  is  thus  expressed  in  paraphrase  by  the 
elder  Rosenmiiller  (Scholia  in  Marc,  ii  127)  :  The 
Sabbath  is  an  institution  for  the  recreation  of 
man;  but  man  was  not  therefore  created  that  he 
might  on  the  seventh  day  rest  from  all  anxious 
labor.*  He  adds,  'This  being  the  nature  of  the 
Sabbath,  it  will  hold  true,  that  it  is  in  the  power 
of  the  Messiah  to  dispense  with  its  observance.' 

In  the  preaching  of  the  Apostles  we  find  hardly 


an  allusion  to  the  subject.  Their  ministry  was 
at  first  addressed  solely  to  the  Jews,  or  to  those 
who  were  at  least  proselytes.  To  these  disciples, 
in  the  first  instance,  they  neither  insisted  on  the 
observance  of  the  law,  nor  on  any  abrogation  of 
it;  though  at  a  later  period  we  find  St.  Paid, 
more  especially,  gradually  and  cautiously  point- 
ing out  to  them  its  transitory  nature,  and  that 
having  fulfilled  its  purpose,  it  was  to  cease  (e.  g. 
Heb.  vii:i8).  There  is  nothing  to  show  directly 
whether  the  obligation  of  the  Sabbath  did  or  did 
not  share  in  the  general  declaration;  and  the  af- 
firmative or  negative  must  be  determined  by  the 
weight  of  the  arguments  in  behalf  of  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  moral  as  distinguished  from  the 
ceremonial  law.  It  is,  however,  clear  from  sev- 
eral passages  in  the  New  Testament,  that  it  con- 
tinued to  be  observed  as  heretofore  by  these  con- 
verts, along  with  the  other  peculiarities  of  the 
law.  Our  Savior  adds,  'Therefore  the  Son  of 
man  is  lord  even  of  the  Sabbath  day ;'  which  is  on 
all  hands  agreed  to  mean  that  he  had  power  to 
abrogate  it  partially  or  wholly,  if  he  thought  fit, 
and  it  is  admitted  that  he  did  not  then  think  fit 
to  exercise  it. 

With  regard  to  the  Gentile  converts  (who  were 
the  more  special  objects  of  St.  Paul's  labors), 
we  find  a  totally  different  state  of  things  prevail- 
ing. They  were  taught  at  first  the  spiritual  re- 
ligion of  the  Gospel  in  all  its  simplicity.  But 
the  narrow  zeal  of  their  Jewish  brethren  very 
early  led  them  to  attempt  the  enforcement  of  the 
additional  burden  of  the  law  upon  these  Gentile 
Christians.  The  result  was  the  explicit  apostolic 
decree  contained  in  Acts  xv:28.  The  omission 
of  the  Sabbath  among  the  few  things  which  are 
there  enforced  upon  them,  is  advanced  by  those 
who  doubt  the  abiding  obligation  of  the  institution, 
as  a  very  strong  circumstance  in  their  favor ;  and 
the  freedom  of  these  converts  from  its  obligation 
is  regarded  by  them  as  conclusively  proved  in 
Col.  ii:i6,  and  clearly  implied  in  Rom.  xiv:6^ 
where  the  Sabbaths  are  said  to  be  placed  in  ex- 
actly the  same  predicament  as  new  moons,  dis- 
tinctions of  meats,  etc.,  and  all  explicitly  declared 
to  be  shadows.  It  is  also  urged  that  in  the  dis- 
courses of  the  apostles  to  the  heathen  recorded 
in  the  Acts,  we  find  not  the  slightest  allusion  to 
any  patriarchal  obligations,  of  which,  if  such  had 
existed,  it  would  have  been  manifestly  necessary 
to  have  informed  their  hearers. 

These  last  arguments  appear  to  us  to  be  the 
strongest  of  any  that  have  yet  been  advanced  in 
favor  of  the  view  indicated ;  nor  do  we  see  how 
they  can  he  met  but  by  urging  the  distinction 
between  the  moral  and  ceremonial  law,  and  the 
paramount  obligation  of  the  former,  while  the 
latter  is  abrogated;  for  it  will  then  follow,  that 
the  whole  moral  law  being  of  unchangeable  obli- 
gation, it  was  not  necessary  to  specify  the  Sabbath 
in  particular,  when  the  general  obligation  of  the 
whole  was  understood.  This  answer  does  not, 
however,  meet  the  argument  founded  on  Col.  ii: 
16,  which  is  alleged  to  place  the  Sabbath  under 
the  ceremonial  law,  if  the  distinction  of  the  moral 
and  ceremonial  divisions  of  the  law  be  admitted. 
That  text  is  indeed  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
the  question ;  of  this  the  disputants  on  both  sides 
have  been  fully  aware,  and  have  joined  issue  upon 
it.  The  view  of  those  who  are  opposed  to  the 
sabbatic  obligation,  has  been  already  given;  that 
of  the  other  side  may  be  expressed  in  the  words 
of  Bishop  Horsley  {Sermons,  i,  357),  'From  this 
text,  no  less  a  man  than  the  venerable  Calvin  drew 
the  conclusion,  in  which  he  has  been  rashly  fol- 
lowed by  other  considerable  men,  that  the  sancti- 
fication  of  the  seventh  day  is  no  indispensable 


SABBATH 


1499 


SABBATH 


duty  of  the  Christian  church;  that  it  is  one  of 
those  carnal  ordinances  of  the  Jewish  religion 
which  our  Lord  had  blotted  out.  The  truth, 
however,  is,  that  in  the  apostolical  age,  the  first 
day  of  the  week,  though  it  was  observed  with 
great  reverence,  was  not  called  the  Sabbath-day, 
but  the  Lord's  day;  that  the  separation  of  the 
Christian  church  from  the  Jewish  communion 
might  be  marked  by  the  name  as  well  as  by  the 
day  of  their  weekly  festival;  and  the  name  of 
the  sabbath-days  was  appropriated  to  the  Satur- 
days, and  certain  days  in  the  Jewish  church  which 
were  likewise  called  Sabbaths  in  the  law,  because 
they  were  observed  with  no  less  sanctity.  The 
sabbath-days,  therefore,  of  which  St.  Paul  in  this 
passage  speaks,  were  not  the  Sundays  of  the 
Christians,  but  the  Saturday  and  other  sabbaths 
of  the  Jewish  calendar.  The  Judaizing  heretics, 
with  whom  St.  Paul  was  all  his  life  engaged, 
were  strenuous  advocates  for  the  observance  of 
these  Jewish  festivals  in  the  Christian  church; 
and  his  (St.  Paul's)  admonition  to  the  Colossians, 
is,  that  they  should  not  be  disturbed  by  the  cen- 
sures of  those  who  reproached  them  for  neglecting 
to  observe  these  sabbaths  with  Jewish  ceremonies.* 
To  the  same  effect,  see  Macknight  and  Bulkley,  on 
Col.  ii:i6. 

The  difference  of  opinion,  then,  is  this,  that 
the  passage  is  alleged,  on  one  side,  to  abrogate 
altogether  the  sabbatic  observance;  while  on  the 
other,  it  is  contended  that  it  applies  only  to  that 
part  of  it  which  was  involved  in  the  ceremonial 
law. 

The  question  thus  becomes  further  narrowed  to 
the  point,  whether  it  is  right  or  not  to  transfer 
to  the  Lord's  day  the  name,  the  idea,  a-nd  many  of 
the  obligations  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath  ?  The  nega- 
tive is  asserted  by  two  very  opposite  parties:  by 
the  Sabbatarians  as  a  body,  and  by  individuals  in 
different  denominations,  who  take  their  stand  upon 
the  primitive  determination  of  the  Sabbath  to 
the  seventh  day,  in  commemoration  of  the  crea- 
tion; and  who  therefore  hold  that  the  Saturday 
or  seventh  day  must  remain,  to  all  time,  the  day 
of  rest,  unless  altered  by  an  authority  equal  to  that 
by  which  it  was  established.  They  deny  that  the 
authority  for  any  such  alteration  is  to  be  found 
in  the  New  Testament;  for  they  understand  the 
passage  above  referred  to  (Col.  ii:i6),  to  apply 
not  to  the  day,  but  to  the  peculiar  observances 
which  the  Jejvish^  law  connected  with  it  (Rupp, 
Relig.  Denom.  pp.  83-91).  The  right  of  thus 
transferring  the  idea  of  the  Sabbath  to  the  Lord's 
iay,  is  also  denied  by  those  who  believe  that  the 
Sabbath  was  entirely  a  Mosaical  institution,  and 
as  such  abrogated,  along  with  the  whole  body  of 
the  law,  at  the  death  of  Christ,  which  closed  the 
old  shadowy  dispensation,  and  opened  the  realities 
of  the  new.  It  is  admitted  that  Christ  himself 
did  not  abrogate  it,  though  he  asserted  his  right 
to  do  so;  for  the  old  dispensation  subsisted  till 
his  death.  But  being  then  abrogated,  it  is  denied 
that  it  was  re-enacted  through  the  Apostles,  or 
that  they  sanctioned  the  transfer  of  the  Sabbatic 
obligations  to  the  Sunday,  although  the  early 
Christians  did,  with  their  approbation,  assemble 
on  that  day — as  the  day  on  which  their  Lord 
arose  from  the  dead — for  worship,  and  to  par- 
take in  the  memorials  of  his  love.  (See  Sunday 
OR  Lord's  Day.) 

In  answer  to  this  it  is  urged  that  the  transfer 
or  change  was  made  under  the  authority  of  the 
Apostles.  It  is,  indeed,  allowed  that  there  is  no 
express  command  to  that  effect;  but  as  it  was 
done  in  the  apostolic  age  (which,  however,  the 
other  side  does  not  admit),  the  consent  of  the 
Apostles  is  to  be  understood.    More  cogent  is  the 


argument,  that  the  day  itself  was  nat  an  essential 
part  of  the  original  enactment,  which  ordains  not 
necessarily  every  seventh  day,  but  one  day  in 
seven,  as  holy  time.  In  the  primitive  ages  of 
man,  the  creation  of  the  world  was  the  benefac- 
tion by  which  God  was  principally  known,  and  for 
which  he  was  chiefly  to  be  worshiped.  The 
Jews,  in  their  religious  assemblies,  had  to  com- 
memorate other  blessings — ^the  political  creation 
of  their  nation  out  of  Abraham's  family,  and 
their  deliverance  from  Egyptian  bondage.  Chris- 
tians have  to  commemorate,  besides  the  common 
benefit  of  the  creation,  the  transcendent  blessing 
of  our  redemption — our  new  creation  to  the  hope 
of  everlasting  life,  of  which  our  Lord's  resurrec- 
tion on  the  first  day  of  the  week  was  a  sure 
pledge  and  evidence.  Thus  in  the  progress  of 
ages,  the  Sabbath  acquired  new  ends,  by  new 
manifestations  of  the  divine  mercy;  and  these  new 
ends  justify  corresponding  alterations  of  the  origi- 
nal institution.  Horsley,  and  those  who  agree 
with  him,  allege  that  upon  our  Lord's  resurrec- 
tion, the  Sabbath  was  transferred  in  memory  of 
that  event,  the  great  foundation  of  the  Christian's 
hope,  from  the  last  to  the  first  day  of  the  week. 
'The  alteration  seems  to  have  been  made  by  the 
authority  of  the  Apostles,  and  to  have  taken  place 
the  very  day  in  which  our  Lord  arose ;  for  on  thaf 
day  the  Apostles  were  assembled;  and  on  the 
seventh  night  afterward  they  were  assembled 
again.  The  celebration  of  these  first  two  Sundays 
was  honored  by  our  Lord's  presence.  It  was,  per- 
haps, to  set  a  mark  of  distinction  upon  this  day 
in  particular  that  the  intervening  week  passed  off, 
as  it  would  seem,  without  any  repetition  of  his 
first  visit  to  the  eleven  Apostles.  From  that  time 
the  Sunday  was  the  constant  Sabbath  of  the  primi- 
tive church.  The  Christian,  therefore,  who  de- 
voutly sanctifies  one  day  in  seven,  although  it 
be  on  the  first  day  of  the  week,  not  the  last,  as 
was  originally  ordained,  may  rest  assured  that  he 
fully  satisfies  the  spirit  of  the  ordinance'  (Horsley, 
i»  334»  335;  compare  Holden's  Christian  Sabbath, 
pp.  286,  287). 

In  justification  of  the  change  it  has  also  been 
well  remarked  that  the  same  portion  of  time 
which  constituted  the  seventh  day  from  the  crea- 
tion could  not  be  simultaneously  observed  in  all 
parts  of  the  earth,  and  that  it  is  not  therefore 
probable  that  the  original  institution  expressed 
more  than  one  day  in  seven — a  seventh  day  of 
rest  after  six  days  of  toil,  from  whatever  point 
the  enumeration  might  set  out  or  the  weekly  cycle 
begin.  If  more  had  been  intended  it  would  have 
been  necessary  to  establish  a  rule  for  the  reckon- 
ing of  days  themselves,  which  has  been  different 
in  different  nations ;  some  reckoning  from  evening 
to  evening,  as  the  Jews  do  now ;  others  from  mid- 
night to  midnight,  etc.  Even  if  this  point  were  de- 
termined the  difference  of  time  produced  by  dif- 
ference of  latitude  and  longitude  would  again 
throw  the  whole  into  disorder;  and  it  is  not  prob- 
able that  a  law  intended  to  be  universal  would  be 
fettered  with  that  circumstantial  exactness  which 
would  render  difficult,  and  sometimes  doubtful, 
astronomical  calculations  necessary  in  order  to  its 
being  obeyed  according  to  the  intentions  of  the 
lawgiver.  It  is  true  that  this  very  argument  might 
be  adduced  on  the  other  side  to  prove  that  the 
obligations  of  the  Sabbatic  observance  were  orig- 
inally limited  to  the  Jews.  It  is  not,  however,  our 
object,  nor  would  it  be  possible,  to  exhaust  all  the 
arguments  which  bear  upon  the  subject.  Enough 
has  been  produced  to  indicate  the  bearings  of  the 
question,  and  at  the  end  of  the  article  materials 
are  furnished  for  more  minute  inquiry.  It  appears 
to  us  that  great  confusion  and  much  injustice  have 


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1500 


SABBATH 


arisen  from  confounding  different  shades  of 
opinion  respecting  the  Sabbath.  They  might  be 
thus  discriminated : 

(i)  Those  who  believe  that  the  Sabbath  is  of 
binding  and  sacred  obligation,  both  as  a  primitive 
institution  and  as  a  moral  law  of  the  Mosaical 
code.    These  may  be  divided  into: 

(a)  Those  who  contend  for  the  very  day  of  the 
Mosaical  institution. 

(6)  Those  who  believe  the  obligation  to  have 
been  transferred  to  the  first  day  by  the  Apostles. 

(2)  Those  who  deny  that  the  Sabbath  was  a 
primitive  institution,  or  that  its  obligation  sur- 
vived the  Mosaical  dispensation,  but  who  never- 
theless hold  the  observance  of  the  Lord's  day  as 
an  apostolical  institution,  deriving  none  of  its  au- 
thority or  obligation  from  the  Mosaical  dispen- 
sation. 

(3)  Those  who  both  deny  the  permanent  obli- 
gation of  the  Sabbath,  and  that  there  is  any  ob- 
ligatory authority  in  the  New  Testament  for  the 
observance  of  even  the  Lord's  day.  These  again 
may  be  divided  into  classes: 

(a)  Those  who  hold  that,  although  not  of  divine 
obligation,  the  observance  of  the  first  day  of  the 
week  as  a  day  of  rest  from  toil,  and  of  spiritual 
edification,  is  not  only  salutary  but  necessary,  and 
is  therefore  in  accordance  with  the  will  of  God, 
and  ought  as  such  to  be  maintained. 

(b)  Those  who  assert  that,  not  being  a  matter 
of  positive  injunction,  it  is  not  necessary  or  de- 
sirable to  observe  the  day  at  all  on  religious 
grounds.  But  even  these  generally  admit  that  it 
is  competent  for  human  legislation  to  enact  its 
observance  as  a  day  of  rest,  and  that  it  then  be- 
comes a  duty  to  obey  it  as  the  law  of  the  land,  see- 
ing that  it  is  not  contrary  to  the  will  of  God. 

(c)  A  mixed  view  of  the  subject,  arising  out  of 
the  last  two,  seems  to  be  entertained  by  the  Quak- 
ers, and  by  individuals  in  different  denomina- 
tions, namely,  that  the  authorized  institution  of 
Moses  respecting  a  weekly  Sabbath,  and  the  prac' 
tice  of  the  first  teachers  of  Christianity,  constitute 
a  sufficient  recommendation  to  set  apart  certain 
times  for  the  exercise  of  public  worship,  even 
were  there  no  such  injunctions  as  that  of  Heb. 
x:25.  Community  of  dependence  and  hope  dic- 
tates the  propriety  of  united  worship,  and  worship, 
to  be  united,  must  be  performed  at  intervals  pre- 
viously fixed.  But,  it  is  urged,  since  the  Jewish 
Sabbath  is  abrogated,  and  since  the  assehibling 
together  on  the-first  day  of  the  week  is  mentioned 
as  an  existing  practice  in  the  New  Testament, 
but  not  enjoined  as  a  positive  obligation,  it  does 
not  appear  why  these  periods  should  recur  at 
intervals  of  seven  days  any  more  than  of  five  or 
ten.  Nevertheless,  it  is  added,  'the  question 
whether  we  are  to  observe  the  first  day  of  the 
week  because  it  is  the  first  day,  is  one  point — 
whether  we  ought  to  devote  it  to  religious  exer- 
cises, seeing  that  it  is  actually  set  apart  for  the 
purpose,  is  another.  Bearing  in  mind  then  that 
it  is  right  to  devote  some  portion  of  our  time  to 
these  exercises,  and  considering  that  no  objection 
exists  to  the  day  which  is  actually  appropriated, 
the  duty  seems  very  obvious — so  to  employ  it' 
(Jonathan  Dymond,  Essays  on  the  Principles  of 
Morality,  i,   164-172). 

This  testimony  in  favor  of  the  observance  from 
one  who  utterly  denies  the  religious  obligation  of 
setting  even  one  day  in  seven  apart  is  not  unlike 
that  of  Dr.  Arnold,  who  seems  to  have  taken  the 
view  of  the  subject  represented  in  3,  a.  In  a  let- 
ter to  Mr.  Justice  Cole^idge  he  says : 

'Although  I  think  that  the  whole  law  is  done 
away  with,  so  far  as  it  is  the  law  given  in  Mount 
Sinai,  yet  so  far  as  it  is  the  la^r  of  the  Spirit  I 


hold  it  to  be  all  binding;  and  believing  that  our 
need  of  a  Lord's  day  is  as  great  as  it  ever  was, 
and  that,  therefore,  its  observance  is  God's  will, 
and  is  likely,  so  far  as  we  see,  to  be  so  to  the  end 
of  time,  I  should  think  it  most  mischievous  to 
weaken  the  respect  paid  to  it'  {Life  and  Corre- 
spondence, i,  355). 

We  have  entered  into  these  details  concernii^ 
the  differences  of  opinion  on  this  important  sub- 
ject— which  concerns  one-seventh  of  man's  life — 
for  the  sake  of  defining  the  exact  amount  of  such 
differences,  and  of  showing  that  pious  men,  sin- 
cerely seeking  the  truth  of  God^s  word,  may  on  the 
one  hand  conscientiously  doubt  the  obligation  of 
a  Christian  Sabbath  without  deserving  to  be  stig- 
matized as  Antinomians,  scoffers,  or  profane ;  and 
on  the  other,  may  uphold  it  without  being  re- 
garded as  Judaizers  and  formalists.  A  very  grati- 
fying result  which  arises  from  the  contemplation 
of  these  differences  as  to  the  nature  and  extent 
of  the  obligation  will  be  found  in  the  clearer  per- 
ception of  the  agreement  to  which  they  all  tend, 
in  favor  of  the  observance  itself,  as  in  the  highest 
degree  conducive  to  the  health  of  the  mind  and 
the  nourishment  of  the  soul. 

(4)  liiterature.  Calvin, /«j///.  Christ,  Reli/^,  lib. 
ii.  ch.  &;  Brerewood,  Treatise  of  the  Sabbath  ;  Hp. 
Prideaux,  Doctrine  of  the  Sabbath;  Abp.  B ram- 
hall,  Discourses  on  the  Controversy  about  the 
Sabbath;  Bp.  White,  Treatise  of  the  Sabbath 
Day;  Heylin,  History  of  the  Sabbath;  Chandler, 
Two  Sermons  on  the  Sabbath;  Wotton,  On  the 
Mishna,  i,  205 ;  Warburton  Divine  Legation,  iv,  36, 
note;  Watts  Perpetuity  of  the  Sabbath;  Ken- 
nicott,  Serm.  and  Dialog,  on  the  Sabbath;  Porteus, 
Sermons,  vol.  i,  serm.  9;  Horsley's  Sermons,  u. 
s. ;  Paley,  Natural  and  Political  Philosophy,  b.  v. 
c.  7;  Holden's  Christian  Sabbath;  Burnside,  On 
the  Weekly  Sabbath;  Burder's  Law  of  the  Sab- 
bath; Wardlaw,  Wilson,  and  Agnew,  severally. 
On  the  Sabbath;  Modem  Sabbath  Examined, 
1832;  Archbishop  Whateley,  Difficulties  of  St. 
Paul,  Essay  v.  note  on  Sabbath. 

B.  P.  and  J.  K. 
Below  is  given  a  carefully  prepared  article  set- 
ting forth  the  views  of  those  who  believe  that 
there  is  no  divine  sanction  for  observing  the  first 
day  of  t^he  week  as  the  Sabbath : 

(5)  The  Seventh  Day  of  the  Week  the  Only 
Divinely  Appointed  Sabbath.  The  Christians 
in  this  country  and  abroad  who  observe  the  sev- 
enth day  of  the  week  as  the  Sabbath  sustain  their 
position  by  the  following  arguments,  very  briefly 
stated : 

(i)  The  Weekly  Sabbath  was  originated  alone 
by  the  Lord,  and  the  authority  for  keeping  it  by 
mankind  rests  primarily  and  altogether  on  his  pos- 
itive command. 

(2)  The  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments furnish  the  sole  and  decisive  revelation  of 
God  respecting  the  origin,  object,  establishment, 
and  perpetuity  of  the  Sabbath,  as  well  as  the  time 
and  proper  mode  of  its  observance. 

(3)  As  to  Its  Origin.  This  lies  in  the  example 
set  by  God,  and  bis  consecration  of  the  seventh 
day  of  the  week,  at  the  close  of  the  creation  (Gen. 

11:2,     3). 

(4)  As  to  Its  Object,  Man  is  supplied  with  a 
stated  time  for  resting  from  all  secular  labor,  so 
that  he  can  freely  worship  the  only  true  God  as 
the  Creator  and  Preserver  of  the  world  and  its 
inhabitants — ^thus  condemning  all  forms  of  atheism 
and  paganism  (Exod.  xvi:23;  xxxi:i3;  Deut.  v: 
15;  and  Acts  xvi:i3). 

(5)  As  to  Its  Establishment.  This  was  finally 
effected  by  the  issue  of  the  Fourth  Commandment 
of  the  Moral  Law  (Exod.  xx:8-io).    The  obliga- 


SABBATH 


1501 


SABBATH  DAY'S  JOURNEY 


tion  to  keep  this  commandment  was  subsequently 
enforced  by  severe  penalties  for  violating  it. 

(6)  As  to  Its  Perpetuity.  The  immutable  Dec- 
alogue, in  which  the  command  to  observe  the  sev- 
enth day  as  the  Sabbath  is  included,  shows  that 
such  fact  was  so  designed.  It  is  further  substan- 
tiated by  the  statement  of  Christ  that  not  one  jot 
nor  one  tittle  should  pass  from  the  law  until 
heaven  and  earth  shall  pass  away  (Matt,  v  :i8).  To 
the  children  of  Israel  this  Sabbath  was  "a  perpet- 
ual covenant,"  and  "a  sign  forever"  (Exod.  xxxi: 
i6, 17).  In  Hebrews  it  is  presented  as  a  type  of  the 
heavenly  rest  for  all  believers  in  Christ,  evidently 
to  the  end  of  time.  The  keeping  of  the  Sabbath  on 
the  last  day  of  the  week  is  regarded  as  fulfilling 
the  law  by  those  who  accept  the  theory  that  the 
seven  days  of  creation  must  be  held  to  be  seven 
immense  periods  of  time ;  and  that  the  actual  days 
of  the  week  were  designated  by  God  to  represent 
these  periods.  The  expression,  "And  the  evening 
and  the  morning  were,"  is  used  by  Moses  as  apply- 
ing to  each  of  the  first  six  periods,  and  is  omitted 
by  him  as  not  applying  to  the  seventh.  The  rea- 
son assigned  is  that  each  of  the  former  was  con- 
sidered as  having  been  completed  at  the  creation, 
while  the  last  period  was  not  then  completed — 
it  being  still  in  progress,  as  God  is  resting  from 
the  work  of  creating  and  will  continue  so  to  rest 
until  he  makes  the  "new  heavens  and  a  new 
earth."  Since  God  is  still  observing  in  the  seventh 
period  his  part  of  the  Sabbatic  covenant,  why 
should  not  the  human  race  observe  their  part  on 
the  seventh  day  of  the  week. 

(7)  As  to  the  Time  of  Its  Observance,  The 
Bible  everywhere  states  that  it  is  "the  seventh 
day"  of  the  week,  not  a  seventh  day,  nor  a  sev- 
enth portion  of  the  week,  but  a  specified  day.  This 
day  begins  at  the  evening  before  the  morning — 
the  evening  being  marked  by  the  going  down 
of  the  sun. 

(8)  As  to  Its  Proper  Mode  of  Observance,  Ex- 
plicit directions  are  given  in  the  Fourth  Command- 
ment. The  day  is  to  be  kept  "holy  unto  the  Lord ;" 
a  time  for  "a  holy  convocation,"  and  "the  Sabbath 
of  the  Lord  in  all  your  dwellings"  (Lev.  xxiii:3). 
The  false  interpretations  placed  upon  the  law  of 
the  Sabbath  by  the  Jews,  and  the  burdensome  ex- 
actions required  of  its  observers  by  them,  were 
condemned  by  Christ,  "the  Lord  also  of  the  Sab- 
bath," who  taught  that  works  of  necessity,  mercy 
and  religious  worship  are  permitted  on  the  Sah^ 
bath  (Luke  vi:i-io). 

(p)  To  no  Man  or  combination  of  men  has  (jod 

indicated  in  his  revelation  that  he  has  granted  the 

<y   right  to  change  or  suspend  any  of  these  features 

\  of  his  Holy  Sabbath.   On  the  contrary,  Christ  has 

'  declared  that  he  who  teaches  the  breaking  of  the 

least  of  these  commandments  shall  be  called  the 

least  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven  (Matt,  vrrig). 

(10)  Certain  False  Views  Noticed,  (a)  The 
Sabbath  was  constituted  solely  for  the  Jews. 
Christ  contradicted  this,  when  he  said,  "The  Sab- 
bath was  made  for  man,"  the  generic  man,  the 
whole  human  race  (Mark  ii:26).  (b)  You  cannot 
separate  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath  from  the 
day  in  which  it  is  commanded  to  be  kept.  In  the 
beginning  and  in  the  Decalogue,  God  blessed, 
sanctified,  hallowed  "the  seventh  day"  as  the  Sab- 
bath, not  the  reasons  or  the  arrangements  for 
observing  it.  (c)  Redemption  through  Christ, 
being  greater  than  the  creation,  should  have  a 
day  for  its  celebration  distinct  from  the  Sabbath, 
the  memorial  of  the  latter.  In  fact,  the  scheme 
of  the  creation  embraced  the  plan  of  redemption 
through  Christ.  The  seed  of  the  woman  shall 
bruise  the  serpent's  head  (Gen.  ii:i5). 

(11)  The  Facts  Are  Historical,  that  the  sev- 


enth day  has  always  been  observed  as  the  weekly 
Sabbath  under  the  Jewish  economy;  was  so  ob- 
served by  Christ  when  on  earth,  by  his  apostles 
also  after  his  death,  and  by  the  Christian  Church 
for  at  least  the  first  three  centuries  of  our  era. 
Christ,  in  his  instructions  to  his  followers  to  flee 
across  the  Jordan  for  protection,  when  Jerusalem 
was  destroyed  by  Titus,  recognized  the  fact  that 
they  would  be  keeping  the  seventh  day  as  the 
Sabbath  nearly  forty  years  after  his  ascension. 

(12)  As  to  the  Institution  of  the  First  Day  of 
the  Week  as  a  Sabbath,  Undoubtedly,  in  the 
second  century  this  day  came  to  be  used,  not  regu- 
larly, to  commemorate  the  resurrection  of  Christ ; 
and  late  afterwards,  its  services  encroached  upon 
the  duties  and  ceremonies  of  the  Sabbath.  The 
phrase,  "the  Lord's  day,"  in  Revelation,  probably 
points  towards  such  an  introduction  of  the  first 
day.  But  nowhere  did  Christ  or  the  apostles 
authorize  the  establishment  of  such  a  day  for  this 
commemoration.  On  the  day  in  which  Christ  rose 
from  the  grave  he  journeyed  to  Emmaus,  about 
seven  miles  from  Jerusalem.  On  the  evening  fol- 
lowing that  same  day,  he  met  his  apostles  in  the 
latter  place,  gathered  for  fear  of  the  Jews.  A 
week  afterwards  he  met  them  again,  to  convince 
Thomas  that  he  had  risen  from  the  dead.  No 
thought  of  the  sacredness  of  the  Sabbath  was  at- 
tached to  these  interviews  (John  xxrip,  26). 
Paul's  preaching  at  Troas  was  evidently  in  the 
night  following  the  Sabbath ;  and  on  the  succeed- 
ing day  he  traveled  about  twenty  miles  across  the 
country  to  Assos,  to  meet  the  ship  which  had 
sailed  to  this  place  (Acts  xx:6-i4).  As  to  Paul's 
command  to  the  Corinthians  respecting  "the  col- 
lections for  the  saints,"  his  statements  are  positive 
proof  that  he  did  not, require  them  to  meet  for 
worship,  or  to  greet  him  as  a  company  "upon  the 
first  day  of  the  week."  The  direction  was  that 
every  one  of  them  should  lay  by  at  home  on  that 
day,  "as  God  had  prospered  him."  (i  Cor.  xvi:i, 
2).  It  was  following  a  custom  of  the  Jews,  who 
paid  on  the  day  immediately  after  the  Sabbath, 
whatever  they  had  determined  to  give  while  in 
attendance  at  their  synagogues  on  the  Sabbath. 

W.  C.  Whitford. 

SABBATH,  COXTBTOFTHE.  A  canopy  under 
which  Ahaz  used  to  stand  at  the  entrance  of  the 
porch  of  the  temple  when  attending  service  (2 
Kings  xvi:i8;  comp.  2  Chron.  xxviii:24). 

SABBATH  BAY'S  JOTIBNET  (sabbath da's 
jiir'ny),  (Gr.  trafifidrov  6S6s  Sab-bat' otl  hod-os',  a  sab- 
bath's journey.  Acts  i:  12),  the  distance  which  the 
Jews  were  permitted  to  journey  from  and  return 
to  their  places  of  residence  upon  the  Sabbath  day 
(Exod.  xvi:29). 

The  Israelites  were  forbidden  to  go  beyond  the 
encampment  (to  collect  manna)  upon  the  Sab- 
bath day ;  which  circumstance  seems  to  have  given 
rise  to  the  regulation — which  is  not  distinctly  en- 
joined in  the  law,  although  it  might  be  fairly  de- 
duced from  the  principle  on  which  the  legislation 
concerning  the  Jewish  Sabbath  was  founded — that 
no  regular  journey  ought  to  be  made  on  the  Sab- 
bath day  (Joseph.  Antiq.  xiii:8,  4).  The  intention 
of  the  lawgiver  in  this  respect  was  also  indicated 
by  the  direction  that  beasts  should  rest  on  the 
Sabbath  day  (comp.  ch.  xxiv:26).  The  later 
Jews,  as  usual,  drew  a  large  number  of  precise 
and  minute  regulations  from  these  plain  and  sim- 
ple indications.  Thus  the  distance  to  which  a  Jew 
might  travel  was  limited  to  2,000  cubits  beyond 
the  walls  of  the  city  or  the  borders  of  his  resi- 
dence, because  the  innermost  tents  of  the  Israel- 
ites' camp  in  the  wilderness  are  supposed  to  have 
been  that  distance  from  the  tabernacle  (Josh,  iii: 


SABBATH,  MORROW  AFTER  THE        15 

4),  and  because  the  same  dislance  beyond  a  city 
for  a  Sabbath  day's  journey  is  supposed  to  be  in- 
dicated in  Num.  XXXV  :4,  5  (Lightfoot,  Hor.  Heb. 
in  Luke  xxiv:so;  Acts  1:12;  Targ.  on  Rutb,  i:i6; 
Jarchi  on  Josh.  iii:4;  Oecum  on  Acts  i  ;iz).  This 
also  is  the  distance  stated  in  the  Talmud  (Tract, 
Erubin),  where  the  mode  of  measuring  is  deter- 
mined, and  the  few  cases  are  specified  in  wliich 
persons  might  venture  to  exceed  the  distance  of 
2,000  cubits.  Some  of  the  Rabbins,  however,  dis- 
tinffui°'-  ,  great  (2,800  cubits),  a  middling  (2.00a 
C'oitsj,  and  a  lesser  (1,800  cubits)  Sabbath  day's 
journey.  Eplphanius  {Haer.  66-82)  estimates  the 
Sabbath  day's  journey  by  the  Greek  measure  of 
six  stades,  equal  to  750  Roman  geographical  paces 
(1,000  of  which  made  a  Roman  mile).  In  agree- 
ment with  this  is  the  statement  of  Josephus  {Bell. 
Jud.  V,  2,  3),  who  makes  the  Mount  of  Olives  to 
be  about  six  stades  from  Jerusalem;  and  it  is 
the  dislance  between  these  two  places  which  in 
Acts  i:i2  is  given  as  a  Sabbath-day's  journey.  It 
is  true  that  Josephus  elsewhere  determines  the 
same  distance  as  five  slades  {Antiq.  xx,  8,  6)  ;  but 
both  were  probably  loose  statements  rather  than 
measured  distances ;  and  both  are  below  the  ordi- 
nary estimate  of  2,000  cubits.  Taking  all  circum- 
stances into  account,  it  seems  likely  that  the  ordi- 
nary Sabbath-day's  journey  was  a  somewhat 
loosely  determined  distance,  seldom  more  than 
the  whole  and  seldom  less  than  three-quarters  of 
a  geographical  mile. 

SABBATH,  MOBBOW  AFTEB  TUJB!  (sab'- 
bath,  mSr-rS),  (Heb.  "i"?'^  "5n^,  maw-kkawralH' 
kash-shab-ba'wth'),  (Lev.  xxiii:ii,  15),  occurring  in 
connection  with  tfie  feast  of  the  Passover. 

The  Sabbath  mentioned  is  not  the  weekly  Sab- 
bath, but  the  day  of  rest,  the  first  day  of  holy 
n  of  the  Passover,  the  fifteenth  of  Ntsan 


(Lev 


i:7)- 


■be'anz),  a  name  given  to  two 
nations—the  descendants  of  Sheb.i,  son  of  Jokian, 
(Job  i:IS,  ^'^-  sheb-aia' ;  Joel  iii:B,  S'*'??,  sheb- 
aiv-eem')  and  of  Seba  (Is.  xlv:i4,  °"*5?9,  seb-aw 
tern' ;  Ezek.  xxiii:42). 

SABTA  (a5b't4),  (Heb.  •''??9,  sab-taw',  signifi- 
cation unknown). 

Third  son  of  Cush  (Gen.  x:?),  who  peopled  a 
part  of  Arabia  Felix,  where  there  is  a  city  called 
Sabta  and  a  people  called  Sabatheans,  B,  C.  about 
2475,     (Comp.  I  Chron.  i;9.) 

8ABTAH  [sSb'tahl,  (Gen.  x:?).  See  Sabta. 

8ABTECBLA  or  SABTECHAH  (sSb'te-hi), 
(Heb.*'?'7?5,Mi./(.,t-a7i''). 

Fifth  son  of  Cush,  who  also  peopled,  as  is 
thought,  part  of  Arabia,  or  some  country  toward 
Assyria.or  Armenia,  or  Caramania;  tor  in  all  these 
regions  are  found  traces  of  the  name  Sabtecha, 
(Gen.  x:7;  i  Chron.  1:9),  B.  C.  about  2475. 

SACAB  (sa'kar).  (Heb.  1=?,  saiv-kawr' ,\me. 
reward). 

1.  Father  of  Abiam,  a  mighty  man  of  David's, 
called  the  "Hararite"  (i  Chron.  xi:3S).    He  was 


i2  SACKCLOTH 

also  called  Sharar  (2  Sam.  xxiii;33),  B.  C.  before 

2.  Fourih  son  of  Obed-edom  (i  Chron.  xxvi: 
4),  B.  C.  about  1012. 

BACHAPH  (&a'kaph}.  See  Cuckoo. 

BACKBUT  (sSk'biit),  (Chaldee  i*???,  sab-bek- 
avi',  Dan.  iii^J,  7,  10,  15);  Gr.  satniusa. 

!•  A  wind  musical  instrument,  like  a  trumpet, 
which  may  be  lengthened  or  shortened.  Italian 
trombone  (Calmet). 

2.  A  four -stringed  triangular  instrument  like  a 
harp  (comp.  '??);  a  large  harp  (Oxford  Bible 
and  Chappell,  History  of  Music),  or  a  lyre  (Dr. 
Strong),  Athenxus  (iv,  175^)  calls  the  samhuca 
an  invention  of  the  Syrians. 

SACKCLOTH  (sak'kWth'),  (Heb.  pP.  sak;  Gr. 
adKKBt,  sak'kos,  a  mesh,  i.  e.,  coarse  loose  cloth),  a 
coarse  texture,  of  a  dark  color,  made  of  goat's 
hair  (Is.  1:3). 

The  sackcloth  mentioned  in  Scripture  was,  as 
it  is  still  in  the  East,  a  coarse  black  cloth,  com- 
monly made  of  hair  (Rev.  vi:i2),  and  was  used 
for  straining  liquids,  for  sacks,  and  for  mourning 
garments.  In  the  latter  case  it  was  worn  instead 
of  the  ordinary  raiment,  or  bound  upon  the  loins, 
or  spread  under  the  mourner  en  the  ground  (Gen. 


SABBATH,  SECOND  AFTER  THE  FZBBT 

(sab'buth.  sSk'und  aft'er  the  ferst).  Gr.  aip^Tor 
itxiTtpirpwTot,  sab' bat-on  ifyoo-ter-ap' rO'ton.  second- 
first  Sabbath,  Luke  vi:i}. 

This  is  undoubtedly  the  second  Sabbath  after 
the  beginning  of  the  Paschal  week. 

SABBATIC  TEAR  (^b-bat'Ik  yer).  See  JUBI- 

m),(Heb.  ii:9  A.  v.),  a 


xxxvii:34;  I  Kings  xxiia?;  Is.  lviii:S;  Joel  i:8; 
Jonah  iii:5).  (See  Mourning.)  Such  garments 
were  also  worn  by  prophets,  and  by  ascetics  gen- 
erally (Is.  XX :2;  comp.  2  Kings  i:8;  Malt.  iii:4). 
(See  Prophecy.) 

Figurative,  (i)  Girding  with  sackcloth  is 
connected  with  mourning  and  darkness  and  heavy 
afflictions  (Ps.  xxxv:i3;  Ixixni;  Is.  xvr3;  xxiJ: 
12;  xxxiiiii).  (2)  Putting  off  sackcloth  indi- 
cates joy  and  gladness  (Ps.  xxxiii;  Is.  xx:2). 
(3)  Covering  the  heavens  denotes  severe  judg- 
ments (Is.  1:3;  Rev.  vi:i2).  Prophets  and  as- 
cetics wore  it  over  the  underclothing,  to  express 
the   sincerity  of  their  calling   (Is.  xx:2;  comp. 


SACRAMENT 


1503 


SACRIFICE 


Matt.  iii:4).  (4)  Christ's  witnesses  against  Anti- 
christ are  said  to  prophecy  in  sackcloth,  to  denote 
their  distress  and  their  mourning  for  the  corrup- 
tions and  distress  of  the  church  (Rev.  xi:3y 
(S)  The  sun  became  black  as  *' sackcloth  of  hair" 
when  the  glory  and  the  principal  idols  of  the 
heathenish  empire  of  Rome  were  overthrown  by 
Constantine  the  Great  (Rev.  vi:i2).  (Brown, 
Bib.  Diet.) 

SAOBAICENT  (s^k'ia-m^t),  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  word  sacramentumt  which  signifies  an 
oath,  particularly  the  oath  taken  by  soldiers  to  be 
true  to  their  country  and  general. 

The  word  was  adopted  by  the  writers  of  the 
Latin  church,  to  denote  those  ordinances  of  re- 
ligion by  which  Christians  came  under  an  obli- 
gation of  obedience  to  God,  and  which  obligation, 
they  supposed,  was  equally  sacred  with  that  of  an 
oath.  (See  Vow.)  Of  sacraments,  in  this  sense 
of  the  word,  Protestant  churches  admit  of  but 
two,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive  how  a  greater 
number  can  be  made  out  from  Scripture,  if  the 
definition  of  a  sacrament  be  just  what  is  given  by 
the  Protestant  churches  in  general.  The  word 
sacrament  is  declared  to  be  "an  outward  and 
visible  sign  of  an  inward  and  spiritual  grace  given 
unto  us,  ordained  by  Christ  himself,  as  a  means 
whereby  we  receive  the  same,  and  a  pledge  to 
assure  us  thereof."  According  to  this  definition, 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper  are  certainly 
sacraments,  for  each  consists  of  an  outward  and 
visible  sigfn  of  what  is  believed  to  be  an  inward 
and  spiritual  grace,  both  were  ordained  by  Christ 
himself,  and  in  the  reception  of  each  does  the 
Christian  solemnly  devote  himself  to  the  service 
of  his  divine  Master.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  however,  adds  to  this  number  confirma- 
tion, penance,  extreme  unction,  ordination,  and 
marriage,  holding  in  all  seven  sacraments.  (Buck, 
Theol  Diet.) 

SAOBITICE  (s^'rt-fiz).  Several  words  are 
used  in  Scripture  for  sacrifice^  among  them  are  the 
following: 

/•  Min-khaw'  (Heb.  '^7^'?),  something  given^  a 

gift  (Gen.  xxxii:i3,  18,  20,  21;  xliii:ii,  etc.);  tribute 
(2  Sam.  viii:2,  6;  2  Kings  xvii:4);  an  offering  to 
Qtodi  (i  Chron.  xvi:29;  Is.  i:ii);  spoken  especially 
of  a  bloodless  offering. 

2.  Kor-bawn'  (Heb.  1?1R),  something  brought 

near,  an  offering  as  a  symbol  of  communion  or 
covenant  between  man  and  God  (Lev.  ii:4). 

J.  Zek'bakh  (Heb.  "3^,  from  "31,  zawbakh'. 

to  slay)  refers  emphatically  to  a  bloody  sacrifice,  in 
which  the  shedding  of  blood  is  the  essential  idea. 
Thus  it  is  opposed  to  min-khaw'  (Ps.  xl:6)  and  to 
0'law\  the  whole  burnt  offering  (Exod.  x:25;  xviii: 
12,  etc.). 

4.  Aw-saw'  (Heb.  •"*VP.  to  do,  to  prepare,  and 

so,  if  for  God,  to  sacrifice  (Lev.  xxiii:i9only,  but 
several  times  rendered  offer), 

5.  ThoO'See'ah  (Gr.  Bwia)  denotes  both  the  vic- 
tim offered  and  the  act  of  sacrifice,  whether  literal 
or  figurative;  pros-for-ah'  (irpwr^pd),  present;  in 
the  New  Testament  a  sacrifice  (A.  V.  "offering," 
Acts  xxi:26;  xxiv:i7;  Eph.  v:2;  Heb.  x:5,  etc.); 
hol-ok'dw' to-mak  (h\oKw6riatta),  wholly  consumed 
(Lat.  holocaustum),  a  whole  burnt  offering,  i.  e.  a 
victim  all  of  which  is  burned  (Mark.  xii:33;  Heb. 
x:6,  8).    (See  Mc.  &  Str.  Bib.  Cyc), 

The  sacrifices  and  other  offerings  required  by 
the  Hebrew  ritual  have  been  enumerated  under 
Offering  (which  see),  and  in  this  place  it  is 
only  requisite  to  briefly  consider  the  great  and 
much  controverted  questions — Whether  sacrifice 


was  in  its  origin  a  human  invention,  or  a  divine 
institution;  and  whether  any  of  the  sacrifices  be- 
fore the  law,  or  under  the  law,  were  sacrifices  of 
expiation. 

(1)  Early  Origin.  From  the  universality  of 
sacrifice,  it  is  obvious  that  the  rite  arose  either 
from  a  common  source,  or  from  a  common  senti- 
ment among  nations  widely  dispersed,  and  very 
differently  constituted.  Remembering  that  Noah, 
the  common  ancestor  of  the  post-diluvian  nations, 
offered  sacrifice,  we  are  enabled  to  trace  back  the 
custom  through  all  nations  to  him ;  and  he  doubt- 
less derived  it  through  the  antediluvian  fathers, 
from  the  sacrifices  which  the  first  men  celebrated, 
of  which  we  have  an  example  in  that  of  Abel. 
The  question  concerning  the  divine  or  human 
origin  of  sacrifices,  therefore,  centers  upon  the 
conclusions  which  we  may  be  able  to  draw  from 
the  circumstances  and  preliminaries  of  that  trans- 
action. Abel  brought  for  sacrifice  one  of  the 
lambs  of  his  flock,  for  he  was  a  shepherd;  and 
with  his  offering  God  was  well  pleased;  Cain 
brought  of  the  fruits  of  the  ground,  for  he  was  a 
husbandman;  and  with  his  offering  God  was  not 
well  pleased.  We  are  told  by  the  Apostle  (Heb. 
xi:4)  that  it  was  *by  faith'  that  Abel  offered  the 
more  acceptable  sacrifice. 

That  this  was  not  the  first  sacrifice  is  held  by 
many  to  be  proved  by  the  fact,  that  *unto  A<lam 
and  his  wife  the  Lord  made  coats  of  skin,  and 
clothed  them*  ((jen.  iii:2i) ;  for,  it  is  urged,  that 
as  animal  food  does  not  appear  to  have  been  used 
before  the  deluge,  it  is  not  easy  to  understand 
whence  these  skins  came,  probably  before  any  ani- 
mal had  died  naturally,  unless  from  beasts  offered 
in  sacrifice.  And  if  the  first  sacrifices  had  been 
offered  by  Adam,  the  arguments  for  the  divine  in- 
stitution of  the  rite  are  of  the  greater  force,  seeing 
that  it  was  less  likely  to  occur  spontaneously  to 
Adam  than  to  Abel,  who  was  a  keeper  of  sheep. 
Further,  if  the  command  was  given  to  Adam,  and 
his  sons  had  been  trained  in  observance  of  the 
rite,  we  can  the  better  understand  the  merit  of 
Abel  and  the  demerit  of  Cain,  without  further  ex- 
planation. Apart  from  any  considerations  arising 
out  of  the  skin-vestures  of  Adam  and  his  wife, 
it  would  seem  that  if  sacrifice  was  a  divine  insti- 
tution, and,  especially,  if  the  rite  bore  an  expiatory 
significance,  it  would  have  been  at  once  prescribed 
to  Adam,  after  sin  had  entered  the  world,  and 
death  by  sin,  and  not  have  been  postponed  till 
his  sons  had  reached  manhood. 

Amon^  the  considerations  urged  in  support  of 
the  opinion,  that  sacrifice  must  have  originated  in 
a  divine  command,  it  has  been  suggested  as  ex- 
ceedingly doubtful,  whether,  independently  of 
such  a  command,  and  as  distinguished  from  veg- 
etable oblations,  animal  sacrifice,  which  involves 
the  practice  of  slaughtering  and  burning  an  inno- 
cent victim,  could  ever,  under  any  aspect,  have 
been  adopted  as  a  rite  likely  to  gain  the  favor  of 
God.  Our  own  course  of  Scriptural  education 
prevents  us,  perhaps,  from  being  competent  judges 
on  this  point;  but  we  have  means  of  judging  how 
so  singular  a  rite  must  strike  the  minds  of  think- 
ing men,  not  in  the  same  degree  prepossessed  by 
early  associations.  The  ancient  Greek  masters  of 
thought  not  unfrequently  expressed  their  aston- 
ishment as  to  how  and  upon  what  rational  prin- 
ciples so  strange  an  institution  as  that  of  animal 
sacrifice  could  ever  have  originated;  for  as  to  the 
notion  of  its  being  pleasing  to  the  Deity,  such  a 
thing  struck  them  as  a  manifest  impossibility. 

(2)  Moral  Arguments  For.  A  strong  moral 
argument  in  favor  of  the  divine  institution  of 
sacrifice,  somewhat  feebly  put  by  Hallet  {Com- 
ment, on  Heb.  xi  :4,  cited  by  Magee,  On  the  Atone- 


SACRIFICE 


1504 


SACRIFICE,  HUMAN 


ment),  has  been  reproduced  with  increased  force 
by  Faber  {Prim.  Sacrifice,  p.  183).  It  amounts 
to  this : 

Sacrifice,  when  not  commanded  by  God,  is  a 
mere  act  of  gratuitous  superstition.  Whence,  on 
the  principle  of  St.  Paul's  reprobation  of  what  he 
denominates  will-worship,  it  is  neither  acceptable 
nor  pleasing  to  God. 

But  sacrifice,  during  the  patriarchal  ages,  was 
accepted  by  God,  and  was  plainly  honored  with 
his  approbation. 

Therefore  sacrifice,  during  the  patriarchal  age, 
could  not  have  been  an  act  of  superstition  not 
commanded  by  God. 

If,  then,  such  was  the  character  of  primitive 
sacrifice — ^that  is  to  say,  if  primitive  sacrifice  was 
not  a  mere  act  of  gratuitous  superstition  not  com- 
manded by  God — it  must,  in  that  case,  indubitably 
have  been  a  divine,  and  not  a  human  institution. 

If  it  be  held  that  any  of  the  ancient  sacrifices 
were  expiatory,  or  piacular,  the  argument  for  their 
divine  origin  is  strengthened;  as  it  is  hard  to 
conceive  the  combination  of  ideas  under  which 
the  notion  of  expiatory  sacrifice  could  be  worked 
out  by  the  human  mind.  This  difficulty  is  so  great 
that  the  ablest  advocates  of  the  human  origin  of 
primitive  animal  sacrifice,  feel  bound  also  to  deny 
that  such  sacrifices  as  then  existed  were  piacu- 
'  lar.  It  is  strongly  insisted  that  the  doctrine  of 
an  atonement  by  animal  sacrifice  cannot  be  de- 
duced from  the  light  of  nature,  or  from  the 
principles  of  reason.  If,  therefore,  the  idea  ex- 
isted, it  must  either  have  arisen  in  the  fertile  soil 
of  a  guessing  superstition,  or  have  been  divinely 
appointed.  Now  we  know  that  God  cannot  ap- 
prove of  unwarranted  and  presumptuous  super- 
stition; if,  therefore,  he  can  be  shown  to  have  re- 
ceived with  approbation  a  species  of  sacrifice  not 
discoverable  by  the  light  of  nature,  or  from  the 
principles  of  reason,  it  follows  that  it  must  have 
been  of  his  own  institution. 

Some,  however,  are  unable  to  see  that  expiatory 
sacrifices  existed  under,  or  were  commanded  by, 
the  law  of  Moses;  while  others  admit  this,  but 
deny  that  animal  sacrifice,  with  an  expiatory  in- 
tent, existed  before  the  law.  The  arguments  al- 
ready stated  in  favor  of  the  divine  institution  of 
primitive  sacrifice,  go  equally  to  support  the  ex- 
istence of  piacular  sacrifice;  the  idea  of  which 
seems  more  urgently  to  have  required  a  divine 
intimation.  Besides,  expiatory  sacrifice  is  found 
to  have  existed  among  all  nations,  in  conjunction 
with  eucharistic  and  impetratory  sacrifices ;  and  it 
lies  at  the  root  of  the  principle  on  which  human 
sacrifices  were  offered  among  the  ancient  na- 
tions. 

This  being  the  case,  it  is  difficult  to  believe 
but  that  the  idea  was  derived,  along  with  animal 
sacrifice  itself,  from  the  practice  of  Noah,  and 
preserved  among  his  various  descendants.  This 
argument,  if  valid,  would  show  the  primitive 
origin  of  piacular  sacrifice.  Now  there  can  be 
no  doubt  tha/t  the  idea  of  sacrifice  which  Noah 
transmitted  to  the  post-diluvian  world  was  the 
same  that  he  had  derived  from  his  pious  an- 
cestors, and  the  same  that  was  evinced  by  the 
sacrifice  of  Abel,  to  which  we  are,  by  the  course 
of  the  argument,  again  brought  back.  Now  if 
that  sacrifice  was  expiatory,  we  have  reason  to 
conclude  that  it  was  divinely  commanded,  and 
the  supposition  that  it  was  both  expiatory  and 
divinely  commanded,  makes  the  whole  history 
far  more  clear  and  consistent  than  any  other 
which  has  been  or  can  be  offered.  It  amounts 
then  to  this — ^that  Cain,  by  brineing  an  eucharistic 
offering,  when  his  brother  brought  one  which 
was  expiatory,  denied  virtually  that  his  sins  de- 


served death,  or  that  he  needed  the  blood  ol 
atonement.    (See  Offering.) 

(3)  Literature.  Sykes,  Essay  on  the  Nature, 
Origin,  and  Design  of  Sacrifices;  Faber,  Tfte  Ori- 
gin of  Sacrifice;  Davidson,  Inquiry  into  the  Ori- 
gin of  Sacrifice;  H.  Clay  Trumbull,  The  Blood 
Covenant,  1885.  The  Bible  is  the  best  authority, 
and  the  truth  on  this  and  other  subjects  must  be 
obtained  by  comparing  Scripture  with  Scripture. 

Figurative*  The  term  sacrifice  is  often  used 
in  a  secondary  or  metaphorical  sense,  and  applied 
to  the  good  works  of  believers,  and  to  the  duties 
of  prayer  and  praise,  as  in  the  following  passages ; 
"But  to  do  good  and  to  communicate  forget  not ; 
for  with  such  sacrifices  God  is  well  pleased"  (Heb. 
xiii:i6).  'Having  received  of  Epaphroditus  the 
things  which  ye  sent,  an  odor  of  a  sweet  smell,  a 
sacrifice  acceptable,  well  pleasing  to  God"  (Phil. 
iv:i8).  "Ye  are  built  up  a  spiritual  house,  a  holy 
priesthood,  to  ofTer  up  spiritual  sacrifices,  ac- 
ceptable to  God  by  Jesus  Christ"  (i  Pet.  ii:5). 
"By  him,  therefore,  let  us  offer  tlfc  sacrifice  of 
praise  to  God  continually ;  that  is,  the  fruit  of  our 
lips,  giving  thanks  to  his  name"  (Heb.  xiii:i5). 
"I  beseech  you,  by  the  mercies  of  God,  that  ye 
present  your  bodies  a  living  sacrifice,  holy,  ac- 
ceptable unto  God,  which  is  your  reasonable  serv- 
ice" (Rom.  xii:i).  "There  is  a  peculiar  reason," 
says  Dr.  Owen,  "for  assigning  this  appellation  to 
moral  duties;  for  in  every  sacrifice  tnere  was  a 
presentation  of  something  unto  (jod.  The  wor- 
shiper was  not  to  offer  that  which  cost  him  noth- 
ing: part  of  his  substance  was  to  be  transferred 
from  himself  unto  (jod.  So  it  is  in  these  duties; 
they  cannot  be  properly  observed  without  the 
alienation  of  something  that  was  our  own,  our 
time,  ease,  property,  etc.,  and  a  dedication  of  it 
to  the  Lord.  Hence  they  have  the  general  nature 
of  sacrifices. 

SAOBUTCE,    HITMAN    ( sak'rY-fiz,  hu'm<zn ). 

The  offering  of  human  life,  as  the  most  precious 
thing  on  earth,  came  in  process  of  time  to  be 
practiced  in  most  countries  of  the  world.  All 
histories  and  traditions  darken  our  idea  of  the 
earlier  ages  with  human  sacrifices.  But  the  pe- 
riod when  such  prevailed  was  not  the  earliest  in 
time,  though  probably  the  earliest  in  civilization. 
The  practice  was  both  a  result  and  a  token  of 
barbarism  more  or  less  gross.  In  this,  too,  the 
dearest  object  was  primitively  selected.  Human 
life  is  the  most  precious  thing  on  earth,  and  of 
this  most  precious  possession  the  most  precious 
portion  is  the  life  of  a  child.  Children,  therefore, 
were  offered  in  fire  to  the  false  divinities,  and  in 
no  part  of  the  world  with  less  regard  to  the 
claims  of  natural  affection  than  in  the  land  where, 
at  a  later  period,  the  only  true  God  had  his  pe- 
culiar worship  and  highest  honors. 

(1)  Prohibited  by  the  Hebrew  Beligion.  It 
is,  under  these  circumstances,  a  striking  fact  that 
the  Hebrew  religion,  even  in  its  most  rudimental 
condition,  should  be  free  from  the  contamination 
of  human  sacrifices.  The  case  of  Isaac  and  that 
of  Jephthah's  daughter  cannot  impair  the  general 
truth  that  the  offering  of  human  beings  is  neither 
enjoined,  allowed,  nor  practiced  in  the  Biblical 
records.  On  the  contrary,  such  an  offering  is 
strictly  prohibited  by  Moses,  as  adverse  to  the 
will  of  God,  and  an  abomination  of  the  heathen. 
Thou  shalt  not  let  any  of  thy  seed  pass  through 
the  fire  to  Moloch;  defile  not  yourselves  with 
any  of  these  things*  (Lev.  xviii:2i ;  see  also  chap- 
ter XX  :2;   Deut.  xii:3i;  Ps.  cvi:37). 

(2)  Its  Absence  Evidence  of  Superiority  of 
the  Bible.    We  do  not  think  that  it  requires  any 


SACRIFICES,  MOSAIC 


1505 


SADDUCEES 


deep  research  or  profound  learning  to  ascertain 
from  the  Biblical  records  themselves  that  the  re- 
ligion of  the  Bible  is  wholly  free  from  the  shock- 
ing abominations  of  human  sacrifices;  and  we  do 
not  therefore  hesitate  to  urge  the  fact  on  the  at- 
tention of  the  ordinary  reader,  as  not  least  con- 
siderable among  many  proofs  not  only  of  the 
superior  character,  but  of  the  divine  origin,  of 
the  Hebrew  worship.  It  was  in  Egypt  that  the 
mind  of  Moses  and  of  the  generation  with  whom 
he  had  primarily  to  do,  were  chiefly  formed,  so 
far  as  heathen  influences  were  concerned.  Here 
offerings  were  very  numerous.  Sacrifices  of  meat- 
offerings, libations,  and  incense  were  of  very 
early  d^te  in  the  Egyptian  temples.  Oxen,  wild 
goats,  pigs,  and  particularly  geese,  were  among 
the  animal  offerings ;  besides  these  there  were  prc- 
Isented  to  the  gods,  wine,  oil,  beer,  milk,  cakes, 
grain,  ointment,  flowers,  fruits,  vegetables.  In 
these,  and  in  the  case  of  meat,  peace  and  sin  offer- 
ings (as  well  as  others),  there  exists  a  striking  re- 
semblance with  similar  Hebrew  observances^  which 
may  be  found  indicated  in  detail  in  Wilkinson 
(Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians, 
V.  358,  sq.;  see  also  ii.  378),  who,  in  agreement 
with  Herodotus,  maintains,  in  opposition  to  Dio- 
dorus,  that  the  Egyptians  were  never  accustomed 
to  sacrifice  human  beings;  a  decision  which  has 
a  favorable  aspect  on  our  last  position,  namely, 
that  the  religion  of  the  Israelites,  even  in  its  ear- 
liest days,  was  not  profaned  by  human  blood.  A 
remarkable  instance  of  disagreement  between  the 
observances  of  the  Egyptians  and  the  JewSj  in 
regard  to  sacrifices,  is,  that  while  the  Egyptians 
received  the  blood  of  the  slaughtered  animal  into 
a  vase  or  basin,  to  be  applied  in  cookery,  the  eat- 
ing of  blood  was  most  strictly  forbidden  to  the 
Israelites  (Deut.  xv:23).  J.  R.  B. 

SAOBHTOES,  MOSAIC.    See  Offering. 

SAOBIFIOIAL  OFFERINGS.  See  Offer- 
ing. 

SACBUjEGE  (Gt.  IcpoiTvUta,  hee-er-os-ool-eh* o\ 
1*  This  term  in  Rom.  ii  :22  means  to  appropriate 
to  one's  own  private  use  what  is  consecrated  to 
God.  'le/MHTiJXovf ,  Acts  xix  137,  is  rendered  "robbers 
of  churches,"  meaning  temples  of  the  gods.  Com- 
pare Mai.  iii:8-io,  and  Josephus,  wars,  vi.26; 
Ant.,  XX.  8). 

2.  The  ancient  church  distinguished  several 
sorts  of  sacrilege,  (i)  Diverting  things  appro- 
priated to  sacred  purposes  to  other  uses.  (2) 
Robbing  the  graves  or  defacing  and  spoiling  the 
monuments  of  the  dead.  (3)  Those  were  consid- 
ered as  sacrilegious  persons  who  delivered  up  their 
Bibles  and  the  sacred  utensils  of  the  church  to 
the  pagans,  in  the  time  of  the  Diocletian  persecu- 
tion. (4)  Profaning  the  sacraments,  churches,  al- 
tars, etc.  (5)  Molesting  or  hindering  a  clergy- 
man in  the  performance  of  his  office.  (6)  De- 
priving men  of  the  use  of  the  Scriptures  or  the 
sacraments,  particularly  the  cup  in  the  eucharist. 
The  Roman  Catholic  casuists  acknowledge  all 
these  but  the  last. 

SADDLE  (s^'d'l).    See  Camel;  Furniture; 

Horse;  Mule. 

SADDT70EES    (s&d'du-seez).    (Heb.   DT^^V. 

tsad-doo-keem* ;  Gr.  2a85ov/raZot,  sad-doo-kah' yosY 
(Matt.  iii:7;  xvi:i,  6,  11, 12;  xxii.-23, 54;  Mark  xii:i8; 
Luke  xx:27;  Acts  iv:i;  v:iji  xxiii:6-8).  One  of  the 
three^  sects  of  Jewish  philosophers,  of  which  the 
Pharisees  and  the  Essenes  were  the  others,  who 
had  reached  their  highest  state  of  prosperity  about 
the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era. 

(1)  Cause  and  Principles  of  Sect.  In  every 
higkly  developed  social  system  the  elements  are 


found  to  exist  which  led  to  the  formation  of  the 
sect  of  Sadducees.  But  these  elements  were  in  fuller 
amplitude  and  more  decided  energy  among  the 
post-exilian  Jews  than  in  most  ancient  nations.  The 
peculiar  doctrines  and  practices  of  the  Pharisees 
naturally  begot  the  Sadducean  system.  The  first 
embodied  the  principle  of  veneration,  which  looked 
on  the  past  with  so  much  regard  as  to  become 
enamored  of  its  forms  as  well  as  its  substance,  its 
ivy  as  well  as  its  columns,  its  corruptions  no  less 
than  its  excellences,  taking  and  maintaining[  the 
whole  with  a  warm  but  blind  and  indiscriminate 
affection;  the  second,  alienated  by  the  extrava- 
gances of  the  former,  were  led  to  seize  on  the 
principle  of  rationalism,  and  hence  to  investigate 
prevalent  customs,  and  weigh  received  opinions, 
till  at  length  investigation  begot  skepticism,  and 
skepticism  issued  in  the  positive  rejection  of  many 
established  notions  and  observances.  The  prin- 
ciple of  the  Sadducee  is  thus  obviously  an  off- 
shoot from  the  rank  growth  of  conservatism  and 
orthodoxy.    Corruption  brings  reform. 

(2)  Extremists.  And  as  it  is  not  possible  for 
the  same  individuals,  nor  for  the  same  classes  of 
men,  to  perform  the  dissimilar  acts  of  conserva- 
tism and  reformation,  so  must  there  be,  if  Phari- 
sees, Sadducees  also  in  society.  It  is  for  the  good 
of  men  that  the  latter  should  come  into  being,  see- 
ing that  the  principle  represented  by  the  former 
arises,  inevitably,  in  the  actual  progress  of  events. 
True  wisdom,  however,  consists  in  avoiding  the 
extremes  peciiliar  to  both,  and  aims  to  make  man 
possessor  of  all  the  good  which  the  past  can  be- 
stow and  all  the  good  which  the  present  can  pro- 
duce, uniting  in  one  happy  result  the  benign  re- 
sults of  conservatism  and  improvement,  retention 
of  the  past  and  progress  in  the  present. 

(8)  Traditions  of  Pharisees  Bejected.  It 
would  be  easy  to  show  how  the  several  particulars 
which  were  peculiar  to  the  Sadducee  arose  out  of 
Pharisaic  errors.  As,  however,  we  wish  to  give  to 
this  necessarily  brief  notice  an  historical  diaracter, 
we  shall  content  ourselves  with  one  instance — the 
doctrine  of  tradition.  By  an  excessive  veneration 
of  the  Mosaic  institutions  and  sacred  books,  the 
Pharisees  had  been  led  to  regard  every  thing 
which  explained  their  meaning  or  unfolded  their 
hidden  signification.  Hence  the  exposition  of 
the  ancients  came  to  be  received  with  respect  equal 
to  that  with  which  the  very  words  of  the  founders 
and  original  writers  were  regarded.  Tradition 
was  engrafted  on  the  ^ine  of  Israel.  But  all  ex- 
position is  relative  to  the  mind  of  the  expositor. 
Accordingly  various  expositions  came  into  being. 
Every  age,  every  doctor  gave  a  new  exposition. 
Thus  a  diverse  and  contradictory,  as  well  as  huge, 
mass  of  opinions  was  formed,  which  overlaid  and 
hid  the  law  of  God.  Then  a  true  reverence  for 
that  law  identified  itself  with  the  principle  of  the 
Sadducee,  and  the  Pharisee  was  made  to  appear 
as  not  only  the  author  but  the  patron  and  advo- 
cate of  corruption. 

(4)  Bise  and  Development.  The  time  when 
the  sect  of  the  Sadducees  came  into  existence,  his- 
tory does  not  define.  From  what  has  been  ad- 
vanced it  appears  that  they  were  posterior  to  the 
Pharisees.  And  although  so  soon  as  the  Pharisaic 
elements  be^an  to  become  excessive,  there  existed 
in  Judaism  itself  a  sufficient  source  for  Sadducee- 
ism ;  yet,  as  a  fact,  we  have  no  doubt  that  Grecian 
philosophy  lent  its  aid  to  the  development  of  Sad- 
duceeism.  Whence  we  are  referred  for  the  rise  of 
the  latter  to  the  period  when  the  conquests  and  the 
kingdoms  which  ensued  from  the  expedition  of 
Alexander  had  diffused  a  very  large  ^rtion  of 
Grecian  civilization  over  the  soil  of  the  East,  and 
especially  over  Western  Asia. 


SADDUCEES 


1506 


SADDUCEES 


(5)  Opposition  to  the  Phariseeo.  As  may  be 
inferred  from  what  has  been  advanced,  the  Sad- 
ducees  stood  in  direct  opposition  to  the  Pharisees. 
So  they  are  described  by  Josephus  {Antiq.  xiii. 
10,  6),  and  so  they  appear  in  the  New  Testament. 
Hostile,  however,  as  these  two  sects  were,  they 
united  for  the  common  purpose  of  opposing 
our  Lord  (Matt  xvi:i,  6,  ii,  sq,;  xxii:23,  34; 
Acts  iv:i;  v:i7).  In  opposing  the  Pharisees  the 
Sadducees  were  led  to  impeach  their  principal 
doctrines,  and  so  to  deny  all  the  'traditions  of 
the  elders,'  holding  that  the  law  alone  was  the 
written  source  of  religious  truth  {Antiq.  xviii. 
I,  4).  By  more  than  one  consideration,  however, 
it  might  be  shown  that  they  are  in  error  who  so 
understand  the  fact  now  stated,  as  if  the  Saddu- 
cees received  no  other  parts  of  the  Jewish  canon 
than  the  Pentateuch;  for  in  truth  they  appear  to 
have  held  the  common  opinion  regarding  the  sa- 
cred books — a  fact  of  some  consequence,  inas- 
much as  we  thus  gain  the  determination,  on  the 
point  of  the  Jewish  canon,  of  the  critical  skepti- 
cism of  the  day. 

The  Sadducees  taught  that  the  soul  of  man  per- 
ished together  with  his  body,  and  that  of  course 
there  was  neither  reward  nor  punishment  after 
death  (Joseph.  De  Bell.  Jud,  ii.  8,  14;  comp.  Matt. 
xxii:23).  Indeed,  they  appear  to  have  disowned 
the  moral  philosophy  which  obtrudes  the  idea  of 
recompense. 

(6)  Zadok's  Injunction.  'B^  not  as  those 
slaves* — so  runs  an  injunction  derived,  it  is  said, 
from  Zadok  himself— 'who  serve  their  master  on 
this  condition,  namely,  that  they  receive  a  re- 
ward ;  but  let  the  fear  of  heaven  be  in  you  {Pirke 
Aboth,  i.  3,  and  Rabbi  Nathan  on  the  passage). 
Were  they  consistent  in  this  view  they  may  have 
held  high  and  worthy  ideas  of  duty,  its  source 
and  its  motives;  ideas,  however,  which  are  ob- 
viously more  suited  for  men  of  cultivation  like 
themselves  than  for  the  great  bulk  of  human  be- 
ings. And  in  views  such  as  this  may  probably  be 
ifound  a  chief  cause  why  they  were  far  less  ac- 
ceptable with  the  common  people  and  far  less 
influential  in  the  state  than  their  rivals,  the  Phari- 
sees. The  cold  self-reliance  and  self-sufficiency 
which  sits  apart  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  satisfac- 
tion resulting  from  its  own  resources,  and  aims 
at  nothing  beyond  its  own  sphere  and  nothing 
higher  than  its  own  standard,  may  possess  pecu- 
liar attractions  for  the  philosophic  few,  or  for  the 
contemptuous  scoffer,  but  is  too  alien  from  ordi- 
nary sympathies,  and  too  unkindling  and  tONO 
tranquil  to  find  general  acceptance  in  any  condi- 
tion of  society  that  the  world  has  yet  known. 

(7)  Their  Denial  of  a  Future  State.  It  was 
a  position  with  the  Sadducees,  that  the  Scrip- 
tures did  not  contain  the  doctrine  of  a  future  hfe. 
In  this  opinion  they  have  had  many  followers  in 
modern  times.  Yet  Jesus  himself  finds  a  proof 
of  that  doctrine  in  the  Pentateuch  (Matt,  xxh: 
31,  32),  and  the  astonishment  which  his  teaching 
on  the  point  excited  seems  to  show  that  it  was 
not  an  ordinary  inference  of  the  Rabbins,  but  a 
new  doctrine  that  Jesus  then  deduced ;  this  makes 
against  the  mode  of  interpretation  which  would 
represent  this  as  a  sort  of  argumentum  ad  hom- 
inem,  a  shaft  from  the  quiver  of  Christ's  enemies. 
That,  however,  the  species  of  exegesis  to  which 
this  proof  belongs  prevailed  among  the  Jews  in 
the  tmie  of  our  Lord  there  can  be  no  doubt ;  for 
from  the  period  of  the  return  from  Babvlon  it  had 
been  gaining  ground,  was  very  prevalent  in  the 
days  of  (Thrist,  and  abounds  in  the  Talmudical 
writings.  Being,  however,  a  kind  of  exegetical 
spiritualism,  it  was  disallowed  by  the  Sadducees, 


who  accordingly  rejected  the  doctrines  which  by 
its  means  had  been  deduced  from  the  sacred 
writings. 

(8)  Specific  Teachings.  Sadduceeism  appears 
to  have  been  to  some  extent  a  logically  deduced 
and  systematically  formed  set  of  ideas.  Making 
this  life  the  term  of  our  being,  and  man  his 
own  beau  ideal,  it  was  naturally  led  to  assert  for 
man  all  the  attributes  that  he  could  reasonably 
claim.  Hence  it  taught  the  absolute  freedom  of 
the  human  mind.  The  words  of  Josephus  are  em- 
phatic on  this  point:  The  Pharisees  ascribe  all 
to  fate  and  to  God,  but  the  Sadducees  take  away 
fate  entirely,  and  suppose  that  (jod  is  not  con- 
cerned in  our  doing  or  not  doing  evil ;  and  they 
say  that  to  act  what  is  good  or  what  is  evil  is  in 
man's  own  choice;  and  that  all  things  depend  on 
our  own  selves'  (De  Bell,  Jud,  ii.  8,  14;  Antiq. 
xiii.  5,  9).  An  inference  injurious  to  them  has 
been  deduced  from  this  position,  as  if  they  denied 
divine  ProviJence  altogether;  but  their  reception 
of  the  canonical  books,  and  their  known  observ- 
ance of  the  usages  for  divine  worship  therein 
prescribed,  are  incompatible  with  such  a  denial. 
Indeed  we  have  here  the  same  difficulty  which  has 
presented  itself  over  and  over  again  ten  thousand 
times  to  thinking  minds,  namely,  how  to  unite 
in  harmony  the  moral  freedom  of  man  with  the 
arrangements  and  behests  of  the  will  of  a  wise 
and  loving  (jod. 

(9)  Negations.  As  the  Sadducees  denied  a 
future  state,  so  also  they  were  led  to  deny  the  ex- 
istence of  angels  and  spirits  (Acts  xxiii  :8)  ;  for 
they  appear  to  have  concluded  that  since  there 
were  no  human  spirits  in  heaven,  there  could  be 
no  other  beings  in  the  invisible  state  but  God. 
Yet  if  we  allow  the  force  of  this  deduction,  we 
cannot  well  understand  how,  receiving,  as  they 
did,  at  any  rate  the  five  books  of  Moses,  they 
could  bring  themselves  to  disown  angel-existence, 
unless,  indeed,  it  was  under  the  influence  of  a 
strong  repellant  influence  which  came  from  the 
extravagant  notions  entertained  on  the  point  by 
their  antagonists,  the  Pharisees.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  said  that  this  denial,  whencesoever  it 
came,  shows  how  entirely  theirs  was  a  system 
of  negatives  and  of  materialism;  and  being  such, 
it  could,  with  all  its  elevated  moral  conceptions,  do 
very  little  for  the  improvement  of  individuals  and 
the  advancement  of  society. 

(10)  Small  Number  of  Adherents.  A  very 
natural  consequence  was  that  their  doctrine  held 
sway  over  but  comparatively  few  persons,  and 
those  mostly  men  distinguished  by  wealth  or  sta- 
tion {Antiq,  xviii.  i,  4;  xiii.  10,  6).  They  were 
the  freethinkers  of  the  day,  and  freethinking  is 
ordinarily  the  attribute  only  of  the  cultivated  and 
the  fortunate.  Least  of  all  men  are  those  of  a 
skeptical  turn  grregarious.  They  stand  on  their  own 
individuality ;  they  enjoy  their  own  independence ; 
they  look  down  on  the  vulgar  crowd  with  pity, 
if  not  with  contempt.  They  may  serve  quietly  to 
undermine  a  social  system,  but  they  rarely  assume 
the  prose]3rting  character  which  gave  Voltaire  and 
Diderot  their  terrible  power  for  evil.  It  has  been 
reserved  for  modern  infidelity  to  be  zealous  and 
enthusiastic. 

What  Josephus  says  of  the  repulsivencss  of  their 
manners  {De  Bell.  Jud,  ii.  8,  14)  is  in  keeping 
with  their  general  principles.  A  skeptical  material- 
ism IS  generally  accompanied  by  an  undue  share 
of  self-confidence  and  self-esteem,  which  are 
among  the  least  sociable  of  human  qualities. 

(11)  A  Political  Party.  The  Sadducees, 
equally  with  the  Pharisees,  were  not  only  a  relig- 


SADOC 


1S07 


SALLAl 


ious  but  a  political  party.  Indeed,  as  long  as  the 
Mosaic  polity  retained  an  influence,  social  policy 
could  not  be  sundered  from  religion ;  for  religion 
was  everything.  Accordingly  the  Sadducees 
formed  a  part  of  the  Jewish  parliament,  the  San- 
hedrim (Acts  xxiii:6),  and  sometimes  enjoyed 
the  dignity  of  supreme  power  in  the  high-priest- 
hood. Tneir  possession  of  power,  however, 
seems  to  have  been  owing  mainly  to  their  indi- 
vidual personal  influence,  as  men  of  superior 
minds  or  eminent  position,  since  the  general  cur- 
rent of  favor  ran  adversely  to  them,  and  their 
enemies,  the  Pharisees,  spared  no  means  to  keep 
them  and  their  opinions  m  the  background.  Ac- 
cordingly in  the  Rabbinical  writings  they  are 
branded  with  the  name  of  heretics.         J.  R.  B. 

8AD00  (sa'd5k),  (Gr.  Xa8(&K,  sadrcke'), 
1*  Zadok,  the  ancestor  of  Ezra  (2  Esdr.  i:i; 
comp.  Ezra  vii:2). 

2.  A  descendant  of  Zerubbabel  and  father  of 
Achim  in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ  (Matt,  f: 
14),  B.  C.  about  220. 

SAFFRON  (saf'friin),  (Heb.  cb-jS,  kar-k(me\?L 

well-known  flower,  of  a  bluish  color,  in  the  midst 
of  which  are  small  yello\^  stamens,  of  a  very  agree- 
able smell. 

Solomon  (Cant.  iv:i4)  joins  it  with  other  aro- 
matics;  and  Jeremiah  speaks  of  those  Who  had 
been  richly  "brought  up  in  scarlet,"  as  expressed 
in  the  Authorized  Version,  but  it  reads  literally 
"were  brought  up  in  clothes  of  a  saffron  color" 
(Lam.  iv:5),  though  the  passage  rather  signifies 
purple  or  crimson. 

SAIL  (sal),  the  incorrect  translation  of  the  Heb. 
Dj2,  nace  (Is.  xxxiii:23;  Ezek.  xxvii:7),  usually  a 
standard  ox  flagstaff ;  9Ji^  in  }i)\^  {passages  quoted 
?iflag  of  a  ship,  m  Acts  xxvii:i7  it  represents  the 
Gr.  cifewf,  skyoo'oSt  and  seems  to  be  used  specially 
and  collectively  of  the  sails  and  ropes  01  a  ship. 
(See  Ship.) 

SAHiOB  (sal'er).    See  Ship. 

SAIKT  (sant),  in  general. 

1.  KhaW'Seed  (Heb.  "^"^^ij,  pious,  just,  godly), 

used  of  pious  Israelites,  and  so  of  the  godly  in  gen- 
eral (i  Sam.  ii:9;  2  Chron.  vi:4i;  Ps.  xxx:4; 
xxxi  :23 ;  xxxvii  128 ;  1 :5 ;  Hi  :9 ;  Ixxix  :2 ;  Ixxxv  :8 ; 
xcviirio;  cxvi:i5;  cxxxiirg,  16;  cxlv:io;  cxlviii: 
14;  cxlix:i,  5,  9). 

2.  Kaw'doshe'    (Heb.   ^^^^)\     Hag'ee-os,  Gr. 

tfytot,  pure,  clean).  Applied  to  persons  consecrated 
to  God's  service:  {a)  The  priests  (Ps.  cvi:i6; 
comp.  Exod.  xxviii:4i;  xxix:i;  Lev.  xxi:6;  I 
Sam.  vii:i;  i  Pet.  ii:5)  ;  {b)  the  firstborn  (Exod. 
xiii:2,  A.  V.  "sanctify;"  i  Pet.  ii:5,  "holy") ;  {c) 
the  pious  Israelites  (Ps.  xvi:3;  xxxiv:9;  Ixxxix: 
5,  7)  ;  id)  "saints  of  the  Most  High"  (Dan.  vii: 
18,  21,  27),  the  New  Testament  Israel  of  God,  i.  e., 
the  congregation  of  the  new  covenant.  (See  Mc. 
&  Str.  Bib.  Diet). 

SAIT  (salt).   See  Zait. 

SALA  (sa'li),  (Gr.  ZaXi,  sale),  the  Greek  form  of 
Salah  or  Shelah,  the  father^f  Eber  (Lukeiii;35). 

SALAOH  (sil'ak),  (Heb.  M?^.  skaW'lawk\  bird 

of  prey),  usually  thought  to  be  the  pelican  (from 
casting  itself  into  the  sea,  Lev.  xi:  i8;Deut.  xiv:i7). 
It  luis  been  variously  applied  to  the  eagle,  the 
gerfalcon,  the  gannet,  the  great  gull,  and  the  cor- 
morant. Of  the  Hebrew  Salach  nothing  is  known 
but  that  it  was  an  unclean  bird.  We  believe  the 
salach  to  have  been  a  species  of  'tern,*  consid- 
ered to  be  identical  with  the  'Sterna  Caspica,' 
so  called  because  it  is  found  about  the  Caspian 
Sea ;  but  it  is  equally  common  to  the  Polar,  Bal- 


tic, and  Black  Seas,  and  if  they  are  truly  th^ 
same,  is  not  only  abundant  for  several  months  in 
the  year  on  the  coast  of  Palestine,  but  frequents 
the  lakes  and  pools  far  inland;  flying  across  the 
deserts  to  the  Euphrates,  and  to  the  rersian  and 
Red  Seas,  and  proceeding  up  the  Nile.  It  is  the 
largest  of  the  tern  or  sea-swallow  genus,  being 
about  the  weight  of  a  pigeon,  and  near  two  feet  in 
length,  having  a  large  black  head;  powerful, 
pointed  crimson  bill;  a  white  and  gr^  body, 
with  forked  tail,  and  wings  greatly  exceeding  the 
tips  of  the  tail ;  the  feet  are  very  small,  weak,  and 
but  slightly  webbed,  so  that  it  swims  perhaps  only 
accidentally,  but  with  sufficient  power  on  land  to 
spring  up  and  to  rise  from  level  ground.  It  flies 
with  immense  velocity,  darting  along  the  surface 
of  the  sea  to  snap  at  mollusca  or  small  fishes,  or. 
wheeling  through  the  air  in  pursuit  of  insect^;  and 
in  calm  weather,  after  rising  to  a  great  height,  it 
drops  perpendicularly  down  to  near  the  surface  of 
the  water,  but  never  alights  except  on  land;  and 
it  is  at  all  times  disposed  to  utter  a  kind  of  laugh- 
ing scream.  This  tern  nestles  in  high  cliffs,  some- 
times at  a  very  considerable  distance  from  the  sea. 
'Sterna  Nilotica'  appears  to  be  the  young  bird,  or 
one  nearly  allied. 

Thus  the  species  is  not  likely  to  have  been  un- 
known to  the  Israelites,  even  while  they  were  in 
the  desert;  and  as  the  black  tern,  'Sterna  nigri- 
cans^ and  perhaps  the  *Procellaria  obscurcC  of  the 
same  locality,  may  have  been  confounded  with  it, 
their  number  was  more  than  sufficient  to  cause 
them  to  be  noticed  in  the  list  of  prohibited  birds. 
(See  (Cormorant.)  C  H.  S. 

SATiAH  (sS'lah),  (Heb.  "^f ,  sheh'lakh,  a  mis- 

sile,  javelin;  Sept.  and  New  Test.,Gr.  ZaXi,  salcC)^ 
a  son  or  grandson  of  Arphaxad  (Gen.  x:24;  xi:i3; 
I  Chron.  1:18,  24;  Luke  iii:35),  B.  C.  about  2478. 

SATiAMTS  (sal'a-mYs),  (Gr.  SaXafi/t,  sal-am-ece', 
derivation  uncertain ;  perhaps  salt,  from  Ski), 

One  of  the  chief  cities  of  Cyprus  on  the  south- 
east coast  of  the  island  (Acts  xiii:5).  It  was 
afterwards  called  Constantia,  and  in  still  later 
times  Famagusta  (Cyprus). 

SALATHIEL  (sa-UL'thi-el).    See  Shealtiel. 

SALOAH    (s^'kah),    (Heb.    ^^,    sal'kaw\ 

wandering,  migration),  a  city  of  the  kingdom  of 
Og,  in  the  country  of  Bashan,  beyond  Jordan,  to- 
ward the  northern  extremity  of  the  portion  of 
Manasseh  (Deut.  iii:io;  i  Chron.  v:ii;  Josh,  xii: 
5;  xiii:ii). 

SALCHAb    (s^'kah),   (Heb.  ^)'9,  sa^-kait/ ; 

Gr.  'ZeXxS,  selcha),  the  form  in  which  the  name 
Salcah  appears  in  Deut.  iii.io. 

SALEU  (sa'Iem),  (Heb.  O^^,  shaw-iame',  peace 

or  peaceful),  the  original  name  of  Jerusalem 
(Gen.  xiv:i8;  Heb.  vii:i,  2),  and  which  continued 
to  be  used  poetically  in  later  times  (Ps.  lxxvi:2). 
(See  Jerusalem.) 

8ALIM  (sa'lim),  (Gr.  ZaXerfi,  sal  ime',  perhaps 
from  the  Aramaic  Shelim,  'completed'). 

A  place  near  ^non,  where  John  bajitized  (John 
iii  :23).  Jerome  places  it  eight  Roman  miles  from 
Scythopolis  (Bethshan),  which  is  the  same  dis- 
tance southward  that  he  and  Eusebius  assign  to 
yEnon.  Nothing  is  known  of  this  site.  Some 
have  been  led  by  the  name  to  conceive  that  here, 
and  not  at  Jerusalem,  we  should  seek  the  Salem 
of  Melchizedek  (Gen.  xiv:i8).  (See  ^Enon; 
Salem.) 

SALLAl  (sai'lai),  (Heb/^,5a/-Ai;iV^,exalUtioii 
or  basket-maker). 


SALLONIM 


1508 


SALT,  COVENANT  OF 


1*  A  Benjamite,  who,  with  928  of  his  tribe  set- 
tled in  Jerusalem  after  the  return  from  Babylon 
(Neh.  xi:8),  B.  C.  about  459. 

2.  Head  of  a  course  of  priests  under  Zerub- 
babel,  with  whom  he  went  up  from  Babylon  to 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii:2o).  He  is  called  Sallu  (Neh. 
xii:7),  B.  C.  about  459. 

SAXIiTJ  (sil'lu),  (Heb.  ^^^,  sal-loo^  weighed). 

1*  A  Benjamite  son  of  MeshuIIam,  who  dwelt 
in  Jerusalem  after  the  Captivity  (i  Chron.  ix:7; 
Neh.  xi:7),  B.  C.  about  459. 

2.  Sal'loo,  (Heb.  ^^^,  weighed),  another  form 
of  Sallai,  2  (Neh.  xii:;).    See  Sallai. 

SALKA  (s&l'mi),  (Heb.  ^9/*^,  sal-maw',  cloth- 
ing). 

1.  An  ancestor  of  Christ  and  David  (i  Chron. 
ii:ii) ;  elsewhere  Salmon. 

2.  Second  son  of  Caleb,  son  of  Hur,  called  the 
founder  or  ''father"  of  Bethlehem  and  the  Neto- 
phathites  (i  Chron.  ii:5i,  54),  B.  C.  before  1500. 

BATiTWAH  (s&l'mah).    See  Shalm Ai. 

SAIiMOK  (siU'mon),  (Heb.  l^i'W,  sal-mone'. 
clothed,  or  clothing;  New  Test.  'LaKttniv,  sal-mone'). 

1*  The  father  of  Boaz  (Ruth  iv:2i;  Matt.  i:4, 
5;  Luke  iii:32),  elsewhere  called  Salmah  (Ruth 
iv:2o;  i  Chron.  ii:ii),  B.  C.  about  1660. 

2*  A  place  which  was  the  scene  of  a  battle  dur- 
ing the  conquest  of  Canaan  (Ps.  Ixviii  :i4).  Prob* 
ably  the  same  as  Mount  Zalmon  (Judg.  ix:48). 

BALMONB  (sal-m5'ne),  (Gr.Za\fiiini,sa/'moA'' 
nay,  derivation  unknown),  a  promontory  forming 
the  eastern  extremity  of  the  island  of  Crete  (Acts 
xxvii:7). 

SALOME  (sa-15'me^,  (Gr.  ZaXt^/Aiy,  saZ-o'may, 
from  the  Heb,  peace/ui), 

1*  A  woman  of  Galilee,  who  accompanied  Jesus 
in  some  of  his  journeys,  and  ministered  unto  him; 
and  was  one  of  those  who  witnessed  his  crucifix- 
ion and  resurrection  (Mark  xv:4o;  xvi:i).  It  is 
gathered,  by  comparing  these  texts  with  Matt. 
xxvii:56,  that  she  was  the  wife  of  Zebedee,  and 
mother  of  the  apostles  James  and  John.  A.  D. 
26-28. 

2.  Salome  was  also  the  name  (though  not 
given  in  Scripture)  of  that  daughter  of  Herodias 
whose  dancing  before  her  uncle  and  father-in-law, 
Herod  Antipas,  was  instrumental  in  orocuring  the 
decapitation  of  John  the  Baptist.  (See  Herodian 
Family;  John  the  Baptist.) 

SALT  (salt),  (Heb.  "te,  nuklakh\  was  pro- 
cured by  the  Hebrews  from  two  sources;  first, 
from  rock-salt,  obtained  from  hills  of  salt  which 
lie  about  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea ; 
and  secondly,  from  the  waters  of  that  sea,  which, 
overflowing  the  banks  yearly,  and  being  exhaled 
by  the  sun  and  heat,  left  behind  a  deposit  of  salt 
both  abundant  and  good. 

XTses.  From  Job  vi  :6  it  is  clear  that  salt  was 
used  as  a  condiment  with  food.  Salt  was  also 
mixed  with  fodder  for  cattle  (Is.  xxx:24),  where 
the  marginal  reading  is  preferable,  *  savory  prov- 
ender.* As  offerings,  viewed  on  their  earthly  side, 
were  a  presentation  to  God  of  whait  man  found 
good  and  pleasant  for  food,  so  all  meat-offerings 
were  required  to  be  seasoned  with  salt  (Lev.  if: 
13;  Spencer,  De  Legibus  Rit,  1.  5,  i).  Salt,  there- 
fore, became  of  great  importance  to  Hebrew  wor- 
shipers; it  was  sold  accordingly  in  the  Temple 
mailcet,  and  a  large  auantity  was  kept  in  the  Tem- 
ple itself,  in  a  chamber  appropriated  to  the  pur- 
pose.   Joseph.  Antiq,  xii,  3,  3;  Middoth,  v.  3; 


Othon.  Lex,  Rabb,  p.  668.  Jewish  tradition 
agrees  with  Ezekiel  xliii:24,  in  intimating  that 
animal  offerings  were  sprinkled  with  salt  (Jo- 
seph. Antiq.  iii.  9,  i ;  Philo,  ii.  255). 

A  singular  usage  obtained  among  the  Israelites, 
namely,  washing  new-born  infants  in  salt  water; 
which  was  regarded  as  so  essential  that  those 
could  hardly  have  any  other  than  an  ill  fate  who 
were  deprived  of  the  rite  (Ezek.  xvi:4).  The 
practice  obviously  arose  from  a  regard  to  the 
preserving,  the  domestic,  the  moral,  and  the  relig- 
ious uses  to  which  salt  was  applied,  and  of  which 
it  became  the  emblem.  J.  R.  B. 

Figurative,  (i)  The  incense,  •  perfume,*  was  to 
have  salt  as  an  ingredient  (Exod.  xxx;35;  mar- 
ginal reading  'salted* ),  where  it  appears  to  have 
been  symbolical,  as  well  of  the  divine  goodness  as 
of  man's  gratitude,  on  the  principle  that  of  every 
bounty  vouchsafed  of  God,  it  became  man  to  make 
an  acknowledgment  in  kind. 

(2)  As  salt  thus  entered  into  man*s  food,  so  to 
eat  salt  with  any  one  was  to  partake  of  his  fare, 
to  share  his  hospitality ;  and  hence,  by  implication, 
to  enjoy  his  favor,  or  to  be  in  his  confidence. 
Hence,  also,  salt  became  an  emblem  of  fidelity  and 
of  intimate  friendship.  At  the  present  hour  the 
Arabs  regard  as  their  friend  him  who  has  eaten 
salt  with  them ;  that  is,  has  partaken  of  their  hos- 
pitality; in  the  same  way  as  in  Greece,  those  re- 
garded each  other  as  friends  even  to  distant  gene- 
rations, between  whom  the  rites  of  hospitality  had 
been  once  exchanged.  The  domestic  sanctity 
which  dius  attached  itself  to  salt  was  much  en- 
hanced in  influence  by  its  religious  applications,  so 
that  it  became  symbolical  of  the  most  sacred  and 
binding  of  obligations.  (See  Salt,  Covenant  of.) 

(3)  But  salt,  if  used  too  abundantly,  is  destruc- 
tive of  vegetation  and  causes  a  desert.  Hence 
arose  another  class  of  figurative  applications.  De- 
stroyed cities  were  sown  with  salt  to  intimate  that 
they  were  devoted  to  perpetual  desolation  (Judg. 
ix:4S). 

(4)  Salt  became  a  symbol  of  barrenness  (Deut 
xxix:23;  Zeph.  iiig;  Vir^f.  Georg.  ii.  238)  ;  and  'a 
salt  land'  (Jer.  xvii  :6)  signifies  a  sterile  and  un- 
productive district  (Job  xxxix:6). 

(5)  By  exposure  to  the  influence  of  the  sun  and 
of  the  atmosphere,  salt  loses  its  savory  qualities; 
whence  the  striking  and  forcible  language  of  our 
Lord  in  Matt.  v:i3. 

(6)  True  grace,  and  edifying  converse,  are 
compared  to  "salt;"  how  delightful  they  render 
the  spiritual  food  of  divine  truths!  and  what 
blessed  means  of  healing  souls,  and  preserving 
them  from  infectious  corruption!  (Mark  ixrso; 
Col.  iv:6.) 

(7)  "Every  one  shall  be  salted  with  lire**  (Mark 
ix:49),  and  every  sacrifice  ''salted  Tvith  salt;" 
ewtry  person  must  either  be  purified  with  trouble, 
and  in  the  way  of  sorrow  for  sin  and  mortifica- 
tion thereof,  or,  like  the  flesh  provided  for  the 
sacrifice,  which  was  ceremonially  rejected  until  it 
was  sprinkled  with  salt,  he  would  be  unfit  for 
God*s  ultimate  purpose. 

SALT,  CITY  OF  (salt,  sXVy  6v),  (Heb.  "^^D 
vy,  eer-ham-meh*  lakh). 

One  of  the  six  cities  of  Judah  situated  in  the 
'•wilderness*'  (Josh.  xv:62).  As  it  is  mentioned 
with  En-gedi  it  was  probably  on  the  Dead  Sea,  not 
far  from  the  latter  place.  Exact  situation  un- 
known. 

SALT,  COVENANT  OF  (salt.  kiSv'i-nant  6v). 
(Heb.  "29  n^,?,  ber-eeth'  meh'lakh). 

A  Covenant  of  Salt  was  considered  a  very  sol- 
emn bond.    Those  entering  into  such  a  covenant 


SALT  SEA  16 

partook  of  salt,  thereby  ratifying  the  covenant  and 
making  it  inviolaJile  (Num.  xviii:ig;  z  Cliron. 
xiii:5;  Lev.  ii:i3}.  Tlie  object  ap[)ears  to  have 
been  to  symbolize  the  honor  and  integrity  em- 
bodied in  the  covenant  by  the  power  of  salt,  which 
seasons  food  and  preserves  it  from  decay.  By  the 
terms  of  such  a  covenant,  it  was  understood  that 
all  impurity,  hypocrisy,  and  duplicity  were  purged 
from  the  heart,  and  the  covetwnt  was  entered 
into  without  equivocation  or  mental  reservation. 

8A1/E  SEA  (salt  se),  (Gen,  xiv;3;  Num.  xxxiv:3, 
12;  Deut  iii;i7;  Josh.  xv:2,  5).  See  Dead  Sea. 
The. 

aAIiT,  VAIiLST  OF  (Heb.  "^9  **r3,  goA'ee. 
meh'lakk),  the  valley  where  David's  army  slew 
18,000  men  of  Edom  (2  Sam.  viii:i3,  14;  I  Chron. 

Amaziah  also  slew  10,000  Edomites  in  the  Valley 
of  Salt  (2  Kings  xivr?;  2  Chron.  xxv:n).  It 
may  have  been  located  at  the  south  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea;  or  in  a  gorge  descending  from  the  hills 
of  Edam  towards  the  salt  range. 

8AI.ir  (sa'lu),  (Heb.  *'^^,  saia-loo',  weighed). 
a  prince  of  a  house  amon^  the  descendants  of 
Simeon,  and  father  of  Zimn,  who  was  slain  by 
Pbinehas  (Num.  xxv:i4),  B.  C.  1618. 

SATirrATIOK  (sil'A-ta'shiin).  (Heb.  ^3,  i,a^. 
rak',  to  kneel,  to  bend;  0''?,  shaw-lome' ,  well, 
joyous,  happy,  to  be  friendly;  Gr.  iewa^iibi,  as-pas- 
rnos',  a  salutation  orgreeting). 

(1)  Among  tli«  Hebraws.  The  forms  of  salu- 
tation that  prevailed  among  the  Hebrews,  so  far 
as  can  be  collected  from  Scripture,  are  the  follow- 

1.  'Blessed  be  thou  of  the  Lord,'  or  equivalent 
phrases. 

2.  The  Lord  be  with  thee. 

3.  'Peace  be  ttnto  thee,'  or  'upon  thee'  ot'wiih 
thee.'  In  countries  often  ravaged,  and  among 
people  often  ruined  by  war,  'peace'  implied  every 
blessing  of  life;  and  this  phrase  had  therefore  the 
force  of  'Prosperous  be  thou.'  This  was  the  com- 
monest of  all  salutations  (Judg,  xix:20;  Ruth  ii: 
4;  I   Sam,  xxv:6;  2  Sam.  xx:g;   Ps.  cxxix:8). 

4.  'Live,  my  lord'  ("ilN  rilH)  was  a  common  sal- 
utation among  the  Phicnicians,  and  was  also  in 
use  among  the  Hebrews,  but  was  by  them  only 
addressed  to  their  kings  in  the  extended  form  of 
'Let  the  king  live  for  ever!'  (1  Kings  i:3i): 
which  was  also  employed  in  the  Babylonian  and 
Persian  courts  (Dan.  ii:4;  jii:9:  v:io;  vi:2i;  Neb. 
ii:3). 

J.  'Xb^,  x'0'"''i  j'^y  '"  'A**/  /y  to  your 
rendered  by  Haiit  an  equivalent  of  the  Latin  Avet 
Salve!  (Matt.  xxvii:3g;  xxviiiig;  Mark  xv:i8; 
Luke  i  :£& ;  John  xix  :3). 

(2)  Oriental  Uethoda.  The  gestures  and  in- 
flections used  in  salutation  varied  with  the  dignity 
and  station  of  the  person  saluted ;  as  is  the  case 
with  the  Orientals  at  this  day.  It  is  usual  for  the 
person  who  gives  or  returns  the  salutation,  to 
place  at  the  same  time  his  ri^ht  hand  upon  his 
breast,  or  to  touch  his  lips,  and  then  his  forehead 
or  turban,  with  the  same  hand.  This  latter  mode, 
which  is  the  most  respectful,  is  often  performed 
to  a  person  of  superior  rank,  not  only  at  first, 
with  the  salam.  but  also  frequently  during  a  con- 
versation. In  some  cases  the  body  is  gently  in- 
clined, while  the  right  hand  is  laid  upon  the  left 
breast.  A  person  of  the  lower  orders,  in  address- 
ing a  superior,  does  not  always  give  the  salam, 
but  shows  his  respect  to  high  rank  by  bendit^ 
down  his  hand  to  the  ground,  and  then  putting  it 
to  hiy  lips  and  forehead.    It  is  3  common  custom 


9  SALUTATION 

for  3  man  to  kiss  (he  band  of  his  superior  instead 
of  his  own  (generally  on  the  back  only,  but  some- 
times on  both  back  and  front),  and  then  to  put  it 
to  his  forehead  in  order  to  pa^  more  particular 
respect.  Servants  thus  evince  tneir  respect  towards 
their  masters ;  when  residing  in  the  East,  0«r  own 
servants  always  did  this  on  such  little  occasiotis  as 


arose  beyond  the  usage  of  their  ordinary  service; 
as  on  receiving  a  present,  or  on  returning  fresh 
from  the  public  baths.  The  son  also  thus  kisses 
the  hand  of  his  father,  and  the  wife  that  of  her 
husband.    Very  often,  however,  the  superior  does 


Son  Saluling  FUhsr. 

not  allow  this,  but  only  touches  the  hand  extended  * 
to  take  his ;  whereupon  the  other  puts  the  hand 
that  has  been  touched  to  his  own  lips  and  forehead. 
The  custom  of  kissing  the  beard  is  still  preserved, 
and  follows  the  first  and  preliminary  gesture;  it 
usually  takes  place  on  meeting  after  an  absence 
of  some  duration,  and  not  as  an  every-day  compli- 
ment. In  this  case,  the  person  who  gives  the  kiss 
la^s  the  right  hand  under  the  beard  and  raises  it 
slightly  to  his  lips,  or  rather  supports  it  while  it 
receives  his  kiss.  This  custom  strikingly  illus- 
trates 2  Sam.  XX  79.  In  Arabia  Petrxa,  and  some 
other  parts,  it  is  more  usual  for  persons  to  lay  the 
right  sides  of  their  cheeks  together. 

Among  the  Persians,  persons  in  saluting  under 
the  same  circtmistances,  often  kiss  ea^  other  on 
the  lips,  but  if  one  of  the  individuals  is  of  high 
rank,  the  kiss  is  given  on  the  cheek  instead  of  the 
lips.  This  seems  to  illustrate  2  Sam.  xx:9;  Gen. 
xxix:ii,  13;  xxxiu:4;  xlviii:io-i2;  Exod.  iv:27; 
xviii  -.7. 

Another  mode  of  salutation  is  u»ual  among 


friends  on  meeting  after  a  journey.  Joining  their 
right  hands  together,  each  of  them  comphments 
the  other  upon  his  safety,  and  expresses  his  wishes 
for  his  welfare,  by  repeating,  alternately,  many 
times  the  words  selamat  (meaning  'I  congratulate 
you  on  your  safety"),  and  Uiyibeen  {'1  hope  you 
are  well  ).    In  commencing  this  ceremony,  which 


SdotiDg  br  ■  Sill. 

is  often  continued  for  nearly  a  minute  before  they 
proceed  to  make  any  particular  inquiries,  they 
j(rin  their  hands  in  the  same  manner  as  is  usually 
practiced  by  us ;  and  at  each  alternation  of  the  two 
expressions,  change  the  position  of  the  hands. 
These  circumstances  further  illustrate  such  pas- 
sages as  2  Kings  iv  :26,  27 1  Luke  x  ■,4.  Other  par- 
ticulars, more  or  less  connected  with  this  subject, 
have  been  considered  in  ArnxuDEs  and  Kiss 
(which  see). 

BAI.UTE  (si-iai).    See  Salutation. 

BAI.VATION  (sSl-va'shiln). 

1.  A  deliverance  from  temporal  dangers  and 
enemies   (Exod.  iii:io;  I  Sam.  xiv:4S.) 

2.  Deliverance  from  a  state  of  sin  and  misery, 
into  a  state  of  union  with  Christ,  in  which  we  are 
justified  by  his  blood,  adopted  into  his  family, 
sanctified  by  his  Spirit,  and  comforted  by  his 
presence; — a  deliverance  from  spiritual  danger 
and  distress,  to  a  comfortable  and  quiet  condition 
(Rom  i:  16). 

3.  Eternal  iHppiness,  in  which  men  shall  be 
freed  from  sin  and  sorrow,  and  shall  enjoy  the 
most  perfect  and  lasting  fellowship  with  God  (i 
Pet.  i;9;  Heb.  i:i4)- 

Qonaral  Appllc»tlonx.  God  is  called  Salva- 
tion, and  the  God  of  Salvation;  be  delivers  from 
distress,  and  bestows  comfort,  temporal,  spiritual, 
or  eternal  (Ps.  xxvii:i  and  lxviii:2o).  Christ  is 
called  SalvalioH,  as  he  is  the  purchaser  and  be- 
stower  of  our  everlasting  freedom  from  evil,  and 
enjoyment  of  happiness  (Luke  ii:30;  la.  xlix:6}. 
Salvation  is  ascribed  lo  God  and  Christ,  as  they 
contrived,  purchased,  prepared  and  bestow  it  (Rev. 
vii:io  and  xix  :i).  The  Gospel  is  called  salvation, 
and  the  word,  gospel,  or  bnnger  of  salvation;  as 
by  it  salvation  is  published,  olfered  and  applied 
to  us  (Heb.  ii:3;  Acts  xiii:26;  Eph.  1:13;  Tit. 
ii:ii). 

(a)  Salvation  is  of  the  Jews;  Christ  the  Savior 
sprung  of  them ;  the  gospel  proceeded  from  them 
to  the  Gentiles  (John  ivraa).  (b)  The  long-suf- 
fering of  God  to  the  Jews  and  others  is  salvation; 
is  calculated  to  promote  the  everlasting  happiness 
of  all  believers  (2  Pet.  iit:is).  (c)  SalvaUon  and 
strength  can\e  to  the  church  when,  by  means  of 
Constantine,  she  was  delivered  from  heathen  per- 
secution, and  her  constitution  established  by  the 
civil  law  (Rev.  xii:io).  (d)  That  turns  to  tur 
talvation,  which  lends  to  promote  our  spiritual 


0  SAMARIA 

and  eternal  happiness  (Phil.  i:i9).  (e)  Men 
work' out  their  own  salvation,  when  they  receive 
Jesus  the  Savior,  and  walking  in  him  pr«iare  for 
the  future  blessedness  of  the  heavenly  state 
(Phil.  ii:i2).  (f)  Confession  and  repentance  are 
to  salvation,  as  they  are  means  of  our  preparation 
for  further  grace  and  glory  (Rom,  x:io;  2  Cor. 
vii:io).  (See  Atoneuent;  Foroiveness;  Recen- 
ESATiON ;  Sanciification  ;  Resurrection  of 
Christ.)  Brown. 

SAKASIA  (M-ma'ri-i).  (Heb.  1'^?''*.  sAo-mtr- 
Uu',  watch-height;  Za/ii^u,  sam-ar'i-ah),  a  city, 
aituated  near  the  middle  of  Palestine,  built  by 
Omri,  king  of  Israel,  on  a  mountain  or  hill  of  the 
Eamename,abouiB.  C.  925.  It  was  the  metropolis 
of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  or  of  the  ten  tribes. 

(1>  History.  The  hill  was  purchased  from 
the  owner,  Shcmer,  from  whom  the  city  took  its 
name  (i  Kings  xvi:23,  24).  Samaria  continued 
to  be  the  capital  of  Israel  for  two  centuries,  till 
the  carrying  away  of  the  ten  tribes  by  Shalma- 
neser,  about  B.  C.  720  (2  Kings  xvii:3,  5).  Dur- 
ing all  this  time  it  was  the  seat  of  idolatry,  and 
is  often  as  such  denounced  by  the  propheti,  some- 
times in  connection  with  Jerusalem.  It  was  the 
seat  of  a  temple  of  Baal,  built  by  Ahab,  and  de- 
stroyed by  Jehu  ( I  Kings  xvi  ;32,  33 ;  2  Kings  x : 
18-28).  It  was  the  scene  of  many  of  the  acts  of 
the  prophets  Elijah  and  Elisha,  connected  with 
the  various  famines  of  the  land,  the  unexpected 
plenty  of  Samaria,  and  the  several  deliverances 
of  the  city  from  the  Syrians.  After  the  exile  of 
the  ten  tribes  Samaria  appears  to  have  continued, 
for  a  time  at  least,  the  chief  city  of  the  foreigners 
brought  to  occupy  their  place ;  although  Shechem 
soon  became  the  capital  of  the  Samaritans  as  a 
religious  sect,  John  Hyrcanus  took  the  city  after 
a  year's  siege,  and  razed  it  to  the  ground  (Joseph. 
Antiq.  xiii.  10,  3;  De  Bell.  Jud.  1.  2,  7).  Yet  it 
must  soon  have  revived,  as  it  is  not  long  after 
mentioned  as  an  inhabited  place  in  the  possession 
of  the  Jews.  Pompey  restored  it  to  its  former 
possessors ;  and  it  was  afterwards  rebuilt  by 
Gabinius  (Joseph.  Antiq.,  xiii.  5,  4;  xiv.  4,  4;  xiv. 
S.  3)-  Augustus  bestowed  Samaria  on  Herod; 
who  eventually  rebuilt  the  city  with  great  mag- 
nificence, and  gave  it  the  name  of  Sebaste  (which 
is  the  Greek  translation  of  the  Latin  name  or 
epitdet  Augustus) ,  in  honor  of  that  emperor 
iAntiq^  XV.  7.3;De  Bell.  Jud.  xv.  7,  7 ;  xv.  §,  5) . 
Here  Herod  planted  a  colony  of  6,000  persons, 
composed  partly  of  veteran  soldiers,  and  partly  of 
people  from  the  environs;  enlarged  the  circum- 
ference of  the  city;  and  surrounded  it  with  a 
strong  wall  twenty  stades  in  circuit.  In  the  midst 
of  the  city — that  is  to  say,  upon  the  summit  of 
the  hill — he  left  a  sacred  place  of  a  stade  and  a 
half,  splendidly  decorated,  and  here  he  erected  a 
temple  to  Augustus,  celebrated  for  its  magnitude 
and  beauty.  The  whole  city  was  greatly  orna- 
mented, and  became  a  strong  fortress  (Joseph. 
Antiq..  XV.  8,  5;  De  Bell.  Jud.  i.  21,  2;  Strabo, 

xvi.  2,    13). 

Such  was  the  Samaria  of  the  time  of  the  New 
Testament,  where  the  Gospel  was  preached  by 
Philip,  and  a  church  was  gathered  by  the  Apostles 
(Acts  viii:5,  9.  iQ-)-  At  what  time  the  city  of 
Herod  became  desolate,  no  existing  accounts 
state ;  hut  all  the  notices  of  the  fourth  century  and 
later  lead  to  the  inference  that  its  destruction  had 
already  taken  place, 

(2)  Hill  of  SftmBrtn.  The  Hill  of  Samaria  is 
an  oblong  mountain  of  considerable  elevation,  and 
very  regular  in  form,  situated  in  the  midst  of  a 
broad,  deep  valley,  the  continuation  of  that  of 
Nabulus  (Shechem),  which  here  expands  into  a 


SAMARIA 


15U       SAMARIA  AND  THE  MONUMENTS 


breadtfh  of  five  or  six  miles.  Beyond  this  valley, 
which  completely  isolates  the  hill,  the  mountains 
rise  again  on  every  side,  forming  a  complete  wall 
around  the  city.  They  are  terraced  to  the  tops, 
sown  in  grain,  and  planted  with  olives  and  figs, 
in  the  midst  of  which  a  number  of  handsome  vil- 
lages appear  to  ^eat  advantage,  their  white  stone 
cottages  contrastmg  strikingly  with  the  verdure  of 
the  trees.  *The  Hill  of  Samaria'  itself  is  culti- 
vated from  its  base,  the  terraced  sides  and  sum- 
mits being  covered  with  corn  and  with  olive  trees. 

(3)  Buins.  The  most  conspicuous  ruin  of  the 
place,  is  the  church  dedicated  to  John  the  Baptist, 
erected  on  the  spot  which  an  old  tradition  fixed 
as  the  place  of  his  burial,  if  not  of  his  martyr- 
dom. It  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  the  Em- 
press Helena;  but  the  architecture  limits  its  an- 
tiquity to  the  period  of  the  crusades,  although  a 
portion  of  the  eastern  end  seems  to  have  been  of 
earlier  date. 

On  the  summit  of  the  hill  is  an  area,  once  sur- 
rounded by  limestone  columns,  of  which  fifteen 
are  still  standing  and  two  prostrate.  These  col- 
umns form  two  rows,  thirty-two  paces  apart 
while  less  than  two  paces  intervene  between  the 
columns.  They  measure  seven  feet  nine  inches 
in  circumference;  but  there  is  no  trace  of  the 
order  of  their  architecture,  nor  are  there  any  foun- 
dations to  indicate  the  nature  of  the  edifice  to 
which  they  belonged.  Some  refer  them  to  Her- 
od's temple  to  Augustus,  others  to  a  Greek  church 
which  seems  to  have  once  occupied  the  summit  of 
the  hill.  The  descent  of  the  hill  on  the  W.S.W. 
side  brings  the  traveler  to  a  very  renKirkable  col- 
onnade, which  is  easily  traceable  by  a  great  number 
of  columns,  erect  or  prostrate,  along  the  side  of 
the  hill  for  at  least  one-rtiird  of  a  mile,  where  it 
terminates  at  a  heap  of  ruins,  near  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  ancient  site.  The  columns  are 
sixteen  feet  high,  two  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base, 
and  one  foot  eight  inches  at  the  top.  The  cap- 
itals have  disappeared ;  but  the  shafts  retain  their 
polish,  and,  when  not  broken,  are  in  good  preser- 
vation. Eighty-two  of  these  colimins  are  still 
erect,  and  the  number  of  those  fallen  and  broken 
must  be  much  greater.  Most  of  them  are  of  the 
limestone  common  to  the  region ;  but  some  are  of 
white  marble,  and  some  of  granite.  The  mass  of 
ruins  in  which  this  colonnade  terminates  toward 
the  west  is  composed  of  blocks  of  hewn  stone,  cov- 
ering no  great  area  on  the  slope  of  the  hill,  many 
feet  lower  than  the  summit.  Neither  the  situa- 
tion nor  extent  of  this  pile  favors  the  notion  of 
its  having  been  a  palace;  nor  is  it  easy  to  con- 
jecture the  design  of  the  edifice.  The  colonnade, 
the  remains  of  which  now  stand  solitary  and 
mournful  in  the  midst  of  ploughed  fields,  may, 
however,  with  little  hesitation,  be  referred  to  the 
time  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  must  be  regarded 
as  belonging  to  some  one  of  the  splendid  struc- 
tures with  which  he  adorned  the  city. 

(4)  The  Samaria  of  To-day.  Rev.  J.  L.  Por- 
ter in  Giant  Cities  of  Bashan,  1891,  thus  describes 
the  Samaria  of  to-day : 

*'We  halted  at  the  western  gate  of  Samaria, 
waiting  for  one  or  two  stragglers,  and  to  take  a 
last  look  at  the  place.  The  gate  is  a  shapeless 
heap  of  ruins,  forming  the  termination  of  the 
well-known  colonnade.  I  was  never  more  deeply 
impressed  with  the  minute  accuracy  of  prophetic 
description,  and  the  literal  fulfillment  of  every 
detail,  than  when  standing  on  that  spot.  Samaria 
occupied  one  of  the  finest  sites  in  Palestine — a 
low,  rounded  hill,  in  the  center  of  a  rich  valley, 
encircled  by  picturesque  mountains.  Temples  and 
palaces  once  adorned  it,   famed  throughout  the 


East  for  the  splendor  of  their  architecture.  But 
the  destroyer  has  passed  over  it.  I  saw  that  long 
line  of  broken  shafts  with  the  vines  growing  lux- 
uriantly round  their  bases — I  saw  a  group  of  col- 
umns in  a  corn-field  on  the  hill-top — I  saw  hewn 
and  sculptured  blocks  of  marble  and  limestone  in 
the  rude  walls  of  the  terraced  vineyards — I  saw 
great  heaps  of  stones  and  rubbish  among  the  olive 
groves  in  the  bottom  of  the  valley  far  below — ^but 
I  saw  no  other  trace  of  the  city  founded  by  Omri 
and  adorned  by  Herod.  One  would  think  the 
prophet  Micah  had  seen  that  desolate  site  as  I 
saw  it,  his  description  is  so  graphic : — I  will  make 
Samaria  as  an  heap  of  the  field,  and  as  plantings 
of  a  vineyard;  and  I  will  pour  down  the  stones 
thereof  into  the  valley,  and  I  will  discover  the 
foundations  thereof"  (Micah  i:6). 

SAMABIA  AND  THE  MONUMENTS.  ''And 
it  came  to  pass  in  the  fourth  year  of  Kin^  Hcze- 
kiah  .  .  .  that  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  came 
up  against  Samaria  and  besieged  it.  And  at  the 
end  of  three  )rears,  they  (the  Assyrians)  took  it." 
(2  Kings  xviii:9,  10.) 

A  casual  reading  of  these  two  verses  would  in- 
dicate that  when  the  Assyrians  captured  Samaria 
they  were  still  under  the  leadership  of  Shalma- 
neser. The  text  says  that  they  (the  Assyrians) 
took  it,  but  it  does  not  mention  the  fact  that  dur- 
ing the  three  years  which  are  here  spoken  of, 
there  had  been  a  change  of  administration  in  the 
Assyrian  kingdom.  Here  again  the  monuments 
and  tablets  are  of  service  in  filling  in  some  state- 
ments which  were  not  thought  by  the  Biblical 
writers  to  be  absolutely  essential. 

It  appears  that  the  reign  of  Shalmaneser  was 
very  short,  althougfh  it  was  signalized  by  an  un- 
successful attempt  to  capture  Tyre,  and  by  the 
beginning  of  a  war  against  Israel.  But  the  siege 
of  Samaria  was  hardSy  commenced  when  Shal- 
maneser died  or  was  murdered,  and  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Sargon.  (See  Sargon  II  and  his 
Monuments.) 

Sargon's  own  account  of  the  great  victory 
which  he  won  over  the  Samaritans  is  as  follows: 

(i)  "In  the  beginning  of  my  reign,  the  city  of 
Samaria  I  besieged,  I  captured;  and  I  carried 
away  27,280  of  its  inhabitants;  fifty  chariots  in 
the  midst  of  them  I  collected,  and  the  rest  of  their 
goods  I  seized ;  I  set  my  governor  over  them  and 
laid  upon  them  the  tribute  of  the  former  king. 
(Hosea). 

(2)  "(Sargon)  the  conaueror  of  the  Thamud- 
ites,  the  Ibadidites,  the  Marsimanites,  and  the 
Khapayans  (identified  by  Delitzsch,  with  the 
Ephah  of  Gen.  xxv:4,  and  Is.  lx:6),  the  remain- 
der of  whom  having  carried  away,  he  transported 
to  the  midst  of  the  land  of  Beth-Omri. 

(3)  "The  Thamudites,  the  (Ibadidites),  the 
Marsimanites  and  the  Khapayans,  distant  Arab 
tribes,  who  inhabit  the  desert,  of  whom  no 
scholar  or  envoy  knew,  and  who  had  never 
brought  their  tribute  to  the  kings,  my  fathers,  I 
slaughtered  in  the  service  of  Assur,  and  trans- 
ported what  was  left  of  them,  setting  them  in  the 
city  of  Samaria." 

This  record  was  found  in  the  long  summarizing 
inscription  on  the  walls  of  the  Khorsabad  palace, 
and  the  translation  which  is  above  given  is  that 
of  Professor  A.  H.  Sayce. 

The  Biblical  account  of  the  condition  of  things 
preceding  this  capture,  and  pertaining  to  it,  is 
found  in  2  Kings.  "A^inst  him  came  up  Shal- 
maneser, king  of  Assyria,  and  Hoshea  became  his 
vassal  and  rendered  him  tribute.  And  the  king 
of  Assyria  discovered  treason  in  Hoshea  in  that 
he  had  sent  messengers  to  Seve  the  king  of  Egypt, 


SAMARIA,  REGION  OF 


1512 


SAMARITAN  PENTATEUCH 


and  did  not  send  up  tribute  to  the  king  of  Assyria, 
as  in  year  upon  year,  and  the  king  of  Assyria  shut 
him  up  and  bound  htm  in  prison. 

**And  the  king  of  Assyria  went  up  through  the 
whole  land,  and  went  up  to  Samaria  and*  laid 
siege  to  it  three  years.  In  the  ninth  year  of 
Hoshea,  the  king  of  Assyria  (Sargon)  took  Sa- 
maria, and  exiled  Israel  to  Assyria  and  settled 
them  in  Halah,  and  Habor,  on  the  river  Gozan 
and  in  the  cities  of  Media."     (2  Kings  xvii:i,  6). 

SAMABIA,  BEGIOK  OF  (Greek  usually 
Zo^peto,  sam-ar' i-ah). 

The  same  as  the  city  of  Samaria,  but  frequently 
distinguished  from  the  city  by  Josephus  and  in 
the  New  Testament.  When  it  is  said  (Luke 
xvii:ii;  John  iv:4)  our  Lord  passed  through  the 
midst  of  Samaria,  the  meaning  is,  through  the 
midst  of  the  country  of  Samaria.  And  again, 
"Then  cometh  he  to  a  city  of  Samaria  called 
Sychar."  Here  Jesus  had  a  conversation  with  a 
woman  of  Samaria,  that  is,  with  a  Samaritan 
woman  of  the  city  of  Sychar.  The  term  in- 
cludes all  the  tribes  over  which  Jeroboam  made 
himself  king,  whether  east  or  west  of  Jordan. 
The  expression,  "cities  of  Samaria"  (i  Kings 
xiii  :32),  is  used  for  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes, 
which  did  not  receive  this  name  till  after  the 
building  of  the  city  of  Samaria  as  the  capital  of 
^he  kingdom  and  the  residence  of  the  kings  of 
[srael  (xvi:24).  It  is  used  elsewhere  in  the  same 
sense;  thus,  by  "Ephraim  and  the  inhabitants  of 
Samaria"  is  meant  Israel  (Is.  ix:9-i2).  Israel, 
Ephraim,  and  Samaria  are  equivalent  terms  in 
Rosea,  who  also  calls  the  calf  of  Bethel  "thy  calf, 
O?  Samaria"  (Hos.  viii:5).  In*  Amos  iii:9  the 
"mountains  of  Samaria"  are  spoken  of;  and  we 
find  the  expression  in  Ezekiel  (xvi:53),  the  "cap- 
tivity of  Samaria  and  her  daughter." 

SAICABITAKS  (sa-mSU-'i-tans),  (Heb.  BN'^?^*, 

sho-mer^o-neem* ;  Gr.  Za/uopelrac,  sam-ar-i^  tahee\  a 
name  found  in  the  Old  Testament  only  in  2  Kings 
xvii:29. 

The  ten  tribes  which  revolted  from  Rehoboam, 
son  of  Solomon,  chose  Jeroboam  for  their  king. 
After  his  elevation  to  the  throne  he  set  up  golden 
calves  at  Dan  and  Bethel,  lest  repeated  visits  of 
his  subjects  to  Jerusalem,  for  the  purpose  of  wor- 
shiping the  true  God,  should  withdraw  their  alle- 
giance from  himself.  Afterwards  Samaria,  built 
by  Omri,  became  the  metropolis  of  Israel,  and 
thus  the  separation  between  Judah  and  Israel  was 
rendered  complete.  The  people  took  the  name 
Samaritans  from  the  capital  city. 

(1)  The  Capture  and  the  Captivity.  In  the 
ninth  year  of  Hosea,  Samaria  was  taken  by  the 
Assyrians  under  Shalmaneser,  who  carried  away 
the  inhabitants  into  captivity,  and  introduced  col- 
onies into  their  place  from  Babylon,  Cuthah,  Ava, 
Hamath,  and  Sepharvaim.  These  new  inhabit- 
ants carried  along  with  them  their  own  idolatrous 
worship;  and  on  being  infested  with  lions,  sent 
to  Esarhaddon,  king  of  Assyria.  A  priest  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi  was  accordingly  dispatched  to  them, 
who  came  and  dwelt  in  Bethel,  teaching  the  peo- 
ple how  they  should  fear  the  Lord.  Thus  it  ap- 
pears that  the  people  were  a  mixed  race.  The 
greater  part  of  the  Israelites  had  been  carried 
away  captive  by  the  Assyrians,  including  the  rich, 
the  strong,  and  such  as  were  able  to  bear  arms. 
But  the  poor  and  the  feeble  had  been  left. 
The  country  had  not  been  so  entirely  depopulated 
as  to  possess  no  Israelite  whatever.  The  dregs  of 
the  populace,  particularly  those  who  appeared  in- 
capable of  active  service,  were  not  taken  away 
by  the  victors.  With  them,  therefore,  the  heathen 
colonists  became  incorporated. 


(2)  A  Mixed  Beligion.  As  the  people  were  a 
mixed  race,  their  religion  also  assumed  a  mixed 
character.  In  it  the  worship  of  idols  was  associ- 
ated with  that  of  the  true  God.  But  apostasy 
from  Jehovah  was  not  universal.  On  the  return 
of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  the  Sa- 
maritans wished  to  join  them  in  rebuilding  the^ 
Temple,  saying,  *Let  us  build  with-  you ;  for  we 
seek  your  God,  as  ye  do ;  and  we  do  sacrifice  unto 
him  since  the  days  of  Esarhaddon,  king  of  Assur, 
which  brought  us  up  hither'  (Ezra  iv  12).  But  the 
Jews  declined  the  proffered  assistance;  and  from 
this  time  the  Samaritans  threw  every  obstacle  in 
their  way.  Hence  arose  that  inveterate  enmity 
between  the  two  nations  which  afterwards  in- 
creased to  such  a  height  as  to  become  proverbial. 

(3)  A  Befug^  for  Malcontent  Jews.  In  the 
reign  of  Darius  Nothus,  Manasses,  son  of  the 
Jewish  high-priest,  married  the  daughter  of  San- 
ballat,  the  Samaritan  governor;  and  to  avoid  the 
necessity  of  repudiating  her,  as  the  law  of  Moses 
required,  went  over  to  the  Samaritans,  and  be- 
came high-priest  in  the  temple  which  his  father- 
in-law  built  for  him  on  Mount  Gerizim.  From 
this  time  Samaria  became  a  refuge  for  all  mal- 
content Jews;  and  the  very  name  of  each  people 
became  odious  to  the  other.  About  the  year  B.  C. 
109,  John  Hyrcanus,  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  de- 
stroyed the  city  and  temple  of  the  Samaritans; 
but,  B.  C.  25,  Herod  rebuilt  them  at  great  expense. 
In  their  new  temple,  however,  the  Samaritans 
could  not  be  induced  to  offer  sacrifices,  but  still 
continued  to  worship  on  Gerizim.  At  the  present 
day  they  have  dwindled  down  to  a  few  families. 
Shechem,  now  called  Nabulus,  is  their  place  of 
abode.  They  still  possess  a  copy  of  the  Mosaic 
law. 

With  the  remnant  above  referred  to  a  corre- 
spondence was  formerly  maintained  by  several 
learned  Europeans,  but  without  leading  to  any 
important  result.  It  was  commenced  by  Joseph 
Scaliger,  in  1559;  and  resumed,  after  a  century, 
by  several  learned  men  in  England,  in  1675;  and 
bjr  the  great  Ethiopic  scholar,  Job  Ludolf,  in  1684. 
The  illustrious  orientalist,  De  Sacy,  also  held 
correspondence  with  them.  All  their  letters  to 
England  and  France,  and  all  that  was  then  known 
respecting  them,  he  published  in  a  work  entitled, 
Correspondance  des  Samaritains,  etc.,  in  Notices 
et  Extr.  des  MSB.  de  la  Biblioth.  du  Roi,  tom. 
xii).  The  best  accounts  of  them  given  by  modern 
travelers  are  by  Pliny  Fisk  (American  Missionary 
Herald  for  1824),  who  visited  them  in  1823;  and 
by  Robinson  and  Smith,  who  visited  them  in  1838. 
(See  Biblical  Researches  and  Travels  in  Palestine, 
iii:ii3-ii6.)  S.  D. 

SAMAJtITAK  FENTATET7CH  (sa-m&r'i-tan 
pSn'ta-tuk). 

The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  was  mentioned  by 
the  fathers  Eusebius,  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  Proco- 
pius  of  Gaza,  Diodorus,  Jerome,  and  others. 
After  it  had  lain  concealed  for  upwards  of  a 
thousand  years,  its  existence  began  to  be  doubted. 
At  length  Peter  Delia  Valle,  in  1616,  procured  a 
complete  copy,  which  De  Sancy,  then  French 
ambassador  at  Constantinople,  sent  to  the  library 
of  the  Oratoire  at  Paris,  in  1623.  It  was  first 
described  by  Morin,  and  afterwards  printed  in  the 
Paris  Polyglot.  Not  long  after.  Archbishop 
Usher  procured  six  copies  from  the  East;  and  so 
great  was  the  number  in  the  time  of  Kennicott, 
that  he  collated  sixteen  for  his  edition  of  the  He- 
brew Bible. 

1.  Antiquiiy.  In  regard  to  the  antiquity  of 
the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  and  the  source  from 
which  the  document  came,  various  opinions  have 
been  entertained. 


SAMARITAN  PENTATEUCH 


1513 


SAMARITAN  PENTATEUCH 


(1)  The  Opinion  of  Usher  as  to  Its  Orig^in. 
The  hypothesis  maintained  by  Usher  was,  that 
the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  was  the  production  of 
an  impostor  named  Dositheus,  the  founder  of  a 
sect  among  the  Samaritans,  and  who  pretended 
to  be  the  Messiah.  It  is  thought  that  he  compiled 
this  copy  of  the  Pentateuch  from  the  Hebrew  and 
the  Septuagint,  adding,  expunging,  and  altering, 
according  to  his  pleasure.  Usher  appeals  to  On- 
gen  and  Photius,  whose  testimony,  however, 
when  examined,  affords  no  evidence  of  the  truth 
of  this  statement.  It  is  well  known  that  the  Alex- 
andrian Samaritans  opposed  Dositheus,  and  would 
not  have  received  such  a  compilation.  Besides, 
had  he  corrupted  any  passages,  it  is  natural  to 
think  that  he  would  have  perverted  those  relating 
to  the  Messiah,  that  they  might  be  more  easily 
referred  to  himself.  But  places  of  this  nature  in 
the  Samaritan  copies  agree  with  the  Hebrew; 
and  we  may  be  farther  assured  that  the  Jews 
would  not  have  failed  to  mention  such  a  fact  as 
a  just  ground  of  accusation  against  the  Samar- 
itans. 

(2)  Opinion  of  Le  Clerc  and  Poncet.  Le 
Clerc  and  Poncet  imagined  that  this  copy  of  the 
law  was  made  by  the  Israelitish  priest  who  was 
sent  by  the  king  of  Assyria  to  instruct  the  new 
inhabitants  in  the  religion  of  the  countnr.  This 
is  a  mere  hypothesis,  unsupported  by  historical 
testimony.  It  was  not  necessary  for  the  priest  to 
compose  a  new  system,  but  to  instruct  the  people 
out  of  the  Pentateuch  as  it  then  existed.  When 
the  existing  copy  was  sufficient  for  his  purpose, 
he  would  not  have  undertaken  the  labor  of  prepar- 
ing an  entirely  new  work. 

(3)  Opinions  of  Hottinger  and  Others.  It 
was  the  opinion  of  Hottinger,  Prideaux,  Fitzger- 
ald, and  others,  that  Manasseh  transcribed  one 
of  Ezra's  corrected  copies  which  he  took  with 
him  from  Jerusalem  into  the  old  character  to 
which  they  were  accustomed.  In  proof  of  this 
hypothesis  it  has  been  affirmed  that  the  variations 
in  the  Samaritan  copy  from  the  Hebrew  are  such 
as  were  occasioned  in  the  transcription  by  mis- 
taking letters  similar  in  Hebrew,  but  unlike  in 
the  Samaritan.  This  supposition  has  been  com- 
pletely set  aside  by  Kopp,  in  his  Bilder  und 
Schriften  der  Vorseit;  and  by  Hupfeld,  in  his 
Beleuchtung  dunkler  Stellen,  etc.  {Studien  und 
Kritiken,  1830),  in  which  it  is  convincingly 
shown  that  the  present  Hebrew  square  character 
had  no  existence  till  long  after  Ezra;  and  that, 
so  far  from  owing  its  origin  to  Chaldaea,  and  hav- 
ing been  introduced  by  Ezra,  it  was  merely  the 
gradual  work  of  time.  When  Manasseh  fled  from 
Jerusalem,  the  Samaritan  and  Hebrew  characters 
must  have  been  substantially  the  same. 

(4)  Preserved  from  the  Time  of  Behoboam. 
Others  are  of  the  opinion  that  copies  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch must  have  been  in  the  hands  of  Israel,  from 
the  time  of  Rehc4)oam,  as  well  as  among  Judah; 
that  they  were  preserved  by  the  former  equally 
as  by  the  latter.  This  hypothesis,  first  advanced 
by  Morin,  has  been  adopted  by  Houbigant,  Cap- 
pcUus,  Kennicott,  Michaelis,  Efchhorn,  Bauer, 
Bertholdt,  Stuart,  and  others,  and  appears  to  be 
the  true  one.  The  prophets,  who  frequently  in- 
veigh against  the  Israelites  for  their  idolatry  and 
their  crimes,  never  accuse  them  of  being  destitute 
of  the  law,  or  ignorant  of  its  contents.  It  is  wholly 
improbable,  too,  that  the  people,  when  carried 
captive  into  Assyria,  took  with  them  all  the  copies 
of  the  law.  Thus  we  are  brought  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  Samaritan,  as  well  as  the  Jewish 
copy,  originally  flowed  from  the  autograph  of 
Moses.    The  two  constitute,  in  fact,  different  re- 


censions of  the  same  work,  and  coalesce  in  point 
of  antiquity. 

If  this  account  of  the  Samaritan  codex  be  cor- 
rect, it  is  easy  to  perceive  the  reason  why  the 
Samaritans  did  not  receive  all  the  Jewish  books 
previously  written.  When  the  schism  of  the 
tribes  took  place,  the  Pentateuch  was  conmionly 
circulated,  and  usually  regarded  as  a  sacred  na- 
tional collection,  containing  all  their  laws  and 
institutions.  Though  David's  Psalms  and  some 
of  Solomon's  compositions  may  also  have  been 
written  at  that  time;  yet  the  former  were  chiefly 
in  the  hands  of  the  Levites,  who  regulated  the 
Temple  music,  and  were  employed  in  the  public 
service  of  Jehovah;  while  the  latter  were  doubt- 
less disliked  by  the  ten  tribes  on  account  of  their 
author,  who  lived  at  Jerusalem,  and  were  rare 
from  the  non-transcription  of  copies.  The  proph- 
ets must  have  been  unwelcome  to  the  Israelites, 
because  they  uttered  many  things  against  them, 
affirming  that  Jehovah  could  not  be  worshiped 
with  acceptance  in  any  other  place  than  Jerusa- 
lem. This  circumstance  was  sufficient  to  prevent 
that  people  from  receiving  any  of  the  prophetical 
writings  till  Ezra's  time,  when  their  hatred  of  him 
and  his  associates  was  so  great  that  they  would 
not  have  admitted  any  collection  of  the  Scriptures 
coming  through  such  hands.  Whatever  other 
books,  besides  the  Pentateuch,  were  written  in  the 
time  of  Rehoboam  must  have  been  comparatively 
unknown  to  the  mass  of  the  people.  This  fact,  in 
connection  with  political  considerations,  was  suf- 
ficient to  lead  the  Israelites  to  reject  most,  except 
those  of  Moses. 

In  addition  to  the  Pentateuch,  the  Samaritans 
have  the  book  of  Joshua,  but  it  did  not  always 
form  part  of  their  canon.  Their  Joshua  does  not 
appear  to  be  the  same  as  the  Old  Testament  book. 
On  the  contrary,  it  must  have  been  composed  long 
after,  out  of  the  inspired  records  of  Joshua,  Judges 
and  Samuel,  to  which  have  been  added  fables  and 
Oriental  traditions.  Such  a  compilation  can  have 
no  claim  to  be  regarded  as  the  authentic  Jewish 
writing. 

It  thus  appears  that  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch 
cannot  be  ascribed  to  a  later  period  than  that  of 
the  schism  between  the  tribes.  All  the  arguments 
adduced  by  Gesenius  (in  his  Commentatio  de  Pen- 
tateuchi  Samaritani  Origine,  Indole,  et  Auctori- 
tate)  are  not  sufficient  to  disprove  its  truth.  For 
opposite  and  convincing  statements  we  refer  to 
the  last  edition  of  Eichhorn's  Introduction  to  the 
Old  Testament,  and  Professor  Stuart's  review  of 
Gesenius,  in  the  second  volume  of  the  American 
Biblical  Repository.  The  name  Samaritan  was 
first  given  to  that  mixed  multitude  comt)osed  of 
the  heathen  introduced  by  Shalmaneser  into  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  and  of  the  lower  classes  of 
the  ten  tribes  which  had  not  been  carried  away. 
Whatever  ciznl  jealousies  may  have  previously  ex- 
isted between  them  and  the  Jews,  their  religious 
animosities  were  first  excited  when  Ezra  and  his 
countrymen,  returning  from  exile,  refused  to  al- 
low their  co-operation  in  building  the  Temple. 
Subsequent  events,  far  from  allaying  their  mutual 
hatred,  only  raised  it  to  a  higher  pitch,  giving  it 
that  permanent,  durable  form  in  which  it  was 
continued  through  succeeding  centuries. 

2,  Its  Authoritp  and  Value.  With  respect 
to  the  authority  and  value  of  the  Samaritan  Pen- 
tateuch, there  has  been  much  variety  of  sentiment. 
Gesenius,  however,  has  very  ably  shown  that  very 
little  value  should  be  assigned  to  the  characteris- 
tics of  its  text.  He  has  proved  that  no  critical 
reliance  can  be  placed  on  it,  and  that  it  is  wholly 
unjustifiable  to  use  it  as  a  source  of  correcting  the 
Hebrew  text.    He  has  divided  the  various  read- 


SAM&CH 


1514 


SAMSON 


ings  it  exhibits  into  different  classes,  under  each 
of  which  numerous  examples  are  adduced.  By 
a  most  minute  investigation  of  particulars  he  has 
shown  that  it  cannot  be  employed  in  emendation, 
as  Kennicott,  Morin,  and  Bauer  supposed.  This 
masterly  dissertation  has  ruined  the  credit  of  the 
Samaritan  codex  in  the  critical  world.  The 
purity  of  the  Hebrew  is  not  to  be  corrupted  by 
additions  or  interpolations  from  such  a  document. 
The  original  text  of  the  Old  Testament  cannot  be 
established  by  any  weight  attaching  to  it. 

Library  references:  Walton's  Prolegomena; 
Gesenius,  De  Pentat,  Samar.  Origine,  etc.,  p.  i8; 
the  Introductions  of  Eichhorn,  Bertholdt,  Haver- 
nick,  De  Wette;  and  Davidson's  Lectures  on  Bib- 
lical Criticism,  S.  D. 

SAMEGH  (sa'mecb),  (D)  a  Hebrew  letter  em- 
ployed in  the  alphabetic  compositions.  It  corre- 
sponds somewhat  to  the  English  letter  S, 

SAJCaAB-NEBO  (s&m'gar-ne'bo),  (Heb. 
^i"^iifP9tsa9n'£ar-ned-oo'),^  general  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's army  when  he  took  Jerusalem  (Jer. 
xxxix:3),  P.  C  589. 

As  in  verse  13,  the  chief  of  the  eunuchs  is  called 
Nebu-shasban,  it  has  been  supposed  that  Nebu- 
sarsechim  is  only  another  name  of  the  same  per- 
son, and  that  Samgar  is  merely  the  name  of  his 
office. 

SAMLAH   (sam'lah),  (Heb.    •'^^'?*   sam-law', 

?:arment),  a  king  of  Edom  before  the  time  of  the 
sraelitish  kings  (Gen.  xxxvi:36,  ^7;  i  Chron.  i:47» 
48).  He  was  a  successor  of  Hadfad  (Hadar),  and 
was  of  the  city  of  Masrekah    (B.  C.  after  1618). 

BAMMTNS  (sto'mlns).   See  Spices. 

SAMOS  (sa'mos),  (Gr.  Zd/M>t,  sam'os,  distin- 
guished), an  island  in  the  Mgtdm  Sea,  near  the 
coast  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  separated  only 
by  a  narrow  strait  from  the  promontory  which  ter- 
minates in  Cape  Trogyllium. 

This  strait,  in  the  narrowest  part,  is  not  quite  a 
mile  in  width  (Plin.  Hist,  Nat,  v,  34;  Strabo,  xiv, 
p.  634;  comp.  Leake's  map  of  Asia  Minor).  The 
island  is  sometimes  stated  to  have  been  famous 
for  its  wines;  but,  in  fact,  the  wine  of  Samos  was 
in  ill  repute.  Strabo  says  expressly  that  the 
island  was  oAk  eOotpos;  it  now,  however,  ranks 
high  among  Levantine  wines,  and  is  largely  ex- 
ported, as  are  also  grapes  and  raisins.  The 
apostle  Paul  touched  at  the  island  in  his  voyage 
from  Greece  to  Syria  (Acts  xx:is).  Samos  con- 
tained, some  years  ago,  about  60,000  people,  in- 
habiting eighteen  large  villap^es,  and  about  tyvrenty 
small  ones.  Vathi  is  the  chief  town  of  the  island 
in  every  respect,  except  that  it  is  not  the  residence 
of  the  governor,  who  lives  at  Cx)lonna,  which 
takes  its  name  from  a  solitary  column  (about  fifty 
feet  high  and  six  in  diameter),  a  remnant  of  the 
ancient  temple  of  Juno,  of  which  some  insignifi- 
cant remains  are  lying  near. 

SAMOTHBACE  (sSUn'o-thra'ce),  (Gr.  ^aftoSpdini, 
sam-oth-rah' kay,  Samos  of  Thrace),  an  island  in  the 
northeast  part  of  the  iEgean  Sea,  above  the  Hel- 
lespont, with  a  lofty  mountain,  and  a  city  of  the 
same  name. 

The  island  was  celebrated  for  the  mysteries  of 
Ceres  and  Proserpine,  and  was  a  sacred  asylum 
(Diod.  Sic.  iii,  55;  v,  47;  Ptolem.  Geog.  v,  11; 
Plin.  Hist.  Nat,  iv,  23).  Paul  touched  at  this 
island  on  his  first  voyage  to  Europe  (Acts  xvi: 
11).  The  island  is  now  called  Samandrachi.  It 
is  but  thinly  peopled,  and  contains  only  a  single 
village. 

SAMSOK  (s^'son),  (Heb.  1^^9,  skim-skcne', 
little  sun,  sun-like). 


The  name  of  the  celebrated  champion,  deliverer 
and  judge  of  Israel,  equally  remarkable  for  his 
supernatural  bodily  prowess,  his  moral  infirmi- 
ties, and  his  tragical  end.  He  was  the  son  of 
Manoah,  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  and  born  A.  M. 
2848,  of  a  mother  whose  name  is  nowhere  given 
in  the  Scriptures.  The  circumstances  under  which 
his  birth  was  announced  by  a  heavenly  messenger 
gave  distinct  presage  of  an  extraordinary  char- 
acter, whose  endowments  were  to  be  of  a  na- 
ture suited  to  the  providential  exigencies  in 
which  he  was  raised  up.  The  burden  of  the 
oracle  to  his  mother,  who  had  been  long  barren, 
was  that  the  child  with  which  she  was  pregnant 
was  to  be  a  son,  who  should  be  a  Nazarite  from 
his  birth,  upon  whose  head  no  razor  was  to  come, 
and  who  was  to  prove  a  signal  deliverer  to  his 
people.  She  was  directed,  accordingly,  to  con- 
form her  own  regimen  to  the  tenor  of  the  Nazar- 
ite law,  and  strictly  abstain  from  wine  and  all  in- 
toxicating liquor,  and  from  every  species  of  im- 
pure food.  (See  Nazarite.)  According  to  the 
'prophecy  going  before  upon  him,'  Samson  was 
born  in  the  following  year,  and  his  destination  to 
great  achievements  began  to  evince  itself  at  a 
very  early  age  by  the  exhibitions  of  superhuman 
strength  which  came  from  time  to  time  upon  him. 
Those  specimens  of  extraordinary  prowess,  of 
which  the  slaying  of  the  lion  at  Timnath  without 
weapons  was  one,  were  doubtless  the  result  of 
that  special  influence  of  the  Most  High  which  is 
referred  to  in  Judg.  xiii  125. 

As  the  position  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  bordering 
upon  the  territory  of  the  Philistines,  exposed 
them  especially  to  the  predatory  incursions  of  this 
people,  It  was  plainly  the  design  of  heaven  to  raise 
up  a  deliverer  in  that  region  where  he  was  most 
needed.  The  Philistines,  therefore,  became  very 
naturally  the  objects  of  that  retributive  course  of 
proceedings  in  which  Samson  was  to  be  the  prin- 
'^ipal  actor,  and  upon  which  he  could  only  enter 
oy  seeking  some  occasion  of  exciting  hostilities 
that  would  bring  the  two  peoples  into  direct  col- 
lision. 

(1)  Marries  a  Philistine.  Such  an  occasion 
was  afforded  by  his  meeting  with  one  of  the 
daughters  of  the  Philistines  at  Timnath,  whom  he 
besought  his  parents  to  procure  for  him  in  mar- 
riage, assigning  as  a  reason  that  she  'pleased  him 
well,*  Hebrew,  She  is  right  in  mine  eyes,  where 
the  original  for  ri^ht  is  not  an  adjective,  having 
the  sense  oi  beautiful,  engaging,  attractive,  but  a 
verb,  conveying,  indeed,  the  idea  of  right,  but  of 
right  relative  to  an  end,  purpose,  or  object;  in 
other  words,  of  fitness  or  adaptation  (see  Gousset's 
Lexicon,  under  Samson,  and  comp.  2  Sam.  xvii: 
i;  I  Kings  ix:i2;  Num.  xxviii:27).  This  affords, 
we  believe,  the  true  clue  to  Samson's  meaning,  when 
he  says,  *She  is  right  in  mine  eyes  ;*  1.  e.  adapted  to 
the  end  which  I  have  in  view ;  she  may  be  used; 
she  is  available,  for  a  purpose  entirely  ulterior  to 
the  immediate  connection  which  I  propose.  That 
he  entertained  a  genuine  affection  for  the  woman, 
notwithstanding  the  policy  by  which  he  was 
prompted,  we  may  doubtless  admit;  but  that  he 
intended,  at  the  same  time,  to  make  this  alliance 
subservient  to  the  great  purpose  of  delivering  his 
country  from  oppression,  and  that  in  this  he  was 
acting  under  the  secret  control  of  Providence, 
would  seem  to  be  clear  from  the  words  immedi- 
ately following,  when,  in  reference  to  the  objec- 
tion of  his  parents  to  such  a  union,  it  is  said,  that 
they  'knew  not  that  it  was  of  the  Lord  that  he 
sought  an  occasion  against  the  Philistines.'  It  is 
here  worthy  of  note  that  the  Hebrew,  instead  of 
'against  the  Philistines',  has  *of  or  from  the  Phil- 
istines,' clearly  implying  that  the  occasion  sought 


SAMSON 


1516 


SAMSON 


should  be  one  that  originated  on  the  side  of  the 
Philistines.  This  occasion  he  sought  under  the 
immediate  prompting  of  the  Most  High,  who  saw 
fit,  in  this  indirect  manner,  to  bring  about  the 
accomplishment  of  his  designs  of  retribution  on 
his  enemies.  His  leading  purpose  in  this  seems 
to  have  been  to  baMe  the  power  of  the  whole  Phil' 
istine  nation  by  the  prowess  of  a  single  individual. 

The  champion  of  Israel,  therefore,  was  not  ap- 
pointed so  much  to  be  the  leader  of  an  army,  like 
the  other  judges,  as  to  be  an  army  in  himself.  In 
order  then  that  the  contest  might  be  carried  on 
in  this  way,  it  was  necessary  that  the  entire  oppo- 
sition of  the  Philistines  should  be  concentrated, 
fujor  as  possible,  against  the  person  of  Samson, 

This  would  array  the  contending  parties  in  pre- 
cisely such  an  attitude  as  to  illustrate  most  sig- 
nally the  power  of  God  in  the  overthrow  of  his 
enemies,  cut  how  could  this  result  be  brought 
about  except  by  means  of  some  private  quarrel 
between  Samson  and  the  enemy  with  whom  he  was 
to  contend?  And  who  shall  say  that  the  scheme 
now  projected  was  not  the  very  best  that  could 
have  been  devised  for  accomplishing  the  end 
which  God  had  in  view?  To  what  extent  Sam- 
son himself  foresaw  the  issue  of  this  transaction, 
or  how  far  he  had  a  plan  distinctly  laid  corre- 
sponding with  the  results  that  ensued,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  say.  The  probability,  we  think,  is,  that 
he  had  rather  a  general  strong  impression, 
wrought  by  the  Si)irit  of  God,  than  a  definite  con- 
ception of  the  train  of  events  that  were  to  trans- 
pire. It  was,  however,  a  conviction  as  to  the  is- 
siie  sufficiently  powerful  to  warrant  both  him  and 
his  parents  in  going  forward  with  the  measure. 
They  were,  in  some  way,  assured  that  they  were 
engaged  in  a  proceeding  which  God  would  over- 
rule  to  the  furtherance  of  his  designs  of  mercy  to 
his  people,  and  of  judgment  to  their  oppressors. 

(2)  Hi8  Bevenge.  At  his  wedding-feast,  the 
attendance  of  a  large  company  of  paranymphs,  or 
friends  of  the  bridegroom,  convened  ostensibly 
for  the  purpose  of  honoring  his  nuptials,  but  in 
reality  to  keep  an  insidious  watch  upon  his  move- 
ments, furnished  him  the  occasion  of  a  common 
Oriental  device  for  enlivening  entertainments  of 
this  nature.  He  propounded  a  riddle,  the  solution 
of  which  referred  to  his  obtaining  a  quantity  of 
honey  from  the  carcass  of  a  slain  lion,  and  the 
clandestine  manner  in  which  his  guests  got  pos- 
session of  the  clue  to  the  enigma  cost  thirty  Phil- 
istines their  lives.  The  next  instance  of  his  vin- 
dictive cunning  was  prompted  by  the  ill-treatment 
which  he  had  received  at  the  hands  of  his  father- 
in-law,  who,  upon  a  frivolous  pretext,  had  given 
away  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  another  man, 
and  was  executed  by  securing  a  multitude  of 
foxes,  or  rather  jackals,  and,  by  tying  firebrands 
to  thejr  tails,  setting  fire  to  the  cornfields  of  his 
enemies.  The  indignation  of  the  Philistines,  on 
discovering  the  author  of  the  outrage,  vented  it- 
self upon  the  family  of  his  father-in-law,  who  had 
been  the  remote  occasion  of  it,  in  the  burning  of 
their  house,  in  which  both  father  and  daughter 
perished.  This  was  a  fresh  provocation,  for 
which  Samson  threatened  to  be  revenged;  and 
thereupon  falling  upon  them  without  ceremony  he 
smote  them,  as  it  is  said,  'hip  and  thigh  with  a 
great  slaughter.' 

(8)  Delivered  XTp  to  the  Philistines.  Hav- 
ing subsequently  taken  up  his  residence  in  the 
rock  Etam,  he  was  thence  dislodged  by  consenting 
to  a  pusillanimous  arrangement  on  the  part  of  his 
own  countrymen,  by  which  he  agreed  to  surrender 
himself  in  bonds  provided  they  would  not  them- 
selves fall  upon  him  and  kill  him.  He  probably 
gave  in  to  this  measure  from  a  strong  inward  as- 


surance that  the  issue  of  it  would  be,  to  afford 
him  a  new  occasion  of  taking  vengeance  upon  his 
foes.  Being  brought  in  this  apparently  helpless 
condition  to  a  place  called  from  the  event,  Lehi,  a 
jaw,  his  preternatural  potency  suddenly  put  itself 
forth,  and  ssnapping  the  cords  asunder,  and 
snatching  up  the  jaw-bone  of  an  ass,  he  dealt  so 
effectually  about  him,  that  a  thousand  men  were 
slain  on  the  spot.  That  this  was  altogether  the 
work,  not  of  man,  but  of  God,  was  soon  demon- 
strated. Wearied  with  his  exertions,  the  illustri- 
ous Danite  became  faint  from  thirst,  and  as  there 
was  no  water  in  the  place,  he  prayed  that  a  foun- 
tain might  be  opened.  His  prayer  was  heard; 
God  caused  a  stream  to  gush  from  a  hollow  rock 
hard  by  and  Samson  in  gratitude  gave  it  the  name 
of  En-hakker,  a  word  that  signifies  *the  well  of 
him  that  prayed,'  and  which  continued  to  be  the 
designation  of  the  fountain  ever  after. 

(4)  At  Gaza.  The  Philistines  were  from  this 
time  held  in  such  contempt  by  their  victor  that  he 
went  openly  into  the  city  of  Gaza,  where  he  seems 
to  have  suffered  himself  weakly  to  be  drawn  into 
the  company  of  a  woman  of  loose  character,  the 
yielding  to  whose  enticements  exposed  him  to  the 
most  imminent  peril.  His  presence  being  soon 
noised  abroad,  an  attempt  was  made  during  the 
night  forcibly  to  deta^in  him,  by  closing  the  gates 
of  the  city  and  making  them  fast;  but  Samson, 
apprised  of  it,  rose  at  midnight,  and  breaking 
away  bolts,  bars,  and  hinges,  departed,  carrying 
the  gates  upon  his  shoulders,  to  the  top  of  a 
neighborinpf  hill  that  looks  toward  Hebron, 

After  this  his  enemies  strove  to  entrap  him  by 
guile  rather  than  by  violence;  and  they  were  too 
successful  in  the  end. 

(5)  Delilah.  Falling  in  love  with  a  woman 
of  Sorek,  named  Delilah,  he  became  so  infatu- 
ated by  his  passion  that  nothing  but  his  bodily 
strength  could  equal  his  mental  weakness.  The 
princes  of  the  Philistines,  aware  of  Samson's  in- 
firmity, determined  by  means  of  it  to  get  posses- 
sion, if  possible,  of  his  person.  For  this  purpose 
they  propose  a  tempting  bribe  to  Delilah,  and  she 
enters  at  once  into  the  treacherous  compact.  She 
employs  all  her  art  and  blandishments  to  extract 
from  him  the  secret  of  his  prodigious  strength. 
Having  for  some  time  amused  her  with  fictions, 
he  at  last,  in  a  moment  of  weakness,  disclosed  to 
her  the  fact  that  it  lay  in  his  hair,  which  if  it  were 
shaved  would  leave  him  a  mere  common  man. 
Not  that  his  strength  really  lay  in  his  hair,  for 
this  in  fact  had  no  natural  influence  upon  it  one 
way  or  the  other.  His  strength  arose  from  his 
relation  to  God  as  a  Nazarite,  and  the  preserva- 
tion of  his  hair  unshorn  was  the  mark  or  sign  of 
his  Nazariteship,  and  a  pledge  on  the  part  of  God 
of  the  continuance  of  his  miraculous  physical 
powers.  If  he  lost  this  sign,  the  badge  of  his  con- 
secration, he  broke  his  vow,  and  consequently  for- 
feited the  thing  signified.  God  abandoned  him, 
and  he  was  thenceforward  no  more,  in  this  re- 
spect, than  an  ordinary  man.  His  treacherous 
paramour  seized  the  first  opportunity  of  putting 
his  declaration  to  the  test.  She  shaved  his  head 
while  he  lay  sleeping  in  her  lap,  and  at  a  concerted 
si|:nal  he  was  instantly  arrested  by  his  enemies 
lying  in  wait.  Bereft  of  his  ^rand  endowment, 
and  forsaken  of  God,  the  champion  of  Israel  could 
now  well  adopt  the  words  oi  Solomon;  *I  find 
more  bitter  than  death  the  woman  whose  heart  is 
snares  and  nets,  and  her  hands  are  bands;  whoso 
pleaseth  God  shall  escape  from  her ;  but  the  sinner 
shall  be  taken  by  her.'  Having  so  long  pre- 
sumptuously played  with  his  ruin.  Heaven  leaves 
him  to  himself,  as  a  punishment  for  his  former 
guilty  indulgence.    He  is  made  to  reap  as  he  had 


SAMSON 


1516 


SAMUEL 


sown,  and  is  consigned  to  the  hands  of  his  relent- 
less foes. 

(6)  Imprisonment  and  Death.  His  punish- 
ment was  indeed  severe,  though  he  amply  re- 
venged it,  as  well  as  redeemed  in  a  measure  his 
own  honor,  by  the  manner  in  which  he  met  his 
death.  The  Philistines  having  deprived  him 
of  sight,  at  first  immured  him  m  a  prison,  and 
made  him  grind  at  the  mill  like  a  slave.  As  this 
was  an  employment  which  in  the  East  usually  de- 
volves on  women,  to  assign  it  to  such  a  man  as 
Samson  was  virtually  to  reduce  him  to  the  lowest 
state  of  degradation  and  shame. 

In  process  of  time,  while  remaining  in  this  con- 
finement, his  hair  recovered  its  growth,  and  with 
it  such  a  profound  repentance  seems  to  have 
wrought  in  his  heart  as  virtually  reinvested  him 
with  the  character  and  the  powers  he  had  so  cul- 
pably lost.  Of  this  fact  his  enemies  were  not 
aware.  Still  exulting  in  their  possession  of  the 
great  scourge  of  their  nation,  they  kept  him,  like 
a  wild  beast,  for  mockery  and  insult.  On  one  of 
these  occasions,  when  an  immense  multitude,  in- 
cluding the  princes  and  nobility  of  the  Philistines, 
were  convened  in  a  large  amphitheater,  to  cele- 
brate a  feast  in  honor  of  their  god  Dap^on,  who 
had  delivered  their  adversary  into  their  hands, 
Samson  was  ordered  to  be  brought  out  to  be  made 
a  laughing  stock  to  his  enemies,  a  butt  for  their 
scoffs,  insults,  mockeries,  and  merriment  Se- 
cretly determined  to  use  his  recovered  strength 
to  tremendous  effect,  he  persuaded  the  boy  who 
guided  his  steps  to  conduct  him  to  a  spot  where 
he  could  reach  the  two  pillars  upon  which  the 
roof  of  the  building  rested.  Here,  after  pausing 
for  a  short  time,  while  he  prefers  a  brief  prayer 
to  Heaven,  he  grasps  the  massy  pillars,  and  bow- 
ing with  resistless  force,  the  whole  building  rocks 
and  totters,  and  the  roof,  encumbered  wijh  the 
weight  of  the  spectators,  rushes  down,  and  the 
whole  assembly,  including  Samson  himself,  are 
crushed  to  pieces  in  the  ruin! 

Thus  terminated  the  career  of  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  personages  of  all  history,  whether 
sacred  or  profane. 

(7)  Character.  Samson  is  one  of  those  who 
are  distinctly  spoken  of  in  Scripture  as  endowed 
with  supernatural  power  hy  the  Spirit  of  the 
Lord.  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  began  to  move 
him  at  times  in  Mahaneh-Dan."  •The  Spirit  of 
the  Lord  came  mightily  upon  him,  and  the  cords 
that  were  upon  his  arms  became  as  flax  burnt 
with  fire."  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  came  upon 
him,  and  he  went  down  to  Ashkelon,  and  slew 
thirty  men  of  them."  But  on  the  other  hand,  af- 
ter his  locks  were  cut,  and  his  strength  was  gone 
from  him,  it  is  said  "He  wist  not  that  the  Lord 
was  departed  from  him"  ( Judg.  xii  :25 ;  xiv  :6.  19 ; 
xv:i4;  xvi:2o).  The  phrase,  "the  Spirit  01  the 
Lord  came  upon  him,"  is  common  to  him  with 
Othniel  and  Gideon  (Judg.  iii:io;  vi:34)  ;  bjit  the 
connection  of  supernatural  power  with  the  integ- 
rity of  the  Nazaritic  vow,  and  the  particular  gift 
of  great  strength  of  body,  as  seen  in  tearing  in 
pieces  a  lion,  breaking  his  bonds  asunder,  carry- 
ing the  gates  of  the  city  upon  his  back,  and 
throwing  down  the  pillars  which  supported  the 
house  of  Dagon  are  quite  peculiar  to  Samson.  In- 
deed, his  whole  character  and  history  have  no  ex- 
act parallel  in  Scripture.  It  is  easy,  however,  to 
see  how  forcibly  the  Israelites  would  be  taught, 
by  such  an  example,  that  their  national  strength 
lay  in  their  complete  separation  from  idolatry,  and 
consecration  to  the  true  God;  and  that  He  could 
give  them  power  to  subdue  their  mightiest  ene- 
mies, if  only  they  were  true  to  his  service  (comp. 
I  Sam.  ii:io).    The  enrollment  of  his  name  by  an 


apostolic  pen  (Heb.  xi:32)  in  the  list  of  the  an- 
cient worthies,  'who  had  by  faith  obtained  an  ex- 
cellent repute,'  warrants  us  undoubtedly  in  a 
favorable  estimate  of  his  character  on  the  whole, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  fidelity  of  the  inspired 
narrative  has  perpetuated  the  record  of  infirmities 
which  must  forever  mar  the  luster  of  his  noble 
deeds. 

SAMUEL  (sim'u^l),  (Heb.  ^??'»^*  shem-co-aU, 

asked  or  heard  of  God).  The  last  of  those  extra- 
ordinary regents  that  presided  over  the  Hebrew 
conmionwealth  under  the  title  of  Judges. 

!•  ^irth  and  Familp.  The  circumstances 
of  his  birth  were  prophetic  of  his  future  career. 
His  father,  Elkanah  of  Ramathaim-Zophim,  of 
Mount  Ephraim,  'had  two  wives ;  the  name  of  the 
one  was  Hannah,  and  the  name  of  the  other  Pen- 
innah;  and  Peninnah  had  children,  but  Hannah 
had  no  children.'  The  usual  effect  of  polygamy 
was  felt  in  Elkanah's  household.  The  sterility  of 
Hannah  brought  upon  her  the  taunts  and  ridicule 
of  her  conjugal  rival,  who  'provoked  her  sore,  to 
make  her  fret,  because  the  Lord  had  shut  up  her 
womb*  (i  Sam.  i;6).  The  jealousy  of  Peninnah 
was  excited  also  by  the  superior  affection  which 
was  shown  to  Hannah  by  her  husband.  *To  Han- 
nah he  gave  a  worthy  portion ;  for  he  loved  Han- 
nah' (1:5).  More  especially  at  the  period  of  the 
sacred  festivals  did  the  childless  solitude  of  Han- 
nah create  within  her  the  most  poi^ant  regrets, 
when  she  saw  her  husband  give  portions  to  all  the 
sons  and  daughters  of  Peninnah,  who,  exulting  in 
maternal  pride  and  fondness,  took  advantage  of 
these  seasons  to  subject  the  favorite  wife  to  a  nat- 
ural feminine  retaliation.  Hannah's  life  was  em- 
bittered, 'she  wept  and  did  not  eat'  (i:7). 

(1)  The  Prayer  of  Hannah.  On  one  of 
these  occasions,  during  the  annual  solemnity  at 
Shiloh,  whither  Elkanah's  family  had  traveled,  'to 
worship  and  to  sacrifice,'  so  keen  was  the  vexa- 
tion of  Hannah,  that  she  left  the  domestic  enter- 
tainment, went  to  the  tabernacle,  and  in  the  ex- 
tremity of  her  anguish  implored  Jehovah  to  give 
her  a  man-child,  accompanying  her  supplication 
with  a  peculiar  pledge  to  dedicate  this  gift,  should 
it  be  conferred,  to  the  service  of  Jehovah;  vow- 
ing to  present  the  child  in  entire,  unreserved  con- 
secration to  the  Lord  all  the  days  of  his  life,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  bind  him  to  the  special  obli- 
gations and  austerities  of  a  Nazarite.  In  her 
agony  of  earnestness  her  lips  moved,  but  articu- 
lated no  words,  so  that  Eli,  the  high  priest,  who 
had  observed  her  frantic  appearance  from  his  seat 
by  a  post  of  the  temple,  'thought  she  had  been 
drunken,'  and  sharply  rebuked  her.  Her  pathetic 
explanation  removed  his  suspicion,  and  he  gave 
her  his  solemn  benediction.  Her  spirit  was  light* 
ened,  and  she  'went  her  way.' 

(2)  Consecration.  The  birth  of  a  son  soon 
fulfilled  her  hopes,  and  this  child  of  prayer  was 
named,  in  memory  of  the  prodigy,  Samuel, 
heard  of  God.  In  consequence  of  his  mother's 
vow.  the  boy  was  from  his  early  years  set  apart 
to  the  service  of  Jehovah,  under  the  immediate 
tutelage  of  Eli. 

2.  Personal  History.  The  degeneracy  of  the 
people  at  this  time  was  extreme.  The  tribes 
seem  to  have  administered  their  affairs  as  inde- 
pendent republics,  the  national  confederacy  was 
weak  and  disunited,  and  the  spirit  of  public  patri- 
otic enterprise  had  been  worn  out  by  constant 
turmoil  and  invasion.  The  theocratic  influence 
was  also  scarcely  felt,  its  peculiar  ministers  being 
withdrawn,  and  its  ordinary  manifestations,  ex- 
cept in  the  routine  of  the  Levitical  ritual,  having 
ceased;  Hhe  word  of  the  Lord  was  precious  in 


SAMUEL 


1517 


SAMUEL 


those  days,  there  was  no  open  vision'  (i  Sam. 
m:i). 

(1)  The  Child  Samuel.  The  young  devotee, 
'the  child  Samuel/  was  selected  by  Jehovah  to 
renew  the  deliverance  of  his  oracles.  As  he  re- 
clined in  his  diamber  adjoining  the  sacred  edifice, 
the  Lord,  by  means  adapted  to  his  juvenile  ca- 
pacity, made  known  to  him  his  first  and  fearful 
communication — ^the  doom  of  Eli's  apostate  house. 
Other  revelations  speedily  followed  this;  the  fre- 
quency of  God's  messages  to  the  young  prophet 
established  his  fame;  and  the  exact  fulfillment  of 
them  secured  his  reputation.  The  oracle  of 
Shiloh  became  vocal  again  through  the  youthful 
hierophant   (i  Sam.  iii:  19-21). 

(2)  The  Sons  of  EIL  The  fearful  fate  pro- 
nounced on  t<he  head  and  family  of  the  pontificate 
was  soon  executed.  Eli  had  indulgently  toler- 
ated, or  leniently  palliated,  the  rapacity  and  prof- 
ligacy of  his  sons.  Through  their  extortions  and 
impiety  *men  abhorred  the  offering  of  the  Lord,' 
and  Jehovah's  wrath  was  kindled  against  the 
sacerdotal  transgressors.  They  became  the  vic- 
tims of  their  own  folly;  for  when  the  Philistines 
invaded  the  land,  an  unworthy  superstition  among 
the  Hebrew  host  clamored  for  the  ark  to  be 
brought  into  the  camp  and  into  the  field  of  battle. 
Hophni  and  Phinehas,  Eli's  sons,  indulging  this 
vain  and  puerile  fancy,  accompanied  the  ark  as 
i^s  legal  guardians,  and  fell  in  the  terrible  slaugh- 
ter wnich  ensued. 

(3)  A,  Fatal  Accident.  Their  father,  whose 
sin  seems  to  have  been  his  easiness  of  disposi- 
tion, his  passive  and  quiescent  temper,  sat  on  a 
sacerdotal  throne  by  the  wayside,  to  gather  the 
earliest  news  of  the  battle,  for  his  'heart  trembled 
for  the  ark  of  God;'  and  as  a  fugitive  from  the 
scene  of  conflict  reported  to  him  the  sad  disaster, 
dwelling  with  natural  climax  on  its  melancholy 
particulars — Israel  routed  and  fleeing  in  panic, 
Hophni  and  Phinehas  botti  slain,  and  the  ark  of 
God  taken — this  last  and  overpowering  intelli- 
gence so  shocked  him,  that  he  fainted  and  fell  from 
his  seat,  and  in  his  fall,  from  the  imbecile  corpu- 
lence of  age,  "brake  his  neck  and  died'  ( i  Sam.  iv : 
18).  When  the  feeble  administration  of  Eli,  who 
had  judged  Israel  forty  years,  was  concluded  by 
his  death,  Samuel  was  too  young  to  succeed  to  the 
regency,  and  the  actions  of  this  earlier  portion  of 
his  life  are  left  unrecorded. 

(4)  The  Ark  of  God.  The  ark,  which  had 
been  captured  by  the  Philistines,  soon  vindicated 
its  majesty,  and,  after  being  detained  among  them 
seven  months,  was  sent  back  to  Israel.  It  did  not, 
however,  reach  Shiloh,  in  consequence  of  the 
fearful  judgment  of  Bethshemesh  (i  Sam.  vi: 
19),  but  rested  in  Kirjath-jearim  for  no  fewer 
than  twenty  years  (vii:2). 

(5)  Judgre.  It  is  not  till  the  expiration  of  this 
period  that  Samuel  appears  again  in  the  history. 
Perhaps  during  the  twenty  years  succeeding  Eli's 
death  his  authority  was  gradually  gathering 
strength,  while  the  office  of  supreme  magistrate 
may  have  been  vacant,  each  tribe  being  governed 
by  Its  own  hereditary  phylarch.  This  long  season 
of  national  humiliation  was  to  some  extent  im- 
proved. *A11  the  house  of  Israel  lamented  after 
the  Lord,'  and  Samuel,  seizing  upon  the  crisis, 
issued  a  public  manifesto,  exposing  the  sin  of 
idolatry,  urging  on  the  people  religious  amend- 
ment, and  promising  political  deliverance  on  their 
reformation.  The  people  obeyed,  the  oracular  man- 
date was  effectual,  and  the  principles  of  the  theoc- 
racy again  triumphed  (i  Sam.  vii:4).  The  tribes 
were  summoned  by  the  prophet  to  assemble  in 
lli£peh,  and  at  this  assembly  of  the  Hebrew  com- 


itia,  Samuel  seems  to  have  been  elected  regeat 
(vii:6). 

(6)  Ebenezer  Erected.  This  mustering  of  the 
Hebrews  at  Mizpeh  on  the  inauguration  of  Sam- 
uel alarmed  the  Philistines,  and  their  lords  went 
up  against  Israel.'  Samuel  assumed  the  functions 
of  the  theocratic  viceroy,  offered  a  solemn  obla- 
tion, and  implored  the  immediate  protection  of 
Jehovah.  He  was  answered  with  propitious  thun- 
der. A  fearful  storm  burst  upon  the  Philistines, 
the  elements  warred  against  them.  The  Highest 
gave  his  voice  in  the  heaven,  hailstones  and  coals 
of  fire.'  The  old  enemies  of  Israel  were  signally 
defeated,  and  did  not  recruit  their  strength  again 
during  the  administration  of  the  prophet-judge. 
The  grateful  victor  erected  a  stone  of  remem- 
brance and  named  it  Ebenezer.  From  an  inci- 
dental allusion  (i  Sam.  vii:i4)  we  learn,  too,  that 
about  this  time  the  Amorites,  the  Eastern  foes 
of  Israel,  were  also  at  peace  with  them — another 
triumph  of  a  government  'the  weapons  of  whose 
warfare  were  not  carnal.'  The  presidency  of 
Samuel  appears  to  have  been  eminently  success- 
ful. From  the  very  brief  sketch  given  us  of  his 
public  life,  we  infer  that  the  administration  of 
justice  occupied  no  little  share  of  his  time  and 
attention.  He  went  from  year  to  year  in  circuit 
to  Bethel,  Gilgal,  and  Mizpeh,  places  not  very 
far  distant  from  each  other,  but  chosen  perhaps, 
as  Winer  suggests,  because  they  were  the  old 
scenes  otf  worship  (Real-wort.,  ii,  444). 

The  dwelling  of  the  prophet  was  at  Ramah, 
where  religious  worship  was  established  after  the 
patriarchal  model,  and  where  Samuel,  like  Abra- 
ham, built  an  altar  to  the  Lord. 

(7)  The  Monarchy.  In  Samuel's  old  a^e  two 
of  his  sons  were  appointed  by  him  deputy  judges 
in  Beersheba.  These  young  men  possessed  not 
their  father's  integrity  of  spirit,  but  'turned  aside 
after  lucre,  took  bribes,  and  perverted  judgment' 
(i  Sam.  viii:3).  The  advanced  years  of  the  vener- 
able ruler  himself  and  his  approaching  dissolution, 
the  certainty  that  none  of  his  family  could  fill  his 
office  with  advantage  to  the  country,  the  horror 
of  a  period  of  anarchy  which  his  death  might 
occasion,  the  necessity  of  having  some  one  to  put 
an  end  to  tribal  jealousies  and  concentrate  the 
energies  of  the  nation,  especially  as  there  appeared 
to  be  symptoms  of  renewed  warlike  preparations 
on  the  part,  of  the  Anmionites  (xii:i2) — these 
considerations  seem  to  have  led  the  elders  of  Is- 
rael to  adopt  the  bold  step  of  assembling  at  Ra- 
mah and  soliciting  Samuel  'to  make  a  king  to 
judge  them.' 

The  proposed  change  from  a  republican  to  a 
regal  form  of  government  displeased  Samuel  for 
various  reasons.  Besides  its  being  a  departure 
from  the  first  political  institute,  and  so  far  an 
infringement  of  the  rights  of  the  divine  head  of 
the  theocracy,  it  was  regarded  by  the  regent  as  a 
virtual  charge  against  himself,  and  might  appear 
to  him  as  one  of  those  examples  of  popular  fickle- 
ness and  ingratitude  which  the  history  of  every 
realm  exhibits  in  profusion.  Jehovah  comforts 
Samuel  in  this  respect  by  saying,  'They  have  not 
rejected  thee,  but  they  have  rejected  me.'  Being 
warned  of  God  to  accede  to  their  request  for  a 
king,  and  yet  to  remonstrate  with  the  people,  and 
set  before  the  nation  the  perils  and  tyranny  of  a 
monarchical  government  (i  Sam.  viiiig,  10), 
Samuel  proceeded  to  the  election  of  a  sovereign. 

(8)  Saul  Chosen.  Saul,  son  of  Kish,  'a  choice 
young  man  and  a  goodly,'  whom  he  had  met  un- 
expectedly, was  pointed  out  to  him  by  Jehovah  as 
the  king  of  Israel,  and  by  the  prophet  was  anoint- 
ed and  saluted  as  a  monarch.  Samuel  again  con- 
v^med  the  nation  at  Mizpeh,  again  with  honest 


SAMUEL 


1518 


SAMUEL,  BOOKS  OF 


zeal  condemned  their  project,  hct  caused  the 
sacred  lot  to  be  taken.  The  lot  fell  on  Saul.  The 
prophet  now  formally  introduced  him  to  the  peo- 
ple, who  shouted  in  joyous  acclamation,  'God  save 
the  king.' 

Not  content  with  oral  explanations,  this  last  of 
the  republican  chiefs  not  only  told  the  people  the 
manner  of  the  kingdom,  *but  wrote  it  m  a  book 
and  laid  it  up  before  the  Lord.*  What  is  here 
asserted  of  Samuel  may  mean  that  he  extracted 
from  the  Pentateuch  the  recorded  provision  of 
Moses  for  a  future  monarchy,  and  added  to  it 
such  warnings,  and  counsels,  and  safeguards,  as 
his  inspired  sagacity  might  suggest.  Saul's  first 
battle  being  so  successful,  and  the  preparations 
for  it  displaying  no  ordinary  energy  and  prompti- 
tude of  character,  his  popularity  was  suddenly 
advanced  and  his  throne  secured.  Taking  advan- 
tage of  the  general  sensation  in  favor  of  Saul, 
Samuel  cited  the  people  to  meet  again  in  Gilgal, 
to  renew  the  kingdom,  to  ratify  the  new  constitu- 
tion, and  solemnly  install  the  sovereign  (xi:i4). 
Here  the  upright  judge  made  a  powerful  appeal 
to  the  assembly  in  vindication  of  his  government. 
'Witness  against  me  before  the  Lord,  and  before 
his  anointed;  whose  ox  have  I  taken?  or  whose 
ass  have  I  taken?  or  whom  have  I  defrauded? 
whom  'have  I  oppressed?  or  of  whose  hand  have 
I  received  any  bribe  to  blind  mine  eyes  therewith  ? 
and  I  will  restore  it  you.'  The  whole  multitude 
responded  in  unanimous  approval  of  his  honesty 
and  intrepidity  (xii:3,  4).  Then  he,  still  jealous 
of  God's  prerogative  and  the  civil  rights  of  his 
people,  briefly  narrated  their  history,  showed  them 
how  Aey  never  wanted  chieftains  to  defend  them 
when  they  served  God,  and  declared  that  it  was 
distrust  of  God's  raising  up  a  new  leader  in  a 
dreaded  emergency  that  excited  the  outcry  for  a 
king.  In  proof  of  this  charge— a  charge  which 
convicted  them  of  great  wickedness  in  the  sight 
of  God — ^he  appealed  to  Jehovah,  who  answered 
in  a  fearful  hurricane  of  thunder  and  rain.  The 
terrified  tribes  confessed  their  guilt,  and  besought 
Samuel  to  intercede  for  them  in  his  disinterested 
patriotism. 

It  is  said  (vii:i5)  that  Samuel  judged  Israel 
all  the  days  of  his  life.  The  assertion  may  mean 
that  even  after  Saul's  coronation  Samuel's  power, 
though  formally  abdicated,  was  yet  actually  felt 
and  exercised  in  the  direction  of  state  affairs 
(Havemick,  Einleit,  in  das  A.  T.,  Sec.  166).  No 
enterprise  could  be  undertaken  without  Samuel's 
concurrence.  His  was  an  authority  higher  than 
the  king's.  We  find  Saul,  having  mustered  his 
forces,  about  to  march  against  the  Philistines,  yet 
delaying  to  do  so  till  Samuel  consecrated  the  un- 
dertaking. He  came  not  at  the  time  appointed, 
as  Saul  tfhought,  and  the  impatient  monarch  pro- 
ceeded to  offer  sacrifice — a  fearful  violation  of  the 
national  law.  The  prophet  arrived  as  the  reli- 
gious service  was  concluded,  and  rebuking  Saul 
for  his  presumption,  distinctly  hinted  at  the  short 
continuance  of  his  kingdom. 

(9)  Saul  Detlironed.  Again  we  find  Samuel 
charging  Saul  with  the  extirpation  of  the  Amalek- 
ites.  The  royal  warrior  proceeded  on  the  expe- 
dition, but  obeyed  not  the  mandate  of  Jehovah. 
His  a^Iogies,  somewhat  craftily  framed,  for  his 
inconsistencies,  availed  him  not  with  the  prophet, 
and  he  was  by  the  indignant  seer  virtually  de- 
throned. He  had  forfeited  his  crown  by  disobe- 
dience to  God.  (See  Saul).  Yet  Samuel 
mourned  for  him.  His  heart  seems  to  have  been 
set  on  the  bold  athletic  soldier.  But  now  the 
Lord  directed  him  to  make  provision  for  the  fu- 
ture government  of  the  country  (i  Sam.  xviti). 
To  prevent  strife  and  confusion  it  was  necessary. 


in  the  circumstances,  that  the  second  king  should 
be  appointed  ere  the  first  sovereign's  demise. 

(10)  Anoints  David.  Samuel  went  to  Beth- 
lehem and  set  apart  the  youngest  of  the  sons  of 
Jesse,  'and  came  to  see  Saul  no  more  till  the  day 
of  his  death.'  Yet  Saul  and  he  met  once  again  at 
Naioth,  in  Ramah  (i  Sam.  xix:22),  when  the 
king  was  pursuing  David.  As  on  a  former  occa- 
sion, the  spirit  of  God  came  upon  him  as  he  ap- 
proached the  company  of  the  prophets  with  Sam- 
uel presiding  over  them,  and  'he  prophesied  and 
lay  down  naked  all  that  day  and  all  that  night.*  A 
religious  excitement  seized  him,  the  contagious 
influence  of  the  music  and  rhapsody  fell  upon  his 
nervous,  susceptible  temperament,  and  overpow- 
ered him. 

(11)  Death  of  Samuel.  At  length  Samuel 
died  (i  Sam.  xxv:i),  and  all  Israel  mourned  for 
him,  and  buried  him  in  his  house  at  Ramah. 

J.  E. 

SAMUEL,  BOOKS  OF  (s&m'u-el,  books  6v). 
The  two  books  of  Samuel  were  anciently  reck- 
oned as  but  one  among  the  Jews.  That  they  form 
only  one  treatise  is  apparent  from  their  structure. 

(1)  Contents.     The  contents  of  the  books  of 
Samuel  belong  to  an  interesting  period  of  Jewish 
history.    The  preceding  book  of  Judges  refers  to 
the  affairs  of  the  republic  as  they  were  adminis- 
tered after  the  Conquest,  when  the  nation  was  a 
congress  of  independent  cantons,  sometimes  par- 
tially united  for  a  season  under  an  extraordinary 
dictator.    As,  however,  the  mode  of  government 
was  changed,  and  remained  monarchical  till  the 
overthrow  of  the  kingdom,  it  was  of  national  im- 
portance to  note  the  time,  method,  and  means  of 
the  alteration.    This  change  happening:  under  the 
regency  of  the  wisest  and  best  of  their  sages,  his 
life  became  a  topic  of  interest.    The  first  book  of 
Samuel  gives  an  account  of  his  birth  and  early 
call  to  the  duties  of  a  seer,  under  Eli's  pontificate ; 
describes  the  low  and  degraded  condition  of  the 
people,  oppressed  by  foreign  enemies;  proceeds  to 
narrate  the  election  of  Samuel  as  judge;  his  pros- 
perous regency;  the  degeneracy  of  his  sons,  the 
clamor  for  a  change  in  the  civil  constitution;  the 
installation  of  Saul;  his  rash  and  reckless  char- 
acter; his  neglect  of,  or  opposition  to,  the  theo- 
cratic elements  of  the  government.    Then  the  his- 
torian goes  on  to  relate  (rod's  choice  of  David  as 
kinp^ ;  his  endurance  of  long  and  harassing  perse- 
cution from  the  reigning  sovereign;  the  melan- 
choly defeat  and  death  of  Saul  on  the  field  of 
Gilboa ;  the  gradual  elevation  of  the  man  'accord- 
ing to  God's  own  heart'  to  universal  dominion; 
his  earnest  efforts  to  obey  and  follow  out  the 
principles  of  the  theocracy;  his  formal  establish- 
ment of  religious  worship  at  Jerusalem,  now  the 
capital  of  the  nation;  and  his  series  of  victories 
over  all  the  enemies  of  Judaea  that  were  wont  to 
molest  its  frontiers.    The  annalist   records   Da- 
vid's aberrations  from  the  path  of  duty;  the  un- 
natural rebellion  of  his  son  Absalom,  and  its  sup- 
pression; his  carrying  into  effect  a  census  of  his 
dominions,  and  the  Divine  punishment  which  this 
act  incurred ;  and  concludes  with  a  few  character- 
istic sketches  of  his  military  staff.    The  second 
book  of  Samuel,  while  it  relates  the  last  words  of 
David,  yet  stops  short  of  his  death.    As  David 
was  the  real  founder  of  the  monarchy  and  ar- 
ranger of  the  religious  economy ;  the  great  liero, 
legislator,  and  poet  of  his  country ;  as  his  dynasty 
maintained  itself  on  the  throne  olf  Judah  till  the 
Babylonian  invasion ;  it  is  not  a  matter  of  wonder 
tflat  the  description  of  his  Hfe  and  government 
occupies  so  large  a  portion  of  early  Jewish  his- 
tory.   The  books  of  Samuel  thus  consist  of  three 


SANBALLAT 


1519 


SANCTIFICATION,  ENTIRE 


interlaced  biograpihies— those  of  Samuel,  Saul,  and 
David. 

(2)  Age  and  Authorship.  The  attempt  to 
ascertain  the  authorship  of  this  early  histoiy  is 
attended  with  difficulty.  Ancient  opinion  is  in 
favor  of  the  usual  theory,  that  the  first  twenty- 
four  chapters  were  written  by  Samuel,  and  the 
rest  by  Nathan  and  Gad. 

Besides,  it  is  certainly  a  striking  circumstance, 
that  the  books  of  Sapiuel  do  not  record  David's 
death,  though  they  gjve  his  last  words — his  last 
inspired  effusion  (Havemick,  Einleit  Sec  167). 
We  should  reckon  it  natural  for  an  author,  if  he 
had  lived  long  after  David's  time  and  were  writ- 
ing his  life,  to  finish  his  history  with  an  account 
of  Hie  sovereign's  death.  Had  the  books  of  Sam- 
uel and  Kings  sprung  from  the  same  source,  then 
the  abrupt  conclusion  of  one  portion  of  the  work, 
containing  David's  life  down  to  his  last  days,  and 
yet  omitting  all  notice  of  his  death,  mi^  be 
ascribed  to  some  unknown  capricious  motive  of 
the  author.  But  we  have  seen  that  the  two  trea- 
tises exhibit  many  traces  of  a  different  author- 
ship. What  reason,  then,  can  be  assigned  for  the 
writer  of  Samuel  giving  a  full  detail  of  David's 
life,  and  actions,  and  government,  and  yet  failing 
to  record  his  decease?  The  plain  inference  is, 
that  the  document  must  have  been  composed  prior 
to  the  monarch's  death,  or  at  least  about  that 
period.  If  we  should  find  a  memoir  of  George 
the  Third,  entering  fully  into  his  private  and 
family  history,  as  well  as  describing  his  cabinets, 
councillors,  and  parliaments,  the  revolutions,  and 
wars,  and  state  of  feeling  under  his  government, 
and  ending  with  an  account  of  the  appointment 
of  a  regent,  and  a  reference  to  the  king's  lunacy, 
our  conclusion  would  be,  that  the  history  was 
composed  before  the  year  1820.  A  history  of 
David,  down  to  the  verge  of  his  dissolution,  yet 
not  including  that  event,  must  have  been  written 
before  the  monarch  *slept  with  his  fathers.' 

(3)  Scope.  The  design  of  these  books  is  not 
%  »ry  different  from  that  of  the  other  historical 
tn^atises  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  books  of 
Kings  are  a  history  of  the  nation  as  a  theocracy; 
those  of  Chronicles  have  special  reference  to  the 
Vorm  and  ministry  of  the  religious  worship,  as 
bearing  upon  its  re-establishment  after  the  return 
from  Babylon.  Samuel  is  more  biographical,  yet 
the  theocratic  element  of  the  government  is  not 
overlooked.  It  is  distinctly  brought  to  view  in  the 
eariy  chapters  concerning  Eli  and  his  house,  and 
the  fortunes  of  the  ark;  in  the  passages  whidi 
describe  the  change  of  the  constitution;  in  the 
blessing  which  rested  on  the  house  of  Obed- 
Edom;  in  the  curse  which  fell  on  the  Bethshem- 
ites,  and  Uzzah  and  Saul,  for  intrusive  interfer- 
ence with  holy  things.  The  book  shows  clearly 
that  God  was  a  jealous  God;  that  obedience  to 
bim  secured  felicity;  thait  the  nation  sinned  in 
seeking  another  king;  that  Saul's  special  iniquity 
was  his  impious  oblivion  of  his  station  as  only 
Jehovah's  vicegerent,  for  he  contemned  the  proph- 
ets and  slew  the  priesthood ;  and  that  David  owed 
his  prosperity  to  his  careful  culture  of  the  sacred 
principle  of  the  Hebrew  administration.  This 
early  production  contained  lessons  both  for  the 
people  and  for  succeeding  monarchs,  bearing  on 
the  motto,  'Whatsoever  things  were  written  afore- 
time were  written  for  our  learning.' 

SANBALLAT  (san-bil'lat).  (Heb.  ^^3fP,  san- 

bal'iaf,  a  native  of  Horonaim,  beyond  the  Jordan 
(Neh.ii:  10),  and  probably  also  a  Moabitish  chief, 
whom  (probably  from  old  national  hatred)  we  find 
united  in  council  with  the  Samaritans,  and  active 
in  attempting  to  deter  the  returned  exiles  from 


fortifying  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iv:i,  sq,\  vi:i,  sq.). 
Subsequently,  during  the  absence  of  Nehemiah  in 
Persia,  a  son  of  Joiada,  the  hi^  priest,  was  mar- 
ried to  his  daughter  (Neh.  xiii:28). 

SAKOTIFIOATION  (sink'tl-ff-ka'shiin),  (Gr. 
kyiofftiM,  hag-ee-as-mos' ,  separation,  a  setting  apart). 

The    Hebrew   term  ^^R  {kaw-dash'),  rendered 

sanctify,  has  a  corresponding  meaning. 

Sanctification  is  that  glorious  work  of  God's 
grace  in  the  human  soul  by  which  we  are  re- 
newed after  the  image  of  God,  set  apart  for  his 
service,  and  enabled  to  die  unto  sin  and  live  unto 
righteousness.  It  must  be  carefully  considered  in 
a  twofold  light  (i)  As  an  inestimable  privilege 
granted  us  from  God  (i  Thess.  v:23);  and  (2) 
as  an  all-comprehensive  duty  required  of  us  by  his 
holy  Word  (i  Thess.  iv:3). 

SANCTIFIGATION,  EKTIBE.  Is  it  the  priv- 
ilege of  believers  to  be  wholly  sanctified  in  this 
life  ?  The  doctrine  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
is  that  baptism,  rightly  administered,  washes  away 
not  only  guilt,  but  also  depravity  of  every  kind; 
and  thus,  in  its  own  peculiar  way,  that  Church 
answers  the  question  in  the  affirmative  (see  Bap- 
tism). Among  Protestant  theologians  there  is 
wide  difference  of  belief;  and  there  are  undoubt- 
edly greater  differences  of  statement,  because  of 
confusion  in  the  use  of  terms.  (Barnes,  Bib, 
Diet,) 

We  give  two  articles  by  distinguished  divines 
representing  the  two  prominent  views  upon  the 
subject: 

i.  Wesleyan  1>octrine  of  Sanctification. 

Sanctification  is  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  be- 
gun in  regeneration  by  the  inspiration  of  love  in 
the  heart.  Love,  the  element  in  which  purity  ex- 
ists, is  not  at  first  perfect,  because  it  finds  in- 
ward antagonisms  in  the  form  of  controlled  evil 
propensities,  "the  flesh  lusting  against  the  spirit." 
The  result  of  this  collision  of  lingering  depravity 
in  the  normal  believer  who  clings  to  Christ  by 
faith,  is  not  only  freedom  from  condemnation, 
but  a  steady  advance  toward  the  extinction  of  the 
hereditary  tendency  towards  sin  and  a  longing 
desire  for  perfect  assimilation  to  the  Divine 
holiness.  He  aspires  to  a  state  in  which  he  per- 
fectly hates  what  God  hates  and  perfectly  loves 
what  God  loves.  If  he  diligently  studies  the  Holy 
Scriptures  he  will  find  abundant  grounds  for  faith 
that  it  is  not  only  his  privilege,  but  also  his  duty 
to  receive  the  full  heritage  of  the  believer  in 
Christ. 

(1)  Groundfl  for  Faith.  The  grounds  are  the 
command  to  be  hohr,  the  promises  of  entire  cleans- 
ing by  the  Holy  Spirit  and  in  the  prayers,  espe- 
cially the  Pauline  prayers  for  the  entire  sanctifi- 
cation of  believers  addressed  in  his  epistles  (2 
Cor.  vii:i;  i  Thess.  v:23).  The  Word  of  God 
contains  a  variety  of  other  terms  teaching  this 
doctrine,  such  as  holiness,  perfect  love,  perfec- 
tion, the  abiding  fullness  of  tne  Spirit,  and  cleans- 
ing from  all  unrighteousness. 

(2)  Dependent  Upon  Absolute  Self -Surren- 
der. The  faith  requisite  to  the  attainment  of 
this  grace  must  be  attended  by  a  complete  and 
irreversible  self-surrender  and  consecration  to 
(jod  of  our  good  things.  In  the  submission 
made  by  the  penitent  seeker  of  pardon,  only  his 
evil  things  are  surrendered,  just  as  a  conquered 
enemy  grounds  the  weapons  of  his  rebellion  be- 
fore he  so  loves  his  country  as  to  enlist  in  her 
army. 

(3)  Culmination  in  an  Instantaneous  Opera- 
tion. Wesley  taught  that  prc^ressive  sanctifica- 
tion culminates  sooner  or  later  in  an  instantaneous 


1 


SANCTIFICATION,  ENTIRE 


1520 


SANCTIFICATION,  ENTIRE 


crisis  completing  the  process.  After  that  event 
there  is  an  endless  progress  in  the  development 
of  the  inward  principle  of  holiness  in  the  out- 
ward life.  The  negative  work,  the  destruction  of 
sin,  ends  when  the  evil  tendency  is  entirely  re- 
moved. Love,  the  positive  element  in  sanctifica- 
tion,  has  no  limit  in  this  world  nor  in  the  world 
to  come.  The  only  perfection  of  which  we  in  this 
life  are  capable  is  in  pure  or  perfect  love,  which 
consists  with  many  mvoluntary  infirmities  and 
defects  marring  the  character.  These  require 
constantly  the  need  of  the  atonement.  They 
prompt  the  entirely  sanctified  soul  to  cry  out  con- 
tinually 

"Every  moment.  Lord,  I  need 
The  merit  of  thy  death." 

(4)  The  State  Defined.  There  is  no  state  of 
grace  independent  of  the  indwelling  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  the  gift  procured  by  the  atoning  merit 
of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God.  Hence  *  the 
possibility  of  the  moral  downfall  of  the  most 
saintly  soul  while  in  a  probationary  state.  Per- 
fected holiness  does  not  exempt  from  temptation, 
but  it  90  clarifies  the  spiritual  perception  as  to 
afford  an  easy  victory  over  sin,  however  disguised 
(Heb.  v:i4).  While  it  stimulates  the  intellect,  it 
adds  no  new  aptitude  to  the  mental  faculties.  It 
greatly  intensifies  Christian  zeal  and  multiplies 
a  person's  usefulness,  although  it  may  not  impart 
those  natural  qualities  which  will  make  him  an 
eloquent  preacher  or  a  famous  evangelist  But 
the  cessation  of  the  struggle  between  the  flesh 
and  the  spirit  unifies  and  mtensifies  the  powers 
in  efforts  for  the  good  of  others,  and  answers  the 
prayer  for 


"A  heart  at  leisure  from  itself 
To  soothe  and  sympathize.' 


tt 


(5)  The  Evidences.  The  evidence  of  entire 
sanctification  is  the  Spirit-illumined  conscious- 
ness of  perfect  purity  of  heart — the  Spirit  shining 
on  His  own  worK  (i  Cor.  ii:i3).  This  can  be  an 
evidence  only  to  the  individual.  Others  should 
receive  his  testimony  if  it  is  corroborated  by  the 
fruits  of  holiness,  deadness  unto  the  world,  ab- 
horrence of  sin,  and  a  deep  spirituality  transfig- 
uring the  entire  character. 

(6)  Should  Entire  Sanctification  Be  Pro- 
fessedP  Methodism  says  yes,  but  in  great  mq^ 
esty,  "with  meekness  and  fear,"  lest  others  shoulil 
interpret  the  act  as  indicative  of  spiritual  pride. 
It  should  always  impress  the  hearer  that  this  high 
profession  is  made  for  the  glory  of  God,  who  has 
provided  this  uttermost  salvation,  and  for  the 
benefit  of  belie\ers  hungering  and  thirsting  after 
righteousness.  The  name  of  the  Great  Physician 
should  be  known.  The  healed  should  proclaim 
Him  to  the  sick. 

(7)  A  Distinctive  Wesleyan  Doctrine.  Wes- 
ley styled  entire  sanctification  "the  grand  deposi- 
tion which  God  has  lodged  with  the  people  called 
Methodists ;  and,  for  the  sake  of  propagating  this 
chiefly,  be  appeared  to  have  raised  us  up.  It 
is  firmly  establisihed  in  their  standard  theology 
and  hymnology,  and  in  the  hearts  of  a  minority 
of  tHeir  members.  All  their  ministers  are  re- 
quired to  be  examined  in  a  Booklet  entitled  "Wes- 
ley's Plain  Account  of  Christian  Perfection,"  and 
to  answer  at  the  door  of  the  conference  this 
question,  "Do  you  expect  to  be  made  perfect  in 
love  in  this  life?"      (Rev.  Daniel  Steele,  D.  D.) 

2.  General  Protestant  View  of  Sanctifi- 
cation. 

Sanctification  is  the  Christianizing  of  the  being 
and  life  of  the  believer.    It  is  the  carrying  on  of 


the  work  begun  in  regeneration  until  the  entire 
nature  is  permeated  with  the  spirit  of  Christ  and 
lives  under  the  rule  of  the  risen  and  reigning 
Lord.  Regeneration  begins  the  enlargement  of 
the  divine  life  in  man ;  sanctification  takes  it  for- 
ward through  Christian  growth  towards  the  fuH- 
grown  man,  unto  the  stature  of  Christ  (Eph.  'w 
13).  The  first  is  the  planting  of  the  seed,  the  sec- 
ond the  development  into  the  noble  plant,  with 
waving  leaves  and  ripened  fruits.  The  first  is  a 
new  life,  the  second  is  that  life  in  action. 

(1)  Biblical  Meanings.  There  are  in  the 
Bible  two  great  meanings  of  this  word.  The 
first  may  be  called  the  Old  Testament  idea.  The 
second  belongs  more,  though  not  exclusively, 
with  the  New.  In  the  Old  Testament  the  refer- 
ence was  to  things,  not  implying  the  inward 
change  of  the  heart.  A  fiejd  was  sanctified,  so  was 
a  golden  vessel  or  the  garment  of  a  priest.  It 
was  the  setting  apart  for  sacred  use.  But  the 
New  Testament  took  this  meaning  and  gave  a 
greater  depth  to  it.  The  meaning  was  enlarged 
and  lifted  into  a  nobler  place.  It  meant  not  only 
dedication  to  divine  use,  but  also  inward  holiness. 
It  had  to  do  with  its  nature  as  well  as  its  service. 
It  meant  a  purification  of  the  heart  of  man  from 
all  uncleanliness  and  an  enduing  it  with  the  holy 
mind  of  Christ. 

(2)  Sanctification  a  Growth.  Sanctification  is 
the  progress  of  the  divine  life  in  man.  It  is  thus 
a  growth,  and  no  one  is  perfectly  holy  by  a  mir- 
acle of  grace.  The  Christian,  when  he  enters 
the  kingdom  of  God,  has  his  sinful  nature.  The 
guilt  of  sin  is  removed,  but  the  results  of  sin  are 
yet  with  him,  and  he  must  overcome  its  love  and 
power.  He  has  a  new  attitude  toward  God,  the 
mouth  of  his  soul  is  open,  and  there  is  passing 
into  him  the  divine  strength,  and  aided  by  it  he 
must  take  all  the  land  of  his  nature  which  lies 
under  the  dominion  of  Evil.  When  the  children 
of  Israel  crossed  the  Jordan  they  were  in  the 
Promised  Land,  but  did  not  possess  it.  The 
enemy  must  be  driven  out,  their  chariots  broken 
and  fenced  cities  pulled  to  the  ground. 

(3)  A  Mistake  to  be  Avoided.  There  is  no 
greater  mistake  than  to  confuse  conversion  with 
sanctification,  and  to  fail  to  note  that  the  begin- 
ning of  a  Christian  life  is  the  bestowal  of  power 
to  conquer,  not  the  entering  into  a  sunlit  and 
vine-covered  land  with  all  the  enemies  slain.  The 
agony  of  a  Christian  experience  is  the  taking  of 
one's  possessions.  This  work  is  gradual.  The 
power  comes  from  God,  but  the  work  is  done 
by  man.  God  works  in  us  to  will  and  to  do  of 
His  good  pleasure,  and  we  work  out  our  own 
salvation  with  fear  and  trembling  (Phil.  ii:i2,  13). 

(4)  Its  Purpose.  The  purpose  of  sanctifica- 
tion is  to  bring  the  entire  nature  into  harmony 
with  the  will  of  God.  This  is  God's  desire  for 
us,  and  this  should  ever  be  the  radiant  purpose 
of  a  Christian  life.  "This  is  the  will  of  God,  even 
your  sanctification"  (i  Thess.  iv:3).  "Lo,  I  come 
to  do  Thy  will,  O  God.  ...  By  the  which  will 
we  are  sanctified"  (Heb.  xtg,  10). 

This  new  divine  life  begins  in  man's  inner  na- 
ture, deep  in  the  soul.  It  touches  his  mental 
and  physical  nature.  Spreading  through  his  being, 
it  is  to  bring  him  in  thought  and  purpose,  act 
and  feeling  into  a  loving  and  living  harmony 
with  (jod.  Starting  in  his  spiritual  nature,  it 
is  to  permeate  his  physical  nature  until  the  body 
shall  be  the  fit  temple  for  the  indwelling  spirit 
and  there  shall  be  in  love  and  thought,  in  eating, 
drinking  and  going  forth  the  doing  to  the  glory 
of  God  (i  Cor.  x:3i). 

(5)  Present  and  TJltimate  Perfection.    This 


SANCTUARY  Iffi 

divine  life  in  man,  which  in  its  ongoinjg  gradually 
sanctifies  the  entire  nature,  has  for  Its  end  the 
attaining  of  perfection.  There  is  a  presetil  and 
an  ultimate  perfection.  Present  perfection  is  rela- 
tive and  takes  into  account  present  knowledge, 
strength  and  needs.  Ultimaie  perfection  is  the 
final  goal,  the  perfection  of  Christ.  In  this  world 
no  Christian  attains  ultimate  perfection ;  each  one 
may  and  should  seek  to  secure  present  perfec- 
tion. Each  one  should  live  true  to  his  present 
light,  turn  from  all  known  sin  and  use  his  full 
strength.  On  the  morrow  he  will  have  more 
light,  an  increasing  consciousness  of  sin  and  a 
larger  bestowal  of  strenph.  He  will  never  feel 
that  he  has  attained,  but  is  only  attaining.  Catch- 
ing glimpses  of  that  larger  life  before  him,  as 
from  the  hill's  summit  there  spreads  oiti  the  happy 
meadows,  and  he  will  yearn  for  the  fuller  attain- 
ment, and  seeing  the  present  in  contrast  with 
(he  future  there  will  come  the  unrest  which  is 
the  first  token  of  better  things.  What  he  should 
be  will  make  him  humble  now.  There  will  be  no 
boasting  of  sinlessness,  only  the  hunger  to  be 
more  like  Christ.  Yet  conscious  of  striving,  and 
knowing  (hat  there  are  honest  attempts  to  live 
to  God  s  ^lory,  there  will  not  be  undue  chiding. 
He  who  lives  according  to  his  best  light  and  uses 
his  best  strength,  lives  joyfully  with  his  God, 
and  his  life  will  be  more  and  more  conformed 
to  the  likeness  of  Christ. 

(6)  How  thla  Oface  nifty  be  Obtained. 
There  are  many  helps  in  the  attainment  of  sancti- 
fication,  the  greatest  ever  being  the  indwelling 
Spirit  of  God.  It  is  impossible  for  man  to  sanc- 
tify himself;  this  is  the  work  of  God.  Possible 
ii  It  for  man  to  (Ven  the  way  for  a  larger  infilling 
of  the  Spirit.  Whenever  the  nature  is  open  anew 
to  God  there  is  found  the  working  of  the  Sanc- 
tifier.  Whenever  the  will  of  God  is  done,  there 
is  the  growth.  Each  new  discovery  of  God's  will 
and  the  entering  into  its  meaning;  each  new  dis- 
covery of  sin,  sin  in  heart  or  in  body,  and  its  re- 
moval, is  the  sanclification  of  the  believer.  The 
will  of  God  and  ultimate  Christian  character  are 
found  supreme  in  Jesus  Christ,  and  thus  the  daily 
striving  to  be  like  him,  with  the  whole  nature 
open  to  God,  that  he  may  give  strength,  is  to 
know  through  experience  the  deep  meaning  and 
the  profound  satisfaction  of  the  Christian's  sanc- 
lification. J.  W.  F. 

SANOTUABT  (sank'ifl-a-rj?).  See  Taber- 
nacle; Temple. 

SANS  (slnd),  (Heb.  ViH,  khoU,  whirling). 

FigaraUVt-  (i)  Ag  its  particles  are  innu- 
merable, great  multitudes,  such  as  the  posterity 
of  Abraham  and  Jacob,  are  likened  to  the  tana 
of  the  sea  (Gen.  >xii:i7,  and  xx>:ii:i2).  (a) 
Sand  is  heavy,  but  Job's  grief  is  said  to  be 
heavier  (Job  vi  :3)  ;  a  fool's  wrath  is  heavier  than 
the  sand  and  gravel,  it  is  more  insupportable, 
being  without  cause,  measure  or  end  (Prov. 
xxvii;3).  (3)  As  land  is  a  sinking  and  slippeir 
foundation,  false  foundations  of  religion,  or  ill- 
grounded  hopes  of  future  happiness,  are  likened 
to  it  (Matt.  vii:26).  (4)  Though  sand  is  easily 
washed  away,  yet  God  has  made  it  the  boundary 
of  the  raging  sea  (Jer.  v:a2), 

8ANSAI1  (s&n'dal),  (Or.  ratJiXuv,  san-dal'ee'Oti, 
representing  the  Heb,  ''^*.  nah'al),  is  a  covering 
for  the  feet,  usually  denoted  by  the  word  trans- 
lated 'shoe'  in  the  Authorized  Version.  It  was 
usually  a  sole  of  hide,  leather,  or  wood,  bound  on 
to  the  foot  by  thongs ;  but  it  may  sometimes  de- 
note such  shoes  and  buskins  as  eventually  came 
into  use. 


I  SANDAL 

Ladies  of  rank  appear  to  have  paid  great  atten- 
tion to  the  beaut)^  of  their  sandafs  (Cant,  vii  :i)  ; 
though,  if  the  bride  in  that  book  was  an  Egyp- 
tian princess,  as  some  suppose,  the  exclamation, 
'How  beautiful  are  thy  feet  with  sandals,  O 
prince's  daughter  1'  may  imply  admiration  of  a 
luxury  properly  Egyptian,  as  the  ladles  of  that 
country  were  noted  for  their  sumptuous  sandals 
(Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egypt,  iii.  364).  But  this  taste 
was  probably  general ;  for,  at  the  present  day,  the 
dress  slippers  of  ladies  of  rank  are  among  the 
richest  articles  of  their  attire,  being  elaborately 
embroidered  with  flowers  and  other  figures 
wrought  in  silk,  silver,  and  gold. 

It  does  not  seem  probable  that  the  sandals  of 
the  Hebrews  diflered  much  from  those  used  in 
Egypt,  excepting,  perhaps,  that  from  the  greater 
roughness  of  their  country,  they  were  ususlly  of 
more  substantial  make  and  materials.  The  Egyp- 
tian sandals  varied  slightly  In  form;  those  worn 
by  the  upper  classes,  and  by  women,  were  usually 
pointed  and  turned  up  at  the  end,  like  our  skates, 
and  many  of  the  Eastern  slippers  at  the  present 
day.  They  were  made  of  a  sort  of  woven  or  in- 
terlaced work  of  palm-leaves  and  papyrus -stalks, 
or  other  similar  materials,  and  sometimes  of 
leather;  and  were  frequently  lined  with  cloth, 
on  which  the  figure  of  a  captive  was  painted; 
that  humiliating  position  being  considered  suited 
to  the  enemies  of  their  country,  whom  they  hated 
and  despised.  It  is  not  likely  that  the  Jews 
adopted  this  practice ;  but  the  idea  which  it  ex- 
pressed, of  treading  their  enemies  under  their 
feet,  was  familiar  to  them  (Josh.  x:24).    Those  of 

m 


In  transferring  a  possession  or  domain,  It  v 
customary  to  deliver  a  sandal  (Ruth  iv:7),  as 
our  middle  ages,  a  glove.     Hence  the  action 


SANHEDRIM  16! 

Arowing  down  a  shoe  upon  a  region  or  territory 
was  a  symbol  of  occupancy.  So  Ps.  Ix  :8,  'Upon 
the  land  of  Edom  do  I  cast  my  sandal ;'  i.  «.,  I 
possess,  occupy  it,  claim  it  as  my  own.  In  Ruth, 
as  above,  the  delivering  of  a  sandal  signified  that 
the  next  of  kjn  transferred  to  another  a  sacred 
obligation;  and  he  was  hence  called  'sandal- 
It  was  undoubtedly  the  custom  to  take  ofF  the 
sandals  on  holy  ground,  in  the  act  of  worship, 
and  in  the  presence  of  a  superior.  Hence  the 
command  to  take  [he  sandals  from  the  feet  under 
such  circumstances  (Exod.  iii:5;  Josh.  v:i5). 
This  is  still  the  well-known  custom  of  the  East— 
an  Oriental  taking  off  his  shoe  in  cases  in  which 
a  European  would  remove  his  hat.  The  shoes 
of  the  modern  Orientals  are,  however,  made  to 
slip  off  easily,  which  was  not  the  case  with  san- 
dalt,  that  required  to  be  unbound  with  some 
trouble.  This  operation  was  uaually  performed 
by  servants;  and  hence  the  act  of  unloosing  the 
sandals  of  another  became  a  familiar  symbol  of 
servitude  (Mark  '1:7;  Luke  iii;i6;  John  i:27). 

BANHESBIH  (s!En'he- drim),  more  properly 
SAlfHEDRIH  (Heb.  "("iVi^.  san-ke-dreen- ;  Gr. 
nptSptor,  toen-ed ree-on,  supreme  council),  the  su- 
preme judicial  council  of  the  Jews,  especially  for 
religious  affairs. 

(1)  Composition.  This  council  consisted  of 
seventy    members.      Some    give   the    number  at 


Sanhedfim  in  SsMion. 

seventy-two,  but  for  this  there  appears  no  suffi- 
cient authority-  To  this  number  the  high-priest 
was  added,  'provided  he  was  a  man  endowed 
with  wisdom'  (Maimonid.  Sanked.  chap.  2).  Re- 
garding the  class  of  the  Jewish  people  from 
which  these  were  chosen,  there  is  some  uncer- 
tainty. Maimonides  {Sanhed.  chap.  2)  tells  us 
that  this  council  was  composed  'of  Priests,  Levites 
and  Israelites,  whose  rank  entitled  them  to  be 
associated  with  priests.'  Dr.  Jost,  the  learned 
historian  of  his  nation,  simply  says:  'The  mem- 
bers of  the  council  were  chosen  from  among  the 
people;'  and  more  ijarticularly  in  another  place 
he  remarks:  'These  judges  consisted  of  the  most 
eminent  priests,  and  of  the  scribes  of  the  people, 
who  were  chosen  for  life,  but  each  of  whom  had 
to  look  to  his  own  industry  for  his  support^ 
(Geschichle  der  hraeliten  seil  der  Zeit  der  Mak- 
taiaer,  th.  i,  s.  49;  iii.  86).  The  statement  in 
this  latter  passage  corresponds  with  the  terms 
used  in  Matt,  ii  :4,  where  the  council  convened  by 
Herod,  in  consequence  of  what  the  wise  men 
of  the  East  had  told  him,  is  described  as  com- 
posed of  'all  the  chief  priests  and  scribes  of  the 
people;'  the  former  or  whom  Lighlfoot  (ffor. 
tieb.  et  Talm.  in  loc.)  explains  as  the  clerical, 
the  latter  as  the  laical,  members  of  the  Sanhedrim. 
^  other  passages  of  the  New  Testament  we  meet 


SANHEDRIM 


with  the  threefold  enumeration.  Priests,  Elders 
and  Scribes  (Matt,  xvi  :2i ;  xxvi  :3.  57,  etc.)  ;  and 
this  is  the  description  which  most  frequently  oc- 
curs. By  the  first  are  to  be  understood,  not  such 
as  had  sustained  the  office  of  high -priest,  but  the 
chief  men  among  the  priests;  probably  the  presi- 
dents of  the  twenty-four  classes  into  which  the 
priesthood  was  divided  (i  Chron.  xxiv:l-6;  comp. 
the  use  of  the  phrase  2  Chron.  xxxvi;i4). 

By  the  second,  we  are  probably  to  understan'' 
the  select  men  of  the  people — the  Aldermen — pel 
sons  whose  rank  or  standing  led  to  their  being 
raised  to  this  distinction.  And  by  the  last  are 
designated  those,  wliether  of  the  Levitical  fam- 
ily or  not,  who  gave  themselves  to  the  pursuit 
of  learning,  especially  to  the  interpretation  ol 
Scripture,  and  of  the  traditions  of  the  fathers. 

(a)  Omcers.    In  the  council  the  office  of  presi- 
dent belonged  to  the  high-priest,  if  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  it ;  when  he  was  not,  it  is  uncertain  whether 
a  substitute  was  provided,  or  his  place  occupied 
by  the  person  next  in  rank.    He  bore  the  title  of 
chief  or  president;  and  it  was  his  prerogative  to 
summon  the  council  together,  as  well  as  to  pre- 
side over  its  deliberations.    When  he  entered  the 
assembly,    alt    the   members    rose    and    remained 
standing  until   he   requested   them   to  sit.     Next 
in  rank  to  him  was  the  vice-president,  who  bore 
the  title  of  Father  of  the  House  of  Judgment; 
whose  duty  it  was   to  supply  the  place  of  the 
president  in  case  he  should  be  prevented  by  any 
accidental  cause  from  discharging  his  duties 
himself.     When  the  president   was  present, 
this  officer  sat  at  his  right  hand.    The  third 
grade   of  rank  was  that  of  the  sage,  whose 
business  was  to  give  counsel  to  the  assem- 
bly,  and   who  was   generally   selected  to  his 
office  on  account  of  his  sagacity  and  knowl- 
edge of  the  law.    His  place  was  on  the  left 
hand  of  the  president.     The  assembly,  when 
convened,  sat  in  the  form  of  a    semicircle, 
or   half-moon,   the   president    occupying   the 
center.     At   each  extremity  stood  a  scribe, 
whose  duty  it   was  to  record  the  sentence 
pronounced  by  the  council. 

The  meetings  of  this  council  were  usually 
held   in  the  morning.     Their  place  of  meet- 
ing was  a  hall,  close  by  the  great  gate  of  the 
Temple,  and  leading  from  the  outer  court  of 
the   women  to   the   holy   place.     In  cases   of  ur- 
gency the  Sanhedrim  mifiht  be  convened  in  the 
house  of  the  high-priest   (Matt,  xxvi  13). 

(3)  runctions.  The  functions  of  the  Sanhe- 
drim were,  according  to  the  Jewish  writers,  co- 
extensive with  the  civil  and  religious  relations  of 
the  people.  In  their  hands,  we  arc  told,  was 
placed  the  supreme  authority  in  all  things ;  they 
interpreted  the  law,  they  appointed  sacred  rites, 
thw  imposed  tributes,  they  decreed  war,  they 
judged  in  capital  cases;  in  short,  they  engrossed 
the  supreme  authority,  legislative,  executive,  and 
judicial.  In  this  there  is  no  small  exaggeration; 
at  least,  none  of  the  historical  facts  which  have 
come  down  to  us  confirm  this  description  of  the 
extent  of  the  powers  of  the  Sandhedrim;  whilst 
some  of  these  tacts,  such  as  the  existence  of  civil 
officers  armed  with  appropriate  authority,  seem 
directly  opposed  to  it.  In  the  notices  of  this  body, 
contained  in  the  New  Testament,  we  find  nothing 
which  would  lead  us  to  infer  that  their  powers 
extended  beyond  matters  of  a  religious  kind. 
Questions  of  blasphemy,  of  sabbath -breaking,  of 
heresy,  are  those  alone  which  we  find  referred  to 
their  judicature  (comp.  Matt.  xxvi:s7-65;  Acts 
vtiy,  sq.,  etc.)  On  those  guilty  of  these  crimes 
they  could  pronounce  sentence  of  death ;  but,  under 
the  Roman  government,  it  was  not  competent  for 


SANHEDRIM 


1523 


SAPPHIRA 


Ihem  to  execute  this  sentence;  their  power  ter- 
minated with  the  pronouncing  of  a  decision  and 
the  transmission  of  this  to  the  procurator,  with 
whom  it  rested,  to  execute  it  or  not  as  he  saw 
meet  (John  xviii:3i;  Matt.  xxvii:i,  2).  Hence 
the  unseemly  readiness  of  this  council  to  call  in 
the  aid  of  the  assassin  for  the  purpose  of  destroy- 
ing those  who  were  obnoxious  to  them  (Acts 
y:33;  xxiii:i2-i5).  The  case  of  Stephen  may 
seem  to  furnish  an  objection  to  this  statement; 
but  as  his  martyrdom  occurred  at  a  time  when 
the  Roman  procurator  was  absent,  and  was  alto- 
gether a  tumultuous  procedure,  it  cannot  be  al- 
lowed to  stand  for  more  than  a  casual  exception 
to  the  general  rule.  Josephus  informs  us  that, 
after  the  death  of  Festus,  and  before  the  arrival 
of  his  successor,  the  high-priest  Annas,  availing 
himself  of  the  opportunity  thus  afforded,  sum- 
moned a  meeting  of  the  Sanhedrim,  and  con- 
demned James,  the  brother  of  Jesus,  with  several 
others,  to  suffer  death  by  stoninp^.  This  license, 
however,  was  viewed  with  much  displeasure  by  the 
new  procurator,  Albinus,  and  led  to  the  depositipn 
of  Annas  from  the  office  of  high-priest  (Antiq, 
XX 10  I   2). 

(4)  Time  of  Origin.  At  what  period  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Jews  the  Sanhedrim  arose  is  involved 
in  much  uncertainty.  The  Jews,  ever  prone  to 
invest  with  the  honors  of  remote  antiquity  all  the 
institutions  of  their  nation,  trace  this  council  to 
the  times  of  Moses,  and  find  the  origin  of  it  in  the 
appointment  of  a  body  of  elders  as  the  assistants 
of  Moses  in  the  discharge  of  his  judicial  functions 
(Num.  xi:i6,  17).  There  is  no  evidence,  how- 
ever, that  this  was  any  other  than  a  temporary 
arrangement  for  the  benefit  of  Moses;  nor  do 
we,  in  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
detect  any  traces  whatever  of  the  existence  of 
this  council  in  the  times  preceding  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  nor  in  those  immediately  succeeding 
the  return  of  the  Jews  to  their  own  land.  The 
earliest  mention  of  the  existence  of  this  council 
by  Josephus,  is  in  connection  with  the  reign  of 
Hyrcanus  H,  B.  C.  69  (Antiq.  xiv.  9,  3).  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  it  existed  before  this  time 
— that  it  arose  gradually  after  the  cessation  of  the 
prophetic  office  in  Judah,  in  consequence  of  the 
felt  want  of  some  supreme  direction  and  judicial 
authority— that  the  number  of  its  members  was 
fixed  so  as  to  correspond  with  that  of  the  council 
of  elders  appointed  to  assist  Moses-^and  that  it 
first  assumed  a  formal  and  influential  existence 
in  the  later  years  of  the  Macedo-Grecian  dynasty. 
This  view  is  confirmed  by  the  allusions  made  to 
it  in  the  Apocryphal  books  (2  Mace.  i.  10;  iv.  44; 
xiv.  5;  Judith  xi.  14,  etc.)  ;  and  perhaps,  also,  by 
the  circumstance  that  the  use  of  the  name  saneo- 
rion,  from  which  the  Hebrews  formed  their  word 
Sanhedrim,  indicates  a  Macedonian  origin  (comp. 
Livy,  xlv.  32). 

(5)  Smaller  Sanhedrims.  The  Talmudical 
writers  tell  us  that,  besides  the  Sanhedrim  prop- 
erly so  called,  there  was  in  every  town  containing 
not  fewer  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  inhab- 
itants a  smaller  sanhedrim,  consisting  of  twenty- 
three  members,  before  which  lesser  causes  were 
tried,  and  from  the  decisions  of  which  an  appeal 
lay  to  the  supreme  council.  Two  such  smaller 
councils  are  said  to  have  existed  at  Jerusalem.  It 
is  to  this  class  of  tribunals  that  our  Lord  is  sup- 
posed to  allude,  under  the  term  krisis,  in  Matt. 
V  :22.  Where  the  number  of  inhabitants  was  under 
one  hundred  and  twenty,  a  council  of  three  adjudi- 
cated in  all  civil  questions.  What  brings  insuper- 
able doubt  upon  this  tradition  is,  that  Josephus, 
who  must  from  his  position  have  been  intimately 
acquainted  with   all   the   judicial   institutions   d 


his  nation,  not  only  does  not  mention  these  smaller 
councils,  but  says,  that  the  court  next  below  the 
Sanhedrim  was  composed  of  seven  members.  At- 
tempts have  been  made  to  reconcile  the  two  ac- 
counts, but  without  success;  and  it  seems  now 
very  generally  agreed,  that  the  account  of  Josephus 
is  to  be  preferred  to  that  of  the  Mishna;  and 
that,  consequently,  it  is  to  the  tribunal  of  the  seven 
judges  that  our  Lord  applies  the  term  icptait  in 
the  passage  referred  to  (Tholuck,  Bergtredigi,  in 
loc,  Eng.  Transl.  vol.  i.  p.  241;  Kuinoel,  tn  loc; 
comp.  Otho,  Lexicon  Rabbinico-Philolog.  in  voce; 
Selden,  De  Synedriis  Veterum  Ebraiorum,  ii,  95, 
sq.;  Reland,  Antiq.  ii.  7;  Tahn,  Archceologie,  ii.  2, 
sec.  186;  Pareau,  Antiq.  neb.  iii.  i,  4;  Lightfoot, 
Works,  plur.  locis;  Hartmann,  Enge  Verbindung 
des  Alien  Test,  mit  dem  Neuen,  s.  166,  sq.,  etc.), 

W.  L.  A. 

SANSANKAH  (san-s^'nah),  (Heb.  ^i^i^,  san- 

san-naw\  palm-branch;  Gr.  Zaviravvd,  sansanna), 

A  town  in  the  south  of  Judah;  perhaps  the 
same  as  Hazarsusah  or  Hazar-susim  (Josh,  xix: 
5;  I  Chron.  iv:3i),  the  latter  being  simply  sec- 
ondary names,  meaning  horse  court.  Lieut,  (bon- 
der (Tent  Work  in  Palest.,  ii.  339)  thinks  that  it 
was  at  Beit-sustn,  east  of  the  valley  of  Sorek. 

SAFH  (sif),  (Heb.  ^9,  saf,  a  threshold  or  dish). 

a  Philistine  of  the  race  of  Rapha.  He  was 
a  giant  in  stature  and  died  at  the  hands  of  Sib- 
bechai  the  Hushathite  (2  Sam.  xxi:i8).  B.  C. 
about  1050.    He  is  called  Sippai  (i  Chron.  xx:4). 

SAFHIB  (sa'fer),  (Heb.  "'^P^,  shaw-feer',  Sha- 

phir,  fair,  beautiful),  a  place  in  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  (Mic.  i:ii).  Robinson  locates  it  at  Su- 
wafir,  or  Suafir,  five  miles  southeast  of  Ashdod. 

SAPPHTRA  (s&f.fi'ra),  (Gr.  2oir0€f/»ij,  sap-fi'ray, 
a  sapphire  stone,  beautiful),  the  wife  of  Ananias, 
and  nis  accomplice  in  the  sin  for  which  he  died 
(Acts  v:i-io),  A.  D.  30. 

Unaware  of  the  judgment  which  had  befallen 
her  husband,  she  entered  the  place  about  three 
hours  after,  probably  to  look  for  him;  and  being 
there  interrogated  by  Peter,  repeated  and  per- 
sisted in  the  iie  unto  the  Holy  Ghost,'  which  had 
destroyed  her  husband;  on  which  the  grieved 
apostle  made  known  to  her  his  doom,  and  pro- 
nounced her  own — 'Behold,  the  feet  of  those  who 
have  buried  thy  husband  are  at  the  door,  and 
shall  carry  thee  out.'  On  hearing  these  awful 
words  she  fell  dead  at  his  feet. 

As  the  offense  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira  was 
not  a  very  heinous  one  a  number  of  conjectures 
have  been  formed  as  to  the  reasons  which  induced 
the  Holy  Spirit  so  visibly  and  suddenly  to  punish 
their  falsehood.  It  is  supposed  they  might  pos- 
sibly be  as  follows:  (i)  In  the  infancy  of  the 
church,  to  give  a  solemn  publicity  and  a  self- 
evident  sanction  to  the  doctrine  introduced;  not 
merely  by  miracles  of  advantage  (as  healing), 
but  by  miracles  of  punishment.  (2)  To  deter 
those  who  through  worldly  motives  of  gain,  or 
with  a  design  to  participate  in  the  profits  of  the 
goods  sold,  might  join  the  Christian  church.  (3) 
To  deter  spies,  and  false  brethren,  who  could  not 
but  be  aware  of  the  danger  of  detection,  in  all 
cases,  after  this  event.  If  Ananias  only  had  di 
he  remarks,  it  might  have  seemed  a  mere  suddi.j 
death,  produced  by  a  natural  cause.  By  this  awful 
event,  the  (jospel  was  in  some  degree  assimilated 
to  the  law.  Directly  after  the  injunction  of  the 
Sabbath  was  given,  the  Sabbath  breaker  was  or- 
dered to  be  stoned  (Num.  xv:35,  36);  so,  after 
the  consecration  of  the  holy  altar,  the  sons  of 
Aaron,  who  offered  profane  fire  in  their  censers, 


SAPPHIRE 


1524 


SARDIS 


were  destroyed  (Lev.  x:i,  2).  The  same  thing 
occurred  in  the  case  of  Achan  (Josh,  vii),  and  in 
other  instances. 

It  is  evident  that  in  this  and  similar  events, 
there  must  have  been  a  conviction  produced  in 
the  minds  of  spectators,  that  some  extraordinary 
power  was  exerted.  Had  it  been  thought  that 
Peter  himself  slew  Ananias,  he  had,  no  doubt, 
been  rendered  amenable  to  the  laws  as  a  mur- 
derer. But,  if  it  was  evident  that  the  apostle 
only  forewarned  him  that  he  should  die,  then  (as 
Tio  man  has  power  to  kill  another  by  his  word 
only)  it  must  have  been  equally  evident  that  the 
power  which  attended  the  word  of  Peter  did  not 
proceed  from  himself,  but  from  God,  who  only 
has  the  keys  of  life  and  death.  So,  in  like  man* 
ner,  the  power  which  opened  the  earth  to  swal- 
low down  Korah.  was  not  from  Moses,  person- 
ally, but  from  him  in  whose  name  he  spake  (Num. 
xvi  124)  ;  though  the  people  afterwards  stupidly 
accused  him  of  having  killed  the  people  of  the 
Lord.    (See  Ananias;  Peter.) 

SAFFHIBB   (saf'ir),    (Heb.    ">^?P,    sap-peer'  ; 

Gr.  ^dir0ecpof,  sap*fi-^ros\  a  precious  stone,  men- 
tioned in  Exod.  xxiv:io;  xxviii:i8;  Job  xxviii:i6; 
Ezek.  xxviii:i3;  Rev.  xxi:i9. 

That  which  we  call  sapphire  is  next  in  hard- 
ness and  value  to  the  diamond,  and  is  mostly  of  a 
blue  color  of  various  shades.  But  the  stone 
which  Pliny  describes  under  the  name  of  Sap- 
phire (Hist.  Nat,  xxxvii,  39),  in  agreement 
with  Theophrastus  (De  Lapid.  23),  is  manifestly 
the  lapis  lazuli.  It  is  opaque,  inclines  often  to  the 
deep  blue  color  of  the  violet,  and  has  sometimes 
pebble  spots  of  a  golden  yellow  hue.  This  stone, 
however,  is  not  suflSciently  valuable  for  Job 
xxviii:i6;  and  Pliny  says  that  it  \s*inutilis  sculp- 
turtB'  which  does  not  apply  to  the  'sapphire'  of 
Exod.  xxviii:i8,  which  was  engraved.  It  seems, 
therefore,  likely  that,  notwithstanding  the  clas- 
sical appropriation  of  the  name  to  the  lapis  la- 
zuli, the  true  sapphire,  or  rather  that  which  we 
call  such,  is  the  stone  mentioned  in  Scripture. 
It  is  often  found  in  collections  of  ancient  gems. 

SABA  (sa'rd),  (Heb.  xi:ii;  I  Pet.  iii:6).  See 
Sarah. 

ffATt.A-nrM'  (sa-rd'bTm).    See  Thorns. 


(sa'rah). 

1.   Heb.   *w^f  saw-raw\  princess,   originally 

^2^,  saw-rah'ee).    The  wife  of  Abraham,  ten  years 

his  junior,  married  to  him  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees 
(Gen.  xi:28-ji:  xvii:i7).  Hemakesherhishalf-sister 
bemg  the  daughter  of  his  father,  but  not  of  his 
mother  (xx:i2).  Her  name  was  originally  Sarai, 
meaning  perhaps  princely  or  contentious.  When 
Abraham  departed  from  Haran  to  go  to  Canaan, 
Sarai  was  about  sixty-five  years  old  (xii:4).  Evi- 
dently she  was  a  well-preserved  woman;  for  she 
lived  to  be  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  years 
old.  Shortly  after  leaving  Haran,  when  about  to 
enter  Egypt,  Abraham  feared  lest  her  beauty 
should  attract  the  Egyptians  and  lead  to  his  mur- 
der, and  he  represented  that  she  was  his  sister, 
when  taken  by  Pharaoh,  keeping  back  the  fact 
that  she  was  his  wife.  Years  later  he  did  so  again 
at  the  court  of  Abimelech,  king  of  Gerar  (xx: 
1-18).  Why  he  did  so  it  is  not  stated,  nor  is  it 
said  that  Abimelech  was  influenced  by  her  beauty. 
The  king  of  Gerar  may  have  thought  of  the  de- 
sirability of  an  alliance  with  the  powerful  He- 
brew chieftain,  and,  with  this  end  in  view^  deter- 
mined to  take  a  woman  of  the  immediate  family 
of  Abraham  into  his  harem,  as  was  frequently 
done  by  princes  of  that  period  when  they  con- 
cluded alliances. 


(1)  Hagar.  Sarai  had  a  female  slave,  Hagar, 
but  she  herself  worked  for  the  household  with 
her  own  hand  (Gen.  xviii  :6) .  Sarai  was  childless ; 
and  when  about  seventy-five  years  old  she  con.- 
cluded  that  she  was  an  obstacle  to  the  promise 
made  to  Abraham  of  numerous  posterity,  and  she 
entreated  her  husband  to  take  Hagar  as  a  sec- 
ondary wife.  He  did  so,  apparently  without  ask- 
ing divine  direction  before  doing  so,  and  became 
the  father  of  Ishmael  (xvi:i-i6). 

(2)  Birth  of  Isaac.  Afterwards  Sarai,  when 
about  eighty-nine,  received  a  promise  from  God 
that  she  should  herself  bear  a  son  (comp.  Heb. 
xi:ii,  12),  and  in  the  course  of  a  year  gave  birth 
to  Isaac,  the  child  of  promise.  It  was  when  this 
promise  was  made  to  her  that  God  changed  her 
name  to  Sarah,  meaning  princess  (Gen.  xvii:i5- 
22;  xviii  :9-i5;  xxi:i-5). 

(3)  Expulsion  of  Hagar  and  Ishmael.  When 
Isaac  was  weaned,  she  was  provoked  with  Ish- 
mael's  ill  usage  of  the  boy,  and  never  rested  till 
Hagar  and  Ishmael  were  both  expelled  from  the 
family. 

(4)  Death.  Not  long  after  the  intended  sac- 
rifice of  Isaac  (which  she  seems  to  have  known 
nothing  of  till  it  was  over)  Sarah  died  at  Kir- 
jath-arba  (Hebron)  at  the  age  of  127  (xxiiiri. 
2),  and  was  buried  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah, 
which  Abraham  purchased  at  that  time  for  a  fam- 
ily sepulcher. 

(5)  New  Testament  Bef  erence.  St.  Paul  rep- 
resents her  as  a  noted  believer,  an  eminent  pat- 
tern in  the  honoring  of  her  husband,  and  an  em- 
blem of  the  covenant  of  grace,  and  the  gospel  dis- 
pensation (Heb.  xi:ii;  i  Pet.  iii:6;  Gal.  iv:22- 
30-     (See    Abraham.) 

2.  (Heb.  "n^,  seh'rakh,  superfluity),  Sarah,  the 

daughter  of  Asher  (Num.  xxvi:46),  called  Serah 
(Gen.  xlvi:i7).  (See  Serah.) 

SABAI  (sa'rai),  the  original  name  of  Sarah, 
Abraham's  wife,  and  always  used  in  the  history 
from  Gen.  xi:29  to  xvii:i5.    (See  Sarah.) 

SABAPH     (sa'raf),    (Heb.     -1^'?.    saw-rawf, 

burning,  fiery,  poisonous),  a  descendant  of  Shelah, 
the  son  of  Judah  (i  Chron.  iv:22).  He  was  at  one 
time  ruler  of  Moab  (B.  C.  about  1618). 

^  SABDINE  (sar'dgn).  (Heb.  0?^,  o'dem),  (Rev. 
>v:3),  a  gem.    See  Sardius. 

SABBIS  (sar'dis),  (Gr.  2c£p«eif,  sar'dice,  sardis), 
the  capital  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Lydia,  situ- 
ated at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tmolus,  in  a  fine  plain 
watered  by  the  river  Pactolus  (Herod,  vii,  31; 
Xenophon,  Cyrop.  vii,  2-11 ;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.; 
Strabo,  xiii,  p.  625).    It  is  in  N.  lat.  38''3o';  E.  long. 

Sardis  was  a  great  and  ancient  city,  and  from 
its  wealth  and  importance  was  the  object  of  much 
cupidity  and  of  many  sieges.  When  taken  by 
Cyrus,  under  Croesus,  its  last  king,  who  has  be- 
come proverbial  for  his  riches,  Sardis  was  one  of 
the  most  splendid  and  opulent  cities  of  the  East. 
After  their  victory  over  Antiochus  it  passed  to  the 
Romans,  under  whom  it  rapidly  declined  in  rank 
and  importance.  In  the  time  of  Til^rius  it  was 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake  (Strabo,  xii,  p.  579), 
but  was  rebuilt  by  order  of  the  emperor  (Tacit. 
Annal.  ii,  47).  The  inhabitants  of  Sardis  bore  an 
ill  repute  among  the  ancients  for  their  voluptuous 
habits  of  life.  Hence,  perhaps,  the  point  of  the 
phrase  in  the  Apocalyptic  message  to  the  city — 
*Thou  hast  a  few  names,  even  in  Sardis,  which 
have  not  defiled  their  garments*  (Rev.  iii:4";.  The 
place  that  Sardis  holds  in  this  message,  as  one 
of  the  'Seven  Churches  of  Asia,'  is  the  source  of 


SARDITE 


1525 


SARGON  11  AND  HIS  MONUMENTS 


the  peculiar  interest  with  which  the  Christian 
reader  regards  it.  From  what  is  said  it  appears 
that  it  had  already  declined  much  in  real  religion, 
although  it  still  maintained  the  name  and  external 
aspect  of  a  Christian  church,  'having  a  name  to 
live,  while  it  was  dead'  (Rev.  iii:i). 

Successive  earthquakes,  and  the  ravages  of  the 
Saracens  and  Turks,  have  reduced  this  once  flour- 
ishing^ city  to  a  heap  of  ruins,  presenting  many 
remams  of  its  former  splendor.  The  habitations 
of  the  living  are  confined  to  a  few  miserable  cot- 
tagts,  forming  a  village  called  Sart. 

SABDITE  (sar'dite),  (Heb.  **11B,  sar-dee'),  the 

patronymic  appellation  of  the  descendants  of 
Sered,the  son  of  Zebulun  (Num.  xxvi:26). 

SABDIUS  (sar'di-us),  (Heb.  ^%  o'dem;  Gr. 

tf-dpdiof,  sar'dee-os),  in  A.  V.  of  Rev.  iv:j,  sardine. 

The  name  sard  is  derived  from  Sardis  in  Lydia. 
The  sardius  is  a  variety  of  chalcedony,  which  the 
Greeks  called  sardios  and  sardton.  It  was  a 
precious  stone  (Rev.  iv:3),  and  constituted  the 
sixth  foundation  of  the  wall  about  the  New  Jeru- 
salem (xxi:2o).  Two  sorts,  distinguished  by  their 
color,  were  known  by  the  name  of  sardius;  the 
transparent  red  being  our  carnelian,  and  the 
brownish  red  being  the  variety  of  carnelian  to 
which  we  restrict  the  name  sardius.  According 
to  Pliny,  it  was  found  near  Sardis,  whence  it 
derived  its  name,  but  the  finest  qualities  were 
brought  from  Babylon.  The  best  carnelians  now 
come  from  India;  some  also  occur  in  Arabia, 
whence  the  ancient  Hebrews  may  have  obtained 
them. 

In  the  Old  Testament  sardius  is  the  rendering 
of  the  Hebrew  *Odem,  reddish  gem.  It  was  the 
first  stone  in  the  first  row  on  the  high-priest's 
breastplate  (Exod.  xxviii:i7),  and  was  one  of  the 
stones  with  which  Tyre  adorned  itself  (Ezek. 
xxviii:i3).  The  marginal  reading  is  ruby,  but 
the  Septuagint  renders  'odem  by  sardton.  So  does 
Josephus  in  one  place  (IVars,  v,  5,  7),  while  in 
another  he  has  sardonyx,  which  is  but  another 
variety  of  chalcedony  (Antiq.  iii,  7,  5;  Davis,  Bib, 
Diet.).     (See   Odem.) 

SABDONYX  (s^r'd6-nrks),  (Gr.  aapS6pv^,  sar- 
don'oox), 

A  variety  of  chalcedony,  called  by  the  Greeks 
sardonux,  finger-nail  onyx.  It  forms  the  fifth 
foundation  of  the  wall  surrounding  the  New  Jeru- 
salem (Rev.  xxi:2o).  It  is  like  the  onyx  in  struc- 
ture, but  includes  layers  of  carnelian  along  with 
others  of  white,  whitish-brown,  or  sometimes  of 
black  color.  It  was  obtained  chiefly  in  India  and 
Arabia  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  xxxvii,  23). 

SABEPTA  (sa-rgp'ta),  (Gr.  Zdpeirro,  sar'ep'tah, 
vale  of  the  watch  tower,  Luke  iv:26),  a  Phoenician 
town  between  Tyre  and  Sidon,  mentioned  in 
I  Kings  xvii:9,  10;  Obad.  20. 

It  is  the  place  where  Elijah  went  to  dwell,  and 
where  he  performed  the  miracle  of  multiplying 
the  barrel  of  meal  and  cruse  of  oil,  and  where  he 
raised  the  widow's  son  to  life.  It  still  subsists  as 
a  large  Village,  under  the  name  of  Sarafend. 

SABOOK  (sar'gon),  (Heb.l^>19.  5ar^gone%  king 
of  Assyria.    See  Assyria. 
SABOOK  n  AND  HIS  M0NT7MENTS.  "In 

the  year  that  Tartan  came  unto  Ashdod  (when 
Sargon,  the  king  of  Assyria,  sent  him)  and 
fought  against  Ashdod  and  took  it"  (Is.  xx:i). 

This  is  the  only  instance  in  which  Sargon  is 
mentioned  by  name  in  the  Scriptures,  and  we  are 
largely  dependent  upon  the  tablets  and  newly  dis- 
covered inscriptions  for  supplementary  informa- 
tion concerning  him. 


Professor  A.  H.  Sayce  says :  "Those  who  would 
learn  how  marvelously  the  monuments  of  Assyria 
illustrate  and  corroborate  the  pages  of  sacred  his- 
tory need  only  compare  the  records  they  contain 
with  the  narratives  of  the  Books  of  Kings,  which 
relate  to  the  same  period.  The  one  complements 
and  supplies  the  missing  chapters  of  the  other. 

"The  Bible  informs  us  why  Sennacherib  left 
Hezekiah  unpunished,  and  never  despatched  an- 
other army  to  Palestine;  the  cuneiform  annals 
explain  the  causes  of  his  murder,  and  the  reason 
of  the  flight  of  his  sons  to  Ararat  or  Armenia. 
The  single  passage  in  Scripture  in  which  the 
name  of  Sargon  is  mentioned,  no  longer  remains 
isolated  and  unintelligible ;  we  now  know  that  he 
was  of  the  most  powerful  of  Assyrian  Qonquerors, 
and  we  have  his  own  independent  testimony  to 
the  siege  and  capture  of  Ashdod,  which  is  the 
occasion  of  the  mention  of  his  name  in  Scripture. 

"Between  the  history  of  the  monuments  and 
the  history  in  the  Bible  there  is  perpetual  con- 
tact ;  and  the  voice  of  the  monuments  is  found  t» 
be  in  strict  harmony  with  that  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ments" (Pref.  Assyria), 

Dr.  J.  F.  McCurdy  says:  "The  name  Sargon 
is  the  Massoretic  or  traditional  Jewish  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  current  Assyrian  Sarken(u).  All 
the  modes  of  writing  it  which  have  come  down  to 
us  are  ideographic,  and  the  g  in  the  Hebrew 
word  may  confirm  the  supposition  that  *Sargon' 
is  the  same  name  as  Sargani,  the  famous  old  king 
of  Accad. 

"To  call  Sargon  a  usurper,  as  it  has  been  the 
fashion  to  do,  is  to  use  a  misleading  term.  Winck- 
ler  ('Keilschrifttexte  Sargon's,'  vol.  i,  p.  13), 
with  others,  cites  in  support  of  this  contention, 
that  neither  Sargon  himself,  nor  his  son  Sen- 
nacherib, makes  mention  of  his  ancestry,  and 
maintains,  what  is  probable  enough,  that  the  ge- 
nealogy found  in  inscriptions  of  Esar-haddon,  in 
which  descent  is  claimed  from  very  ancient  kings, 
otherwise  unknown,  is  an  invention  of  the  court 
historians.  All  this,  however,  would  only  prove 
that  Sargon  was  not  of  the  kingly  line.  If  Shal- 
maneser  IV,  as  is  most  likely,  was  childless,  he 
would  be  bound  to  name  some  one  as  his  suc- 
cessor, and  he  may  very  well  have  named  a  dis- 
tinguished young  general  like  Sargon"  (History, 
Prophecy  and  the  Monuments,  vol.  i,  p.  423). 

Sargon  had  hardly  established  himself  on  the 
throne  when  Samaria  fell  (B.  C.  722),  it  having 
been  besieged  by  Shalmaneser  (2  Kings  xviiirp). 
(See  Samaria  and  the  Monuments.) 

Sargon  was  a  rough  but  able  soldier,  and  under 
him  the  Assyrian  army  became  irresistible.  His 
reign  witnessed  the  consolidation  of  the  empire, 
and  the  fulfillment  to  a  great  extent  of  the  de- 
signs of  Tiglath-pileser.  (See  Tiglath-pileser 
III.) 

The  main  object  of  his  policy  and  military  cam- 
paigns were  twofold.  On  the  one  side,  he  aimed 
at  turning  the  whole  of  Western  Asia  into  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  Assyrian  dominion,  and  thus 
diverting  the  maritime  trade  of  Phoenicia  and  the 
inland  trade  of  the  Hittites  into  Assyrian  hands. 
On  the  other,  he  desired  to  consecrate  and  legiti- 
mize his  power  by  the  possession  of  Babylonia. 

Tiglath-pileser  III  hsul  made  himself  master  of 
Babylonia  immediately  after  his  conquest  of  Da- 
mascus, and  a  year  or  two  before  his  death  had 
"taken  the  hand  of  Bel,"  a  ceremony  which  an- 
nounced to  the  world  that  the  chief  god  of  Baby- 
lon had  accepted  him  as  the  lawful  defender  of 
the  city.  For  the  time  being,  however,  the  claim 
could  only  be  asserted — it  could  not  be  made 
good.     Sargon   busied   himself   for   a   time    in 


SARGON  II  AND  HIS  MONUMENTS       1526       SARGON  II  AND  HIS  MONUMENTS 


itrengthening  his  northern  and  eastern  frontiers 
against  the  wild  tribes  of  Kurdistan,  and  in  com- 
pleting the  subjugation  of  Western  Asia. 

Two  years  after  the  fall  of  Samaria  he  had 
again  been  summoned  to  war.  Hamath  had  broken 
into  revolt,  and  induced  Damascus,  Arpad  and 
Samaria  to  follow  her  example.  Promises  of  aid 
had  been  received  from  Egypt,  while  the  restless 
Khamin  of  Gaza  had  again  declared  himself  in- 
dependent of  Assyria.  It  is  possible  that  Heze- 
kiah,  who  had  now  succeeded  his  father  Ahaz  as 
the  king  of  Israel,  may  also  have  been  concerned 
in  the  movement.  At  all  events  the  name  of  the 
Hamathite  king  Yahu-bihdi,  which  is  once  writ- 
ten El-bihdi,  contains  the  name  of  the  God  of 
Israel,  and  the  friendship  between  Hamath  and 
Judah  was  of  long  standing. 

The  rebels,  however,  proved  no  match  for  the 
Assyrian  king.  Yahu-bihdi  was  captured  at 
Aroer  and  flayed  alive.  Hamath  was  colonized  by 
Assyrians  under  an  Assyrian  governor,  while  its 
former  inhabitants  were  transplanted  to  Samaria. 
The  Assyrian  army  then  marched  southward,  the 
Egyptian  forces  being  routed  at  Raphia,  and  for 
nine  years  Palestine  remained  sullenly  submissive 
to  Assyrian  rule. 

The  interval  was  used  by  Sargon  in  securing 
his  road  to  the  Mediterranean.  Carchemish,  the 
rich  capital  of  the  Hittites  south  of  the  Taurus, 
fell  into  his  hands  (B.  C.  717),  and  henceforth  it 
became  the  seat  of  an  Assyrian  satrap. 

Assyria  was  now  connected  with  its  posses- 
sions in  the  west  by  a  well  guarded  and  continu- 
ous road.  The  tributary  kingdoms  which  lay 
south  of  the  Assyrian  satrapy  of  Samaria  served 
only  as  a  thin  screen  of  division  between  the  de- 
caying power  of  Egypt  and  the  ever  increasing 
and  ever  menacing  might  of  Nineveh.  The  As- 
syrian had  indeed  come  in  like  a  flood. 

In  the  south  Merodach-baladan,  backed  by  the 
armies  of  Elam,  still  governed  an  independent 
Babylonia;  but  as  year  after  year  went  by  the 
power  of  Sargon  steadily  grew,  and  consolidated. 
Merodach-baladan  saw  the  doom  that  awaited  him 
in  the  near  future.  It  could  not  be  long  before  the 
Assyrian  kin^  would  consider  that  the  time  was 
ripe  for  an  mvasion  of  Babylonia,  although  for 
twelve  years  the  "son  of  Vagina"  had  succeeded 
in  keeping  him  at  bay. 

Merodach-baladan  therefore  determined  to  an- 
ticipate the  attack.  In  the  neighboring  monarchy 
of  Elam  he  had  a  powerful  though  untrustworthy 
ally ;  but  his  only  chance  of  successfully  resisting 
the  invader  was  by  compelling  him  to  divide  his 
forces.  If  he  could  induce  Egypt  and  Palestine  to 
rise  in  arms,  at  the  same  time  that  he  himself  fell 
upon  Sargon  from  the  south,  there  was  a  hope 
that  the  common  enemy  could  be  crushed,  and 
that  the  terrible  scourge  which  was  afflicting  all 
Western  Asia  might  be  exterminated. 

In  the  fourteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Hezekiah 
(B.  C.  711)  ambassadors  came  from  the  court  of 
Babylon  under  the  pretext  of  congratulating  the 
Jewish  king  on  his  recovery  from  sickness.  Their 
real  object,  however,  was  something  very  differ- 
ent. It  was  to  concert  measures  with  Hezekiah 
for  a  general  uprising  in  the  West,  and  for  the 
formation  of  a  league  against  Sargon,  which 
should  embrace  Babylonia,  Palestine  and  Elam. 
Hezekiah  was  flattered  by  this  proof  of  his  own 
importance.  He  opened  the  gates  of  his  armory 
and  his  treasure  house. 

"At  that  time  Merodach-baladan,  king  of  Baby- 
lon, sent  letters  and  a  present  to  Hezekiah,  for  he 
had  heard  that  he  had  been  sick  and  was  re- 
covered" (Is.  xxxixii).  This  whole  chapter  is 
an  eloquent  description  of  the  folly  of  the  king, 


and  the  prophetic  denunciation  of  Isaiah.  But  tlie 
advice  of  the  prophet  was  ignored,  and  Hezekiah 
proved  himself  only  too  ready  to  ally  himself 
with  the  heathen  powers,  and  to  rely  for  salvation 
upon  an  "arm  of  flesh." 

Sargon,  however,  was  not  blind  to  what  was 
going  on,  and  he  resolved  to  strike  before  his 
enemies  could  unite  their  forces.  Palestine  was 
the  first  to  suffer.  Ashdod  had  become  the  center 
of  opposition  to  Assyrian  authority.  Its  punish- 
ment was  not  long  delayed.  Sargon  swept  "the 
widespread  land  of  Judah"  and  coerced  the  Edom- 
ites  and  the  Moabites,  while  the  Ethiopian  king 
of  Egypt  hid  himself  behind  the  frontiers  of  the 
Delta  (Is.  XX  :i).  The  Tartan,  or  commander-in- 
chief,  was  sent  against  Ashdod,  the  city  captured 
and  razed  to  the  ground,  its  inhabitants  sold  into 
slavery,  and  the  unfortunate  Yavan,  who  had  es- 
caped to  Egypt,  was  handed  over  by  his  cowardly 
hosts  to  the  mercy  of  his  enemy.  The  prophecy 
contained  in  chapters  x  and  xi  of  Isaiah  seems  to 
have  been  uttered,  when  the  implacable  Assyrian 
was  already  at  Nob,  within  a  day's  journey  of 
Jerusalem. 

'Ho!  Assyrian,  the  rod  of  mine  anger,  the 
staff  in  whose  hand  is  mine  indignation!  I  will 
send  him  against  a  profane  nation,  and  against  the 
people  of  my  wrath  I  will  give  him  a  charge,  to 
take  the  spoil  and  to  take  the  prey,  and  to  tread 
them  down  like  the  mire  of  the  streets'  (Is. 
x:5,  6). 

Read  the  whole  of  both  the  chapters  containing 
this  eloquent  prophecy  which  was  so  forcibly  fuC 
filled. 

This  description  cannot  apply  to  the  later  As- 
syrian advance  upon  Jerusalem  in  the  time  of 
Sennacherib;  this  was  made  from  the  southwest, 
from  the  direction  of  Lachish  and  Libnah  (not 
from  the  northeast),  along  the  highroad  whidi 
led  from  Syria  and  Samaria,  and  conducted  an  in- 
vadine  army  past  Michmash  and  Ramah,  Anathotb 
and  Nob. 

Moreover,  the  tone  adopted  by  Isaiah  is  very 
different  from  that  of  the  prophecy  he  was  com- 
missioned to  deliver,  when  the  hosts  of  Sen- 
nacherib were  threatening  the  sacred  city.  Then 
Hezekiah  and  his  people  were  encouraged  by  the 
promise  that  the  enemy  should  be  utterly  over- 
thrown; now,  on  the  contrary,  the  prophet  de- 
clares that  the  Assyrian  is  the  rod  of  God  s  anger, 
and  that  though  a  remnant  shall  return,  and  the 
oppressor  shall  be  punished,  it  shall  be  only  when 
the  measure  of  God's  chastisement  of  his  people 
shall  be  complete,  when  they  have  been  trodden 
down  like  the  mire  in  the  streets,  and  when  the 
high  ones  of  stature  have  been  hewn  down. 

The  contents  of  the  prophets  also  point  unmis- 
takably to  the  age  of  Sargon.  The  Assyrian  king 
is  made  to  boast  of  his  conquests  of  Carchemish 
and  Hamath,  of  Arpad,  Damascus  and  Samaria, 
all  of  them  being  the  achievements  of  Sargon,  not 
of  his  son  Sennacherib.  The  "burden"  of  chapter 
xxii  also  seems  to  belong  to  the  age  of  Sargon. 

Here  it  is  revealed  to  Isaiah  that  the  iniquity  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  shall  not  be  purged 
until  they  die,  and  all  the  agonies  of  a  protracted 
siege  are  represented  as  having  been  already  en- 
dured. The  rulers  of  the  city  have  fled  from  the 
foe,  its  streets  are  full  of  the  corpses  of  those 
who  have  died  of  famine,  the  hosts  of  Assyria 
occupy  the  valleys  around  it,  and  the  people  in 
their  despair  have  drowned  their  fears  in  a  last 
carousal.  No  part  of  this  picture  is  applicable  to 
the  campaign  of  Sennacherib,  when  the  Lord  de- 
fended His  city,  so  that  the  Assyrian  shot  not  an 
arrow  nor  cast  a  bank  against  it.  We  can  best 
explain  the  prophecy  and  the  occasion  that  called 


SARID 


1627 


SATAN 


it  forth  by  combining  the  words  of  Sargon  with 
those  of  Isaiah,  and  concluding  that  Sarin's  con- 
quest of  Judah  was  not  accomplished  without  the 
siege  and  capture  of  its  capital. 

Ten  years,  therefore,  before  the  campaign  of 
Sennacherib,  Jerusalem  had  felt  the  presence  of  an 
Assyrian  army,  a  fact  which  serves  to  explain  how 
that  "the  14th  year"  of  Hezekiah  slipped  into  the 
text  in  Is.  xxxvi:i  and  2  Kings  xviii:i3  in  place 
of  the  24th.  It  is  remarkable,  nevertheless,  that 
so  important  an  event  should  be  unrecorded  in  the 
Book  of  Kings.  Whatever  the  explanation  of  this 
may  be,  the  incident  is  a  curious  illustration  of  the 
way  in  which  the  recently  discovered  and  trans- 
lated Assyrian  records  tend  to  confirm  Biblical 
historical  records. 

The  fate  of  Merodach-baladan  was  now  sealed. 
The  year  after  the  suppression  of  the  revolt 'in  the 
West  (B.  C.  710),  Sargon  hurled  the  whole  power 
of  the  Assyrian  empire  against  Babylonia.  The 
Babylonian  king  made  a  vain  effort  to  resist.  His 
allies  from  Elam  were  driven  back  into  the  moun- 
tains, and  Merodach  himself  was  obliged  to  re- 
treat to  his  ancestral  marshes,  leaving  Babylon  in 
the  hands  of  the  conqueror.  Sargon  now  took  the 
title  of  king  of  Babylonia,  but  he  was  murdered 
B.  C.  705,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Senna- 
cherib.   (See  Sennacherib.) 

The  conquest  of  Judah  by  Sargon  ten  years  be- 
fore the  invasion  of  Sennacherib  is  another  in- 
stance of  the  unexpected  light  which  the  Assyrian 
inscriptions  have  cast  upon  the  pages  of  the  Old 
Testament.  The  difficulties  presented  by  the  tenth 
and  twenty-second  chapters  of  the  Book  of  Isaiah 
have  been  removed,  as  well  as  the  apparent  incon- 
sistencies in  the  account  given  by  the  sacred  his- 
torian of  the  campaign  of  Sennacherib  against 
Hezekiah. 

A  full  discussion  of  this  point,  however,  belongs 
to  a  critical  introduction  to  the  text  of  Isaiah 
rather  than  to  a  description  of  the  age  in  which  the 
prophet  lived,  and  those  who  wish  to  study  it  may 
do  so  in  Canon  Cheyne's  well-known  Commen- 
tary Upon  Isaiah  (A.  H.  Sayce,  M.  A.,  Times  of 
Isaiah,  pp.  7,  49,  61).    (See  Assyria.) 

SABID  (sa'rid),  (Heb.  ^""^ ,  sawreed' ,  one  left, 
a  survivor;  ZopM,  sarid). 

The  chief  landmark  on  the  southern  boundary 
of  the  tribe  of  Zebulun,  west  of  Chisloth  Tabor 
(Josh,  xixiio,  12).  Its  site  is,  perhaps,  Tell  Sha- 
dud,  five  miles  southwest  of  Nazareth.  Keil 
{Com.)  suggests  that  it  may  be  found  in  ope  of 
the  two  heaps  of  ruins  on  the  south  side  of  the 
n»odern  "Mount  of  Precipitation,"  viz.,  those  near 
El-Mezrach.  on  the  northwest. 

SABOK  (sa'ron),  (Gr.  b  Xdptaw,  ho  sar'one,  the 
Sharon),  the  district  in  which  Lydda  stood  (Acts 
ix:35).     (See  Sharon.) 

SABSECHIM  (sar'se-kim),  (Heb.  0**?91W,  sar- 

seh'keem\  prince  of  the  eunuchs;  Sarsachim). 

A  general  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  army  when  he 
took  Jerusalem  (Jer.  xxxix:3),  B.  C.  508.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  been  chief  of  the  eunuchs,  and  Sar- 
sechim,  like  Rab-saris,  may  have  meant  "chief 
eunuch."    Both  persons  may  be  identical. 

SABT70H  (sa'nik),  (Gr.  Sopo^x,  sar-ooch'),  the 
Greek  form  of  Serug,  the  son  of  Reu  (Luke  iii : 
35).    See  Serug,  Reu.) 

SATAN  (sa'tan),  (Heb.  Wy,  saw-tawn' ;  Or. 
Zararaf,  sat-an-os*,  an  opponent),  the  chief  of  fallen 
spirits. 

The  doctrine  of  Satan  and  of  Satanic  agency 
is  to  be  made  out  from  revelation,  and  from  re- 
flection in  agreement  with  revelation. 

(1>  Scripture  Names  or  Titles.  Besides  Satan, 


he  is  called  the  Devil,  the  Dragon,  the  Evil  One, 
the  Angel  of  the  Bottomless  Pit,  the  Prince  of  this 
World,  the  Prince  of  the  Power  of  the  Air,  the 
Cjod  of  this  World,  Apollyon,  Abaddon,  Belial, 
Beelzebub.  Satan  and  Devil  are  the  names  by 
which  he  is  oftener  distinguished  than  by  any 
other,  the  former  being  applied  to  him  about  forty 
times,  and  the  latter  about  fifty  times. 

Satan  is  a  Hebrew  word,  saw-tawn\  l¥7f  trans- 
ferred to  the  English.  It  is  derived  from  a  verb 
which  means  *to  fie  in  wait,*  *to  oppose,'  *to  be  an 
adversary.*  Hence  the  noun  denotes  an  adver- 
sary or  opposer. 

(2)  Old  Testament  Beferences.  The  word  in 
its  generi€  sense  occurs  in  i  Kings  xi:i4,  31,  The 
Lord  raised  up  an  adversary  against  Solomon,'  ». 
e.,  Hadad  the  Edomite.  In  the  23d  verse  the 
word  occurs  again,  applied  to  Rezon.  It  is  used 
in  the  same  sense  in  i  Sam.  xxix  14,  where  David 
is  termed  an  adversary;  and  in  Num.  xxii:22, 
where  the  angel  'stood  in  the  way  for  an  adver- 
sary (1¥t)  to  Balaam,*  /.  ^.,  to  oppose  him  when 

he  went  with  the  princes  of  Moab.  (See  also  Ps. 
cix:6.) 

In  Zech.  iii  :i,  2,  the  word  occurs  in  its  specific 
sense  as  a  proper  name:  'And  he  showed  me 
Joshua  the  high-priest  standing  before  the  angel 
of  the  Lord,  and  Satan  standing  at  his  right  hand 
to  resist  (to  satanize)  him.**  And  the  Lord  said 
unto  Satan,  *The  Lord  rebuke  thee,  O  Satan.* 
Here  it  is  manifest  both  from  the  context  and  the 
use  of  the  article  that  some  particular  adversary  is 
denoted. 

In  the  1st  and  2d  chapters  of  Job,  the  same  use 
of  the  word  with  the  article  occurs  several  times. 
The  events  in  which  Satan  is  represented  as  the 
agent  confirm  this  view.  He  was  a  distinguished 
adversary  and  tempter.  (See  also  i  Chron.  xxi  :i.) 

(3)  New  Testament  Teaching.  When  we  pass 
from  the  Old  to  the  New  Testament,  this  doctrine 
of  an  invisible  evil  agtnt  becomes  more  clear. 
With  the  advent  of  Christ  and  the  opening  of  the 
Christian  dispensation,  the  great  opposer  of  that 
kingdom,  the  particular  adversary  and  antagonist 
of  the  Savior,  would  naturally  become  more  active 
and  more  known.  The  antagonism  of  Satan  and 
his  kingdom  to  Christ  and  his  kingdom  runs 
through  the  whole  of  the  New  Testament,  as  will 
appear  from  the  following  passages  and  their  con- 
texts: Matt.  iv:io;  xii:26;  Mark  iv:i5;  Luke 
x:i8;  xxii:3,  31;  Acts  xxvi:i8;  Rom.  xvi:2o;  2 
Cor.  xi:i4;  Rev.  xx:2,  3;  xii:9.  Peter  is  once 
called  Satan,  because  his  spirit  and  conduct,  at  a 
certain  time,  were  so  much  in  opposition  to  the 
spirit  and  intent  of  Christ,  and  so  much  in  the 
same  line  of  direction  with  the  workings  of  Satan. 
This  is  the  only  application  of  the  word  in  the 
New  Testament  to  any  but  the  prince  of  the 
apostate  angels. 

Devil  (Diabolos)  is  the  more  frequent  term  of 
designation  given  to  Satan  in  the  New  Testament. 
Both  Satan  and  devil  are  in  several  instances  ap- 
plied to  the  same  being  (Rev.  xii:9).  That  old 
serpent,  the  Devil,  and  Satan.'  (Christ,  in  the 
temptation  (Matt,  iv),  in  his  repulse  of  the  tempter, 
calls  him  Satan;  while  the  evangelists  distinguish 
him  try  the  term  *devil.*  Devil  is  the  translation 
of  diabolos,  from  the  verb  diabolo,  *to  thrust 
through,'  *to  carry  over,*  and,  topically,  *to  in- 
form against,*  'to  accuse.'  He  is  also  called  the 
accuser  of  the  brethren  (Rev.  xii:io).  The  He- 
brew term  Satan  is  more  generic  than  the  Greek 
dicd>olos.  The  former  expresses  his  character  as 
an  opposer  of  all  eood;  the  latter  denotes  more 
particularly  the  relation  which  he  bears  to  the 


SATAN 


1628 


SATAN 


saints,  as  their  traducer  and  accuser.  Diabolos 
is  the  uniform  translation  which  the  Septuagint 
gives  of  the  Hebrew  sawtawn  when  used  with  the 
article.  Farmer  says  that  the  term  Satan  is  not 
appropriated  to  one  particular  person  or  spirit, 
but  signifies  an  adversary  or  opponent  in  general. 
This  is  to  no  purpose,  since  it  is  also  applied  to 
the  devil  as  an  adversary  in  particular.  There  are 
four  instances  in  the  New  Testament  in  which  the 
word  diabolos  is  applied  to  human  beings.  In 
three  out  of  the  four  it  is  in  the  plural  number, 
expressive  of  quality,  and  not  personality  (2  Tim. 
iii:3;  Tit.  ii:3).  In  the  fourth  instance  (John 
vi:7o),  Jesus  says  to  his  disciples,  'Have  not  I 
chosen  you  twelve,  and  one  of  you  is  a  devil?* 
(diabolos).  This  is  the  only  instance  in  the  New 
Testament  of  its  application  to  a  human  being  in 
the  singular  number;  and  here  Dr.  Campbell 
thinks  it  should  not  be  translated  'devil.'  The 
translation  is,  however,  of  no  consequence,  since  it 
is  with  the  use  of  the  original  word  that  this  arti- 
cle is  concerned.  The  obvious  reasons  for  this 
application  of  8idpo\ot  to  Judas,  as  an  exception 
to  the  general  rule,  go  to  confirm  the  rule.  The 
rule  is  that,  in  the  New  Testament  usage,  the  word 
in  the  singular  number  denotes  indiznduality,  and 
is  applied  to  Satan  as  a  proper  name.  By  the  ex- 
ception, it  is  applied  to  Judas,  from  his  resem- 
blance to  the  devil,  as  an  accuser  and  betrayer  of 
Christ,  and  from  his  contributing  to  aid  him  in  his 
designs  against  Christ  With  these  exceptions, 
the  usus  loquendi  of  the  New  Testament  shows 
6  Ai(£/3oXot  to  be  a  proper  name,  applied  to  an  ex- 
traordinary being,  whose  influence  upon  the  human 
race  is  great  ana  mischievous  (Matt.  iv:i-ii; 
Luke  viii:i2;  John  viii:44;  Acts  xiii:io;  Ephes. 
vi:ii;  I  Pet.  v:8;  i  John  iii:8;  Rev.  xiiig).  The 
term  devil,  which  is  in  the  New  Testament  the 
uniform  translation  of  diabolos,  is  also  frequently 
the  translation  of  diamon  and  diamonon.  Be- 
tween these  words  and  diabolos  the  English  trans- 
lators have  made  no  distinction.  The  former  are 
almost  always  used  in  connection  with  demoniacal 
possessions,  and  are  applied  to  the  possessing 
spirits,  but  never  to  the  prince  of  those  spirits. 
On  the  other  hand,  diabolos  is  never  applied  to 
the  demons,  but  only  to  their  prince ;  thus  showing 
that  the  one  is  used  definitely  as  a  proper  name, 
while  the  others  are  used  indefinitely  as  generic 
terms.  The  sacred  writers  made  a  distinction, 
which  in  the  English  version  is  lost.  In  this,  our 
translators  followed  the  German  version:  teufel, 
like  the  term  devil,  being  applied  to  both  diabolos 
and  diamon. 

(4)  Personality  of  Satan.  We  determine  the 
personality  of  Satan  by  the  same  criteria  that  we 
use  in  determining  whether  Caesar  and  Napoleon 
were  real  personal  beings,  or  the  personification 
of  abstract  ideas,  viz.,  by  the  tenor  of  history 
concerning  them,  and  the  ascription  of  personal 
attributes  to  them.  All  the  forms  of  personal 
agency  are  made  use  of  by  the  sacred  writers  in 
-setting  forth  the  character  and  conduct  of  Satan. 
They  describe  him  as  having  power  and  domin- 
ion^ messengers  and  followers.  He  tempts  and 
resists ;  he  is  held  accountable,  charged  with  guWt ; 
is  to  be  judged  and  to  receive  final  punishment. 
()n  the  supposition  that  it  was  the  object  of  the  sa- 
cred writers  to  teach  the  proper  personality  of 
Satan,  they  could  have  found  no  more  express 
terms  than  those  which  they  have  actually  used. 
And  on  the  supposition  that  they  did  not  intend 
to  teach  such  a  doctrine,  their  use  of  language, 
incapable  of  communicating  any  other  idea,  is 
wholly  inexplicable. 

To  suppose  that  all  this  semblance  of  a  real. 


veritable,  conscious  moral  agent,  is  only  a  trope^ 
a  prosopopeia,  is  to  make  the  inspired  penmen 
guilty  of  employing  a  figure  in  such  a  way  that, 
by  no  ascertained  laws  of  language,  it  could  be 
known  that  it  was  a  figure — in  such  a  way  that  it 
could  not  be  taken  to  be  a  figure,  without  violence 
to  all  the  rhetorical  rules  by  which  they  on  other 
occasions  are  known  to  hiave  been  guided.  A 
personification,  protracted  through  such  a  book  as 
the  Bible,  even  should  we  suppose  it  to  have  been 
written  by  one  person — never  dropped  in  the  most 
simple  and  didactic  portions — ^never  explained 
when  the  most  grave  and  important  truths  are  to 
be  inculcated,  and  when  men  the  most  ignorant 
and  prone  to  superstition  are  to  be  the  readers — 
a  personification  extending  from  (jenesis  to  Rev- 
elatioiv— this  is  altogether  anomalous  and  inad- 
missible. But  to  suppose  that  the  several  writers 
of  the  different  books  of  the  Bible,  diverse  in 
their  style  and  intellectual  habits,  writing  under 
widely  differing  circumstances,  through  a  period 
of  nearly  two  thousand  years,  should  each,  from 
Moses  to  John,  fall  into  the  use  of  the  same  per- 
sonification, and  follow  it,  too,  in  a  way  so  ob- 
scure and  enigmatical,  that  aot  one  in  a  hundred 
of  their  readers  would  escape  the  error  which 
they  did  not  mean  to  teach,  or  apprehend  the 
truth  which  they  wished  to  set  forth — ^to  suppose 
this,  is  to  require  men  to  believe  that  the  inspired 
writers,  who  ought  to  have  done  the  least  vio- 
lence to  the  common  laws  of  language,  have  really 
done  the  most.  Such  uniformity  of  inexplicable 
singularity,  on  the  part  of  such  men  as  the  au- 
thors of  the  several  books  of  the  Bible,  could  be 
accounted  for  only  on  the  hypothesis  that  they 
were  subject  to  an  evil  as  well  as  a  good  inspira- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  such  uniformity  of  ap- 
pellations and  imagery,  and  such  identity  of  char- 
acteristics, protracted  through  such  a  series  of 
writings,  go  to  confirm  the  received  doctrine  of  a 
real  personality. 

(5)  Natural  History.  The  class  of  beings  to 
which  Satan  originally  belonged,  and  which  con- 
stituted *a  celestial  hierarchy,'  is  very  numerous: 
'Ten  thousand  times  ten  thousand  stood  before 
him'  (Dan.  vii:io).  They  were  created  and  de- 
pendent (John  1:3).  Analogy  leads  to  the  con- 
clusion that  there  are  different  grades  amon|;  the 
angels  as  among  other  races  of  beings.  The  Scrip- 
tures warrant  the  same.  Michael  is  described  as 
one  of  the  chief  princes  (Dan.  x:i3);  as  chief 
captain  of  the  host  of  Jehovah  (Josh.  v:i4).  Sim- 
ilar distinctions  exist  among  the  fallen  angels 
(Col.  ii:i5;  Eph.  vi:i2).  It  is  also  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  they  were  created  susceptible  of  im- 
provement in  all  respects,  except  moral  purity, 
as  they  certainly  were  capable  of  apostasy.  As  to 
the  time  when  they  were  brought  into  being,  the 
Bible  is  silent;  and  where  it  is  silent,  we  should 
be  silent,  or  speak  with  modesty.  Some  suppose 
that  they  were  called  into  existence  after  the  cre- 
ation of  the  world;  among  whom  is  Dr.  John 
Dick.  Others  suppose  that  they  were  created  just 
anterior  to  the  creation  of  man,  and  for  i)urposes 
of  a  merciful  ministration  to  him.  It  is  more 
probable,  however,  that  as  they  were  the  highest 
in  rank  among  the  creatures  of  (jod,  so  they  were 
the  first  in  the  order  of  time;  and  that  they  may 
have  continued  for  ages  in  obedience  to  their 
Maker,  before  the  creation  of  man,  or  the  fall  of 
the  apostate  angels. 

The  Scriptures  are  explicit  as  to  the  apostasy 
of  some,  of  whom  Satan  was  the  chief  and  leader. 
*And  the  angels  which  kept  not  their  first  estate 
or  principality,  but  left  their  own  habitation,*  etc. 
(Jude,  verse  6).    'For  if  God  spared  not  the  an- 


SATAN 


1529 


SAUL 


gels  that  sinned/  etc.  (2  Pet.  ii:4).  Those  who 
followed  Satan  in  his  apostasy  are  described  as 
belonging  to  hind.  The  company  is  called  the 
devil  and  his  angels  (Matt,  xxv  141 ).  The  relation 
marked  here  denotes  the  instrumentality  which 
the  devil  may  have  exerted  in  inducing  those 
called  his  angels  to  rebel  against  Jehovah  and  join 
themselves  to  his  interests.  As  to  what  consti- 
tuted the  first  sin  of  Satan  and  his  followers, 
there  has  been  a  diversity  of  opinion.  Some  have 
supposed  that  it  was  the  beguiling  of  our  first 
parents.  Others  have  believed  that  the  first  sin  of 
the  angels  is  mentioned  in  Gen.  vi  :2.  The  sacred 
writers  intimate  very  plainly  that  the  first  trans- 
gression was  pride,  and  that  from  this  sprang 
open  rebellion.  Of  a  bishop,  the  apostle  says  (i 
Tim.  iii  :6) ,  'He  must  not  be  a  novice,  lest,  being 
pu£Fed  up  with  pride,  he  fall  into  the  condemna- 
tion of  the  devil.  From  which  it  appears  that  pride 
was  the  sin  of  Satan,  and  that  for  this  he  was 
condemned.  This,  however,  marks  the  quality  of 
the  sin,  and  not  the  act. 

(6)  Agency.  The  agency  of  Satan  is  moral 
and  physical.  First,  moral.  He  beguiled  our  first 
parents,  and  thus  brought  sin  and  death  upon 
them  and  their  posterity  (Gen.  iii).  He  moved 
David  to  number  the  people  (i  Chron.  xxi:i). 
He  resisted  Joshua  the  high-priest  (Zech.  iii:i). 
He  tempted  Jesus  (Matt,  iv)  ;  entered  into  Judas, 
to  induce  him  to  betray  his  master  (Luke  xxii: 
3)  ;  instigated  Ananias  and  Sapphira  to  lie  to  the 
Holy  Ghost  (Acts  v  :3)  ;  hindered  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas on  their  way  to  the  Thessalonians  ( i  Thess. 
ii:i8).  He  is  the  spirit  that  now  worketh  in  the 
children  of  disobedience  (Eph.  ii  :2)  ;  and  he  de- 
ceiveth  the  whole  world  (Rev.  xii:9). 

But  his  efforts  are  directed  against  the  bodies 
of  men,  as  well  as  against  their  souls.  That  the 
agency  of  Satan  was  concerned  in  producing 
physical  diseases  the  Scriptures  plainly  teach  (Job 
ii.7;  Luke  xiii:i6).  Peter  says  of  Christ,  that 
he  went  about  doing  good  and  healing  all  that 
were  oppressed  of  the  devil  (Acts  x:38).  Hyme- 
naeus  and  Alexander  were  delivered  to  Satan,  that 
they  mi^ht  learn  not  to  blaspheme  (i  Tim.  i:2o)  ; 
where  pnysical  suffering  by  the  agency  of  Satan, 
as  a  divine  chastisement,  is  manifestly  intended. 

It  is  true,  no  doubt,  that  there  are  difficulties 
connected  with  the  agency  ascribed  to  Satan.  Ob- 
jections are  of  little  weight  when  brought  against 
well-authenticated  facts.  Any  objections  raised 
against  the  agency  of  Satan  are  equally  valid 
against  his  existence.  If  he  exists,  he  must  act ; 
and  if  he  is  evil,  his  agency  must  be  evil.  The 
fact  of  such  an  agency  being  revealed,  as  it  is, 
is  every  way  as  consonant  with  reas>on  and  re- 
ligious consciousness  as  are  the  existence  and 
agency  of  good  angels.  Neither  reason  nor  con- 
sciousness could  by  themselves  establish  such  a 
fact;  but  all  the  testimony  they  are  capable  of 
adducing  is  in  agreement  with  the  Scripture  rep- 
resentation on  the  subject.  If  God  communicates 
with  good  men  without  their  consciousness,  there 
is  no  apparent  reason  why  Satan  may  not,  with- 
out their  consciousness,  communicate  with  bad 
men.  And  if  good  men  become  better  by  the 
influence  of  good  beings,  it  is  equally  easy  <to 
suppose  that  bad  men  may  become  worse  by  the 
influence  of  evil  beings.  Such  an  influence  no 
more  militates  against  the  benevolence  of  God 
than  does  the  agency  of  wicked  men,  or  the  ex- 
istence of  moral  evil  in  any  form.  Evil  agents 
are  as  really  under  the  divine  control  as  are  good 
agents.  And  out  of  evil,  God  will  cause  good  to 
come.  He  will  make  the  wrath  of  devils  as  well 
as  of  men  to  praise  him,  and  the  remainder  he 
will  restrain.  E.  A.  L. 


SATAN,  SYNAGOGUE  OF  (saltan,  sYn'i-g6g 
6w),  {Gv,  ffvvayioy^  rod  2araya,  Rev.  ii:9;  iii.Q),  1.^., 
Satan's  assembly. 

SATAN,  THE  DEPTHS  OF(sa'tan,  the  depths 
6v),  (Gr.  tA  ^ad4a  rod  ZoToira,  Rev.  ii:24),  the  false 
teaching  prevalent  among  the  early  gnostics;  or 
perhaps  the  doctrines  respecting  the  lawfulness  of 
eating  idol  meats  and  of  adultery. 

SATISFACTION  (sUt'Ys-f^'shun).  See  Atone- 
ment;  Propitiation. 

SATYB  (sa'ter),  (Heb.  "''*^^,  saweer',  shaggy), 

a  he-goat,  and  so  rendered  in  Lev.  iv:24;  2  Chron. 
xxix:23,  etc.,  but  Satyr  in  Is.  xiii:2i;  xxxiv:i4. 

Satyrs  were  supposed  to  be  wild  men,  or  imagi- 
nary animals,  half  man  and  half  goat,  poetically 
introduced  by  Isaiah,  as  dancing  among  the  ruins 
of  Babylon.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  present 
inhabitants  of  that  country  still  believe  in  the 
existence  there  of  Satyrs. 

''Isaiah  probably  refers  to  the  demons  ('field 
devils,'  Luther),  which  were  supposed  to  ii^abit 
the  desert,  and  whose  |>ernicious  influence  it  was 
sought  to  avert  by  sacrifices.  The  Israelites  had 
brought  this  superstition,  and  the  idolatry  to 
which  it  gave  rise,  from  Egypt.  They  were  the 
gods  whom  the  Israelites  worshiped  and  went 
whoring  after  in  Egypt  (Josh.  xxiv:i4;  Ezek. 
XX :7;  xxiii:8,  19,  21,  27).  Both  the  thing  and 
the  name  were  derived  from  the  Egyptians,  who 
worshiped  goats  as  gods,  particularly  Pan,  who 
was  represented  in  the  form  of  a  goat,  a  personi- 
fication of  the  male  and  fertilizing  principle  in 
nature,  whom  they  called  Af^nrf^j  (K.  and  D., 
Com.,  on  Lev.  xvii:7).    (Barnes'  Bib.  Cyc.) 

SAUL  (saul),  (Heb.  ^^^t,  sAaw-oo/',  asked  for; 

Sept.  and  New  Test.  Zao^X,  Saut), 

1.    The  son  of  Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin. 

(1)  First  King  of  Israel.  The  corrupt  admin- 
istration of  justice  by  Samuel's  sons  furnished  an 
occasion  to  the  Hebrews  for  rejecting  that  the- 
ocracy of  which  they  neither  appreciated  the 
value  nor,  through  their  unfaithfulness  to  it,  en- 
joyed the  full  advantages  (i  Sam.  viii).  An  in- 
vasion by  the  Ammonites  seems  also  to  have 
conspired  with  the  cause  just  mentioned,  and  with 
a  love  of  novelty,  in  prompting  the  demand  for  a 
king  (i  Sam.  xii:i2) — ^an  officer  evidently  alien  to 
the  genius  of  the  theocracy,  though  contemplated 
as  a  historical  certainty,  and  provided  for  by  the 
Jewish  lawgiver  (i  Sam.  xii:i3-i5;  Deut.  xvii: 
14-20)  ;  on  which  see  Grotius*  note ;  also  De  Jure 
Bell.,  etc.,  i,  4,  6,  with  the  remarks  of  Gronovius, 
who  (as  Puffendorf  also  does)  controverts  the 
views  of  Grotius.  An  explanation  of  the  natur.e 
of  this  request,  as  not  only  an  instance  of  in- 
gratitude to  Samuel,  but  of  rebellion  against  Je- 
hovah, and  the  delineation  of  the  manner  in  whijch 
their  kings — notwithstanding  the  restrictions  pre- 
scribed in  the  law —  might  l)e  expected  to  conduct 
themselves. 

(2)  Meeting  of  Saul  with  Samuel  (i   Sam. 

ix:i8;  x:26).  Having  failed  to  move  the  people 
from  their  resolution,  the  Lord  sent  Saul,  who 
had  left  home  in  quest  of  his  father's  asses,  which 
had  strayed,  to  Samuel,  who  having  informed 
Saul  of  the  divine  purpc^e  regarding  him,  and 
having  at  a  feast  shown  him  a  preference,  which, 
no  doubt,  the  other  guests  understood,  privately 
anointed  him  king,  and  gave  him  various  tokens, 
by  which  he  might  be  assured  that  his  designa- 
tion was  from  Jehovah.  Moved  by  the  authority 
of  Samuel,  and  by  the  fulfillment  of  these  signs, 
Saul's  reluctance  to  assume  the  office  to  which  he 
was  called  was  overcome;  which  may  be  the 
meaning  of  the  expression  (i  Sam.  xig),  "(jod 


SAUL 


1630 


SAUL 


gave  him  another  heart,"  though  his  hesitation 
afterwards  returned  (verses  21,  22).  On  his  way 
home,  meeting  a  company  of  prophets,  he  was 
seized  with  the  prophetic  afflatus,  and  so  gave 
occasion  to  a  proverb  afterwards  in  use  among  the 
Jews,  though  elsewhere  a  dififerent  origin  is  as- 
signed to  the  saying  (i  Sam.  xix:24). 

(3)  Chosen  King.  Immediately  after,  Saul 
was  elected  at  Mizpah  in  a  solemn  assembly  by 
the  determination  of  the  miraculous  lot — a  method 
of  election  not  confined  to  the  Hebrews  (Aristot. 
Polit,  villi;  and  Virg.  jEn,\\\  'Laocoon  lectus 
Neptuni  sorte  sacerdos)  ;  and  both  previously  to 
that  election  (i  Sam.  x:i6),  and  subsequently, 
when  insulted  by  the  worthless  portion  of  the  Is- 
raelites, he  showed  that  modesty,  humility  and  for- 
bearance which  seem  to  have  characterized  him  till 
corrupted  by  the  possession  of  power.  (See  Sam- 
uel.) The  person  thus  set  apart  to  discharge  the 
royal  function,  possessed  at  least  those  corporeal 
advantages  which  most  ancient  nations  desidera- 
ted in  their  sovereigns  (the  form  worthy  of  a  sov- 
ereign, Eurip.).  His  person  was  tall  and  com- 
manding, and  he  soon  showed  that  his  courage 
was  not  inferior  to  his  strength  (i  Sam.  ix:i; 
yi:2z)^  His  belonging  to  Benjamin  also,  the 
smallest  of  the  tribes,  though  of  distinguished 
bravery,  prevented  the  mutual  jealousy  with  which 
either  of  the  two  great  tribes,  Judah  and  Eph- 
raim,  would  have  regarded  a  king  chosen  from 
the  other;  so  that  his  election  was  received  with 
general  rejoicing,  and  a  number  of  men,  moved 
by  the  authority  of  Samuel  (x:2o),  even  attached 
themselves  to  him  as  a  bodyguard,  or  as  coun- 
selors and  assistants. 

(4)  Victory  Over  the  Ammonites.  In  the 
meantime  the  Ammonites,  whose  invasion  had 
hastened  the  appointment  of  a  king,  having  be- 
sieged Jabesh  in  Gilead,  and  Nahash,  their  king, 
having  proposed  insulting  conditions  to  them,  the 
elders  of  that  town,  apparently  not  aware  of 
Saul's  election  (i  Sam.  xi:3),  sent  messengers 
through  the  land  imploring  help.  Saul  acted  with 
wisdom  and  promptitude,  summoning  the  people 
en  masse,  to  meet  him  at  Bezek ;  and  having  at  the 
head  of  a  vast  multitude  totally  routed  the  An>- 
monites  (verse  11),  he  obtained  a  higher  glory, 
by  exhibiting  a  new  instance  of  clemency,  whether 
dictated  by  principle  or  policy. 

(5)  Benewal  of  the  Monarchy.  He  and  the 
people  betook  themselves,  under  the  direction  of 
Samuel,  to  Gilgal,  there  with  solemn  sacrifices  to 
reinstall  the  victorious  leader  in  his  kingdom  (i 

xi:i4).  At  Gilgal  Saul  was  publicly 
anointed,  and  solemnly  installed  in  the  kingdom 
by  Samuel,  who  took  occasion  to  vindicate  the 
purity  of  his  own  administration — which  he  vir- 
tually transferred  to  Saul — to  censure  the  people 
for  their  ingratitude  and  impiety,  and  to  warn 
both  them  and  Saul  of  the  danger  of  disobedience 
to  the  commands  of  Jehovah  (i  Sam.  vii). 

(6)  Saul's  First  Trial  and  Transgression. 
The  restrictions  on  which  he  held  the  sovereignty 
had  (i  Sam.  x:25)  been  fully  explained  as  well  to 
Saul  as  to  the  people,  so  that  he  was  not  ignorant 
of  his  true  position  as  merely  the  lieutenant  of  Je- 
hovah, king  of  Israel,  who  not  only  gave  all  the 
laws,  but  whose  will,  in  the  execution  of  them, 
was  constantly  to  be  consulted  and  complied  with. 
The  first  occasion  on  which  his  obedience  to  this 
constitution  was  put  to  the  test  brought  out  those 
defects  in  his  character  which  showed  his  unfitness 
for  his  high  office,  and  incurred  a  threat  of  that 
rejection  which  his  subsequent  conduct  confirmed 
(i  Sam.  xiii:i3).  Saul  could  not  understand  his 
proper   position,   as   only  the  servant   of  Jeho- 


vah speaking  through  his  ministers,  or  confine 
himself  to  it ;  and  in  this  respect  he  was  not,  what 
David,  with  many  individual  and  private  faults 
and  crimes,  was — a  man  after  God's  own  heart,  a 
king  faithful  to  the  principles  of  the  theocracy. 

Having  organized  a  small  standing  army,  part 
of  which,  under  Jonathan,  had  taken  a  fort  of  the 
Philistines,  Saul  summoned  the  people  to  with- 
stand the  forces  which  their  oppressors,  now 
alarmed  for  their  dominion,  would  naturally  as- 
semble. But  so  numerous  a  host  came  against 
Saul,  that  the  people,  panic-stricken,  fled  to  rocks 
and  caverns  for  safety — ^years  of  servitude  having 
extinguished  their  courage,  which  the  want  of 
arms,  of  which  the  policy  of  the  Philistines  had 
deprived  them,  still  further  diminished.  Appar- 
ently reduced  to  extremity,  and  the  seventh  day 
being  come,  but  not  being  ended,  the  expiration  of 
which  Samuel  had  enjoined  him  to  wait,  Saul  at 
least  ordered  sacrifices  to  be  oflFered — for  the  ex- 
pression (i  Sam.  xiii:9)  does  not  necessarily 
imply  that  he  intruded  into  the  priest's  office  (2 
Sam.  vi:i3;  i  Kings  iii:2-4),  though  that  is  the 
most  obvious  meaning  of  the  text.  Whether  that 
which  Saul  now  disregarded  was  the  injunction 
referred  to  (i  Sam.  x:8),  or  one  subsequently 
addressed  to  him,  this  is  evident,  that  Saul  acted 
in  the  full  knowledge  that  he  sinned  (xiii:i2); 
^nd  his  guilt,  in  that  act  of  conscious  disobedience, 
was  probably  increased  by  its  clearly  involving  an 
assumption  of  authority  to  conduct  the  war  ac- 
cording to  his  own  judgment  and  will.  Samuel 
having  denounced  the  displeasure  of  Jehovah  and 
its  consequences,  left  him,  and  Saul  returned  to 
Gibeah  (the  addition  made  in  the  text  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  verse  15,  where  after  *from  Gilgal,'  the 
clause,  *and  the  rest  of  the  people  went  up  after 
Saul  to  meet  the  enemy  from  Gilgal  to  Gibeah,' 
etc.,  being  required  apparently  by  the  sense,  which, 
probably,  has  been  the  only  authority  for  its  in- 
sertion). Left  to  himself,  Saul's  errors  multi- 
plied apace.  Jonathan,  having  assaulted  a  gar- 
rison of  the  Philistines  (apparently  at  Michmash, 
I  Sam.  xiv:3i,  which,  therefore,  must  have  been 
situated  near  Migron  in  Gibeah,  verse  2,  and 
within  sight  of  it,  verse  15),  Saul,  aided  by  a 
panic  of  the  enemy,  an  earthquake,  and  the  co- 
operation of  his  fugitive  soldiers,  effected  a  great 
slaughter ;  but  by  a  rash  and  foolish  denunciation, 
he  (i)  impeded  his  siKcess  (verse  30),  (2)  in- 
volved the  people  in  a  violation  of  the  law  (verse 
Zi)t  and  (3),  unless  prevented  by  the  more  en- 
lightened conscience  of  the  people,  would  have 
ended  with  putting  Jonathan  to  death  for  an  act 
which,  being  done  in  invincible  ignorance,  could 
involve  no  guilt. 

(7)  Saul's  Second  Transgnression.  Another 
trial  was  afforded  Saul  before  his  final  rejection, 
the  command  to  extirpate  the  Amalekites,  whose 
hostility  to  the  people  of  God  was  inveterate 
(Deut.  XXV :  19;  Exod.  xvii:8-i6;  Num.  xiv:42- 
45;  Judg.  iii:i3;  vi:3),  and  who  had  not  by  re- 
pentance averted  that  doom  which  had  been  de- 
layed 550  years  (i  Sam.  xiv:48).  They  who 
represent  this  sentence  as  unworthy  of  the  God  of 
the  whole  earth,  should  ask  on  what  principle  the 
execution  of  a  criminal  under  human  govern- 
ments can  be  defended?  If  men  judge  that  the 
welfare  of  society  demands  the  destruction  of  one 
of  their  fellows,  surely  God,  who  can  better  judge 
what  the  interests  of  his  government  require,  and 
has  a  more  perfect  right  to  dispose  of  men's  lives, 
may  cut  off  by  the  sword  of  his  servants  the  per- 
sons whom,  without  any  imputation  of  injustice 
he  mi^ht  destroy  by  disease,  famine,  or  any  such 
visitation.    It  is  more  to  our  present  purpose  to 


SAUL 


1531 


SAUL 


remark  that  the  apparent  cruelty  of  this  com- 
mission was  not  the  reason  why  it  was  not  fully 
executed,  as  Saul  himself  confessed  when  San\- 
uel  upbraided  him,  *1  feared  the  people  and 
obeyed  their  voice'  (i  Sam.  xv:24).  This  stub- 
bornness in  persisting  to  rebel  against  the  direc- 
tions of  Jehovah  was  now  visited  by  that  final  re- 
jection of  his  family  from  succeeding  him  03  the 
throne,  which  had  before  been  threatened  (verse 
23;  xiii:i3,  14),  and  which  was  now  significantly 
represented,  or  mystically  predicted,  by  the  rend- 
ing of  the  prophet's  mantle.  After  this  second 
and  flagrant  disobedience.  Saul  received  no  more 
public  countenance  from  the  venerable  prophet, 
who  now  left  him  to  his  sins  and  his  punishment ; 
'nevertheless,  he  mourned  for  Saul,'  and  the  Lord 
repented  that  he  had  made  Saul  king  (xv:3S). 

(8)  Saul's  Conduct  Towards  David.  The  de- 
nunciations of  Samuel  sunk  into  the  heart  of  Saul, 
and  produced  a  deep  melancholy,  which  either 
really  was,  or  which  his  physicians  (i  Sam.  xvi: 
14,  15;  comp.  Gen.  1:2)  told  him  was  occasioned 
by  an  evil  spirit  from  the  Lord ;  unless  we  under- 
stand the  phrase,  "The  evil  Spirit,"  subjectively,  as 
denoting  the  condition  itself  of  Saul's  mind,  in- 
stead of  the  cause  of  that  condition  (Is.  xxixrio; 
Num.  v:i4;  Rom.  xi:8).  We  can  conceive  that 
music  might  affect  Saul's  feelings,  might  cheer 
his  despondency,  or  divert  his  melancholy;  but 
how  it  should  have  the  power  to  chase  away  a 
spiritual  messenger  whom  the  Lord  had  sent  to 
chasten  the  monarch  for  his  transgressions,  is  not 
so  easily  understood.  Saul's  case  must  probably 
be  judged  of  by  the  same  principles  as  that  of  the 
demoniacs  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 
(See  Demoniac.)  David  was  recommended  to 
Saul  on  account  of  his  skill  as  a  musician  (i 
Sam.  xvi:  16,  23),  though  the  narrative  of  his  in- 
troduction to  Saul,  his  subsequently  killing  Goli- 
ath, Saul's  ignorance  of  David's  person  after  he 
had  been  his  attendant  and  armor-bearer,  with 
various  other  circumstances  in  the  narrative  (i 
Sam.  xvi:i4-23;  xvii;  xviii:i-4),  present  diffi- 
culties which  neither  the  arbitrary  omissions  in 
the  Septuagint,  nor  the  ingenuity  of  subsequent 
critics,  have  succeeded  in  removing,  and  which 
have  led  many  eminent  scholars  to  suppose  the 
existence  of  extensive  dislocations  in  this  part 
of  the  Old  Testament. 

Though  not  acquainted  with  the  unction  of  Da- 
vid, yet  having  received  intimation  that  the  king- 
dom should  be  given  to  another,  Saul  soon  siis- 
pected,  from  his  accomplishments,  heroism,  wis- 
dom, and  popularity,  that  David  was  his  destined 
successor;  and  instead  of  concluding  that  his  re- 
sistance to  the  divine  purpose  would  only  accel- 
erate his  own  ruin,  Saul,  in  the  spirit  of  jealousy 
and  rage,  commenced  a  series  of  murderous  at- 
tempts on  the  life  of  his  rival,  that  must  have  lost 
him  the  respect  and  S3rmpathy  of  his  people,  which 
they  secured  for  the  object  of  his  malice  and  envy, 
whose  noble  qualities  also  they  both  exercised 
and  rendered  more  conspicuous.  He  attempted 
twice  to  assassinate  him  with  his  own  hand  (xviii : 
10,  11;  xix:io)  ;  he  sent  him  on  dangerous  mili- 
tary expeditions  (xviii  :5,  13,  17)  ;  he  proposed  that 
David  'should  marry  first  his  elder  daughter, 
whom  yet  he  gave  to  another,  and  then  his  young- 
er, that  the  procuring  of  the  dowry  might  prove 
fatal  to  David;  and  then  he  sought  to  make  his 
daughter  an  instrument  of  her  husband's  destruc- 
tion; and  it  seems  probable  that,  unless  miracu- 
lously prevented,  he  would  have  imbrued  his 
hands  in  the  blood  of  the  venerable  Samuel  him- 
self (i  Sam.  xix:i8),  while  the  text  seems  to 
intimate  (xx:33)  that  even  the  life  of  Jonathan 
was  not  safe  from  his  fury,  though  the  subse- 


quent context  may  warrant  a  doubt  whether  Jon- 
athan was  the  party  aimed  at  by  Saul.  The 
slaughter  of  Ahimelech  the  priest  (i  Sam.  xxii: 
16-20),  under  pretense  of  his  being  a  partisan  of 
David,  and  of  eighty-five  other  priests  of  the 
house  of  Eli,  to  whom  nothing  could  be  imputed, 
as  well  as  the  entire  population  of  Nob,  was  an 
atrocity  perhaps  never  exceeded. 

Having  compelled  David  to  assume  the  position 
of  an  outlaw,  around  whom  gathered  a  number 
of  turbulent  and  desperate  characters,  Saul  might 
persuade  himself  that  he  was  justified  in  bestow- 
ing the  hand  of  David's  wife  on  another,  and  in 
making  expeditions  to  apprehend  and  destroy 
him.  A  portion  of  the  people  were  base  enough 
to  minister  to  the  evil  passions  of  Saul  (i  Sam. 
xxiii:i9;  xxvi:i),  and  others,  perhaps,  might 
color  their  fear  by  the  pretense  of  conscience 
(xxiii:i2).  But  David's  sparing  Saul's  life  twice, 
when  he  was  completely  m  his  power,  must  have 
destroyed  all  color  of  right  in  Saul's  conduct  in 
the  minds  of  the  people,  as  it  also  did  in  his 
own  conscience  (xxiv:3-7;  xxvi,  which  two 
passages,  though  presenting  many  points  of  simi' 
larity,  cannot  be  referred  to  the  same  occasion, 
without  denying  to  the  narrative  all  historic  accu- 
racy and  trustworthiness).  Though  thus  degraded 
and  paralyzed  by  the  indulgence  of  malevolent 
passions,  Saul  still  acted  with  vigor  in  repelling 
the  enemies  of  his  country,  and  in  other  affairs 
wherein  his  jealousy  of  David  was  not  concerned 
(xxiii:27,  28). 

(9)  Saul's  Last  Offense  and  Death.  The 
measure  of  Saul's  iniquity,  now  almost  full,  was 
completed  by  an  act  of  direct  treason  against 
Jehovah,  the  God  of  Israel  (Exod.  xxii:  18;  Lev. 
xix:3i;  xx:27;  Deut.  xviii  :io,  11).  Saul,  proba- 
bly in  a  fit  of  zeal,  and  perhaps  as  some  atone- 
ment for  his  disobedience  in  other  respects,  had 
executed  the  penalty  of  the  law  on  those  who 
practiced  necromancy  and  divination  (i  Sam. 
xxviii:3).  The  question  as  to  the  character  of 
the  apparition  evoked  by  the  witch  of  Endor  falls 
more  properly  to  be  considered  under  other  arti- 
cles.    (See  Divination;  Witch.) 

Assured  of  his  own  death  the  next  day,  and 
that  of  his  sons,  the  ruin  of  his  army,  and  the 
triumph  of  his  most  formidable  enemies,  whose 
invasion  had  tempted  him  to  try  this  unhallowed 
expedient — all  announced  to  him  by  that  saipe 
authority  which  had  foretold  his  possession  of  the 
kingdom,  and  whose  words  had  never  been  falsi- 
fied— Saul,  in  a  state  of  dejection  which  could  not 
promise  success  to  his  followers,  met  the  enemy 
next  day  in  (jilboa,  on  the  extremity  of  the  great 
plain  of  Esdraelon ;  and  having  seen  the  total  rout 
of  his  army,  and  the  slaughter  of  his  three  sons, 
of  whom  the  magnanimous  Jonathan  was  one; 
and  having  in  v?in  solicited  death  from  the  hand 
of  his  armor-bearer  (Doeg  the  Edomite,  the  Jews 
say,  *A  partner  before  of  his  master's  crimes,  and 
now  of  his  punishment'),  Saul  perished  at  last  by 
his  own  hand  (i  Giron.  x:4,  8,  14). 

When  the  Philistines  came  on  the  morrow  to 
plunder  the  slain,  they  found  Saul's  body  and 
the  bodies  of  his  sons,  which,  having  beheaded 
them,  they  fastened  to  the  wall  of  Bethshan ;  but 
the  men  of  Jabesh-gilead,  mindful  of  their  former 
obligation  to  Saul  (i  Sam.  xi),  when  they  heard 
of  the  indignity,  p-atefully  and  heroically  went 
by  night  and  carried  them  off,  and  buried  them 
under  a  tree  in  Jabesh,  and  fasted  seven  days. 
It  is  pleasing  to  think  that  even  the  worst  men 
have  left  behind  them  those  in  whom  gratitude 
and  affection  are  duties.  Saul  had  those  who 
mourned  him,  as  some  hand  was  found  to  have 
strewed  flowers  on  the  newly  made  grave  of  Nero. 


SAVIOR 


1532 


SCAB 


From  Jabesh  the  bones  of  Saul  and  of  his  sons 
were  removed  by  David,  and  buried  in  Zelah,  in 
the  sepulcher  of  Kish,  his  father.  R.  L. 

(10)  Character.  Saul  had  been,  in  many  re- 
spects, admirably  suited  for  his  times.  At  his  ac- 
cession Israel  was  crushed  and  helpless :  he  left  it 
victorious  far  and  near.  Philistine,  Ammonite, 
Moabite,  Amalekite,  and  Syrian,  by  turns,  found 
themselves  defeated,  and  had  to  own  the  prowess 
of  the  new  Hebrew  leader.  He,  with  his  heroic 
son  Jonathan,  and  his  cousin  and  general,  Abner, 
are  among  the  gfreatest  heroes  of  Israel.  He 
showed  his  magnanimity  in  the  clemency  extended 
to  those  who  resisted  him  at  the  opening  of  his 
reign,  while  the  lament  of  the  men  of  Jabesh- 
gilead  over  his  death,  and  the  loyalty  of  nearly  all 
Israel  to  his  house,  after  his  fall,  even  to  the 
length  of  fighting  on  its  behalf,  proves  that  he 
knew  how  to  endear  himself  to  the  nation  at  lar^e. 

Archbishop  Trench  draws,  in  one  of  his  dis- 
courses, delivered  before  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge, a  sad  picture  of  the  contrast  between  the 
beginning  and  the  close  of  Saul's  career.  All  the 
finer  and  nobler  elements  of  his  character  dis- 
played themselves  at  the  outset  of  his  eventful  life ; 
while  at  the  end  we  have  before  us  the  mournful 
spectacle  of  "the  gradual  breaking  down  under 
the  wear  and  the  tear  of  the  world,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  unresisted  temptations,  of  a  lofty  soul : 
the  unworthy  close  of  a  life  worthily  begun." 

2.  An  early  king  of  Idumea  (Gen,  xxxvi:37); 
he  was  of  Rehoboth,  and  succeeded  Samlah  of 
Masrekah.     (B.  C.  after  i6i8.) 

J*  The  Hebrew  name  of  Paul  (Rom.  xi:i ;  Phil. 
iii:5).    (See  Paul.) 

SAVIOB  (sav'ydr),  is  a  name  eminently  appro- 
priated to  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  He  was  pre- 
figured by  those  to  whom  the  Old  Testament  gives 
the  appellation,  as  Joshua,  the  judges  of  Israel, 
the  kings  David,  Solomon  and  Tosiah,  and  the 
other  great  men  raised  up  to  deliver  the  people 
of  God,  as  Mattathias,  Judas  Maccabeus,  and  the 
rest.  The  prophets  have  described  Jesus  under 
the  name  of  Savior  in  many  places:  as  Is.  xii:3, 
"With  joy  shall  ye  draw  water  out  of  the  wells  of 
salvation,"  or  of  the  Savior.  "The  Lord  shall 
send  them  a  Savior,  even  a  great  one,  and  he  shall 
deliver  them,"  chap.  xix:20.  "I,  even  I,  am  the 
Lord,  and  beside  me  there  is  no  Savior,"  chap. 
xliii:ii.  And  the  Apostles  and  sacred  writers  of 
the  New  Testament  generally  give  to  him  the 
name  of  "the  Savior,"  by  way  of  eminence. 

When  the  ang^l  foretold  his  birth,  he  said  he 
should  be  called  Jesus,  that  is,  a  Savior,  assigning, 
as  the  reason,  that  he  should  "save  his  people  from 
thefr  sins"  Matt.  i:2i.  (See  also  John  iv:42; 
Acts  xiii:23;  Philip.  iii:2o,  etc.)  (See  Salva- 
tion.) The  expression  of  the  Samaritans  (John 
iv:42),  with  regard  to  our  Savior,  is  particularly 
strong.  "We  know  that  this  is  indeed  the  Christ, 
THE  Savior  of  the  world,"  where  the  articles  pre- 
fixed to  the  nouns  have  a  special  force  in  them,  to- 
gether with  a  general  import. 

It  is  somewhat  unfortunate  that  the  term  prince 
has  been  adopted  in  connection  with  Savior,  in 
Acts  v  :3i,  since  it  suggests  the  notion  of  temporal 
priority,  not  to  say  of  temporal  authority.  It  is 
rendered  in  the  margin  author,  and  seems  to  de- 
note properly  a  leader,  the  first  of  a  company,  or 
body  of  followers.  "Him  (Jesus)  hath  God  ex- 
alted to  be  leader— precursor  of  his  followers  into 
heaven— also  Savior,  by  giving  repentance  to 
Israel,  arid  remission  of  sins."  Chnst  is  called 
the  "Savior  of  the  body,"  in  Eph.  v:23,  where 
the  comparison  is  to  the  head,  which  fs  the  pro- 
tector, Uie  guardian  of  the  whole  person;  that 


which  completes,  g^>vems  and  superintends  the 
entire  man.  The  Savior  is  said  to  be  expected 
from  heaven  (Phil.  iii:2o;  Titus  ii:i3),  and  in 
short,  the  title  of  Savior  is  so  connected  with 
Deity,  that  it  seems  to  be  impossible  to  separate 
them,  and  to  draw  the  line  of  distinction  between 
them  (Tftus  i:3;  ii:io;  iii:4;  2  Pet  i:i;  Jude 
verse  25). 

God  often  takes  to  himself  the  name  of  Savior 
of  Israel  (i  Sam.  vii:8),  and  David  calls  him 
his  strength  and  his  Savior  (2  Sam.  xxii:3). 
"There  is  no  Savior  beside  me,"  says  the  Lord,  in 
the  prophet  Hosea,  xiii  14.  And  Is.  xvii  :io,  "Thou 
hast  forgotten  the  God  of  thy  salvation,"  or  thy 
Savior.  And  in  truth,  God  is  the  Savior  of 
saviors,  the  God  of  gods;  without  him  there  is 
neither  salvation,  nor  deliverance,  nor  succor.  He 
raised  up  saviors  to  his  people,  in  the  persons  of 
Othniel  (Judg.  iii  :g)  ;  Ehud  (iii  :i5,  etc.) 

SAVOB,   SAVOBS  (sa-ver.  sa'vers),  (Heb.  0**?.. 

ray*akh,  odor),  a  term  used  in  the  Old  Testament; 
the  e£Fect  upon  Jehovah  of  the  sacrifices  ofiEered 
him  by  the  Jews  (Exod.  xxix:i8;  Lev.  irp,  13, 17, 
etc).    In  Joel  ii:20,  "And  his  ill  savor  shall  come 

up,"  we  have  a  rendering  of  Heb.  *^}P^,  tsakh- 
an-aw',  putrefaction. 

Figurative*  The  ancient  sacrifices  were  of  a 
sweet  savor,  or  savor  of  rest  unto  God;  he  ac- 
cepted of,  and  delighted  in  them,  as  typical  of  the 
obedience  and  suffering  of  Christ,  which  suffi- 
ciently honor  all  his  perfections,  and  more  than 
balance  our  offenses  (Gen.  viii:2i;  Exod.  xxix; 
18;  Eph.  v:2).  The  savor  of  the  knowledge  of 
Christ  (Gr.  Ar^iiJ,  os-ma/)  is  the  refreshing  and 
pleasant  nature  of  his  truth,  when  known,  and  of 
the  grace  and  virtue  that  proceed  from  him  as 
our  Mediator  (2  Cor.  ii:i4;  comp.  Ps.  xlv:8). 
Faithful  ministers  are  to  (iod  a  sweet  savor  of 
Christ,  in  their  hearers :  the  faithful  discharge  of 
their  duty  is  acceptable  to  (k>d,  whether  men  be 
saved  by  it  or  not ;  and  are  a  savor  of  death  unto 
death  to  some,  and  a  savor  of  life  unto  life  to 
others ;  they  are  the  occasion  of  condemnation  to 
unbelievers,  and  the  means  of  eternal  life  here 
and  hereafter  to  others  (2  Cor.  ii:i5,  16).  To 
savor  the  things  of  men,  and  not  the  things  of 
God,  (Gr.  0poi^(tf,  Jfron-eh'o,  to  think,  feel),  is  to 
contrive,  choose,  and  deHght  in  things  agreeable 
to  selfish  ease,  or  sinful  pleasures,  and  not  what  is 
commanded  of  God,  and  tends  to  his  honor 
(Matt.  xvi:23).  Comp.  the  figure  salt  which  has 
lost  its  savor  (Matt.  v;i3;  Luke  xiv:34),  the  ren- 
dering of  Gr.  luapalwa,  mo^rah-ee' no,  to  make  flat  or 
tasteless. 

SAVOBT  MEAT  (sa'ver-y  met),  (Heb.  °?95. 

mat-am*,  delicacy,  "dainties,"  Prov.  xxiiiij,  "dainty 
meats,"  verse  6),  a  term  applied  to  the  food  pre- 
pared for  Isaac  (Gen.  xxvii:3,  4, 9,  etc.). 

SAW  (sa),  (Heb.  ^^3P,  meg-ay-raw*). 

An  instrument  much  like  that  of  modem  times 
used  for  cutting  wood  or  stone  (i  Kings  viirg;  Is. 
x:i5).  Criminals  were  sometimes  put  to  death  by 
being  sawn  asunder  (Heb.  xi:37;  2  Sam.  xii:3i; 
'  I  Chron.  xx:3).  The  saws  of  the  Egyptians  were 
fitted  with  only  one  handle,  and  the  blade  was  of 
bronze,  fastened  to  the  handle  by  thongs.  The 
Assyrians  had  a  two-handled  saw,  of  wnich  the 
blade  was  made  of  iron.  It  is  probable  that  the 
Hebrews  were  acquainted  with  both  kinds. 

SCAB  (Heb.  for  ^'S^,saw'fakh',  Lev.  xiii:2,  6, 

7;  xiv:56).  The  same  root  appears  in  the  form  of 
a  verb  (Is.  iii:  17),  sippah,  to  afflict  with  a  scab. 
Both  refer  to  the  crust  which  forms  on  a  skin 
eruption. 


SCABBARD 


1533 


SCHOOL,  EDUCATION 


SOABBABB  (sk&b'berd),  (Heb.  ^^,  tah'-ar.  Jer. 

xlvii:6),  elsewhere  "sheath."    See  Sword. 

S0A7F0LD   (skif'ttld),  (Heb.  ">'*?,  kee-yor^, 

2  Chron.  vi:i3),  a  platform  built  by  Solomon  for 
the  dedicatory  services  of  the  Temple,  upon  which 
he  stood  to  pray. 

SCALE  (skal),  (Heb.  f^^R)?!^,  kas-keh' seth). 

1.  (a)  Used  of  fishes  (Lev.  xirg,  lo,  12;  Deut. 
xiv:io;  Ezek.  xxix:4).  (b)  Of  a  coat  of  mail 
(i  Sam.  xviirs).  (c)  Of  the  incrustations  of  the 
eye  (Acts  ix:i8). 

2.  Used  of  balances  (Heb.  ^^f ,  peh'Us)  (Prov. 

xvi:ii;  Is.  xl:i2).  (See  Money;  Weights  and 
Measures.) 

8.  (Heb.°**??9  T?^,  ap'pee-kay  maw^- 
neem\  strong  ones  of  shields^  Job  xli:i5),  of  the 
scaly  armor  of  the  "leviathan,"  /.  ^.,  crocodile. 

4.  (Heb.  •"*^?,  aw'law\  to  scale  the  walls  of  a 

city;  Prov.  xxi:22). 

SCALI«  (skal),  (Lev.  xiii:3p,35;  xiv:54),  a  gen- 
eral term  for  eruptions. 

SCALP  (scalp),  (Heb.  TIB,  kod-kode',  crown), 
the  crown  of  the  head  (Ps.  lxviii:2i). 
SCAPEGOAT  (skap'gSt).    See  C^at. 
SCABIiET  (sk^'lSt).    See  Purple,  etc 

SCENT  (sSnl),  (Heb.  0^,  ray'akh,  odor),  that 

which  anything  exhaled,  as  by  water  (Job  xivip), 
or  hy  wine  (Jer.  xlviii:ii).  In  the  latter  passage 
MoaD  is  likened  to  wine  which  has  preserved  its 
original  taste  and  flavor. 

Figurative*     (Heb.   ^?.^    za/ker,   memento). 

The  scent  of  the  church  is  as  the  wine  of  Leba- 
non, when  she  delightfully  abounds  with  saints 
and  good  works  (Hos.  xiv:7),  the  passage  being 
used  figuratively  of  those  that  sit  under  the 
shadow  of  Israel,  who  shall  "grow  as  the  vine,  the 
scent  (remembrance,  t.  e.,  renown)  as  the  wine 
of  Lebanon." 

SCEPTEB  (sSp'ter).    The  Hebrew  word  thus 

rendered  is  shay-bet  (^3??),  which  in  its  primary 

signification  denotes  a  staff  of  wood  (Ezek.  xix: 
11),  about  the  height  of  a  man,  which  the  an- 
cient kings  and  chiefs  bore  as  an  insignia  of  honor 
(lliad,  i.  234,  245;  ii.185,  sq.;  Amos  i:5;  Zech. 
x:ii;  Ezek.  xix:ii;  comp.  Gren.  xlix:io;  Num. 
xxiv:i7;  Is.  xiv:5).  As  such  it  appears  to  have 
originated  in  the  shepherd's  sta£F,  since  the  first 
kings  were  mostly  nomad  princes   (Strabo,  xvi. 

783). 
A  golden  scepter,  that  is,  one  washed  or  plated 

with  gold,  is  mentioned  in  Esth.  iv:ii  (comp. 
Xenoph.  Cyrop,  viii.  7,  13;  Iliad,  i.  15;  ii.  268; 
Odyss.  xi.  91).  Other  decorations  of  Oriental 
scepters  are  noticed  by  Strabo  (xvi.  746).  In- 
clining the  scepter  was  a  mark  of  kingly  favor 
(Esth.  iv:ii),  and  the  kissing  it  a  token  of  sub- 
mission (Esth.  v:2).  Saul  appears  to  have  car- 
ried his  javelin  as  a  mark  of  superiority  (i  Sam. 
xxii:6).     (See   Rod.) 

Figurative.  The  scepter  is  put  for  power  and 
authority  (Is.  xiv  15)  ;  and  also  for  the  rulers 
themselves;  so  where  we  have  shayhet  in  one 
place,  we  have  judges  in  the  parallel  place  (comp. 
2  Sam.  viii:i4;  i  Chron.  xvii:6).  The  princes  of 
Judah  are  called  rods,  because  with  authority  they 
ruled  and  corrected  others  (Ezek.  xix  114). 

The  rod  of  Christ's  strength  sent  out  of  Zion 
is  the  gospel,  attended  with  miraculous  and  sav- 


ing influences  for  the  conversion  of  multitudes, 
and  the  support  and  direction  of  saints  (Ps.  ex: 
2).  It  is  a  scepter  of  righteousness,  by  which  the 
righteousness  of  God's  nature  and  law  is  glorified 
to  the  highest;  Christ's  righteousness  is  brought 
near,  offered,  and  applied  to  us;  and  by  which 
we  are  effectually  made  righteous  in  all  manner 
of  conversation.  This  scepter  may  also  denote 
our  Lord's  righteous  execution  of  his  whole  office 
(Ps.  xlv;6). 

SCEVA  (se'vi),  (Gr.  Z«€vat,  skyoo-as*,  lef thanded), 
a  high-priest  residing  in  Ephesus  at  the  time  of 
Paul  s second  visit  there  (Acts  xix:i4-i6),  A.  D.52. 

SCHISM  (sYz'm).    See  Heresy. 

SCHOOL,  EDUCATION  (skool,  M'A-kH'shiin). 
(Gr.  o-xoXiJ,  skAo/-ay\  Acts  xix  29),  a  place  where 
there  is  leisure,  a  place  of  tuition. 

Before  the  Exile,  the  Jews,  like  the  ancient 
Romans,  seem  to  have  had  no  notion  whatever 
of  public  and  national  schools,  since  the  sphere 
of  our  present  elementary  knowledge,  reading 
and  writmg,  was  confined  to  but  a  few. 

(1)  Private  Tutors.  Children  were  usually 
taught  the  simple  doctrines  of  religion  by  their 
parents,  by  means  of  aphorisms,  sacred  stories 
and  rites  (Deut.  vi:7,  20,  sq,;  xiag;  Prov.  vi: 
20),  while  the  children  of  kings  seem  to  have  had 
tutors  of  their  own  (2  Kings  x:i,  5).  Even  after 
the  Exile,  national  instruction  was  chiefly  limited 
to  religion,  as  might  naturally  be  expected  from 
a  nation  whose  political  institutions  were  founded 
on  theocratic  principles. 

The  question  naturally  suggests  itself  here, 
How  did  it,  then,  happen  that  the  Jews,  confmed 
to  so  small  a  territory  in  Syria,  living  continually 
isolated  and  apart  from  other  nations,  and  not 
possessing  in  their  own  territory  resources  of  any 
kind  for  the  advancement  of  education,  should, 
nevertheless,  have  mustered  such  an  host  of  sages 
and  learned  men?  It  must  indeed  perplex  those 
who  are  initiated  in  the  Hebrew  literature  to  dis- 
cover by  what  means  learning,  thought,  and  in- 
quiry were,  under  such  circumstances,  fostered 
and  cultivated ;  and  it  will  be  asked,  In  what  con- 
nection stood  the  so-called  great  synagogue,  un- 
der Ezra  and  Zerubbabel,  with  the  schools  of  the 
prophets  in  previous  times?  And  how  did  John, 
the  herald  of  Christ,  and  Paul  the  Apostle,  re- 
ceive that  education  which  made  the  former  the 
teacher  of  his  own  nation,  and  the  latter  that  of 
so  many  nations  and  ages? 

(2)  Public  Meetings.  The  solution  of  these 
questions  we  may  find  in  the  establishment  of  an 
institution  among  the  later  Israelites,  unique  in 
its  kind,  and  eventually  brought  to  a  high  degree 
of  perfection;  namely,  the  public  meetings  of  the 
learned  men,  for  the  purpose  of  expounding  the 
sacred  writings  and  of  giving  instruction  in  prac- 
tical philosophy.  We  shall  bring  together  some 
of  the  scattered  records  concerning  this  institu- 
tion, to  show  its  powerful  influence  upon  educa- 
tion in  general. 

For  the  latter  period  of  Jewish  civilization,  from 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah  to  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem by  Titus,  and  its  final  complete  overthrow 
in  the  second  century  after  Christ,  a  great  num- 
ber of  philosophical  and  religious  aphorisms  are 
found  collected  in  the  Talmud,  as  originating  with 
the  men  of  those  learned  assemblies  in  various 
epochs,  and  in  which  we  may  trace  the  spirit  of 
many  passages  even  of  the  New  Testament. 

In  the  Babylon  Talmud  (Tr.  Sanhedrin)  those 
desirous  of  knowledge  are  exhorted  to  repair  to 
the  learned  meetings  of  certain  celebrated  rabbis 
who  taught  in  Lydda,  Burin,  Pekun,  Jabneh,  Bene- 
barak,  Rome,  Sikni,  Zipporim,  or  Nesibis;  and  in 


SCHOOL,  EDUCATION 


1634 


SCHOOL.  EDUCATION 


the  land  of  captivity  to  the  g^reat  teacher  in  Betli- 
shaarim,  and  to  the  sages  who  taught  in  the  hall 
Gaazith.  The  Talmud  also  mentions  many  other 
seats  of  the  learned,  such  as  Jerusalem,  Caesarea, 
Bethshan,  Acco,  Bether,  Magdala,  Ushah,  Raccat 
(Tiberias),  and  Alexandria  in  Egypt.  In  Ti- 
berius the  most  learned  men  of  the  age  assembled 
to  compose  that  famous  monument  of  Jewish 
learning,  the  Talmud.  (See  Talmud).  Gamaliel 
(Paul's  master)  was  head  of  the  learned  assembly 
or  college  at  Jabneh  (Jamnia),  which,  it  is  stated, 
numbered  not  fewer  than  three  hundred  and 
eighty  students.  At  Zipporim  in  Galilee  also, 
where  the  celebrated  R.  Judah  Hakkadosh  passed 
the  latter  part  of  his  life,  there  is  said  to  have  been 
several  of  these  schools,  and  eminent  teachers, 
all  of  whom  are  mentioned  by  name.  In  Tr. 
Sanhedrin,  we  further  read:  There  were  three 
teachers  at  Bether,  and  in  Jabneh  four — R.  Elie- 
zer,  R.  Akibah,  R.  Joshua,  and  R.  Simon;  the 
last  spoke  in  the  presence  of  the  od»ers,  although 
he  still  sat  upon  the  ground' — that  is,  he  was 
present  as  an  auditor  merely,  although  occasion- 
ally allowed  to  act  as  a  teacher.  In  the  same  tract 
it  is  said — 'the  meeting  rests  upon  men  ;*  on  which 
the  gloss  is,  'Wherever  there  are  ten  men  whose 
occupations  do  not  prevent  them  from  devoting 
their  whole  time  to  sacred  learning,  a  house  for 
their  meetings  must  be  built.'  In  the  Jerusalem 
Talmud  (Tr.  Che  tub.)  a  tradition  is  alleged  that 
there  had  been  at  Jerusalem  four  hundred  and 
sixty  synagogues,  each  of  which  contained  an 
apartment  for  the  reading  of  the  law,  and  another 
for  the  meeting  of  men  for  inquiry,  deep  research, 
and  instruction.  Such  a  meeting-hall  is  called 
by  the  Talmudists  Beth-Midrash,  that  is,  an 
apartment  where  lectures  were  given,  or  conver- 
sations held  on  various  subjects  of  inquiry.  There 
were  three  of  these  meeting-places  in  the  Temple 
(Tr.  Megillah)^  and  in  all  of  them  it  was  the  cus- 
tom for  the  students  to  sit  on  the  floor,  while  the 
teachers  occupied  raised  seats  (T.  Hieros.  Tr. 
Taanith)  ;  hence  Paul  describes  himself  as  having, 
when  a  student,  'sat  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel'  (Acts 
xxii:3). 

(3)  Method  of  Procedure.  There  are  many 
hints  in  the  Talmud  which  dirow  light  upon  the 
manner  of  proceeding  in  these  assemblies.  Thus, 
a  student  a:sked  Gamaliel  whether  the  evening 
prayer  was  obligatory  by  the  law,  or  not.  He 
answered  in  the  affirmative ;  on  which  the  student 
infprmed  him  that  R.  Joshua  had  told  him  that  it 
was  not  obligatory.  'Well,'  said  Gamaliel,  'when 
he  appears  to-morrow  in  the  assembly,  step  for- 
ward and  ask  him  the  question  again.'  He  did  so, 
and  the  expected  answer  raised  a  discussion,  a 
full  account  of  which  is  given.  It  a[^ears  that 
these  learned  men  delivered  their  dicta  and  arg^u- 
menrts  in  Hebrew  to  an  interpreter  at  their  side, 
who  then  explained  diem  in  the  vernacular  dia- 
lect to  the  audience.  This  is  the  explanation 
given  of  an  anecdote,  that  a  celebrated  teacher 
was  unable  to  proceed  for  want  of  an  interpreter, 
till  Rabh  volunteered  his  services  (Tr.  Yomah), 
In  such  meetings  there  was  one  who  was  recog- 
nized as  president  or  chief  professor,  and  another 
as  vice-president  (Tr.  Horayoth), 

These  teachers  and  professors,  who  were  the 
lawyers'  and  'doctors*  of  the  New  Testament, 
formed  no  mean. opinion  of  their  own  dignity  and 
importance,  as  indeed  the  Gospels  evince.  It  is 
said,  *A  wise  man  (more  particularly  a  chief  pro- 
fessor) is  of  more  consequence  than  a  king;  for 
when  the  former  dies  there  is  (often)  no  one  to 
replace  him,  but  any  one  may  replace  the  latter. 
A  wise  man,  even  though  a  bastard,  ranks  even 
above  the  high-priest,  if  tbe  latter  be  one  of  the 


unlearned.'    Even  the  students  under  these  per 
sonages  claimed  to  be  regarded  with  respect ;  they 
were  called  the  'holy  people,'  as  opposed  to  the 
masses,  who  are  contemptuously  designated  'peo- 
ple of  the  earth.' 

Philo  {De  Vita  Contemp.),  speaking  of  the 
meetings  of  the  Essenes,  who  are  supposed  to 
have  observed  the  regulations  of  the  ancient 
prophets,  says,  'After  the  head  teacher  had  finished 
his  exposition  to  the  assembly,  upon  a  proposed 
question,  he  stands  up  and  begins  to  sing  (a  hymn 
or  psalm),  in  which  the  choirs  join  at  certain  in- 
tervals; and  the  audience  listen  quietly  till  the 
repetition  of  the  leading  theme,  when  all  join 
in  it. 

(4)  New  Testament  Allusions.  Now  the 
practices  mentioned  in  the  preceding  citations  en- 
tirely correspond  with  the  intimations  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  with  them  may  be  taken  into  the 
series  of  facts  illustrative  of  the  condition  of 
learning  and  education  and  the  mode  of  instruc- 
tion among  the  Jews,  for  the  period  .considerably 
before  and  long  after  the  time  of  Christ.  The 
following  passages  in  particular  may  be  indicated 
in  this  connection — Luke  ii  146 ;  Acts  vi  :g,  10 ;  xix : 
8,  9;  xxii;3;  i  Ck>r.  xiv  .-26-33;  2  Tim.  ii:2.  In 
the  last  but  one  of  these,  it  is  true,  the  description 
applies  to  the  Christian  assemblies;  but,  on  com- 
paring it  with  the  other  passages,  it  will  appear 
that  the  first  Christian  teachers  had  retained  many 
of  the  regulations  of  the  Jewish  assemblies.  The 
Apocryphal  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  which 
belong  to  this  period,  contain  some  curious  and 
distinct  intimations  to  the  same  purport,  and  il- 
lustrative of  the  general  subject.  See  in  partic- 
ular, Wisd.  viii.  8,  10;  Sirach,  xxxv.  3,  sq.;  xxxix. 
2,  3;  xliv:3-5;  i  Mace.  vii.  11 ;  2  Mace.  vi.  17,  18. 

(5)  Conclusions.  From  the  above  and  from 
sundry  other  passages  of  the  same  import,  which 
we  have  not  thought  it  necessary  to  produce,  we 
may  safely  draw  the  following  conclusions : — 

(i)  That  soon  after  the  Babylonian  Exile,  as- 
semblies of  the  learned  not  only  existed,  but  had 
increased  to  a  considerable  extent. 

(2)  That  these  meetings  took  place  not  only 
at  Jerusalem,  but  also  in  other  places,  remote 
from  the  capital  of  Palestine,  such  as  Galilee,  the 
frontiers  of  Idumea,  Lebanon,  and  even  in  heathen 
countries. 

(3)  That  the  meeting  places  of  the  wise  stood 
mostly  in  connection  with  the  synagogues;  and 
that  the  wise  or  learned  men  usually  met.  soon 
after  divine  worship  and  reading  were  over,  in 
the  upper  apartment  of  the  synagogues,  in  order 
to  discuss  those  matters  which  required  more  re- 
search and  inquiry. 

(4)  That  the  Beth-Midrash  was  a  place  where 
subjects  of  religious  philosophy  and  various  para- 
doxes from  the  moral  and  material  world  were 
treated,  serving  as  a  sort  of  academical  lectures 
for  those  higher  students  who  aspired  to  fill  in 
time  the  place  of  teacher  themselves.  These  insti- 
tutions may  therefore  be  fairly  likened  to  the 
academies,  or  learned  societies,  so  famous  in 
ancient  Greece  and  Rome. 

(5)  That  these  assemblies  of  the  wise  were 
quite  different  from  those  of  the  priests,  who  oc- 
cupied themselves  merely  with  investigations  on 
the  religious  rites  and  ceremonies,  etc.;  as  also 
from  those  where  civil  laws  were  discussed,  and 

.law-suits  decided  (Beth-din,  'court  of  judg- 
ment') ;  though  many  of  the  learned  priests  were 
no  doubt  members  of  the  literary  assemblies,  and 
probably  often  proposed  in  the  Beth-Midrash 
questions  of  a  character  more  suited  to  a  sacred 
than  to  a  philosophical  society. 

(6)  That   such   societies    (assemblies   of  the 


SCHOOL,  EDUCATION 


1535 


SCHOOLMASTER 


wise)  selected  their  own  president  from  among 
the  most  distinguished  and  learned  of  their  mem- 
bers; and  consisted  of  more  or  fewer  members, 
but  certainly  not  less  than  ten,  capable  of  partak- 
ing in  a  discussion  on  some  proposed  learned 
question. 

It  is  perhaps  worth  notice  that  we  may  trace  in 
some  of  the  fragments  which  have  descended  to 
us  from  those  assemblies,  ten  different  speakers  or 
lecturers;  see  ex.  gr.,  Eccles.  i:3  to  iv:i6,  where 
the  following  sections  evidently  bear  the  character 
of  different  speakers  and  different  subjects:  (i) 
ch.  i:3-7;  (2)  8-1 1;  (3)  ch.  xiv:2-26;  (4)  ch. 
iii:i-8;  (5)  9-i5;  (6)  16-22;  (7)  ch.  iv:i-6;  (8) 
7-8;  (9)  9-12;  (10)  13-16.  Again  we  can  dis- 
tinguish another  assembly  and  different  speakers 
in  the  following  verses  of  Eccles.:  (i)  ch.  viii: 
8-10;  (2)  11-13;  (3)  14,  15;  (4)  16,  17;  (5)  ch. 
IX  :i;  (6)  2-4;  (7)  4-6;  (8)  7-10;  (9)  ",  12; 
(10)   13;  ch.  x:i. 

(7)  That  the  president  or  head  of  the  assembly 
usually  brought  forward  the  question  or  subject 
at  issue  very  briefly,  and  sometimes  even  in  a 
very  low  voice,  so  as  not  to  be  heard  by  the  whole 
assembly,  but  only  by  those  close  at  his  elbow, 
who  then  detailed  and  delivered  it  at  large  in  a 
louder  voice  to  the  meeting. 

Traces  of  the  developed  details  of  subjects  thus 
briefly  proposed  by  the  president  of  the  assem- 
bly, cannot  escape  the  eye  of  the  inquiring  reader 
of  Ecclesiastes  and  the  Book  of  Wisdom.  Thus, 
in  the  counter-songs  in  Ecclesiastes,  perhaps  the 
introduction,  the  few  laconic  words,  'vanity  of 
vanities,  all  is  vanity!'  constituted  the  sentence 
with  wnich  the  president  opened  the  subject  or 
question.  So  also  in  the  Book  of  Wisdom  (vi: 
22;  ix:i7),  where  perhaps  the  naked  question, 
'What  is  wisdom?  Whence  does  it  come?'  be- 
longed to  the  president,  who  in  this  brief  manner 
opened  the  subject,  leaving  the  discussion  and  en- 
largement to  the  other  able  members.  (Comp.  also 
v:23  with  vi:i-2i ;  and  see  i  Cor.  xiv:  27,  28.) 

(8)  That  the  pupils  or  students  in  those  assem- 
blies were  not  mere  boys  coming  to  be  instructed 
in  the  rudiments  of  knowledge,  but  men  or  youths 
of  more  or  less  advanced  education,  who  came 
thither  either  to  profit  by  listening  to  the  learned 
discussions,  or  even  to  participate  in  them  them- 
selves, thus  paving  the  way  and  preparing  them- 
selves for  the  office  of  the  presidency  at  some 
future  time. 

(9)  That  these  meetings  were  public,  admitting 
any  one,  though  not  a  member,  and  even  allowing 
him  to  propose  questions. 

(10)  That  the  subjects  propounded  in  those 
assemblies  were  of  a  manifold  character:  (a) 
songs  in  which  the  audience  now  and  then  joined; 
(b)  counter-songs,  in  which  several  of  the  learned 
members  delivered  their  thoughts  and  opinions 
on  a  certain  proposed  question;  (c)  adages; 
(d)  solutions  of  obscure  questions  and  problems 
(atnigneata) . 

(11)  That  the  principal  task  of  these  assemblies 
was  to  preserve  the  remains  of  the  sages  of  olden 
times  by  collecting  and  writing  them  down.  This 
office  probably  procured  for  Ezra  (the  president 
of  such  an  assembly)    the  distinguished  title  of 

"^^^f  saw'farc,  'scribe*  (Ezra  vii:6,  11,  12). 

(12)  That  these  assemblies  and  meetings  were 
still  in  existence  in  the  times  of  Christ  and  his 
apostles. 

Specimens  of  the  matters  discussed  in  those 
assemblies  in  this  latter  period  are  found  in  the 
Talmud,  in  the  collections  of  Baruch  and  Jesus 
(son  of  Sirach),  and  more  especially  in  the  Book 
of  Wisdom.     Perhaps  some  expressions  of  John 


the  Baptist  and  some  speeches  of  Christ  might 
be  compared  with  them.  Even  the  frequent  pas- 
sages in  the  New  Testament,  in  which  Christ  and 
the  apostles  warn  the  people  against  the  sophis- 
tries, subtleties,  idle  questions  and  vain  researches 
of  the  so-called  wise,  show  us  that  these  impor- 
tant institutions  had  greatly  degenerated  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  period  under  our  notice  (Col. 
ii:8;  l  Tim.  i:4,  6;  iv:7;  vi:4,  20;  Tit.  iii:9). 
And  so  we  find  it  in  reality,  when  we  examine 
with  attention  the  scanty  materials  which  exist 
for  the  history  of  this  time  (Ex.  gr.  T.  Bab.  Tr. 
Hagigah). 

The  originally  useful  objects  of  this  institution 
were  soon  lost  sight  of  in  the  ambitious  views  of 
the  sages  on  whom  its  character  depended  to 
shine,  and  to  say  something  new  and  original, 
however  absurd  and  paradoxical,  a  mania  visible 
already  in  the  second  part  of  the  Book  of  Wis- 
dom, and  which  soon  contributed  and  lent  charms 
to  the  cabalistic  researches  and  interpretations, 
and  art  of  extravagant  speculation,  which  sup- 
planted even  in  the  first  period  of  our  Christian 
era  all  other  solid  researches  among  the  Jews,  and 
caused  the  downfall  of  those  assemblies. 

This  mania  of  distinction  also  led  to  banterings 
and  quarrels  among  the  little  Jewish  academies 
or  literary  societies,  thus  dividing  them  into  va- 
rious sects  or  parties. 

The  most  violent  of  these  schisms  were  those 
which  broke  out  between  the  Pharisees  and  Sad- 
ducees.  The  Pharisees  soon  obtained,  it  is  true, 
the  mastery  over  their  opponents,  but  they  them- 
selves were  also  split  into  many  parties  by  the 
disputes  between  the  school  of  the  celebrated 
teacher  Hillel,  and  that  of  Shammai,  the  former 
advocating  the  right  of  the  traditional  law  even 
in  opposition  to  that  of  Moses,  while  the  latter 
(like  Christ)  attached  but  little  weight  to  tradi- 
tions whenever  they  were  found  to  clash  with 
the  Mosaical  law.  These  disputes  between  the 
various  schools  of  the  Jewish  doctors  at  the  close 
of  that  period,  were  often  carried  not  only  to 
gross  personalities,  but  even  to  bodily  assaults,  and 
murder  (Tr.  Sabbath  and  Shebuoth)  ;  and  it  had 
at  last  become  a  proverb  'that  even  Elijah  the 
Tishbite  would  not  be  able  to  reconcile  the  ad- 
herents of  Hillel  and  Shammaif  What  the  one 
party  permitted  the  other  was  sure  to  prohibit, 
and  vice  versa.  The  school  of  Hillel,  however, 
had  from  an  early  period  always  numbered  a  vast 
majority  in  its  favor,  so  that  the  modern  Jewish 
Rabbis  are  uniformly  guided  by  the  opinion  of 
that  school  in  their  decisions. 

Now,  as  the  Talmud  contains  (with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  genuine  keinalia  from  the  treasures 
of  the  early  periods,  which  are  now  and  then 
found  in  the  heavy  volumes  of  iiseless  researches) 
for  the  most  part  only  the  opinions  and  disputes 
of  those  schools  concerning  the  traditional  laws, 
glossed  over  with  cabalistic  subtilties  and  sophis- 
tical speculations,  it  is  very  natural  that  but  little 
of  real  interest  is  10  be  found  in  it. 

Nevertheless,  some  remnants  of  the  researches 
of  the  'Assemblies  of  the  Wise'  from  the  earlier 
periods  have  also  descended  to  us  in  the  Book  of 
Wisdom,  and  in  the  collections  of  the  son  of 
Sirach,  showing  us  those  colleges  in  their  dig- 
nified and  more  pure  aspect. 

SCHOOLMASTER  (sko^'mas'ter),  (Gr.  roudaY- 
iarf(»,  Pahee-dag-O'gos'),  dt.  guide  and  guardian  ¥or 
boys. 

The  Greek  word  pedagogue  now  carries  with  it 
an  idea  approaching  to  contempt :  with  no  other 
word  to  qualify  it,  it  excites  the  idea  of  a  pedant, 
who  assumes  an   air  of  authority  over   others. 


SCIENCE  16 

which  does  not  belong  to  him.  But  among  ihe 
ancients  a  pedagogue  was  a  person  to  whom  they 
committed  the  care  of  their  children,  lo  lead  them, 
to  observe  them,  and  to  instruct  them  in  their 
first  rudiments.  Thus  the  office  of  a  pedagogue 
nearly  answered  to  that  of  a  governor  or  tutor, 
who  constantly  attends  his  pupil,  teaches  him, 
and  forms  his  manners.  Paul  (i  Cor.  iv:i5) 
says:  "For  though  you  have  ten  thousand  in* 
structors  (pedagogues)  in  Christ,  yet  have  ye  not 
many  fathers."  Representing  himself  as  their 
father  in  the  faith,  since  he  had  begotten  them  in 
the  gospel.  The  pedagogue,  indeed,  may  have 
some  power  and  interest  of  his  pupil,  but  he  can 
never  have  the  natural  tenderness  of  a  father  for 
him.  To  the  Galatians,  the  apostle  says,  (iii:24, 
25)  "The  taw  was  our  schoolmaster  (pedagogue) 
to  brinf;  us  to  Christ."  It  pointed  out  Christ  in 
the  Scriptures,  the  figures,  the  prophecies,  of  the 
Old  Testament;  but  since  we  are  advanced  to 
superior  learning',  and  are  committed  to  the  tui- 
tion of  the  faith  which  we  have  embraced,  we 
have  no  longer  need  of  a  schoolmaster,  or  peda- 
gogue; as  such  are  of  no  further  use  to  young 
persons  when  advanced  to  years  of  maturity. 

SCIBKCE  (sVeas),  (Heb.  ^'^^,  mad-iiaw' ;  Gt. 
•ffositigno'sis;  Lat.  scientia). 

The  word  science  occurs  only  twice  in  the 
Bible  {Dan.  ii4;  I  Tim.  vi:2o).  It  is  elsewhere 
rendered  "knowledge."  In  the  passage,  Dan.  i;4, 
the  expression  "cunning  in  knowledge"  may  well 
be  rendered  "skillful  in  understanding  or  knowl- 
edge." The  Greek  term  is  used  about  thirty 
times  in  the  New  Testament,  and  except  in  the 
above  passage  is  rendered  "knowledge."  It  should 
be  so  translated  here,  and  the  passage  would  read 
"oppositions  (or  contradictions)  of  knowledge 
falsely  called,"  i.  e.,  the  higher  knowledge  of 
Christian  and  divine  things  which  false  teachers 
boast  of. 

In  a  general  way  we  may  say  that  science  means 
knowledge,  emphatically  so  called ;  that  is,  knowl- 
edge of  principles  and  causes. 

It  has  its  name  from  bringing  us  {epi  stasia) 
to  some  stop  and  boundary  of  things,  taking  us 
away  from  the  unbounded  nature  and  mutability 
of  particulars;  for  it  Is  conversant  about  subjects 
that  are  general  and  invariable.  This  etymology 
given  by  Nicephorus  (Blemmida),  and  long  be- 
fore him  adopted  by  the  Peripatetics,  came  orig- 
inally from  Plato. 

Sir  William  Hamilton,  in  his  Lectures  on  Logic, 
defined  science  as  a  'complement  of  cognitions, 
having,  in  point  of  form,  the  charaicter  of  logical 
perfection,  and  in  point  of  matter,  the  characler 
of  real  truth.' 

Science  is  knowledge  evident  and  certain  in 
itself,  or  by  the  principle  from  which  it  is  de- 
duced, or  with  which  it  is  certainly  connected. 
It  is  subjective,  as  existing  in  a  mind — objective, 
as  embodied  in  Kraxh?.— speculative,  as  resting  in 
attainments  of  truths,  as  in  physical  science — prac- 
tical, as  leading  to  do  something,  as  in  ethical 
science.     (Flemmg,  Vocab.  Phil.) 

BOOFF  (skOf),  (Heb.  C^p,.  kaiii-las\  to  disparage, 
Hab.  i:io},  to  ridicule,  make  light  of,  to  assail 
scornfully,  to  treat  with  derision. 

BCOFFBH  (skaf'er),  (Or.  iimntr^,  emp-aherk- 
tace'),  one  who  trifles,  and  so  derides  (z  Pet.  iii:3). 

8C0KN,  SOOBNFR  (skorn,  skdrn'er). 

1.  In  Esth.  iii:6  (comp.  Job  )[it:4)  it  is  recorded 
of  Haman  that  "he  thought  scorn  to  lay  hands  on 
Mordecai  alone,"  the  rendering  of  Heb.  i^J?,  baw- 
mtv',  to  (read  under  foot,  to  despise,  and  so  ren- 


dered in  Esth.  i:i7;  Prov.  xix:i6;  Pa.  lxxiii:2o:  Is. 
liii:3). 
8.  Saw-kkak'  (Heb.  T!??.  to  laugh,  to  deride): 


spising  the  pursuit  of  the  horse  (job  xxxix:i8). 

8.  Loots  (Heb.  V5^,  to  make  mouths,  deride, 
Prov.  ix:7,  8). 

4.  Kawias'  (Heb.  62|J,  to  despise,  to  refuse). 
Spoken  of  Jerusalem  refusing  payment  for  her 
adulteries,  as  would  a  common  prostitute  (Ezek. 
XVI  ;3t). 

0.  Law'ag  (Heb.  V?,  to  stammer,  iioitate  in 
derision,  blasphemy.  Job  ixxiv:?;  Pb.  xliv:i3; 
lxxix:4;  cxxiii:4). 

6.  A'«'-«'-c/-iiA'o(Gr,iiaTa7eXitui),  10  laugh  down, 
to  deride  (Matt.  ix:24;  Mark  v:4o;  Luke  viii:;3). 

FigaratlV.  "To  drink  scorn  like  water,"  is 
to  give  oneself  up  to  mockery  with  delight,  and  to 
find  satisfaction  in  it  (Job  xxxiv:;}.  God  scorns 
the  scorners  when  he  contemns  and  punishes 
them  (Prov.  iii:34).  If  thou  xomtst,  thou  alone 
Shalt  bear  it;  i.  e.,  shall  be  punished  for  thy  sin 
(Prov.  ix:i2). 


SCORPION  (sk6r-pl-an),  (Heb.  3^^?,  ai-ra^'  ,- 
Gr.cKiipwlat.skor-pee'os.-'La.i.  Scorpio).  An  animal 
belonging  to  class  Arachnida  and  order  Pulmon- 
aria  (Deut.  viii:!^;  Ezek.  ii:6;  Luke  x:ig;  Rev.  jx: 
3,  10;  I  Kings  xii;il,  14;  zChron.  x;II,  14), 

It  somewhat  resembles  the  lobster  in  its  gen- 
eral apijearance,  but  is  much  more  hideous.  Those 
found  in  Europe  seldom  exceed  four  inches  in 
length,  but  in  the  tropical  climates  it  is  no  un- 
common thing  to  meet  with  them  twelve  inches 
long.  There  are  few  animals  more  formidable, 
and  none  more  irascible,  than  the  scorpion ;  but 
happily  for  mankind,  they  are  equally  destructive 
to  their  own  species  as  to  other  animals  (Calmet). 

BOOUBOE  (skQrj),  (Hebrew  generally,  ViMl, 
shoot,  to  whip);  noun  &l!fi,  skote,  a  whip  (Job  ix:23; 
Is.  x;z6;  xxviii:is,l8};  ^i?^  bik-ko'rith,  properly 
to  examine  (Lev.  xixizo);  Or.  >iaffTi7iw,  mas-tigs'o, 
to  flog  (Matt.  x:l7;  xx:ig;  xxiii:34;  Luke  xvni:33; 

John  xix:i;  Acts  xxii;20;  ^paytWbu,  fra^-el-Wo,  to 
ash,  as  a  public  punisrtment  (Matt.  xxvii:26;  Mark 
xv:i3),  and  its  derivative,  a  whip  (John  ii:i5). 

The  punishment  of  scourging  was  very  com- 
mon among  the  Jews.  Moses  ordains  (Deut.  xxv : 
1-3)  that  if  there  be  a  controversy  between  men, 
and  they  come  to  judgment,  then  the  judges  .may 
judge  them.  And  if  the  wicked  man  were  found 
worthy  to  be  beaten,  the  judge  was  to  cause  him  to 
lie  down,  and  lo  be  beaten  before  his  face,  ac- 
cording to  his  fault,  by  a  certain  number,  but  not 
exceeding  forty  stripes.    There  were  two  ways  of 


SCRABBLE  IS! 

giving  the  lash :  one  with  thongs  or  whips,  made 
of  rope-ends,  or  straps  of  leather;  the  other  with 
rods  or  twigs.  The  offender  was  stripped  from 
his  shoulders  to  his  middle,  and  tied  by  his  arms 
to  a  low  pillar,  that  he  might  lean  forward,  and 
'      more  easily  strike  his  back. 


St.  Paul  informs  us  (2  Cor.  xi:24)  that  at  five 
different  times  he  received  thirty-nine  stripes  from 
the  Jews ;  which  seems  to  imply  that  this  was  a 
fixed  number,  not  to  be  exceeded.  The  apostle 
also  clearly  shows,  that  correction  with  rods  was 
different  from  that  with  a  whip ;  for  he  says, 
"Thrice  was  I  beaten  with  rods."  And  when  he 
was  seized  by  the  Jews  in  the  Temple,  the  tribune 
of  the  Roman  soldiers  ran  and  took  him  out  of 
their  hands;  and,  desiring  to  know  the  reason  of 
the  tumult,  he  ordered  him  10  be  tied  and  stretched 
on  the  ground,  to  put  him  lo  the  question,  by 
beatinK  him  with  rods  (Acts  xxii:24,  2s).  for 
thus  the  Romans  commonly  put  prisoners  to  the 
question  (Caimet).  Our  Savior,  speaking  of  the 
pains  and  ignominy  of  his  passion,  commonly 
puts  his  scourging  in  the  second  place  (Matt,  xx: 
19;  Mark  x:34;  Luke  xviii:j2,  33). 

SOBASBLE  (skrab'b'l),  (Heb.  ^??,  law-raw'. 
I  Sam.  xxi:i3,  scratch,  mark).  Scrab  is  a  word 
still  in  use  in  the  Suffolk  dialect,    meaning  to 

8CIUBE8  (skribi).  (Heb.  ^P?,  saw-/arv').  a 
learned  body  of  men,  otherwise  denominated 
lawyers,  whose  influence  with  the  Jewish  nation 
was  very  great  at  the  lime  when  our  Savior  ap- 

There  is  every  [irobability  that  this  learned  class 
must  have  taken  its  rise  con  tempo  raucously  with 
the  commencement  of  the  Mosaic  polity.  They 
certainly  existed  in  the  days  of  Ezra,  who  was  "a 
ready  scribe  in  the  law  of  Moses"  (Ezra  vii:6; 
Neh.  viii:2,  4,  6). 

(1)  Ihitias.  They  had  the  care  of  the  law; 
it  was  their  duty  to  make  transcripts  of  it ;  they 
also  expounded  its  difficulties,  and  taught  its  doc- 
trines, and  so  performed  several  functions  which 
are  now  distributed  among  different  professions, 
being  keepers  of  the  records,  consulting  lawyers, 
authorized  expounders  of  Holy  Writ,  and,  finally, 
schoolmasters — thus  blending  together  in  one 
character  the  several  elements  of  intellectual, 
moral,  social  and  religious  influence.  It  scarcely 
needs  to  be  added  that  their  power  was  very  great. 

(2)  PoBitlon  and  Character.  In  the  New 
Testament  the  scribes  are  found  as  a  body  of 
high  state  functionaries,  who,  in  conjunction  with 
the  Pharisees  and  the  high-priests,  constituted 
the  Sanhedrim,  and  united  all  the  resources  of 
their  power  and  learning  in  order  to  entrap  and 
destroy  the  Savior  of  mankind. 

(3)  Attitude  Toward  Christ.  The  passages 
are  so  numerous  as  not  to  need  citation.    It  may 


7  SCYTHIAN 

be  of  more  service  to  draw  the  reader's  attention 
to  the  great  array  of  influence  thus  brought  to 
bear  against  'the  carpenter's  son.'  That  influ- 
ence comprised,  besides  the  supreme  power  of  the 
stale,  the  first  legal  functionaries,  who  watched 
Jesus  closely  in  order  to  detect  him  in  some 
breach  of  the  law ;  the  recognized  expositors  of 
duty,  who  lost  no  opportunity  to  take  exception 
to  his  utterances,  10  blame  his  conduct,  and  mis- 
represent his  morals ;  also  the  acutest  intellect! 
of  the  nation,  who  eagerly  sought  to  entangle 
him  in  the  web  of  their  sophistries,  or  to  con- 
found him  by  their  artful  questions.  Yet  even 
all  these  malign  influences  failed.  Jesus  was  tri- 
umphant in  argument ;  he  failed  only  when  force 
interposed  its  revengeful  arm. 

(4)  Jewish.  Scboolmasters.  It  is  clear  that 
the  scribes  were  the  Jewish  schoolmasters  as  well 
as  lawyers.  In  this  character  they  appear  in  the 
Talmud.  (See  School.)  In  the  outer  courts 
of  the  Temple  were  many  chambers,  in  which 
they  sat  on  elevated  platforms  to  give  their  leS' 
sons  to  their  pupils,  who  sat  on  a  lower  eleva- 
tion, and  so  at  their  feet.  Of  these  dignified  in- 
structors Gamaliel  was  one  (Acts  v:34)  ;  and 
before  these  learned  doctors  was  Jesus  found 
when  only  twelve  years  old,  hearing  and  asking 
questions  after  the  manner  in  which  instruction 
was  communicated  in  these  class-rooms  (Luke  li: 
46;  Acts  xKii:3;  Lightfoot,  Hora  Hebraica,  pp. 
741-3;  Pirke  Aboik,  v.  23).  J.  R.  B. 

SOBIP  (skrtp).  (Heb.  t^V^-,  yai-kooe,  the  shep- 
herd's pouch),  a  pouch  or  bag  used  to  carry  need- 
ful articles  (Mall.  x:io;  Mark  vi:8;  Luke  x:4: 
xxii:35,  36;  Luke  xil  :33,  "bag":  John  Kii:6). 


Scrip,  Purie  ■nd  Shoo*. 

SCBIPTUBB  (sknp'tM,  (Heb.  3^?,  luem- 
thawb',  written).  The  word  scripture  is  de- 
rived from  the  Lat.  scrifitum  or  icriptura,  and 
has  for  its  Greek  equivalent  ^apka  and  Heb. 
mikraw.  In  its  English  use  in  the  Bible  it  means 
"the  writings,"  as  in  Exod.  xxxii.i6;  Dan.  x:2i. 

Holy  Scripture,  or  the  Holy  Scriptures,  is  the 
term  generally  applied  in  the  Christian  Church 
since  tne  second  century,  to  denote  the  collective 
writings  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  (See 
Bible;  Manuscripts,  Biblical;  Versions.) 

SCBOLL  (skrOI),  (Heb.  1?P,My/ri-,  Rev.vl:!*), 
the  form  of  the  ancient  books. 

SOTTH  (skjlm),  (Heb.  ''■■f^?,  khtl-ai^,  nut,  Eiek. 
xxiv:6,  II,  12),  used  of  the  rustoi  a  pot. 

BOTJBTT  (skflr'vf ),  (R.  V.,  Deut.  xxviii:!?,  for 
A.  V.  "scab"),  a  skin  disease,  probably  of  a  malig- 
nant character  (Lev.  xxi:20;  xxii:23). 

Itch  (Heb.  C??,  khtk'res),  is  supposed  to  be  the 
disease  called  scurvy.  The  latter  disease  should 
be  removed,  in  the  opinion  of  some,  from  the  list 
of  diseases  mentioned  In  Scripture. 

BOTTHIAir  (s!th'I-an),  (Gr.  Zi^An,  ikoo'lhace, 
Scythian),  a  name  which  occurs  only  in  Col.  iii;il. 


SCYTHOPOLIS 


It  was  anciently  applied  sometimes  to  a  par- 
ticular people,  and  san:elimes  to  all  the  nomad 
tribes  which  had  their  seat  to  the  north  of  the 
Black  and  Caspian  seas,  stretching  indefinitel; 
eastward  into  the  unknown  regions  of  Asia.  It 
had  thus  much  the  same  latitude  as  'Tartars,' 
and  was  in  like  manner  synonymous  with  Bar- 
barian. The  name  also  occurs  in  z  Mace,  iv  ;47, 
and  Joseph.  CohI.  Apion.  '»,  37.  The  ScytMans 
were,  in  fact,  the  ancient  representatives  of  the 
modern  Tartars,  and,  like  them,  moved  from 
place  to  place  in  carts  drawn  by  oxen.  It  is 
from  this  circumstance  that  they,  or  a  tribe 
nearly  allied  to  them,  may  be  recognized  on  the 
monuments  of  Egypt.  About  seven  centuries  be- 
fore Girist,  the  Scythians  invaded  Southwestern 
Asia,  and  extended  their  incursions  as  far  as 
Egypt  (Herodotus  i.  103),  In  doing  this  they 
could  but  have  touched  on,  or  passed  through, 
Palestine;  and  it  is  even  supposed  that  Bethshan 
derived  its  classical  name  of  Scythopolis  from 
them.  (See  Bethshan.)  It  is  singular,  how- 
ever, that  the  Hebrew  writers  lake  no  notice  of 
this  transaction ;  for  we  cannot  admit  that  ttie 
prophecies  of  Joel  and  Zephaniah  have  referenc« 
to  it,  as  some  writers  have  imagined. 

SOTTHOFOUS  {sy-lbflpVlis),  (Gr.  ZtveUt  t*Xm, 
skit-ihon'po'lii,  city  of  the  Scythians),  a  name  of 
Bethshean,  {Judith  iii:io;  3  Mace.  xii:3g). 

SEA  (Heb.  ^^  yawm,  roaring),  was  used  by 
the  Hebrew  more  extensively  than  with  us,  being 
applied  generally  to  ail  large  collections  of  water, 
as  they  bad  not  a  set  of  terms  such  as  we  employ 
(defectively,  indeed)  to  discriminate  the  different 
kinds.  'Sea'  for  large  collections,  and  'pool'  for 
smaller,  formed  the  extent  of  their  vocabulary; 
although,  indeed,  pools  were  distinguished  into 
ogcm,  8  natural  pool  or  pond  {  Pa.  cvii:35;  cxiv;3; 
Is.  xxxv:7;  xli:l8,  etc),  and  bereekah,  the  same 
as  the  Arabic  beeriek,  an  artificial  pool  or  reservoir 
(I  Sam.  ii;i3;  iv:i3;  Nah.  ii:8).  The  term  'sea'  )■ 
applied  to  various  parts  of  the  ocean,  and  also  to 
lakes,  for  Q^  is  used  for  these  in  Job  xiviii. 

(1)  Tho  Medlterraiieaii,  being  on  the  west, 
and  therefore  behind  a  person  facing  the  east,  is 
called  in  Scripture  the  Hinder  Sea  (Deut.  xi:24; 
Joel  ii:2o),  that  is,  Wettern  Sea;  and  also,  'the 
Sea  of  the  Philistines'  (Exod.  xxiii:^!),  as  that 
people  possessed  the  largest  proportion  of  its 
shore  in  Palestine.  Being  also  the  largest  sea 
with  which  the  Hebrews  were  acquainted,  they 
called  it  by  pre-eminence,  'the  Great  Sea'  (Num. 
xxxiv:6,  7:  Josh.  i:4:  ix:i;  Ezek.  x1vit:io,  15, 
30) ;  or  simply  'the  sea'  (Jo^.  xv:47). 

(2)  ThB  B«d  Bea.  How  this  gulf  of  the  In- 
dian Ocean  came  by  the  name  of  Red  Sea  is  not 
agreed.  Prideaux  assumes  (Conneclion,  i.  14,  15) 
that  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  bordering 
countries  called  it  Yam  Edom,  or.  'the  sea  of 
Edom'  (it  is  never  so  called  in  Scripture),  as 
its  northeastern  part  washed  the  country  pos- 
sessed by  the  Edomttes.  Now  Edom  means  red 
(Gen.  xxv:30),  and  the  Greeks,  who  borrowed 
the  name  from  the  Phoenicians,  mistook  it  for 
an  appellative  instead  of  a  proper  name,  and  ren- 
dered it  by  er-rutk-ra'  tha'-las-sa.  that  is,  'the 
Red  Sea.'  Others  have  conjectured  that  the  Ara- 
bian Gulf  derived  its  name  from  the  coral  rocks 
and  reefs  in  which  it  abounds;  but  the  coral  of 
the  Red  Sea  is  white,  not  red.  Some  of  the 
mountains  that  stretch  along  the  western  coast 
have  a  singularly  red  appearance,  looking,  as 
Bruce  expresses  it,  as  if  they  were  sprinkled  with 
Havannah  or  Brazil  snuff,  or  brick'dust ;  and 
from  this  a  notion  is  derived  that  these  mountains, 


B  SEA 

presenting  their  conspicuous  sides  to  the  earl; 
navigators  of  the  sea,  induced  them  to  give  it  a 
name  from  that  predominant  color.  Salt  indi- 
cates a  fact  which  affords  a  basis  tor  another  con- 
jecture as  to  the  origin  of  the  name.  He  says: 
'At  one  o'clock  on  the  7th  of  February,  the  sea 


A  Pisbing  Boat  on  Iba  Se*  ot  CtlilM. 

for  a  considerable  distance  around  the  ship  be- 
came extremely  red As  we  were  anx- 
ious to  ascertain  the  cause  of  this  verjr  singu- 
lar appearance,  a  bucket  was  let  down  into  the 
water,  by  which  we  obtained  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  the  substance  floating  on  the  surface.  It 
proved  to  be  of  a  jelly-like  consistence,  composed 
of  a  numberless  multitude  of  very  small  mollusca. 


each  of  which,  having  a  small  red  spot  in  the 
center,  formed,  when  in  a  mass,  a  bright  body 
of  color  nearly  allied  to  that  produced  by  a  mix- 
ture ot  red  lead  with  water.  This  account  has 
been  more  recently  confirmed  by  Ehrenberg. 

The  ancients  applied  the  name  of  Erythrean 
Sea  not  only  to  the  Arabian  Gulf,  but  to  that 
part  of  the  Indian  Ocean  which  is  enclosed  be- 


SEA  15 

tween  the  peninsula  of  India  and  Arabia;  but 
in  modern  usage  the  name  of  Red  Sea  is  restricted 
to  the  Arabian  Gulf,  which  enters  into  the  land 
from  the  Indian  Ocean  in  a  westerly  direction, 
and  then,  at  the  straits  of  Bab-el -Man  deb,  turns 
north- north  west,  maintaining  that  direction  till 
it  makes  a  near  approach  to  the  Mediterranean, 
from  which  its  western  arm  is  only  separated  by 
the  Isthmus  of  Suez.  It  thus  separates  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Arabia  from  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
northeastern  part  of  Africa.  It  is  about  1,400 
miles  in  length  from  Suez  to  the  straits,  and  on 
an  average  150  miles  ir  Ureadth.  On  approaching 
its  northern  termination  the  gulf  divides  into 
two  branches,  which  enclose  between  them  the 


9  SEA 

and  quits  it  on  the  south ;  and  it  is  said  that  the 
river  passes  through  ii  without  the  waters  min- 
gling. Its  extent  has  been  greatly  overrated.  Pro- 
fessor Robinson  considers  that  its  length,  in  a 
straight  line,  does  not  exceed  eleven  or  twelve 
geographical  miles,  and  that  its  breadth  is  from 
five  to  six  miles.  From  numerous  indications 
it  is  inferred  that  the  bed  of  this  lake  was  formed 
by  some  ancient  volcanic  eruption,  which  history 
has  not  recorded;  the  waters  are  very  clear  and 
sweet,  and  contain  various  kinds  of  excellent  fish 
in  great  abundance.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
several  of  the  apostles  were  fishermen  of  this 
lake,  and  that  it  was  also  the  scene  of  several 
transactions  in  the  life  of  Christ;  it  is  thus  fr^ 


Tha  Daxl  Sei,  Lookin 

peninsula  of  Sinai.  The  western  arm,  which  ter- 
minates a  little  above  Suez,  is  far  more  extensive 
than  the  other,  and  is  that  which  was  crossed  by 
the  Israelites  in  their  escape  from  Egypt. 

This  arm.  anciently  called  Heroopoliticus 
Sinus,  and  now  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  is  190  miles 
long  by  an  average  breadth  of  21  miles ;  but  at 
one  part  (Birket  el-Faroun)  it  is  as  wide  as  32 
miles.  The  eastern  arm,  which  terminates  at 
Akabah,  and  bears  the  name  of  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah,  was  anciently  called  .lElaniticus  Sinus, 
from  the  port  of  .:^lana,  the  Scriptural  Elath,  and 
is  about  112  miles  long  by  an  average  breadth  of 
IS  miles.  Towards  its  extremity  were  the  ports 
of  Elath  and  Eziongehcr.  celebrated  in  the  history 
of  the  attempts  made  by  the  Hebrew  kings  to 
establish  a  maritime  traffic  with  the  East.  (See 
the  several  words.) 

<3)  The  Sea  of  Chlnnereth  (Num.  xxxiv;!!), 
called  in  the  New  Testament  'the  Sea  of  Galilee' 
{Matt.  iv:i8),  the  'Sea  of  Tiberias*  (John  xxi:i), 
and  'the  sea'  or  'lake  of  Gennesaret'  (Luke  v: 
i-ii),  which  last  is  but  a  variation  of  the  Hebrew 

This  lake  lies  very  deep,  among  fruitful  hills 
and  mountains,  from  which,  in  the  rainy  season, 
many  rivulets  descend ;  its  shape  will  be  seen 
from  the  map.    The  Jordan  enters  it  on  the  oortli. 


g  SODlb  trom  AIo  Jldf. 

quently  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  but  very 
rarely  in  the  Old.  The  borders  of  the  lake  were 
in  the  time  of  Christ  well  peopled,  being  covered 
with  numerous  towns  and  villages;  but  now  they 
are  almost  desolate,  and  the  tish  and  water-fowl 
are  but  little  disturbed. 

(4)  The  Dead  Sea,  called  in  Scripture  the  Sail 
Sea  (Gen.  xiv:3).  the  Sea  of  the  Plain,  or  the 
Arabah  (Deut.  iv:49),  and  the  Eastern  Sea  (Joel 
ii;2o:  Ezek.  xlvii:i8;  Zech.  xiv:8).  It  is  not 
named  or  alluded  to  in  the  New  Testament.  It 
is  called  by  Josephus  (De  Bell.  lud.  iii.  10.  7) 
Limna  Asphaltites,  by  which  name,  or  in  the 
Lalin  form  of  Lacus  Asphallites,  it  was  known 
to  the  classical  writers.  This  designation  it  ob- 
tained from  the  large  quantities  of  asphaltum 
which  it  afforded.  The  Arabs  call  it  Birket  Lut. 
"the  Sea  of  Lot.'  From  its  history  and  qualities, 
it  is  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  lakes  of  Pal- 
estine; and  is  supposed  either  to  have  originated 
in,  or  at  least  to  have  been  greatly  enlarged  by. 
the  awful  event  which  overwhelmed  the  cities  of 
the  plain. 

It  is  about  thirty-nine  or  forty  geographical 
miles  long  from  north  to  south,  and  nine  or  ten 
miles  wide  from  east  to  west;  it  lies  deeply 
embedded  between  lofty  cliffs  on  the  western 
side,  which  are  about  1,500  feet  high,  and  moun- 


t>£A  16 

tains  on  the  eastern  shore,  the  highest  ridges 
of  which  are  reckoned  to  be  from  2.000  to  2,500 
feet  above  the  water.  The  water  of  the  lake  is 
much  Salter  than  that  of  the  sea.  From  the 
quantity  of  salt  which  it  holds  in  solution  it  is 
thick  and  heavy,  and  no  fish  can  live  or  marine 
plants  grow  in  it.  The  old  stories  about  the  pes- 
tiferous qualities  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  its  waters 
are  mere  fables  or  delusions;  the  actual  appear- 
ances being  the  natural  and  obvious  effects  of 
the  confined  and  deep  situation,  the  intenfe  heat 
and  the  uncommon  saltness  of  the  waters. 

On  the  borders  of  this  lake  is  found  much 
sulphur,  in  pieces  as  large  as  walnuts,  and  even 
larger.  There  is  also  a  black,  shining  stone, 
which  will  partly  burn  in  the  fire,  and  which 
then  emits  a  bituminous  smell;  this  is  the  'slink- 
stone'  of  Burckhardt.  At  Jerusalem  it  is  made 
into  rosaries  and  toys,  of  which  great  quantities 
are  sold  to  the  pilgrims  who  visit  the  sacred 
places.      Another     remarkable    production,     from 


0  SEA 

and  smallest  of  the  three  lakes  on  the  Jordan. 

It  serves  as  a  kind  of  reservoir  to  collect  the 
waters  which  form  that  river  and  again  to  send 
them  forth  in  a  single  stream.  In  the  spring, 
when  the  waters  arc  highest,  the  lake  is  seven 
miles  long  and  three  and  a  half  broad;  but  in 
summer  it  becomes  a  mere  marsh.  In  some  parts 
it  is  sown  with  rice,  and  its  reeds  and  rushes 
afford  shelter  to  wild  hogs. 

FigaratiVe.  (1)  Vast  multitudes  of  people 
are  likened  to  the  sea,  because  of  their  noiSC; 
and  their  overwhelming  force  (Jer.  li;42).  (2) 
Wicked  men  are  like  the  troubled  sea,  that  can- 
not rest,  and  whose  waJers  cast  forth  mire  and 
dirt  (Is.  lvii:2o).  (3)  To  "shul  up  the  tea  aifA 
doors''  (Job  xxxviii:8)  is  a  symbolical  expres- 
sion for  restraining,  fixing  a  bound  thereto.  (4) 
"The  sea  luUh  spoken"  (Is.  xKiii:4)  is  figurative 
for  the  rock  island  upon  which  new  Tyre  stood, 
and  made  her  lamentation.  (5)  The  noise  of 
hostile  armies  is  likened  to  the  "roaring  of  the 


a  Sea  trom  Ihs  IleiKtiu  Bi 


which,  indeed,  the  lake  takes  one  of  its  names,  is 
the  asphailum,  or  bitumen.  Josephus  says,  that 
'the  sea  in  many  places  sends  up  black  masses 
of  asphaltum,  which  float  upon  the  surface,  having 
the  size  and  shape  of  headless  oxen'  {De  Bell.  Jud. 
iv,  8,  4).  From  recent  information  it  appears 
that  large  masses  are  rarely  found,  and  then 
generally  only  after  earthquakes.  The  substance 
is  doubtless  produced  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 
in  which  it  coagulates,  and  rises  to  the  surface; 
or  possibly  the  coagulation  may  have  been  an- 
cient, and  the  substance  adheres  to  the  bottom 
until  detached  by  earthquakes  and  other  convul- 
sions, when  its  buoyancy  brings  it  to  the  surface. 
We  know  that  'the  vale  of  Siddim'  (Gen.  xiv:io) 
was  anciently  'full  of  slime-pits,'  or  sources  of 
bitumen ;  and  these,  now  under  the  water,  prob- 
ably supply  the  asphaltum  which  is  found  on  such 


(5)  Lake  Kerom.  This  lake  or  sea  is  named 
once  only  in  Scripture,  where  it  is  called  waters  of 
Merom  (Josh,  xi  :5.  7)-  By  Josephus  it  is  called 
Semechonitis  lAntiq.  v,  5,  i).  and  at  present 
bears  the  name  of  Huleh;  this  is  the  uppermost 


sea"  (Is.  v:30;  Jer.  vi:23).  (6)  The  abundance 
of  the  seas,  is  converted  to  the  church,  when 
multitudes  in  Lesser  Asia,  Europe,  and  the  isles. 
are  turned  to  the  Lord  by  the  gospel,  and  conse- 
crate their  trade  and  weaUh  to  him   (Is.  Ix:s). 

(7)  "The  princes  of  the  sea"  (Eiefc.  xxvi  :l6) 
is  a  figuralive  term   for  the  merchants  of  Tyre. 

(8)  "From  sea  lo  sea"  (Amos  viii:i2;  Mic.  vii: 
12)  stands  for  "from  one  end  of  the  world  to  the 
other,  (g)  "Waves  of  the  sea"  represent  right- 
eousness (Is.  xlviii  :i8),  a  devastating  army  (Ezek. 
xxvi;3.  4),  and  in  their  restlessness  the  wicked 
(Is.  Ivii  :2o).  and  the  unsteady  (James  i  :6>.  (10) 
The  diffusion  of  spiritual  truth  over  the  earth 
is  symbolized  by  the  covering  waters  of  the  sea 
(Is.  xi:g;  Hab.  ii:i4).  (11)  Am  I  a  sea  or  a 
whale,  thai  thou  setlesi  a  mark  over  met  Am  I 
like  the  sea  or  a  whale,  quite  ungovernable?  or, 
am  I  able  to  endure  one  storm  after  another,  as 
the  sea?  (Job  vii  :i2).  (12)  "Raging  waves  of  the 
sea  foaming  out  their  own  shame"  (Jude  i.i), 
is  a  figurative  description  of  false  teachers  who 
threw  out  their  vile  teachings  like  wrecks  upon 
the  shore. 


SEA,  BRAZEN 


1541 


SEA,  MOLTEN 


SEA,  BRAZEN  (sg,  bra'z*n),  (i  Kings  vii:23-44; 
Jer.  Iii:i7),  molten  (2  Kings  xxv:i3;  2  Chron.  iv:2), 
the  great  laver  in  Solomon's  temple.  (See  Sea, 
Molten.) 

SEAH  (se'4),  (Heb.  '"^P,  seh-aw*,  measure),  a 

Hebrew  measure,  containing  about  two  gallons 
and  a  half,  liquid  measure;  or  about  a  peck  and 
one  pint  dry  measure  (Gen.  xviii:6;  i  Sam.  xxv:i8; 
I  Kmgs  xviii:32;  2  Kings  ,vii:i,  16,  18),  A.  V, 
"measure."    (See  Weights  and  Measures.) 

SEAL  (sel),  (Heb.  ^^^  kho-thawm' ;  Gr. 
atppayls,  sfrag-ece'). 

There  seem  to  have  been  two  kinds  of  seals 
in  use  among  the  Hebrews.  A  notion  appears  to 
exist  that  all  ancient  seals,  being  signets,  were 
rings,  intended  to  be  worn  on  the  hand.  But  this 
was  by  no  means  the  case ;  nor  is  it  so  now  in  the 
East,  where  signet  rings  are  still,  probably,  as 
common  as  they  ever  were  in  ancient  times.  Their 
general  use  of  seals  was  very  different  from  ours, 
as  they  were  employed  not  for  the  purpose  of 
impressing  a  device  on  wax,  but  in  the  place  of  a 
sign  manual,  to  stamp  the  name  of  the  owner 
upon  any  document  to  which  he  desired  to  affix 
it.  The  name  thus  impressed  had  the  same. legal 
validity  as  the  actual  signature,  as  is  still  the 
case  in  the  East.  This  custom  was  ancient,  and, 
no  doiibt,  existed  among  the  Hebrews  (Gen. 
xxxviii:i8;  Cant.  viii:6;  Haggai  ii:23).  These 
seals  are  often  entirely  of  metal— brass,  silver,  or 
gold;  but  sometimes  of  stone  set  in  metal. 

If  a  door  or  box  was  to  be 
sealed,  it  was  first  fastened  with 
some  ligament,  over  which  was 
placed  some  well  compacted 
clay  to  receive  the  impression 
of  the  seal.  Clay  was  used  be- 
cause it  hardens  in  the  heat 
which  would  dissolve  wax ;  and 
this  is  the  reason  that  wax  is 
not  used  in  the  East.  There  are 
distinct  allusions  to  this  custom 
in  Job  xxxviii:i4;  also  in  Cant.  iv:i2.  In  sealing 
the  sepulcher  (Matt  xxvii  :66)  it  is  probable  that 
the  fastening  of  the  stone  which  secured  the  en- 
trance was  covered  with  clay  or  wax,  and  so  im- 
pressed with  a  public  or  private  seal  that  any  vio- 
lation of  it  would  be  discovered  at  once. 

Signet  rings  were  very  common,  especially 
among  persons  of  rank.  They  were  sometimes 
wholly  of  metal,  but  often  the  inscription  was 
borne  by  a  stone  set  in  silver  or  gold.  The  im- 
pression from  the  signet  ring  of  a  monarch  gave 
the  force  of  a  royal  decree  to  any  instrument  to 
which  it  was  affixed.  Hence  the  delivery  or 
transfer  of  it  to  any  one  gave  the  power  of  using 
the  royal  name,  and  created  the  highest  office  in 
the  state  (CJen.  xli:42;  Esth.  iiirio,  12;  viii:2; 
Jer.  xxii:24;  Dan.  vi:io,  13,  17;  comp.  i  Kings 
xxi:8).  Rings  being  so  much  employed  as  seals, 
were  called  tabbaoth;  which  is  derived  from  a  root 
signifying  to  imprint,  and  also  to  seal.  They  were 
commonly  worn  as  ornaments  on  the  fingers — 
usually  on  the  little  finger  of  the  right  hand 
(Exod.  XXXV  :22;  Luke  xv:22;  James  ii:2). 

Modern  travelers  have  described  the  seal  used 
in  the  East,  at  the  present  day,  as  made  of  cor- 
nelian or  agate,  with  the  name  or  title  of  the 
writer,  or  some  verse  of  the  Koran  or  other  mot- 
to, engraved  upon  it  (2  Tim.  iirig).  It  is  fast- 
ened into  a  ring  and  worn  on  the  hand  (Cant. 
viii:6).  When  used  it  is  either  applied  to  the 
wax  or  is  covered  with  some  substance  which,  be- 
ing stamped  on  the  paper,  leaves  the  desired  im- 
pression. 


Assyrian  Seal. 


Figurative,    (i)    In  Cant.  viii:6  is  the  prayer 
"Set  me  as  a  seal  upon  thine  heart,  as  a  seal  upon 
thine  arm"  implying  approaching  absence  of  the 
bridegroom,  and  that  she  wished  that  her  impres- 
sion may  be  graven  on  his  arm  and  heart, «.  e.,  his 
love  and  power.    (2)  The  meaning  of  the  figura- 
tive expression,  **I  will  make  thee — ^Zerubbabel — 
as  a  Signet"   (seal  ring,  Hag.  ii:23),  is  evident 
from  the  importance  of  the  signet  ring  in  the  eyes 
of  an  Oriental,  who  is  accustomed  to  carry  it  con- 
tinually with  him,  and  io  take  care  of  it  as  a  very 
valuable  possession;  also  in  the  same  sense  when 
Jehovah  sa^s,  "Though  Coniah  (i.  e.,  Jehoiakim) 
were  the  signet  upon  my  right  hand,  yet  would  I 
pluck    thee    hence"    (Jer.    xxii:24).      (3)  God's 
Spirit  is  called  a  seal,  because  by  the  gracious  in- 
habitation and  influence  of  it,  men  are  marked  out 
for   God's  property,   are  distinguished   from  the 
world    (Eph.    i:i3;    iv:30;    2   Cor.    i:22).      (4) 
God's  sealing  of  Christ,  imports  his  giving  him  a 
special  commission  as   Mediator;   his  furnishing 
him   for   his   work,   and   rendering  his   ministry 
effectual  on  the  saints  (John  vi:27).     (5)  God's 
sealing  of  his  people,  denotes  his  marking  them 
with  his  Spirit  and  grace;  his  causing  them  to 
avow   his   truth;   and   his   preservation  of  them 
amidst  the  general  abounding  of  error  and  per- 
secution (Rev.  vii:3-8  and  ix:4).  (6)  The  founda- 
tion of  God  having  this  seal.  The  Lord  knoweth 
them  that  are  his,  denotes  that  the  church,  the 
fundamental  truths  of  the  gospel,  the  gracious 
state  and  principal  dispositions  of  his  people,  are 
rendered  stable,  firm,  and  lasting  (2  Tim.  ii:i9). 
(7)  The  sealing  of  God's  book  of  purposes  with 
seven  seals,  imports  the  deep  obscurity  and  secrecy 
of  its  contents,  till  discovered  by  Christ,  and  grad- 
ually opened,  in  the  course  of  his  providence,  to 
the  church  (Rev.  v,  vi,  and  viiiri).     (See  Rev- 
elation, Book  of.)      (8)  God  seals  instruction, 
when   he  deeply  imprints  it  on  the  mind    (Job 
xxxiii:i6).     (9)    He  seals  up  transgressions  as 
in   a   bag,   when   he   appears   firmly   determined 
to     punish     them,     and     every    one     of     them 
(Job  xiv:i7).     (10)  He  seals  up  the  hand,  when 
he  deprives  men  of  power  and  opportunity  for 
labor  (Job  xxxvii:7).    (11)  }lt  seals  up  the  stars, 
when  he  hides  them  with  clouds  (Job  ix:7).    (12) 
The  saints  set  to  their  seal  that  God  is  true,  when 
they  believe  his  promises,  and  receive  his  offered 
gifts    (John   iii  :33).     (13)    Circumcision    was    a 
seal  of  the  righteousness  of  faith;  it  and  other 
sacraments  confirm  the  saints'  interest  in  Christ, 
and  strengthen  their  faith  to  believe  on,  receive, 
and  manifest  him  (Rom.  iv:ii).     (14)  The  Cor- 
inthian converts  were  the  seal  of  Paul's  apostle- 
ship  in  the  Lord;  the  exertion  of  the  power  of 
God  in  the  change  of  their  state  and  nature,  by 
means  of  his  ministrations  of  the  gospel,  clearly 
evinced  that  he  had  a  true  mission  from  God  (i 
Cor.  ix:2).     (15)  Satan  is  sealed  up  during  the 
millennium;  he  is,  by  the  providence  of  God,  re- 
strained from  tempting  and  ruling  over  men  as 
he  did  before  (Rev.  xx:3).     (16)  The  seals  upon 
the  "foundation  of  God"  (2  Tim.  ii.ig)  are  sup- 
posed to  be  inscriptions  upon  the  mystical  building 
of  the  faithful,  proper  to  be  impressed  upon  the 
minds  of  all  professing  Christians,  both  for  en- 
couragement and  for  warning. 

SEALED   FOUNTAIN   (seld  foun'ttn).     See 
Jerusalem. 

SEAL  SKINS  (sel  skYns).  See  Badgers'  Skins. 

SEA,    MOLTEN   (s5,  msrfn).  (Heb.  TV''^  °t). 

yawm  mooh-tsawk').     The  immense  brazen  res- 
ervoir which,  with  smaller  lavers   (see  Layer), 


SEA  MONSTER 


1542 


SECHU 


stood  in  the  court '  of  Solomon's  temple,  was 
thus,  by  hyperbole,  denominated. 

It  was  of  a  hemispherical  figure,  ten  cubits  in 
width,  five  deep,  and  thirty  in  circumference.  In 
I  Kings  vii  :23  it  is  stated  to  have  contained  2,000 
baths,  equal  to  16,000  gallons ;  but  in  2  Chron.  iv  :$ 
it  is  said  to  have  contained  3,000  baths,  and  the 
latter  estimate  is  followed  by  Josephus.  It  was 
probably  capable  of  holding  the  larger  quantity, 
but  did  not  usually  contain  more  than  the  smaller. 
It  was  decorated  on  the  upper  edge  with  figures 
resembling  lilies  in  bloom,  and  was  enriched  with 
various  ornamental  objects;  and  it  rested,  or 
seemed  to  rest,  upon  the  backs  of  twelve  oxen, 
three  looking  to  the  north,  three  to  the  east,  three 
to  the  south,  and  three  to  the  west  (i  Kings  vi: 
26;  vii:40-47;  2  Chron.  iv:3-5).  The  conception, 
and  still  more  the  successful  execution  of  this 
great  work,  gives  a  very  favorable  idea  of  the  state 
of  the  metallurgical  arts  in  the  time  of  Solomon. 

SEA  MONSTER  ( se  m6n'ster ),  (Lam.  iv:3). 
Probably  not  very  definite  in  its  application,  and 
used  to  mdicate  a  serpent  or  whale.  (See  Behe- 
moth; Crocodile;  Dragon;  Leviathan.) 

SEA  OF  GLASS  (sS  dv  glas),  (Gr.  0d\Mva,  tkoT- 
aS'Sah,  sea,  and  ^X/nj,  hoo-al-ee'nay,  glassy,  Rev. 
iv:6;  xv;2). 

"The  glassy  sea  naturally  leads  the  thoughts  to 
the  great  brazen  laver,  known  as  the  brazen  sea, 
which  stood  in  the  court  of  Solomon's  temple, 
between  the  altar  and  the  sanctuarv,  and  at  which 
the  priests  cleansed  themselves  before  entering 
upon  the  discharge  of  their  duties  within  the  pre- 
cmcts  of  God's  holy  house.  The  resemblance  is 
not,  indeed,  exact;  and  were  it  not  for  what  fol- 
lows, there  might  be  little  upon  which  to  rest  this 
supposition.  We  know,  however,  from  many  ex- 
amples, that  the  seer  uses  the  figures  of  the  Old 
Testament  with  ^eat  freedom,  and  as  the  temple 
source  of  the  living  creatures  next  introduced  to 
us  cannot  be  mistaken,  it  becomes  the  more  prob- 
able that  the  brazen  sea  of  the  same  building, 
whatever  be  the  actual  meaning  of  the  figure, 
suggests  the  glassy  sea"  (Dr.  W.  Milligan,  Com. 
on  Revelation,  p.  69,  sqJ),  (Quoted  in  Barnes, 
Bib.  Diet.) 

SEA  OF  JAZEB  (sS  6v  ja'zer),  (Jer.xlviii:32),  a 
lake,  now  represented  by  some  ponds  in  the  high 
valley  in  which  the  city  of  Jaazer  is  situated. 
(See  Jazer). 

SEAMLESS  (sem'lgs),  (Gr.  dpfa4>os,  ar'hraf-os^ 
unsewed),  the  term  applied  to  our  Lord's  inner 
garment,  which  the  soldiers  at  the  crucifixion 
accordingly  cast  lots  for  (John  xix:23). 

SEAR  (ser),  (Gr.  Ka\nt\ptAX^^kdW'tay'ree'ad'20, 
to  brand).  The  term  is  used  (i  Tim.  iv:2)  figura- 
tively of  the  conscience.  Men  have  their  conscience 
searedyi)\^xi  it  hesitates  at  nothing,  however  wicked 
and  abominable,  and  so  is  as  badf  as  no  conscience 
at  all,  for  there  is  no  moral  sensation  (i  Tim.  iv:2). 

SEASONS  (se'z'ns).    See  Palestine. 

SEAT  (set). 

1.  KiS'Say*  (Heb.  ^5?  or  '"*??,  covered),  a  throne, 

as  usually  rendered,  but  also  any  seat  occupied  by 
a  king  (Judg.  iii:2o),  or  other  distinguished  person, 
as  the  high-priest  (i  Sam.  irg;  iv:i3,  18),  the 
king's  mother  (i  Kings  ii:i9),  prime  minister 
(Esth.  iii:i). 

2.  Mo'Shawb*   (Heb.    ^^^\    abode,    a    seat 

(i  Sam. xx:i8, 25;  Jobxxix:7);  a  «//i>i^,  i.e., assem- 
bly of  persons  sitting  together  (Fs.  i:l);  the  site  of 
an  image  (£zek.viii:3). 


8.  Thron'os  (Gr.  Opbvos),  used  figuratively  for 
kingly  power  (Luke  i:52);  of  Satan  (Rev.  11:13; 
xiii:2;  xvi:io;)  of  the  Elders  (iv:4;  xi:i6).  (See 
Elder.) 

4.  Tek'OO-naw'  (Heb.  •^'*^^),  arranged,  a  place, 
dwelling  (Job  xxiii:3). 

5.  In  the  New  Testament  we  have  Gr.  hay'ma, 
of  the  "judgment  seat"  (Matt.  xxvii:i9;  John 
xix:i3;  Acts  xviii:i2,  16,  17;  xxv:6,  10,  17):  of 
Christ  (Rom.  xiv:io;  2  Cor.  v:io);  kath-edrah 
in  the  usual  sense  of  place  (Matt.  xxi:i2;  Mark 
xi:i5)  't  but  generally  of  the  exalted  seat  occupied 
by  men  of  eminent  rank  or  infiuence. 

6.  "The  uppermost  seats"  (Luke  xi:43),  "high- 
est" (xx:46),  is  the  rendering  of  Gr.  {pro-tok- 
ath-ed-reeahj,  the  first  or  .principal  seats,  and 
means  preeminent  in  council.  (McC.  &  Str.  and 
Barnes,  Bib.  Cyc.) 

Figurative,  (i)  Hoses'  seat  is  the  station  of 
civil  power  and  authority  among  the  Jews,  and  of 
judging  according;  to  Moses'  law  (Matt  xxiii:2}. 
(2)  Satan's  seat  is  the  place  where  he  has  great 
power  and  authority  (Rev.  ii;i3).  (3)  The  seat 
of  the  dragon,  or  of  heathenish  power,  and  of 
Antichrist,  was  heathen  Rome,  where  his  authority 
was  established  (Rev.  xiii:2,  and  xvi:io).  (4) 
The  seat  of  violence  comes  nigh  when  men  hold 
courts,  or  exercise  their  authority,  to  commit  in- 
justice and  oppression  (Amos  vi  13).  (5)  To  sit  in 
the  seat  of  the  scornful  is  to  have  an  habitual  and 
fixed  intimacy  with  them,  and  to  act  after  their 
manner  with  pleasure  (Ps.  i  ;i).  "/  sit  in  the  seat 
of  God"  (Ezek.  xxviii:2),  the  language  ascribed 
to  the  prince  of  Tyre,  is  that  of  pride.  "The  Tyr- 
ian  state  was  the  production  and  seat  of  its  gods. 
He,  the  prince  of  Tyre,  presided  over  this  divine 
creation  and  divine  seat ;  therefore  he,  the  prince, 
was  himself  a  god,  a  manifestation  of  the  deity, 
having  its  work  and  home  in  the  state  of  Tyre 
(Kliefoth). 

SEBA  (sg'ba),  (Heb.  «??,  sed-aw',  saba). 

1.  The  oldest  son  of  Gush  (Gen.  x7),  B.  C 
albout  2500. 

2.  The  name  of  a  people  (Ps.  lxxii:io;  Is. 
xliii:3).     (See  Sabeans.) 

SEBAO   (sg'bSc),  (Heb.  1?9,  se-dawk')  occurs 

in  two  or  three  places  in  the  Old  Testament, 
and  is  considered  by  some  to  be  the  name  of  a 
particular  plant,  as  the  bramble,  smilax,  jasmine, 
atriplex ;  by  others  it  is  supposed  to  denote  briars 
or  thorns.  Celsius,  however,  has  shown  that  the 
meaning  of  the  term  is  perplexitas,  *id  quod  den- 
sum  et  intricatum  est;*  that  it  is  especially  applied 
to  the  branches  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  climbing 
plants,  and  is  hence  rightly  translated  in  the  Au- 
thorized Version,  in  Gen.  xxii:i3,  'And  Abraham 
beheld  a  ram  caught  in  a  thicket  (sebac)  by  his 
horns.'  So  in  Is.  ix:i8;  x:34.  (See  Thorns  and 
Thistles.)  J.  F.  R. 

SEBAT  (se'bat),  (Heb.  ^59.  sAed-awi')*  the  fifth 
month  of  the  Jewish  year.    (See  Month). 

SEOAOAH  (sSk'a-kah),  (Heb.  J^???,  sek-am- 
kaw't  thicket). 

One  of  the  six  cities  of  Judah  "in  the  Wilder- 
ness" (Josh.  xv:6i).  It  may  be  the  ruin  called 
Sikkeh,  or  Dikkeh,  about  two  miles  east  of  Beth- 
any. 

SE0HT7  (se'kO).  (Heb.  'ID^,  saykco,  hill  or  watch 
tower),  a  village  near  Ramah  (i  Sam.  xix:22), 
towards  Gibeah.  Conder  doubtfully  sup^ests 
Shwweikeh,  or  Suweikeh,  as  its  site,  which  is 
three  miles  northwest  of  er-Ram  or  Ramah. 


SECT 


1543 


SEIR 


SEGT  (sSkt),  (Gr.  atpeais,  hah-ee* res-is^  a  choice), 
a  religious  party,  as  Sadducees  (Acts  v:i7);  Phari- 
sees (xv:5);  Nazarenes  (xxiv:5;  comp.  xxvi:5; 
xxviii:22). 

This  word  is  from  a  Latin  word  which  has  the 
same  signification  as  the  Greek  word  Hceresis, 
though  the  sound  is  not  so  offensive  to  us.  Among 
the  Jews  there  were  four  sects,  distinguished  by 
their  practices  and  opinions,  yet  united  in  com- 
munion with  each  other,  and  with  the  body  of 
their  nation,  viz.,  the  Pharisees,  the  Sadducees, 
the  EssENES,  and  the  Herodians.  (See  the  re- 
spective articles.) 

(1)  Christianity.  Christianity  was  originally 
considered  as  a  new  sect  of  Judaism;  hence  Ter- 
tullus,  accusing  Paul  before  Felix,  says,  that  he 
was  chief  of  the  seditious  sect  of  the  Nazarenes 
(Acts  xxiv:5)  ;  and  the  Jews  of  Rome  said  to  the 
Apostle,  when  he  arrived  in  this  city,  that,  as  to 
this  sect,  "everywhere  it  is  spoken  against"  (Acts 
xxviii:22).  Peter  (2  Epist.  ii:i-io)  foretells  that 
false  teachers  should  arise  among  them,  ''who 
privily  shall  bring  in  damnable  heresies  (or  sects) , 
even  denying  the  Lord  that  bought  them,  and 
bring  upon  themselves  swift  destruction."  He 
adds  that  these  people,  being  great  lovers  of  them- 
selves, are  not  afraid  to  introduce  new  sects; 
where  the  word  sect  is  taken  in  the  same  sense  as 
heresy. 

(2)  Sects  of  Philosophers.  Among  the  Greeks, 
the  philosophers  were  divided  into  different  sects ; 
as  the  Academics,  the  Stoics,  the  Peripatetics,  the 
Cynics,  the  Epicureans,  etc.  The  Jews,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  Greeks,  began  to  divide  themselves  into 
sects,  about  the  time  of  the  Maccabees;  and  it 
seems  as  if  the  Corinthians  had  a  mind  to  intro- 
duce something  like  this  into  Christianity,  when 
they  boasted,  I  am  a  disciple  of  Peter,  I  of  Paul, 
I  of  Apollos  (i  Cor.  i:i2;  iii:22,  etc.).  (Robin- 
son's Calmet.) 

SEGTUNDUS  (se-kiin'dus],  (Gr.  Z^«cot;vdof,  sek'oon- 
dos,  second,  favorable),  a  disciple  of  Thessalonica, 
who  accompanied  Paul  in  some  of  his  voyages 
(Acts  XX  :4),  A.  D.  55. 

SEGUKE  (s^kGr'),  (Gr.  xoiita,  foy-eh'o.  Matt. 
xxviii:i4),  a  relief  from  responsibility  and  care. 

SEDITION  (s6-dtsh'iin),  (Heb.  ^^^^t^,  esh-tad- 

dure* ;  Gr.  ardats,  stas'is,  a  standing),  used  gen- 
erally in  the  sense  of  rebellion  (Ezra  iv:i5,  19), 
insurrection  (Luke  xxiiiiip,  25;  Acts  xxiv-O,  "dis- 
sension" (Acts  XV  :2);  Gr.  8txoo'Ta<rfa  {dee-khoS'tas- 
ee'ah\  a  standing  apart  (Gal.  v:20). 

SEDUOE  (se-dus'),  to  deceive,  to  lead  astray 
through  false  promises  and  allurements. 

Examples  of  Its  Use.  (i)  The  way  of 
the  wicked  seduceth  them,  leads  them  on  to  fur- 
ther impiety,  and  keeps  their  consciences  quiet 
(Prov.  xii:2(S).  (2)  God's  people  are  seduced, 
when  taught,  advised  or  commanded  to  forsake 
what  is  truth,  and  lawful,  and  to  follow  what  is 
sinful  (2  Kings  xxiig;  Ezek.  xiiirio).  (3)  The 
Egyptians  were  seduced  by  their  rulers,  when  led 
to  worship  idols,  work  wickedness,  and  fol- 
low schemes  ruinous  to  the  nation  (Is.  xix:i3). 
(4)  Seducers  or  jugglers  wax  worse  and  worse, 
when  God  justly  leaves  them  to  proceed  from 
one  error  or  wicked  way  to  another  still  worse, 
and  to  become  more  bold  in  their  seducing  work 
(2  Tim.  iii:i3). 

SEDUOEB  (s6-da'ser),  (Or.  y6iis,jro'ace,  lit.  a 
howler),  a  deceiver,  an  impostor  (2  lira.  iii:i3),  as 
a  false  teacher. 

SEED  (sSd).  (i)  Seed,  the  prolific  principle 
of  future  life,  is  taken  in  Scripture  for  posterity, 


whether  of  man,  beasts,  trees,  etc.,  all  of  which 
are  said  to  be  sown  and  to  fructify,  as  the  means 
of  producing  a  succeeding  generation  ( Jer.  xxxi : 
27).  (2)  Hence  seed  denotes  an  individual,  as  Seth, 
in  the  stead  of  Abel  (Gen.  iv:25  et  aL  freq,),  and 
the  whole  line  of  descent ;  as  the  seed  of  Abraham, 
of  Jacob,  etc.,  the  seed-royal,  etc.,  much  in  the 
same  acceptation  as  children.  (3)  The  seed  of 
Abraham  denotes  not  only  those  who  descend 
from  him,  by  natural  issue,  but  those  who  imitate 
his  character  (Rom.  iv:i6),  and  hence  the  Mes- 
siah is  said  to  see  his  seed,  though  in  fact,  Jesus 
left  no  children  by  descent,  but  by  grace  or  con- 
version only  (Is.  liii.'io).  (4;  This  is  occasionally 
restricted  to  one  chief  or  principal  seed,  one 
who  by  excellence  is  the  seed;  as  the 
seed  of  the  woman  (Gen.  iii:i5;  Gal.  iii:i6),  the 
seed  of  Abraham,  the  seed  of  David,  meaning  the 
most  excellent  descendant  of  the  woman,  of  Abra- 
ham, of  David.  Or,  we  may  understand  by  the 
"seed  of  the  woman,"  the  offspring  of  the  female 
sex  only;  as  verified  in  the  supernatural  concep- 
tion of  Jesus  (Matt.  i:i8,  etc.;  Luke  i:26,  etc.), 
and  of  which  the  birth  of  Abraham's  seed  (Isaac) 
was  a  figure. 

Figurative,  Seed  is  taken  figuratively  for  the 
word  of  God  (Luke  viiirs;  i  Pet.  i:23),  for  a  dis- 
position becoming  a  divine  origin  (i  John  iii:9). 
and  for  truly  pious  persons  (Matt.  xiii:38). 

SEEB  (ser).    See  Prophecy. 

SEETHE  (sgth),  (Heb.  ^t^.daw-sAa/',  seething 

pot;  Heb.  ^S},  naw'fakh\  to  blow  hard).    Food 

prepared  by  boiling  (Exod.  xvi:23;  xxiiirig,  etc.). 
(See  Food.) 

SEGUB  (se'gub),  (Heb.  ^^.,  seg-oob',  elevated; 
Gr.  Z€yo6^,  segub). 

1.  Youngest  son  of  the  Hiel,  who  rebuilt  Jeri- 
cho (i  Kings  xvi:34),  B.  C.  910.  According  to 
Joshua's  prediction  he  died  for  his  father's  sin. 

2.  The  son  of  Hezron  (grandson  of  Judah)  bv 
the  daughter  of  Machir,  the  "father"  of  Gilead. 
He  was  himself  the  father  of  Jair  (i  Chron.  ii: 
21,  22),  B.  C.  perhaps  about  1850. 

SEIR  (se'ir).  (Heb.  "^^?W,  say-eer',  hairy;  Sept. 
Zi;e</>,  seir), 

1.  A  phy larch  or  chief  of  the  Horim,  who  were 
the  former  inhabitants  of  the  country  afterwards 
possessed  by  the  Edomites  (B.  C  before  i960). 

2.  Mount  Seir.  The  mountainous  country  of 
the  Edomites,  extending  from  the  Dead  Sea  to  the 
Elanitic  Gulf.  The  name  is  usually  derived  from 
the  Seir  above  mentioned,  and  as  he  was  a  great 
chief  of  the  original  inhabitants,  it  is  difficult  to 
reject  such  a  conclusion.  These  mountains  were 
first  inhabited  by  the  Horim  (GJen.  xiv:6;  Deut. 
ii:i2);  then  by  Esau  (GJen.  xxxii:3;  xxxiii:i4, 
16)  and  his  posterity  (Deut.  ii:4,  29;  2  (3hron.  xx: 
10).  The  northern  part  of  them  now  bears  the 
designation  of  Jebal,  and  the  southern  that  of 
esh-Sherah,  which  seems  no  other  than  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  ancient  name.  The  whole  breadth 
of  the  mountainous  tract  between  the  Arabah  and 
the  eastern  desert  above  does  not  exceed  fifteen  or 
twenty  geographical  miles.  These  mountains  are 
quite  different  in  character  from  those  which  front 
them  on  the  other  (west)  side  of  the  Arabah.  The 
latter  seem  to  be  not  more  than  two-thirds  as 
high  as  the  former,  and  are  wholly  desert  and 
sterile;  while  those  on  the  east  appear  to  enjoy  a 
sufficiency  of  rain,  and  are  covered  with  tufts  of 
herbs  and  occasional  trees.  The  valleys  are  also 
full  of  trees  and  shrubs  and  flowers,  the  eastern 
and  higher  parts  being  extensively  cultivated,  and 
yielding  good  crops.    The  general  appearance  of 


SEIRAH 


1544 


SELA  OR  SELAH 


the  soil  is  not  unlike  that  around  Hebron ;  though 
the  face  of  the  country  is  very  different.  It  is 
indeed  the  region  of  which  Isaac  said  to  his  son 
Esau :  *Behold,  thy  dwelling  shall  be  of  the  fatness 
of  the  earth,  and  of  the  dew  of  heaven  from  above' 

(Gen.  xxvii:39)- 

3.  Another  Mount  Seir  formed  one  of  the 
landmarks  on  the  north  boundary  of  Judah  (Josh, 
xviio  only).  It  lay  to  the  west  of  Kirjath-jearim 
and  between  it  and  Beth-shemesh.  It  is  a  ridge  of 
rock  to  the  southwest  of  Kureyet  el  Enab,  a  lofty 
ridge  composed  of  rugged  peaks,  with  a  wild  and 
desolate  appearance,  upon  which  Saris  and  Mishir 
are  situated  (Robinson,  Bib.  Res.,  p.  155.) 

SEIRAH  (se'i-r^).    See  Seirath. 

SEIBATH  (se'i-rath).  (Heb.  ^T^^^,  haS'Seh-ee- 

raw',  with  the  definite  article,  the  hairy).  The 
place  where  Ehud  hid  after  the  murder  of  Eglon 
(Judg.  iii:26),  and  where  he  gathered  his  country- 
men before  the  attack  on  the  Moabites  at  Jericho 
(Judg.  iii:27). 

SELA  {se'lk)  or  SELAH  (Heh.  ^2^,  s^ A' laA, 

rock,  2  Kings  xiv:7;  Gr.  ij  Il^pa,  the  rock,  Petra, 
which  has  the  same  signification  as  Selah;  some- 
times plural,  oX  n^Tpai,  the  rocks),  the  metropolis 
of  the  Edomites  in  Mount  Seir. 

(1)  History.  In  the  Jewish  history  it  is  re- 
corded that  Amaziah,  king  of  Judah,  *slew  of 
Edom  in  the  valley  of  Salt  ten  thousand,  and 
took  Selah  by  war,  and  called  the  name  of  it 
Joktheel  unto  this  day'  (2  Kings  xiv:7).  This 
name  seems,  however,  to  have  passed  away  with 
the  Hebrew  rule  over  Edom,  for  no  further  trace 
of  it  is  to  be  found,  and  it  is  still  called  Selah 
by  Isaiah  (xvi:i).  These  are  all  the  certain 
notices  of  the  place  in  Scripture ;  for  it  may  well 
be  doubted  whether  it  is  designated  in  Judg.  i  136 
and  Is.  xliirii,  as  some  suppose.  We  next  meet 
with  it  as  the  Petra  of  the  Greek  writers,  which 
is  merely  a  translation  of  the  native  name  Selah. 
The  earliest  notice  of  it  under  that  name  by  them 
is  connected  with  the  fact  that  Antigonus,  one  of 
Alexander's  successors,  sent  two  expeditions 
against  the  Nabathsans  in  Petra  (Diod.  Sic.  xix. 
94-^).  For  points  of  history  not  immediately 
connected  with  the  city,  see  Edomites;  Neba- 
lOTH.  It  was  not  until  the  reports  concerning 
the  wonderful  remains  in  Wady  Musa  had  been 
verified  by  Burckhardt  that  the  latter  traveler 
first  ventured  to  assume  the  identity  of  the  site 
with  that  of  the  ancient  capital  of  Arabia  Petraea. 
(Leake's  Preface  to  Burckhardt's  Travels  in 
Syria,  pp.   vii-ix;   Robinson's  Palestine,  ii,  576- 

579;  653-659.) 

(2)  Present  Condition.  The  ruined  city  lies 
in  a  narrow  valley,  surrounded  by  lofty,  and,  for 
the  most  part,  perfectly  precipitous  mountains. 
Those  which  form  its  southern  limit  are  not  so 
steep  as  to  be  impassable ;  and  it  is  over  these,  or 
rather  through  them,  along  an  abrupt  and  diffi- 
cult ravine,  that  travelers  from  Sinai  or  Egypt 
usually  wind  their  laborious  way  into  the  scene 
of  magnificent  desolation.  The  ancient  and  more 
interesting  entrance  is  on  the  eastern  side,  through 
the  deep  narrow  gorge  of  Wady  Syke.  It  is  not 
easy  to  determine  the  precise  limits  of  the  ancient 
city,  though  the  precipitous  mountains  by  which 
the  site  is  encompassed  mark  with  perfect  dis- 
tinctness the  boundaries  beyond  which  it  never 
could  have  extended.  The  sides  of  the  valley 
are  walled  up  by  perpendicular  rocks,  from  four 
hundred  to  six  or  seven  hundred  feet  high.  The 
northern  and  southern  barriers  are  neither  so 
lofty  nor  so  steep,  and  they  both  admit  of  the 
passage  of  camels. 


(3)  Imposing  Rnins.  The  chief  public  build- 
ings occupied  the  banks  of  the  river  and  the  high 
ground  further  south,  as  their  ruins  sufficiently 
show.  One  sumptuous  edifice  remains  standing, 
though  in  an  imperfect  and  dilapidated  state.  It 
is  an  imposing  ruin,  though  not  of  the  purest 
style  of  architecture,  and  is  the  more  striking  as 
the  only  edifice  now  standing  in  Petra. 

In  various  parts  of  the  valley  are  other  piles 
of  ruins-;-columns  and  hewn  stones — parts,  no 
doubt  of  important  public  buildings.  They  indi- 
cate the  great  wealth  and  magnificence  of  this 
ancient  capital,  as  well  as  its  unparalleled  calami- 
ties. These  sumptuous  edifices  occtapied  what 
may  be  called  the  central  parts  of  Petra.  A  large 
surface  on  the  north  side  of  the  river  is  covered 
with  substructions,  which  probably  belonged  to 
private  habitations. 

The  mountain  torrents  which,  at  times,  sweep 
over  the  lower  parts  of  the  ancient  site,  have  un- 
dermined many  foundations,  and  carried  away 
many  a  chiseled  stone,  and  worn  many  a  finished 
specimen  of  sculpture  into  unshapely  masses.  The 
soft  texture  of  the  rock  seconds  the  destructive 
agencies  of  the  elements.  Even  the  accumula- 
tions of  rubbish,  which  mark  the  site  of  all  other 
decayed  cities,  have  mostly  disappeared,  and  the 
extent  which  was  covered  with  human  habitations 
can  only  be  determined  by  the  broken  pottery 
scattered  over  the  surface,  or  mingled  with  the 
sand — the  universal,  and,  it  woul^  seem,  an  im- 
perishable memorial  of  populous  cities  that  exist 
no  longer. 

(4)  Extensive  Excavations.  The  attention 
of  travelers  has,  however,  been  chiefly  engaged 
by  the  excavations  which,  having  more  success- 
fully resisted  the  ravages  of  time,  constitute  at 
present  the  great  and  peculiar  attraction  of  the 
place.  These  excavations,  whether  formed  for 
temples,  tombs  or  the  dwellings  of  living  men, 
surprise  the  visitor  by  their  incredible  number 
and  extent.  They  not  only  occupy  the  front  of 
the  entire  mountain  by  which  the  valley  is  en- 
compassed, but  of  the  numerous  ravines  and  re- 
cesses which  radiate  on  all  sides  from  this  en- 
closed area.  Were  these  excavations,  instead  of 
following  all  the  sinuosities  of  the  mountain  and 
its  numerous  gorges,  ranged  in  regular  order,  they 
probably  would  form  a  street  not  less  than  five 
or  six  miles  in  length.  By  far  the  largest  num- 
ber of  excavations  were  manifestly  designed  as 
places  for  the  interment  of  the  dead;  and  thus 
exhibit  a  variety  in  form  and  size,  of  interior 
arrangement  and  external  decorations,  adapted 
to  the  different  fortunes  of  their  occupants,  and 
conformable  to  the  prevailing  tastes  of  the  times 
in  which  they  were  made.  There  are  many  tombs 
consisting  of  a  single  chamber,  ten,  fifteen  or 
twenty  feet  square  by  ten  or  twelve  in  height, 
containing  a  recess  in  the  wall  large  enough 
to  receive  one  or  a  few  deposits ;  sometimes  on  a 
level  with  the  floor,  at  others  one  or  two  feet 
above  it,  and  not  unfrequently  near  the  ceiling, 
at  the  height  of  eight  or  ten  feet.  Occasionally 
oblong  pits  or  graves  are  sunk  in  the  recesses, 
or  in  the  floOr  of  the  principal  apartment. 

(6)  Ornamental  Architecture.  To  these 
unique  and  sumptuous  monuments  of  the  taste 
of  one  of  the  most  ancient  races  of  men  with 
whom  history  has  made  us  acquainted,  Petra  is 
indebted  for  its  great  and  peculiar  attractions. 
This  ornamental  architecture  is  wholly  confined 
to  the  front,  while  the  interior  is  quite  plain  and 
destitute  of  all  decoration.  Pass  the  threshold, 
and  nothing  is  seen  but  perpendicular  walls,  bear- 
ing the  marks  of  the  chisel,  without  moldings, 
columns,  or  any  species  of  ornament.    But  the 


SELAH 


s  of  these  primitive  and  even  rude  apart- 
ments exhibit  some  of  the  most  beautiful  and 
imposing  results  of  ancient  taste  and  skill  which 
have  remained  to  our  times.  The  front  of  the 
mountain  is  wrought  into  facades  of  splendid 
temples,  rivaling  in  their  aspect  and  symmetry 
the  most  celebrated  monuments  of  Grecian  art. 
Columns  of  various  orders,  graceful  pediments, 
broad,  rich  entablatures,  and  sometimes  statuary, 
all  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  and  still  formins 
part  of  the  native  mass,  transform  the  base  of 
the  mountain  into  a  vast,  splendid  pile  of  archi- 
tecture, while  the  overhanging  cliffs,  towering 
above  in  shapes  as  rugged  and  wild  as  an^  on 
which  the  eye  ever  rested,  form  the  most  striking 
and  curious  of  contrasts. 

But  nothing  contributes  so  much  to  the  almost 
magical  effect  of  some  of  these  monuments  as 
the  rich  and  various  colors  of  the  rock  out  of 
which,  or  more  properly  in  which,  they  are 
formed.  Red,  purple,  yellow,  azure  or  sky  blue, 
black  and  white,  are  seen  in  the  same  mass  dis- 
tinctly in  successive  layers,  or  blended  so  as  to 
form  every  shade  and  hue  of  which  they  are  ca- 
pable—as brilliant  and  as  soft  as  they  ever  ap- 
pear in  flowers,  or  in  the  plumage  of  birds,  or 
in  the  sky  when  illuminated  by  the  most  glorious 
sunset.  It  is  more  easy  to  imagine  than  describe 
the  effect  of  tall,  graceful  columns,  exhibiting 
these  exquisite  colors  in  their  succession  of  regu- 
lar horizontal  strata.  They  are  displayed  to 
Still  greater  advantage  in  the  walls  and  ceilings 
of  some  of  the  excavations  where  there  is  a  slight 
dip  in  the  strata.  I-aborde  ( Voyage  en  Arabia 
Petraa),  Robinson  (Biblical  Researches),  and 
Olin  (Travels  in  the  East,  from  which  the  above 
description  has  been  chiefly  taken).  Interesting 
notices  of  Petra  may  also  be  found  in  the  re- 
spective Travels,  Journeys,  etc..  of  Burckhardi, 
Macmichael.  Irby  and  Mangles,  Stephens,  Lord 
Lindsay  and  Schubert. 

BEULH  (ae'lah),  (Heb.  "^9.  sth' law),  a  mu- 
sical term  used  seventy  times  in  the  Psalms  and 
three  times  in  Habakkuk.    Its  signilicati<: 


6  SEMITIC  RELIGION 

SELTEDOB  <sfirv6j),  (Heb.  ^"f^,  ka-ai-tsaw', 
termination),  the  edge  of  a  piece  of  cloth  (Exod. 
xxvi:4;xxxvi:ii). 

SEH  (sSm).  (Gr.  £4fs  m^),  (Luke  iti:36).  See 
Shem,  the  patriarch. 

8EHA0HXAH  (sCni'a-fci'ab),  (Heb.  ^T?^> 
sem-ak-ya'm' koo),  the  sixth  son  o(  Shemalab,  the 
eon  of  Obed-edom  (i  Chron,  xxvi:7),  B.  C.  about 
1013. 

SEHBI  (sem'e-i),  (Or.  ZeM  sem-eh-tt'). 

1.  Shimei  of  the  sons  of  Hashum  (t  Esdr. 
ix:33;comp.  Etra  x:33). 

2.  (Gr.  2<*«ltii,  sem-eh-ee'as),  Shimei,  an  ances- 
tor of  Mordecai  (Esth.  ii-5). 

3.  The  father  of  Mattatbias  in  the  genealogy 
of  Christ  (Luke  iii;a6). 

aEnrnc  BELiaios. 

(1)  The  Semitic  PeoplM.  The  name  "Sem- 
itic" is  applied  to  a  body  of  peoples  who  in  an- 
cient times  occupied  districts  in  western  Asia  and 
spoke  dialects  which  show  many  and  striking  sim- 
ilarities. Because  the  great  majority  of  these 
peoples  are  described  in  Genesis  as  descendants 
of  Shem,  the  son  of  Noah,  they  are  called 
Shemites,  more  commonly  written  Semites. 

Philology  organizes    them    into    two    groups. 


kSth),  (Heb.  ^^5  "^)'^5?,  seh'lah  ham-makh- 
Uk-oth',  cliff  of  divisions),  a  rock  in  the  desert  of 
Maon  which  was  the  scene  of  one  of  David's 
escapes  from  Saul  (i  Sam,  xxiii.lS),  Conder 
thinks  it  may  be  a  rock  situated  about  eight  miles 
northeast  of  Maon  where  a  cliff  renders  the  spot 
inaccessible  except  by  a  circuit  of  about  eight 

SELED  (se'led),  (Heb.  '>^?,  seh'ted,  exuliation ; 
£aXiia,jajbi/),sono[  Nadab.a  descendant  of  Jerab* 
meel  (i  Chrofi.  11:30),  B.  C.  after  1615. 

8BLEU0IA  (sS-lB'shT-i),  (Or.  •Lt\ciai^,sel-yo/,k' ■ 
i^h,  pertaining  to  Seleucus). 

A  city  of  Syria,  situated  west  of  Antioch  on 
the  sea  coast,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orontes: 
sometimes  called  Sclcucia  Pieria.  from  the  neigh- 
boring Mount  Pierus;  and  also  SeUucia  ad  Mare. 
in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  several  other 
cities  of  the  same  name,  all  of  them  denominated 
from  Seleucus  Nicanor.  Paul  and  Barnabas,  on 
their  first  journey,  embarked  at  this  port  for 
Cyprus  (Acts  xiii  14 ;  see  also  I  Mace,  xi  :8 ; 
Joseph.  Antiq.  xviii,  9.  8). 

SELF-WHJ.  (saif-wH),  (Heb.  T^?,  raw-tsone, 
pleasure,  and  in  a  bad  sense,  ■wantonness.  Gen. 
xlix:6).  In  the  New  Testament  the  Gr,  aWdSqt, 
iw-ihadace,  means  self-pleasing,  arrogant  (Tit. 
i7;2Pet.ii:io). 


AHTTian  Hsad. 

northern  and  southern.  The  latter  embraces  the 
various  Arabian  communities  and  the  Ethiopians. 
The  northern  Semites  comprise  (he  Babylonians 
and  Assyrians,  the  Aramxans  (Syrians),  the 
Canaanites.  the  Phcenicians.  the  Hebrews,  Moab- 
ites.  Ammoniles,  and  Edomites.  Linguistic  and 
historical  science  is  still  uncertain  as  to  the  race 
character  of  the  Egyptians,  with  an  inclination  in 
recent  years  in  favor  of  a  strong  Semitic  element 
in  their  constitution.  Similarities  of  language 
and  customs,  together  with  contiguity  of  habitat, 
suggest  that  these  peoples  are  offshoots  from  one 
common  stock  which  in  the  earliest  time  occupied 
a  single  definite  region.     Scholars  differ  as  to 


SEMITIC  RELIGION 


.._,  I  home  of  the  original  Semitic  race, 

according  as  they  are  traced  back  to  (a)  Armenia, 
the  region  between  the  Caspian  and  the  Black 
seas;  (b)  Africa,  the  district  opposite  the  straits 
of  Bab-el -Man  deb;  (c)  southern  Mesopotamia, 
the  alluvial  region  of  the  lower  Euphrates;  (d) 
central  and  northern  Arabia.  The  last  view  is 
most  in  favor.  It  is  geographically  more  central, 
and  this  desert  region  seems  to  be  most  suited 
to  produce  what  are  generally  recognized  as  the 
primitive  Semitic  traits. 

The  various  branches  of  the  Semitic  race  have 

Elayed  a  large  and  significani:  part  in  the  world's 
istory.  Politics,  art,  science,  and  religion  owe 
much  to  their  activities  The  earliest  civilization 
was  probably  Semitic.  The  Semites  built  up  the 
first  great  empires,  were  the  pioneers  in  trade, 
industry,  and  commerce  in  the  ancient  world. 
Those  rations  of  human  history  which  show  most 
clearly  the  evidence  of  progress  and  which  are 
most  closely  bound  together  to-day  in  the  inter- 
ests of  civilization  trace  back  the  beginnings  of 
their  advancement  to  the  Semitic  communities  of 
western  Asia,  Three  of  the  world's  great  re- 
ligions come  from  this  race.  One  of  the  branches 
of  it — the  Hebrews  or  Jews — still  lives  and  pros- 
pers in  Western  civilization,  vigorous,  aggres- 
sive, and  resourceful. 

Not  distributed  so  widely  as  the  other  great 
races,  they  seem  to  have  turned  in  upon  them- 
selves and  built  up  a  racial  character  of  a  re- 
markably enduring  type  and  of  striking  unity  of 
feature.  The  very  facial  peculiarities  have  been 
preserved,  as  a  glance  at  the  accompanying  As- 
syrian head  reveals.  Many  of  these  fundamental 
traits  still  linger  in  the  nomad  Bedouin  of  to- 
day. Indeed,  an  essential  element  in  the  progress 
of  the  Semites  is  found  in  the  contiguity  of  des- 
ert and  cultivated  land.  The  wide,  sandy  and 
rocky  wastes  of  Arabia  blend  imperceptibly  into 
the  more  fertile  and  attractive  Syrian  and  Meso- 
potamian  plains  and  valleys.  Thus  nomad  and 
agriculturist  reacted  upon  one  another,  and  prog- 
ress was  a  slow  blending  of  customs  and  activities 
from  both  spheres.  The  influence  of  this  ele- 
ment In  the  social  and  political  life  of  the  Semitic 
communities  was  important.  Equally  significant 
was  the  part  it  played  in  their  religion. 

The  Semite  has  always  been  a  marked  and 
peculiar  man.  Such  characteristics  as  tenacity 
of  purpose,  somberness  of  disposition,  which 
passes,  however,  on  occasion,  into  bursts  of  ex- 
travagant joy,  great  hospitality  and  courtesy,  yet 
cruelty  and  relentless  enmity,  intense  religiosity, 
yet  abundant  sensuality,  little  constructive  and 
synthetic  power,  have  with  good  reason  been 
ascribed  to  him. 

(2)  The  NomRdic  Beliglon.  The  simplest 
form  of  Semitic  social  organization  and  the  most 
primitive  cult  are  found  among  the  nomadic  tribes 
of  northern  Arabia,  Hence  these  may  be  regarded 
as  affording  a  type  of  early  Semitic  religion.  Two 
elements  condition  this  religion. 

(a)  Nature  in  Arabia  is  monotonous  and  Its 
aspect  unfavorable.  Desert  beneath,  and  the  wide 
sl^  above,  the  whirling  wind  and  frequent  storm, 
the  burning  sun,  the  infrequent  oasis,  the  scanty 
means  of  subsistence — all  tend  to  produce  few 
nature-gods,  to  connect  those  with  the  air  and 
the   heavens,   and   to    place   particular  emphasis 

to  man.  The  most  widely-known  divine  name 
among  the  Semites  is  //,  the  Strong  One,"  or 
"the   High   One."    found   in   almost  all    Semitic 


6  SEMITIC  RELIGION 

power,  of  authority  arbitrary,  irresistible,  and  in- 
evitable. The  attitude  of  man  Is  that  of  de- 
pendence, submission,  unquestioning  obedience, 
and  devotion.  This  is  expressed  most  clearly  in 
that  extensive  Semitic  practice  of  human  sacri- 
fice even  of  which  almost  every  Semitic  religion 
bears  evidence  more  or  less  clear.  It  is  shown 
likewise  in  those  names  of  worshipers  which 
Phcenician  inscriptions  have  preserved,  containing 
a  divine  name  compounded  with  abd,  "slave,"  or 
kelb,  "dog,"  e.  g.,  kalbiel,  "dog  of  god." 

(b)  Contrasting  with  the  comparatively  narrow 
range  of  the  nature  influence  is  the  intimate  rela- 
tion of  this  religion  to  the  social  organization  ot 
the  Semitic  nomads.  The  center  of  life  is  the 
tribe  to  which  the  individual  is  subordinate,  in 
which  his  individuality  is  swallowed  up.  The 
essential  element  of  tribal  organization  is  blood 
kinship.  This  makes  the  tribe  a  unity.  This 
unity  is  maintained  by  the  common  meal,  and 
manifested  in  the  assembly  for  war — two  essen- 
tial elements  of  tribal  membership.  Religion  ex- 
ists in  this  unity,  and  sanctions  it.  The  god  is 
the  protector,  father,  ruler  of  the  tribe.  The 
common  meal  is  not  enjoyed  without  him;  he, 
too,  partakes  in  it.  It  is  the  primitive  sacrifice 
in  which  the  compact,  the  blood  fellowship,  human 
and  divine,  is  revived  and  strengthened.  On 
such  occasions  alone  flesh  is  eaten,  the  flesh  of 
a  sacred  animal,  by  which  the  bond  of  deity  and 


worshipers  is  cemented  yet  more  strongly.  Thus 
divine  power  and  favor  enter  into  the  very  heart 
of  the  community.  The  god  lives  in  it,  fights  for 
it,  protects  and  blesses  it.  This  tribal  conception 
of  deity  was  held  by  the  Semitic  nomads  with  ex- 
traordinary intensity,  as  the  sense  of  tribal  unity 
was  highly  developed  among  them.  This  was 
characteristic  of  desert  life,  where  the  sum  of 
varied  external  interests  is  smalt.  The  rela- 
tions of  man  become  more  important  than  the 
aspects  of  nature.  The  latter  are  signifkant 
chiefly  as  they  affect  his  life  and  that  of  Iiis 
flocks  and  herds.  Worship  must  be  simple  and 
the  objects  of  worship  portable. 


SEMITIC  RELIGION  15 

<3)  The  Agricultural  Bellgion.  When  the 
Semite  passed  over  into  the  more  fertile  regions 
of  the  Mesopotamian  plain  or  the  Syrian  hiils  and 
valleys,  a  new  series  of  experiences  modified  bis 
religious  life.  He  came  face  to  face  with  a  very 
different  world,  with  rivers  and  green  hilis, 
{[roves,  fountains,  and  grottos,  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tion, the  haunts  of  innumerable  wild  animals.  It 
was  the  opposite  of  the  dreary  and  monotonous 
waste  of  the  desert.  Now  Nature  greeted  him  in 
lier  benignant  mood  and  welcomed  him  to  the  en- 
joyment of  her  free  gifts  or  rewarded  him  for  the 
latKir  of  his  hands.  The  tribal  organization  is 
broken  up  by  settlement.  The  tribal  god  must  find 
a  resting  place  in  the  land.  Hence  local  religion 
is  the  characteristic  mark  of  this  stage  of  develops 
ment.  Every  hill,  every  grove,  every  stream,  every 
fountain,  every  locality  which  possesses  some  pe- 
culiar characteristics  has  its  deity,  who  is  the  lord 
of  the  place  and  the  dispenser  of  its  gifts,  the  em- 
bodiment  of  its  fertility.     Thus  appears   the  old 


Semitic  idea  of  p 


r  localized  and  personified  ii 


the  local  Boat,  Lord."  He  is  objectified 
times  in  the  animals  of  the  place,  or  in  a  tree  or 
stone  which  marks  the  spot.  Sometimes  an  arti- 
ficial mound  or  pillar  Onasseba)  is  provided  for 
the  god  to  dwell  in.     As  lord  of  the  place  and 

Siver  of  its  blessings,  his  worship  consists  in 
ringing  the  first-fruits  of  the  ground  or  of  cattle, 
in  anointing  the  stone  or  pillar  with  blood  or  oil. 


His  worshipers  gather  at  the  stated  seasons  of 
the  year,  in  spring  or  autumn  or  winter,  for  fes- 
tivals in  his  honor,  where  the  old  idea  of  com- 
munion sacrifice  is  revived  in  the  common  meal 
with  the  god.  Though  joy  and  thanksgiving  g:ive 
the  keynote  to  the  spring  and  autumn  feasts,  the 
coming  of  winter  is  the  signal  for  grief  and  dis- 
tress, for  the  god  is  dead  or  he  has  forsaken  his 
worshipers,  and  no  gift  or  sacrifice  can  be  too 
great  to  win  him  back.  Indeed,  he  may  and  some- 
times does  claim  even  the  first-fruits  of  the  womb 
and  infants  are  slain  to  his  glory,  children  become 
his  property,  maidens  sacrifice  their  chastity  in  his 
honor.  By  his  side  there  often  stood  his  consort, 
Astarte,  who  received  a  separate  worship  as  a 
mother  goddess,  queen  of  fertility  and  abounding 


47  SEMITIC  RELIGION 

life,  in  symbols  (of  which  the  oikera,  a  tree  or 

stake,  was  most  common)  and  forms  often  rude 
and  sensual.  Such  was  the  religion  of  the  Agri- 
cultural Canaanites  of  Palestine  with  which  the 
Hebrews  came  in  contact  and  by  which  they  were 
so  affected. 

(4)  State  Cults,  Moabitos,  PhcenicianB.  A 
higher  stage  of  social  and  political  organizaticHi 
follows  for  the  Semites  where  the  wealth  of  agri- 
cultural communities  increases,  or  where  com* 
merce,  trade,  or  industry  takes  an  important  place. 
This  development  culminated  in  the  great  em- 
pires on  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  or,  in  a  lesser 
degree,  in  the  western  kingdoms  of  Israel  and 
Judah,  or  Moab,  Edom  and  Ammon,  or  the  com- 
mercial cities  of  PhiEnicia.  In  such  cases  religion 
becomes  an  affair  of  the  state ;  the  cult  is  devel- 
oped and  ennobled;  religious  officials  are  ap- 
pointed and  paid;  splendid  temples  are  built;  the 
local  or  tribal  deity  becomes  the  god  of  the  state 
and  its  divine  king.  The  whole  affords,  how- 
ever, a  striking  illustration  of  the  survival  and  in- 
tensification of  primitive  Semitic  ideas  of  relig- 

The  chief  monument  of  the  Moabite  religion  is 
the  tiete  set  up  by  Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  in  com- 
memoration of  his  victory  over  the  king  of  Israel. 
Chemosh  is  the  god  of  Moab,  and  is  lord  and  pro- 
tector of  the  state.  His  name  signifies,  perhaps, 
the  "Overpowering"  one.  Under  his  leadership 
victory  is  gained.  King  and  citizens  are  his  ser- 
vants. The  spoil  of  victory  is  his.  The  war  of 
Moab  and  Israel  is  the  struggle  of  Chemosh  with 
Jehovah.  The  fanatic  dependence  on  the  deity 
characteristic  of  this  cult  is  seen  In  that  strange 
narrative  of  2  Kings,  chap,  iii.  Deliverance  must 
be  secured,  though  it  costs  the  life  of  the  king's 
son.    The  god  must  be  appeased. 

The  Phcenicians,  living  on  the  promontories  or 
islandsof  theeastern  Mediterranean  coast,  became 
the  great  traders  of  the  Oriental  world.  But  they 
never  attained  political  unity,  and  their  religion 
consisted  of  a  series  of  more  or  less  local  city 
cults.  It  preserved,  also,  many  primitive  charac- 
teristics, such  as  would  have  disappeared  if  a 
unity  of  state  life  had  ever  been  secured.  The 
two  elements  of  nature  and  tribe  religion  appear 
in  it  side  by  side.  A  favorite  title  tor  deity  is 
Milk  {MeUk'),  "King,"  appearing  in  Melkarth  of 
Tyre,  the  most  widely  worshiped  of  Phoenician 
deities,  almost  a  national  god.  Eihmun,  god  of 
healing,  Baalshamen,  BaaShamman  and  others,  are 
nature  gods.  The  Baalal  of  Gebal  owed  her  prom- 
inence to  the  little  stream  flowing  down  from  the 
mountains  which  turned  blood- red  in  the  spring. 
Gebal  became  a  sacred  city  for  all  Phccnicia.  The 
ritual  seems  to  have  been  very  elaborate  at  the 
greater  temples.  Lists  of  clean  and  unclean  ani- 
mals, of  the  kinds  of  sacrifice  suitable  for  certain 
occasions,  with  regulations  governing  the  ritual 
have  been  discovered.  The  temples  have  almost 
all  disappeared.  One  at  Amrit  remains.  Others 
are  represented  on  coins.  The  symbol  of  divinity, 
whether  a  stone  or  picture  or  image,  stood  in  the 
midst  of  a  court  with  only  a  railing  about  it.  At 
Amrit  it  stood  in  the  midst  of  a  lake.  Most  of 
these  symbols  were  rough  and  crude,  mere  blocks 
or  rough-hewn  pieces  of  stone.  Evidently  the 
priesthood  at  such  temples  was  well  organized.  A 
striking  personage  of  the  Phoenician  religion  is 
the  nbt,  prophet,"  "seer."  Traces  of  the  various 
systems  of  doctrine  are  thought  to  survive  in  the 
different  forms  of  myths  handed  down,  but  these 
probably  belong  to  a  later  period.  The  accounts 
of  the  ritual  show  that  it  was  bloody.  Human 
sacrifice  lingered  in  Phtenicia  long  after  it  had  dis- 
appeared elsewhere,  and  was  carried  to  the  Phoe- 


SEMITIC  RELIGION 


1548 


SENNACHERIB 


oician  colonies.  The  ofifering  of  young  children 
and  the  devotion  of  maidens  to  the  god  was  a  well- 
established  Phoenician  custom. 

As  a  trading  people  the  Phoenicians  were  fa- 
miliar with  the  religions  of  other  states,  and  bor- 
rowed many  things  from  them.  Egypt,  especially, 
contributed  much  from  the  Osiris  cult.  It  has 
been  thought  that  the  Kabiri,  dwarf  gods,  were 
taken  from  Egypt.  The  Phcenician  religion  had 
much  which  reminds  us  of  the  Hebrew  religion, 
only  in  a  cruder,  less  developed  and  less  purified 
form. 

(6)  The  Future  Life;  Morals;  Summary.  The 
more  primitive  Semitic  cults  have  left  behind  few, 
if  any,  memorials  which  illustrate  their  belief  con- 
cerning the  future.  It  is  from  the  Phoenician  re- 
mains and  from  survivals  in  other  higher  faiths 
that  our  knowledge  must  come.  The  existence  of 
life  after  death  was  fully  believed  in  by  these 
early  Semites.  The  dead  are  conscious;  they 
dwell  in  the  graves  where  the  dead  bodies  lie; 
with  them  are  buried  various  utensils,  spoons, 
lamps,  drinking  glasses,  amulets ;  a  sort  of  wor- 
ship is  given  to  them.  The  greatest  pains  are 
taken  that  the  body  be  not  disturbed,  smce  then 
the  spirit  finds  no  resting  place.  Food  is  offered 
at  the  grave,  or  buried  with  the  dead.  The  favor- 
ite food  of  the  dead  is  blood.  No  doubt  there  was 
a  sort  of  worship  of  the  dead,  who  were  thought 
to  have  the  power  to  injure  or  benefit  the  sur- 
vivors; but  there  is  no  real  basis  for  the  view 
held  by  some  that  the  worship  of  the  Semitic 
deities  was  an  outgrowth  of  the  worship  of  an- 
cestors, or,  indeed,  was  preceded  by  this. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  moral  character  of 
this  primitive  religion,  since  religion  is  so  closely 
connected  with  other  social  customs  wherein 
primitive  morality  abides.  One  thing,  however,  is 
evident.  The  conception  of  a  tribal  unity,  pre- 
sided over  by  the  god  who  is  at  the  same  time 
father  and  king  of  his  tribe,  affords  a  starting 
point  for  a  higher  ethics.  The  individual  exists 
for  the  tribe,  sinks  himself  and  his  own  interests 
unconsciously,  perhaps,  but  yet  really,  in  the  life  of 
the  whole,  and  feels  therein  the  blessing  of  his 
tribal  god.  It  is  also  true  that  in  the  fundamental 
Semitic  conception  of  the  deity  as  power  lies  the 
possibility  of  higher  morality.  The  power  at  first 
is  arbitrary  and  incomprehensible  in  its  dealings, 
but  man  must  submit,  and  with  the  growing  sense 
of  social  order  religion  keeps  pace  and  consecrates 
all  law  as  from  the  supreme  lawgiver  and  judge. 
Thus  the  Semite  learns  to  be  obedient  to  the 
power  above  him;  and  because  he  is  at  the  same 
time  tribal  god,  he  has  less  relation  to  nature  and 
a  deeper  human  value.  It  is  no  wonder,  therefore, 
that,  in  connection  with  such  beginnings  as  this, 
small  and  rude  though  they  are,  the  religion  of 
Jehovah  appeared  to  proclaim  the  supreme  law  of 
righteousness. 

It  is  from  this  point  also  that  the  tendency  of 
the  Semitic  religion  toward  monotheism  can  be 
understood.  The  primitive  Semitic  religions  uni- 
formly emphasized  the  element  of  supreme  power. 
Closest  to  the  Semitic  mind  of  all  the  innumerable 
crowd  of  powers  was  that  power  who  protected, 
blessed,  and  united  himself  with  the  tribe.  Thus 
a  tendency  toward  the  recognition  of  one  god  as  a 
practical  fact  appeared  at  an  early  date.  From 
the  tribe  the  god  passed  to  the  state,  and  in  the 
Hebrew  state  he  was  purified,  glorified,  and  set 
apart  in  supreme  and  single  majesty  by  the  proph- 
ets of  Jehovah.  Thus  at  the  time  when  the  Aryan 
was  still  bound  in  fetters  of  all-embracing  though 
refined  naturism,  or.  at  the  most,  philosophizing 
in  pantheistic  phrase  upon  the  universe,  the  He- 
brew was  learning  the  secret  which  he  was  to 


teach  the  world  in  the  doctrine  of  the  one  holy 
God.  G.  S.  G. 

SENAAH   (se-na'ah),  (Heb.  ^¥59,  sen-aw-aw*, 

thorny),  the  name  of  a  man  (B.  C.  445),  or  a  town, 
whose  descendants,  or  inhabitants,  returned  from 
the  Captivity  and  rebuilt  the  Fish-gate  at  Jerusalem 
(Ezra  11:35;  Neh.  vii:38). 

In  Neh.  iii  :3  the  name  is  given  with  the  article, 
has-Senaah.  (See  Hassenaah.)  The  names  in 
these  lists  are  mostly  those  of  towns ;  but  Senaah 
does  not  occur  elsewhere  in  the  Bible  as  attached 
to  a  town.  The  Magdal-Senna,  or  "great  Senna." 
of  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  seven  miles  north  of 
Jericho  ("Senna"),  however,  is  not  inappropriate 
in  position.  Bertheau  suggests  that  Senaah  rep- 
resents not  a  single  place,  but  a  district ;  but  there 
is  nothing  to  corroborate  this  (Smith,  Bib.  Diet), 

SENATE  (sSn'at),  (Gr.  yepovffla,  gher-oo-see'ah, 
eldership),  a  deliberative  body,  and  in  the  New 
Testament  (Acts  v:2i)  of  not  only  those  elders  of 
the  people  who  were  members  ot  the  Sanhedrim, 
but  the  whole  body  of  elders  generally,  the  whole 
council  of  the  representatives  of  the  people 
(Meyer,  Com,,  in  he.). 

SENATOR    (sgo'i-ter),    (Heb.  1i?.l,  zaw-hane', 

old),  a  chief  man,  a  magistrate  (Ps.  cv:22).  The 
Hebrew  word  is  elsewhere  rendered  elder  (which 
see). 

SENEH  (se'neh).  (Heb.  '"^.^P,  seh'neh,  thorn). 

i.  This  word  occurs  in  the  well-known  passage 
of  Exod.  iii:2,  where  the  angel  of  the  Lord 
appeared  unto  Moses  in  a  flaming  fire,  out  of  the 
midst  of  a  bush  (seneh),  and  the  bush  was  not 
consumed.  It  occurs  also  in  verses  3  and  4,  and  in 
Deut.  xxj^iii:i6. 

The  Septuagint  translates  seneh  by  the  Greek 
word  /3<£tos,  which  usually  signifies  tne  Rubus  or 
Bramble ;  so  in  the  New  Testament  ^i^ro%  is  em- 
ployed when  referring  to  the  above  miracle  of 
the  burning  bush.  The  monks  of  the  monastery 
of  St.  Catherine,  on  Mount  Sinai,  have  a  species 
of  rubus  planted  in  their  garden,  near  their  Chapel 
of  the  Burning  Bush;  but  this  cannot  be  consid- 
ered as  any  proof  of  its  identity  with  the  seneh, 
from  the  little  attention  which  they  have  usually 
paid  to  correctness  in  such  points. 

2»  A  rock  between  Gibeah  and  Michmash  near 
which  Jonathan  and  his  armor-bearer  passed  on 
their  way  to  attack  the  Philistines  (i  Sam.  xiv:4, 5). 

SENIB  (se'nir).  An  Amorite  name  for  Her- 
MON  (which  see). 

SENNACHERIB  (seo-nak'e-rtb),  (Heb.  2^in;p, 

san-khayreeb'),  king  of  Assyria,  who,  in  the  four- 
teenth year  of  King  Hezekiah  (B.  C.  705)  came  up 
against  all  the  fenced  cities  of  Judah  and  took 
them;  on  which  Hezekiah  agreed  to  pay  the 
Assyrian  monarch  a  tribute  of  three  nundred 
talents  of  silver,  and  thirty  talents  of  gold. 

This,  however,  did  not  satisfy  Sennacherib,  who 
sent  an  embassy  with  hostile  intentions,  charging 
Hezekiah  with  trusting  on  'this  bruised  reed 
Egypt.*  The  king  of  Judah  in  his  perplexity  had 
recourse  to  Isaiah,  who  counselled  confidence  and 
hope,  giving  a  divine  promise  of  miraculous  aid. 
Meanwhile  'Tirhakah,  king  of  Ethiopia,'  and  of 
Thebes  in  Egypt,  had  come  out  to  fight  against 
the  Assyrians,  who  had  threatened  Lower  Egypt 
with  an  invasion.  On  learning  this,  Sennacherib 
sent  another  deputation  to  Hezekiah,  who  thereon 
applied  for  aid  to  Jehovah,  who  promised  to 
defend  the  capital.  'And  it  came  to  pass  that 
night  that  the  angel  of  the  Lord  went  out  and 
smote  in  the  camp  of  the  Assyrians  an  hundred 
fourscore    and    five    thousand;    and    when    they 


SENNACHERIB 


1549 


SENNACHERIB 


arose  early  in  the  morning,  behold  they  were  all 
dead  corpses*  (2  Kings  xviii:i3,  sq.).  On  this, 
Sennacherib  returned  to  Nineveh,  and  was  shortly 
after  murdered  by  two  of  his  sons  as  he  was  pray- 
ing in  the  house  of  Nisroch  his  god  (2  Kings  xix : 
36,  sq.;  2  Chron.  xxxii;  Is.  xxxvii:37). 

!•  Sennacherib  and  the  Destruction  of 
NineVeh. 

In  1895  the  world  of  scholars  came  in  posses- 
sion of  a  letter  from  King  Nabonidus  of  Babylon, 
which  had  been  discovered  by  Dr.  Schiel,  the 
French  savant,  in  the  Museum  of  Constantinople. 
The  letter  is  a  stele  of  stone  with  eleven  columns 
of  writing,  but  it  has  been  somewhat  injured  so 
that  all  of  the  matter  is  not  legible. 

(1)  Capture  of  Babylon.  On  the  first  column, 
however,  Nabonidus  tells  of  the  capture  of  Baby- 
lon long  before  by  Sennacherib.  He  says:  "He 
came  to  Babylon,  he  leveled  its  temples,  he  threw 
up  the  earth,  he  destroyed  the  reliefs  and  the  in- 
scribed edicts.  He  took  the  hand  of  Lord  Mero- 
dach  and  carried  him  to  Assyria.  As  with  the 
anger  of  the  gods  he  treated  the  land.  The  lord 
Merodach  would  not  restrain  his  wrath.  For 
twenty  years  he  had  his  home  in  Assyria.  At 
last  the  time  came  when  the  wrath  of  the  king 
of  the  gods  was  appeased,  and  he  thought  of  his 
temple,  E-saggil,  and  of  Babylon,  the  seat  of  his 
dominion.  As  to  the  king  of  Assyria,  who,  during 
the  wrath  of  Merodach,  had  ravaged  the  land, 
his  son,  the  offspring  of  his  body,  slew  him  with 
his  weapons." 

Although  it  is  evident  from  history  that  two 
of  Sennacherib's  sons  plotted  his  personal  de- 
struction, mention  is  here  made  of  only  one  of 
them;  it  is,  however,  a  direct  confirmation  of  the 
Biblical  record  from  an  entirely  independent  wit- 
ness, over  whose  head  the  dust  of  many  centuries 

has  fallen. 

(2)  Annals  of  Sennacherib.    We  have  for  a 

few  years  been  in  possession  of  the  annals  of 
Sennacherib,  and  by  a  comparison  of  the  monu- 
ments with  Biblical  history,  which  is  found  in  both 
Is.  and  2  Kings,  we  obtain  the  facts  concerning 
the  reign  of  Sennacherib.  One  apparent  discrep- 
ancy between  the  Biblical  account  and  the  monu- 
ments may,  however,  be  noted.  Sennacherib  re- 
ceived from  Hezekiah,  the  king  of  Jerusalem,  a 
tribute  of  thirty  talents  of  gold  and  an  amount  of 
silver  which,  in  his  own  annals,  he  calls  eight 
hundred  talents,  but  which  the  Jewish  writer  calls 
three  hundred  talents.  The  explanation  seems  to 
be  that  there  were  two  sorts  of  talents,  the  large 
and  the  small,  which  were  to  each  other  in  the 
ratio  of  three  to  eight;  so  that  the  Assyrian 
king,  who  had  not  much  to  boast  of  in  this  cam- 
paign, made  the  tribute  as  large  as  possible  by 
reckoning  the  small  talents.  This  tribute  was 
paid  while  Sennacherib  was  at  Lachish.  (See 
Lachish,  Siege  of.) 

After  the  battle  of  Altaku  and  the  retreat  of 
the  Egyptians,  whom  he  was  not  prepared  to  fol- 
low, he  captured  Ekron  and  Timnath;  but  the 
army  which  he  sent  to  assault  the  city  of  Jerusa- 
lem was  smitten  with  a  fatal  pestilence.  In  his 
own  annals  he,  of  course,  omits  all  mention  of  the 
pestilence  and  the  escape  of  the  small  remnant  of 
his  army,  and  makes  the  campaign  look  as  much 
like  success  as  possible.  He  is  careful  to  tell  pos- 
terity that  he  forced  the  king  of  Jerusalem  to  pay 
tribute,  but  this  was  not  paid  at  the  end  of  the 
campaign,  as  he  would  apparently  like  to  have 
us  believe,  but  at  Lachish;  that  is,  before  the  at- 
tempted assault  upon  Jerusalem,  and  even  before 
the  battle  of  Altaku.  The  Biblical  account  agrees 
well  with  the  Assyrian,  when  properly  understood. 
and  gives  some  important  additional  details.  The 


Biblical  account  of  the  murder  of  Sennacherib  is 
also  confirmed  by  the  Babylonian  chronicle,  which 
was  discovered  a  few  years  ago  bjr  Mr.  Pinches 
among  the  great  mass  of  tablets  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  we  have  a  new  confirmation  of  it  in 
the  letter  from  Nabonidus,  which  is  quoted  above. 

In  a  letter  to  The  Academy  Prof.  Sayce  has 
pointed  out  that  the  stele  of  Nabonidus  dpes  not 
necessarily  allude  to  the  final  overthrow  of  Nine- 
veh, but  more  probably  refers  to  a  previous  cap* 
ture  of  the  city  by  a  horde  of  Scythians,  who  came 
as  far  as  Syria  and  threatened  Jerusalem.  It  was 
a  similar  horde,  which,  more  than  a  thousand 
years  before,  had  overrun  the  same  territory  and 
captured  both  Babylon  and  Nineveh;  had  crossed 
the  Syrian  hills,  conquered  Palestine,  taken  pos- 
session of  Egypt  and  set  up  the  line  of  Shepherd 
kings. 

(3)  Pall  of  Nineveh.  The  end  of  Nineveh's 
glory,  however,  was  at  hand.  It  was  in  Decem- 
ber, 681  B.  C,  that  Sennacherib  was  slain  by  his 
sons.  Then  the  Chaldeans  and  Elamites  attempted 
to  seize  Babylon.  From  the  North  and  Northwest 
came  the  hordes  of  Scythians,  and  the  Persians, 
under  Median  rule,  began  to  develop  that  wonder- 
ful power  which  was  destined  to  control  all  of  the 
West.  Thus,  while  apparently  at  the  very  hei|:ht 
of  his  prosperity,  the  empire  was  fast  slipping 
away  from  Assur-bani-pal. 

Tiie  Prophet  Nahum  asks  of  Nineveh,  "Ajt 
thou  better  than  No-Amon,  that  was  situated 
among  the  rivers*'  ?  and  No-Amon,  or  Thebes,  had 
already  fallen  (Jer.  xlvi:25).  In  652  B.  C.  a  rebel- 
lion broke  out,  which  involved  Babylonia,  Egjrpt, 
Palestine,  and  Arabia;  and  when  Assyria  finally 
emerged  from  the  struggle,  Egypt  was  lost  for- 
ever, and  Babylonia  was  only  half  subdued.  And 
although  apparently  victorious,  Assur-bani-pal  had 
aroused  the  deepest  hatred  by  those  terrible  cruel- 
ties described  by  Nahum,  when  he  utters,  "Woe 
to  the  bloody  city!  It  is  all  full  of  lies  and  rob- 
bery." 

The  princes  of  Kedar  and  Arabia  were  exposed 
in  chains  and  in  iron  cages  to  the  view  of  the 
people.  The  head  of  King  Teumman  was  brought 
in  a  wagon  to  Nineveh  and  tied  around  the  neck 
of  a  captured  Gambulian  prince;  then  it  was 
placed  on  a  pole  by  the  city  gate,  and  the  prince 
was  flayed  alive  by  the  Assyrian  king.  This  was 
only  one  specimen  of  Assyrian  brutality.  What 
wonder  that  it  was  denounced  by  the  prophet? 
(See  Nahum,  chapters  i,  ii  and  iii.) 

It  is  true  that  Assur-bani-pal  had  made  his  cap' 
ital  the  treasure  house  of  art  and  literature  (see 
Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Libraries),  but  cul- 
ture alone  hath  not  the  leaven  of  human  kindness, 
and  his  cruelties  were  the  shame  of  his  nation. 

Indeed  his  annals  glory  in  a  ferocity  at  which 
we  stand  aghast.  But  his  successors  reigned  only 
two  or  three  years  each,  and  by  606  B.  C.  t)e 
Egyptians,  Elamites  and  Babylonians  had  com- 
pleted the  sack  of  Nineveh.  Soon  after  even  the 
Assyrian  nation  ceased  to  exist  (Ezek.  xxxiii- 
13).  For  centuries  the  very  site  of  Nineveh  was 
unknown  (see  Zeph.  ii:i2-i5;  also  Nahum  iii). 
In  1 81 8  Rich  conjectured  that  the  mounds  of 
Kouyunjik  concealed  the  ruins  of  the  Assyrian 
capital,  but  it  was  not  until  the  excavations  of  the 
French  Botta,  in  1842,  and  the  Englishman,  Lay- 
ard,  in  1845.  that  the  remains  of  Nineveh  were 
revealed  to  the  eyes  of  the  wondering  world.  (See 
Nineveh.) 

For  library  references  see  Sayce,  Assyria — Her 
Princes,  Prtests,  and  People,  also  Ancient  Em- 
pires; also  Ward,  Horn.  Rev.,  Dec,  1895. 

2,    Sennacherib  and  His  Inscription. 

After  his  accession  to  the  throne  Sennacherib 


SENNACHERIB 


1550 


SENNACHERIB 


waited  nearly  three  years  before  he  considered 
himself  sufficiently  prepared  to  march  toward 
the  West.  But  in  701  B.  C.  the  great  invasion 
took  place.  The  Assyrian  army  was  led  by  able 
generals.  It  had  been  trained  under  Sargon  (see 
Sargon  II  AND  His  Monuments),  his  father, 
and  it  proved  too  large  to  be  resisted  in  the  field 
by  the  allies.  The  Phoenician  cities  were  captured 
before  assistance  could  be  brought  to  them,  and 
the  kings  of  Ammon,  Moab  and  Edom  judged  it 
prudent  to  make  their  peace  with  the  conqueror. 

The  Philistine  towns  were  taken  by  storm,  the 
south  of  Judah  was  devastated  (2  Kings  xviii  :i3), 
and  Hezekiah  was  forced  to  humble  himself  be- 
fore the  terrible  invader  and  to  sue  for  pardon 
by  the  surrender  of  Padi,  the  payment  of  his 
former  tribute,  and  the  oflFer  of  numerous  gifts. 
But  Sennacherib  was  inexorable.  Nothing  would 
suffice  him  but  the  capitulation  of  Jerusalem, 
which  would  have  placed  Egypt  at  his  mercy. 
Tirhakah,  the  Egyptian  king,  was  well  awake  to 
the  danger  which  threatened  him,  and  his  army 
had  already  left  Egypt,  and  had  reached  Eltekeh, 
in  the  southern  part  of  Judah.  The  Assyrian 
forces  were  now  divided  into  two— one  portion 
being  sent  to  besiege  Terusalem,  while  the  rest 
endeavored  to  check  the  advance  of  the  Eg3rp- 
tians. 

Nothing  can  show  more  clearly  how  large  must 
have  been  the  army  employed  by  Sennacherib  in 
the  campaign,  and  how  great  a  confidence  must 
have  been  placed  by  the  Assyrian  leaders  in  their 
superiority  of  numbers.  That  confidence  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  misplaced,  if  we  can  trust 
the  assertions  of  Sennacherib.  He  claims  to  have 
defeated  the  ^o'^ptian  army  at  Eltekeh,  capturing 
in  the  battle  the  Ethiopian  captains  and  "the  sons 
of  the  king*  of  Egypt."  But  it  may  be  ques- 
tioned whether  his  success  was  as  complete  as 
he  represents  it  to  have  been.  At  all  events  he 
did  not  follow  up  his  victory,  and  contented 
himself  with  taking  the  little  fortified  villages 
of  Eltekeh  and  Timnath.  Tirhakah,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  sufficiently  weakened  by  the  battle  to 
be  obliged  to  retreat,  and  to  leave  his  ally  Heze- 
kiah to  fall,  as  seemed  inevitable,  into  the  hands 
of  the  foe. 

It  was  at  this  moment,  when  all  human  aid 
had  been  withdrawn,  and  the  walls  of  Jeru- 
salem alone  stood  between  the  Jewish  king  and 
his  enemies,  that  the  great  disaster  befell  the  tri- 
umphant Assyrian  which  is  recorded  in  Is. 
xxxvii  136, 

God  had  declared  by  the  mouth  of  the  prophet 
that  He  would  defend  the  city  and  line  of  David, 
"for  out  of  Jerusalem  shall  so  forth  a  remnant, 
and  they  that  escape  out  of  Mount  Zion"  (Is. 
xxxvii  :32). 

The  God  of  Israel  was  mightier  than  the  As- 
syrian tyrant  or  the  princes  he  claimed  to  have 
overthrown.  Sennacherib  had  boasted  of  his  vic- 
tory over  the  Egyptian  king;  he  had  declared 
that  "with  the  sole  of  his  feet"  he  had  "dried  up 
all  the  rivers  of  the  besieged  places." 

But  through  the  mouth  of  the  prophet,  God 
answered :  "I  know  thy  abode,  and  thy  going  out, 
and  thy  coming  in,  and  thy  rage  against  me.  Be- 
cause thy  rage  against  me  and  thy  tumult  has 
come  up  into  mine  ears,  therefore  will  I  put  my 
hook  in  thy  nose,  and  my  bridle  in  thy  lips,  and 
I  will  turn  thee  back  by  the  way  which  thou 
camest"  (verses  28,  29). 

And  althouffh  Tirhakah  had  been  driven  back, 
leaving  his  ally  Hezekiah  to  his  fate,  and  thus 
showing  how  useless  was  the  "arm  of  flesh"  upon 
which  he  had  leaned,  still  the  divine  aid  was 
promised — not  indeed  for  the  sake  of  Hezekiah, 


who  had  trusted  to  Egypt  for  help,  but  for  the 
sake  of  the  Lord  himself  and  his  servant  David. 

So  "the  angel  of  the  Lord  went  forth  and  smote 
in  the  camp  of  the  Assyrians  a  hundred  and  four 
score  and  five  thousand"  (Is.  xxxvi:36). 

The  Assyrian  army  was  virtually  annihilated, 
and  when  the  few  who  were  left  arose  in  the 
morning  they  found  the  camp  was  a  vast  battle- 
field, whereon  the  angel  of  the  Lord  had  been 
the  victor,  and  it  was  covered  with  the  dead. 

The  Assyrian  king,  who  seems  to  have  re- 
mained in  the  south  on  guard  against  the  possible 
return  of  Tirhakah,  hastily  gathered  his  forces 
and  his  booty  together  and  returned  to  Nineveh. 
Like  Xerxes,  after  his  overwhelming  repulse  by 
the  Greeks,  Sennacherib  never  again  ventured  into 
the  land  where  he  had  met  with  so  signal  a  de- 
feat He  went  back  to  his  capital  city  and  had 
his  triumphant  inscription  made.  In  this  record 
all  of  his  triumphs  are  found,  but  the  inscrip- 
tion stops  when  it  comes  to  his  terrible  defeat. 
Like  modern  generals,  he  preferred  to  record  his 
victories,  and  say  little  or  nothing  of  his  disas- 
ters. 

His  inscription  runs  as  follows:  "Zedekiah, 
king  of  Ashkelon,  who  had  not  submitted  to  my 
yoke,  himself,  the  gods  of  the  house  of  his  fathers, 
his  wife,  his  sons,-  his  daughters  and  his  brothers, 
I  removed  and  I  sent  him  to  Syria. 

"I  set  over  the  men  of  Ashkelon,  Sarludari,  the 
son  of  Rukipti,  their  former  king,  and  I  imposed 
upon  him  the  payment  of  tribute,  and  the  hom- 
age due  to  my  majesty,  and  he  became  a  vassal. 

"In  the  progress  of  my  campaign,  I  approached 
and  captured  Beth-Dagon,  Joppa,  Bene-berak,  and 
Azur,  the  cities  of  Zedekiah,  which  did  not  sub- 
mit at  once  to  my  yoke,  and  I  carried  away  their 
spoil.  The  priests,  the  chief  men,  and  the  com- 
mon people  of  Ekron,  who  had  thrown  into 
chains  their  king  Padi,  because  he  was  faithful 
to  his  oaths  to  Assyria,  and  had  given  him  up 
to  Hezekiah  the  Jew,  who  imprisoned  him  like 
an  enemy  in  a  dark  dungeon,  feared  in  their 
hearts. 

"The  king  of  Egjrpt,  the  bowmen,  the  chariots, 
and  the  horses  of  the  king  of  Ethiopia  had  gath- 
ered together  innumerable  forces  and  gone  to  their 
assistance.  In  sight  of  the  town  of  Eltekeh  was 
their  order  of  battle  drawn  up;  they  called  their 
troops  to  battle.  Trusting  in  Assur,  my  lord,  I 
fought  with  them  and  overthrew  them.  My 
hands  took  the  captains  of  the  chariots,  and  the 
sons  of  the  king  of  Eg3rpt,  as  well  as  the  captains 
of  the  chariots  of  the  king  of  Ethiopia,  alive  in 
the  midst  of  the  battle. 

"I  approached  and  I  captured  the  towns  of 
Eltekeh  and  Timnath,  and  I  carried  away  their 
spoil.  I  marched  against  the  city  of  Ekron.  and 
put  to  death  the  priests  and  the  chief  men  who 
had  committed  the  sin  (of  rebellion),  and  I  hung 
up  their  bodies  on  stakes  all  around  the  city. 
The  citizens  who  had  done  wrong  and  wickedness 
I  counted  as  spoil ;  as  for  the  rest  of  them  who 
had  done  no  sin  or  crime,  in  whom  no  fault  was 
found,  I  proclaimed  a  free  pardon. 

"I  had  Padi,  their  king,  brought  out  from  the 
midst  of  Jerusalem,  and  I  seated  him  on  the 
throne  of  royalty  over  them,  and  I  laid  upon  him 
the  tribute  due  to  my  majesty. 

"But  as  for  Hezekiah  of  Judah,  who  had  not 
submitted  to  my  yoke,  forty-six  of  his  strong 
cities,  together  with  innumerable  fortresses  and 
small  towns,  which  depended  upon  them,  by  over- 
throwing the  walls  and  open  attack,  by  battle 
engines  and  battering  rams,  I  besieged,  V  Cap- 
tured, I  brouffht  from  the  midst  of  them  and 
counted  as  spoil,  200,150  persons,  great  and  small. 


SENNACHERIB 


1551 


SENSE 


male  and  female,  horses,  mules,  camels,  oxen  and 
sheep  without  number. 

"Hezekiah  himself  I  shut  up  like  a  bird  in  a 
cage  in  Jerusalem,  his  royal  city.  I  built  a  line 
of  forts  against  him,  and  I  kept  back  his  heel 
from  going  forth  out  of  the  great  gate  of  his  city. 
i  cut  off  the  cities  that  I  had  spoiled  from  the 
midst  of  his  land,  and  gave  them  to  Metini,  king 
of  Ashdod;  Padi,  king  of  Ekron,  and  Zil-baal, 
king  of  Gaza,  and  I  made  his  country  small. 

"In  addition  to  their  former  tribute  and  yearly 
gifts,  I  added  other  tribute  and  the  homage  due 
to  my  majesty,  and  I  laid  it  upon  them.  The  fear 
of  the  greatness  of  my  majesty  overwhelmed 
him,  even  Hezekiah,  and  he  sent  after  me  to 
Nineven,  my  royal  city,  bv  way  of  gift  and  tribute, 
the  Arabs  and  his  bodyguard,  whom  he  had 
brought  for  the  defense  of  Jerusalem,  his  royal 
city,  and  had  furnished  with  pay;  along  with 
thirty  talents  of  gold,  eight  hundred  talents  of 
pure  silver,  carbuncles  and  other  precious  stones, 
a  couch  of  ivory,  thrones  of  ivory,  and  elephant's 
hide,  an  elephant's  tusk,  rare  woods  of  various 
names,  a  vast  treasure,  as  well  as  the  eunuchs  of 
his  palace,  dancing-men  and  dancing-women ;  and 
he  sent  his  ambassador  to  ofifer  homage"  (Sayce's 
Trans.). 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  he  entirely  omits  any 
mention  of  the  fate  of  his  army  in  front  of  Jeru^ 
salem,  which  compelled  him  to  return  ignomini- 
ously  to  Assyria  without  attempting  to  capture 
Jerusalem,  and  to  deal  with  Hezekiah  as  it  was 
his  custom  to  deal  with  rebellious  kings.  The 
tribute  offered  by  Hezekiah  is  here  represented  as 
having  been  the  final  result  of  a  successful  cam- 
paign. 

For  the  Biblical  account  of  this  matter,  in  which 
both  victories  and  defeats  are  impartially  related, 
see  2  Chron.  xxxii;  2  Kings  xvi,  xviii,  xix;  also 
Is.  xxxvi,  xxxvii. 

Sennacherib  never  recovered  from  the  terrible 
blow  which  he  received  in  Judah.  He  made  no 
more  expeditions  in  that  direction,  but  he  was  in 
constant  trouble  with  Babylonia.  A  Chaldean 
stirred  up  a  revolt  here  in  B.  C.  700,  which  he 
had  considerable  trouble  in  repressing,  and  six 
years  later  he  determined  to  attack  the  followers 
of  Merodach-Baladan  in  their  last  retreat  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Eulaeus,  where  land  had  been 
given  them  by  the  Elamite  king  after  their  ex- 
pulsion from  Babylonia. 

Ships  were  built  and  manned  by  Phoenicians  m 
the  Persian  Gulf,  by  means  of  which  the  settle- 
ments of  the  Chaldean  refugees  were  burnt  and 
destroyed. 

In  the  meantime,  however.  Babylonia  itself  was 
invaded  by  the  Elamites,  and  the  Assyrian  vice- 
roy was  carried  into  captivity.  Nergal-yusezib, 
who  had  led  the  former  revolt,  was  placed  upon 
the  throne,  and  he  defeated  the  Assyrian  forces 
in  a  battle  near  Nipur,  but  he  died  soon  after 
and  was  followed  by  Musezib-Merodach,  who,  like 
his  predecessor,  is  called  Suzub  in  the  inscrip- 
tions of  Sennacherib. 

This  man  defied  the  Assyrian  power  for  nearly 
four  years,  but  B.  C.  690  the  combined  Babylonian 
and  Elamite  army  was  overthrown  in  the  decisive 
battle  of  Khalule,  and  before  another  year  was 
past  Sennacherib  had  captured  Babylon,  and  given 
it  up  to  fire  and  the  sword.  Its  inhabitants  were 
sold  into  slavery,  and  the  waters  of  the  Araxes 
Canal  allowed  to  flow  over  its  ruins. 

Sennacherib  now  assumed  the  title  of  King  of 
Babylonia,  and  with  the  exception  of  a  campaign 
intc^l^  Cilician  Mountains  he  seems  to  have  un- 
der^cen  no  more  military  expeditions.  The  lat- 
ter years  of  his  life  were  passed  in  constructing 


canals  and  aqueducts,  in  embanking  the  Tigris, 
and  in  rebuilding  the  palace  of  Nineveh  on  a 
new  and  sumptuous  scale. 

On  the  20th  of  Tebet,  or  December,  B.  C.  681, 
he  was  murdered  by  his  two  elder  sons,  on  ac- 
count of  their  jealousy  of  Esar-haddon  the 
younger. 

Esar-haddon  was  at  that  time  conducting  a 
campaign  against  the  king  of  Armenia,  to  whom 
his  insurgent  brothers  naturally  fled.  But  seven 
or  eight  weeks  after  the  murder  of  the  old 
king,  a  battle  was  fought  between  the  forces  of 
Esar-haddon  and  the  troops  under  his  brothers, 
and  the  Armenian  king,  in  which  the  latter  were 
completely  defeated.  Esar-haddon  was  pro- 
claimed king,  and  the  event  proved  that  a  wiser 
choice  could  not  have  been  made.  (A..H.  Sayce, 
M.  A.,  Times  of  Isaiah,  pp.  30,  93 ;  also  Assyria, 
pp.  45,  46.) 

SENSE  (sgns).  1.  (Heb.  '?^,  se^'Jte/,  intelli- 
gence, meaning).  Thus  it  is  said  that  Ezra  and 
others  "lead  in  the  book,  and  gave  the  sense" 
(Neh.  viii:8),  i.e.,  caused  the  people  to  understand. 

2.  Gr,  aladrjTi^piop,  ahee'Sthay-tay' ree-on^  faculty 
of  the  mind  for  perceiving,  understanding,  judg- 
ing (Heb.  v:i4). 

Some   theologians   attribute    a    fivefold    sense 
to  the  Scripture:   (i)   A  f^rammatical^  which  is 
what  is  naturally  exhibited  by  the  express  words ; 
but  it  is  plain  this  must  not  be  always  rested  in, 
otherwise  we  must  believe  God  to  be  corporeal, 
having  eyes,  ears,  feet,  and  yet  to  be  a  Spirit.  (2) 
Literal  or  historical,  wherein  a  narrative  is  taken 
according  to  the  express  terms  of  the  text,  as  that 
Abraham  had  a  son  called  Ishmael  by  Hagar.    (3) 
The  allegorical,  whereby  the  terms  and  events  of 
a  history  are  taken  to  signify  something  spiritual, 
as  Hagar  to  signify  the  Jewish  church,  and  Sarah 
the  Christian,  and  Ishmael  legalists,  and  Isaac  true 
believers.    (4)  The  analogical,  whereby  we  under- 
stand terms  and  things  relating  to  this  world,  as 
relating  also  to  the  world  to  come ;  as  the  Sabbath 
to  the  heavenly  rest,  Canaan  to  heaven.     (5)  Tro- 
pological,  whereby  we  understand  a  text  as  hint- 
ing some  instruction  of  moral  duty ;  as  the  .not 
muzzling  the  mouth  of  the  ox,  to  import,  that  min- 
isters should  have  the  subsistence  from  their  hear- 
ers.   Thus  the  word  Jerusalem,  according  to  them, 
grammatically  signifies  the  vision  of  peace;  his- 
torically, the  chief  city  of  Judah;  allegorically, 
the  church  militant;  analogically,  the  church  tri- 
umphant ;  and  tropologically,  a  faithful  soul.    But 
to  attempt  finding  all  these  senses  in  every  pas- 
sage of  Scripture,  is  to  suppose  the  oracles  of  God 
a  perplexed  chaos.    It  is  true,  the  same  text  may 
be  improved  to  manifold  uses;  for  every  word  of 
God  is  profitable  for   doctrine,  for  reproof,  for 
correction,  for  instruction  in  righteousness;  but 
the  simplicity  of  divine  truth,  and  the  necessary  in- 
tclligibfeness  of  scripture,  require  the  real  sense  of 
every  passage  to  be,  not  manifold,  but  one,  and 
which  we  may  call  literal;  not  indeed  as  if  the 
terms  used  to  express  it,  if  distorted  from  their 
connection   with   other  passages,   could  bear   no 
other;  but  that  it  is  that  which  was  in  such  and 
such  words  intended  by  the  Holy  Ghost.    Nay,  in 
as  far  as  the  analogy  of  faith  and  the  context  will 
admit,  we  must  adhere  to  the  natural  signification 
of  the  very  words  of  scripture.    The  sense,  how- 
ever, is  often  complex;  the  same  phrase  relating 
to  more  objects  than  one.     Nothing  typical  is 
rightly  understood,  except  we  consider  it  as  both 
descriptive  of  the  type,  and  of  the  antitype.     In 
metaphoric  passages,  the  material  images  are  not 
at  all  the  sense,  but  are  to  be  understood  merely 
as  a  means  of  pointing  to  the  true  objects  in- 


SENSUAL 


1552. 


SEPULCHER 


tended.  Prophecies,  as  has  been  hinted,  have  va- 
rious steps  of  fulfillment,  which  are  not  different 
senses,  but  different  steps  of  the  same  complex 
sense.  (See  Interpretation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment.) 

SENSUAL  (sSn'shu-al),  (Gr.  rpvxiic^,  psoo-khee- 
ife^x*,  A.  V.  natural),  having  the  nature  and  char- 
acteristics of  the  ^yxh  Kpsoo'khay'),  i.  e.,  of  the  Prin- 
ciple of  animal  life,  which  men  have  in  common 
with  the  brutes  (i  Cor.  xv:44),  similar  to  "flesh«and 
blood,'  (verse  50). 

SENTENCES  (sgn't«i.c«s),  (Heb.  ^T^,  khee- 

daw\  entangled,  intricate),  a  riddte,  eni^pia  (Dan. 
v:i2;  viii:23)  understanding  mysteries,  1.  e.,  using 
dissimulation,  artifice. 

SENUAH  (se-nQ'ah),  (Neh.  xi:9).    See  Hase- 

NUAH. 

SEOBAH   (se-5'rah),  (Heb.  •'^J^^,  seh-o-raw*), 

by  some  written  also  j^r^A,  derives  its  name  in 
Hebrew,  according  to  Lexicographers,  from  its 
long  awns,  or  beards,  as  they  are  also  called, 
somewhat  resembling  hair.  The  word  is  very 
similar  to  the  Arabic  shairt  which  means  the  same 
thine,  and  has  already  been  treated  of  under  the 
head  of  Barley  (which  see).  J.  F.  R. 

SEOBIX  (se-5'rim),  (Heb.  D'^I^V,  seh-o-reem^ 

barley  grains),  the  head  of  the  fourth  course  of 
priests  according  to  the  divisions  by  David 
(1  Chron.  xxiv:8),  B.C.  1012. 

SEPABATION  (sgp'a-ra'shiln),  (Heb.  •*^?^,  nid^ 

Jaw*,  rejection;  *^?5,  neh*zer,  set  apart,  Lev.  xii, 

xiii,  xiv,  xv;  Num.  xix:  11-22).  (See  Unclean; 
Uncleanness.) 

SEfHAB  (se'phar),  (Heb.  *^?9,  sef-awr',  num- 
bering; Sept.  Za^i^pd,  saphera),  'a  mountain  of  the 
east,*  a  line  drawn  from  which  to  Mesha  formed 
the  boundary  of  the  Joktanite  tribes  (Gen.  x  :3o). 

The  name  may  remind  us  of  Saphar,  which 
the  ancients  mention  as  a  chief  place  of  South 
Arabia.  The  excellent  map  of  Berghaus  exhibits 
on  the  southwest  point  of  Arabia  a  mountain 
called  Sabber,  which  perhaps  supplies  the  spot  we 
seek.  If  this  be  the  case,  and  Mesha  be  (as  usu- 
ally supposed)  the  Mesene  of  the  ancients,  the 
line  between  them  would  intersect  Arabia  from 
northeast  to  southwest.  That  Sephar  is  called 
*a  mountain  of  the  east*  is  to  be  understood  with 
reference  to  popular  language,  according  to  which 
Arabia  is  described  as  the  *east  country.* 

SEPHARAD  (seph'a-rid),  (Heb.  "^1??,  sef-aw 

rawd*\  Sept.  'E^pa^d,  ephratha\  a  region  to  which 
the  exiles  from  Jerusalem  were  taken  (Obad.  20). 
Most  of  the  Rabbins  regard  Sepharad  as  Spain, 
interpreting  the  whole  passage  with  reference  to 
their  present  captivity  or  dispersion;  and  so  we 
find  it  in  the^Syriac  and  Chaldee.  Jerome  informs 
us  that  the  Hebrew  who  was  his  instructor  told 
him  that  Bosphorus  was  called  Sepharad,  whither 
Adrian  is  said  to  have  sent  the  Jews  into  exile. 
Its  precise  situation  has  lately  been  made  known 
to  us  bjr  a  cuneiform  tablet,  published  by  Dr. 
Strassmaier  (Zeitschrift  filer  Assyriologie,  vi  13, 
pp.  235,  236).  ...  It  is  dated  in  *the  thirty- 
seventh  year  of  Antiochus  and  Seleucus  the  kings,* 
that  is  to  say,  in  B.  C.  275.  In  the  previous  year 
it  is  stated  that  the  king  had  collected  his  troops 
and  marched  to  the  country  of  *Saparda.  .  .  . 
Oassical  history  informs  us  that  the  campaign  in 
'Saparda  here  referred  to,  was  a  campaign  in 
Bitnynia  and  Galatia.  Here,  then,  was  the  land 
of  Sepharad,  to  which  the  captives  of  Jerusalem 
were  brought  (Sayce,  Higher  Crit.,  p.  482). 


SEPHABVAIM  (sSph'ar-va'im),  (Heb.  ^^X^ 

sef-ar-vah' yim  ;  Sept.  2€«'0a/wvcUi^,  sePfarouaim),  a 
city  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  whence  colonists  were 
brought  into  the  territory  of  Israel,  afterwards 
called  Samaria  (2  Kings  xvii:24;  xviii:34;  xix:  13; 
Is.  xxxvi:i9;  xxxvii:i3). 

The  place  was  supposed  to  be  represented  by 
Sipphara  in  Mesopotamia,  situated  upon  the  east 
bank  of  the  Euphrates  above  Babylon. 

"This  identification  is,  howevei,  fraught  with 
great  difficulty,  and  majr,  indeed,  be  regarded  as 
practically  impossible.  Sepharvaim  has  a  different 
form  from  Sippara;  it  is  mentioned  always  in 
connection  with  Hamath,  as  though  it  were  located 
in  the  vicinity;  it  was  recently  conquered  by  the 
Assyrians  while  Sippara  was  an  ancient  city  in 
Babylonian  territory.  For  these  and  other  reasons 
scholars  have  with  practical  unanimity  ceased  to 
connect  Sepharvaim  with  the  ancient  Babylonian 
city  of  Sippara.  Instead  of  this  the  identification 
proposed  by  Halevy  has  received  common  accept- 
ance, viz.,  that  Sepharvaim  is  the  same  as  the  city 
Sibraim  (Ezek.  xlvii:i6),  and  that  this  is  the  city 
mentioned  in  the  Babylonian  chronicle  under  the 
name  of  Shabrain,  which  lies  in  the  Hamath  dis- 
trict, and  was  conquered  by  Shalmaneser  IV.  In 
these  particulars  it  exactly  suits  the  requirements 
of  the  Biblical  Sepharvaim.  The  proof  is,  how- 
ever, not  positive,  though  the  case  is  at  least 
plausible"  (Dr.  R.  W.  Rogers,  Barnes*  Bib,  Diet,). 
The  sun  was  the  chief  object  of  worship;  hence 
we  find  in  2  Kings  xvii:3i  that  the  inhabitants 
"  burnt  their  children  in  fire  to  Adrammelech  and 
Anammelech,  the  gods  of  Sepharvaim." 

SBPHABVITE  (se'phar-vite),  (Heb.  T?9,  sef 
ay'Vee\  a  citizen  of  Sepharvaim  (2  Kings  xvii:3i)f 

V/SEPTXJAGINT  (sgp'tti-i-jlnt).  The  oldest  ver- 
sion  of  the  Old  Testament  in  any  language  is  the 
Greek  translation  commonly  called  the  Septuagint. 
It  is  commonly  represented  in  scholarly  books 
by  the  Roman  numerals  LXX.  It  was  made  direct 
from  the  Hebrew  by  a  company  of  learned  Alex- 
andrian Jews  in  that  city  under  the  patronage  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and  begun  B.  C.  285.  It  is 
not  of  equal  fidelity  throughout.  The  name 
Septuagint — i.  ^.,  seventy,  a  round  number  for 
the  more  exact  seventy-two— arose  from  a  tradi- 
tion that  the  work  was  executed  in  seventy-two 
days  by  seventy-two  Jewish  scholars.  The  version 
was  made  from  E^rptian  Hebrew  manuscripts, 
and  probably  at  different  times,  which  may  ac- 
count for  the  inequality.  As  it  now  stands,  it  in- 
cludes the  Apocrypha,  but  did  not  at  the  begin- 
ning. Those  books  were  gradually  added.  The 
LXX  has  exerted  great  influence,  was  claimed 
by  the  Jews  to  be  inspired,  was  in  universal  juse 
among  Jthem  in  Qirist's  day,  is  continually  quoted 
by  the  New  Testament  writers  and  by  the  Greek 
Fathers,  was  translated  instead  of  the  Hebrew  into 
Latin,  and  is  the  authority  in  the  Greek  Church  to- 
day. When  the  Christians  in  debate  quoted  it 
against  their  Jewish  adversaries,  the  latter  awoke 
to  the  fact  that  their  own  regard  for  it  was  ex- 
cessive, and  therefore  abandoned  it  and  returned 
to  the  study  and  use  of  the  original  Hebrew  text. 
(SchaflF,  Bib.  Diet.)  (See  Alexandria;  Bible; 
Versions  of  the  Scripture.) 

SEPT7LCHEB  (s«p'iil-ker),  (Heb.  *^1?,  ^w 
deesA\  heaped  up),  a  place  of  burial. 

The  Hebrews  were  always  very  careful  about 
the  burial  of  their  dead.  Many  of  their  sepulchers 
were  hewn  in  rocks,  as  that  bought  by  Abraham 
for  the  burying  of  Sarah  (Gen.  xxiii  14,  6)  ;  those 
of  the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel;  and  that  in 
which  our   Savior   was  laid  on  Mount  Calvary. 


SERAH 


1563 


SERED 


Sometimes  their  graves  were  dug  in  the  ground; 
and  commonly  without  their  towns. 

Figurative.  Hypocrites  are  likened  to  whited 
sepulchers,  and  also  to  graves  which  appear  not; 
while  they  have  an  outward  show  of  holiness, 
their  heart  and  secret  practice  are  full  of  corrup- 
tion (Matt.  xxiii:27;  Luke  xi:44).  Sinners' 
throats  are  an  open  sepulcher;  being  full  of  cor- 
rupt works,  that  defile  and  infect  others  (Rom. 
iii:i3).  The  Chaldaeans'  quiver  was  an  open  sep- 
ulcher; their  arrows  spread  havoc  and  death  all 
around  them  (Jer.  v:i6). 

SEBAH  (se'rah),  (Heb.  "^^,  seh'rakh,  abund- 
ance). A  daughter  of  Asher,  named  among  those 
who  went  down  into  Egypt  (Gen.  xlvi:i7;  Num. 
xxvi:46;  i  Chron.  vii:3o). 

SEBAIAH  (se-ra'y4).  (Heb.  ^X)^,  ser-awyaw', 

Jah  has  prevailed ;  warrior  of  Jehovah).    There  are 
several  persons  of  this  name  m  Scripture. 

1.  The  scribe  or  secretary  of  David  (2  Sam. 
viii:i7),  B.  C.  about  1015.  This  person's  name  is 
in  other  places  corrupted  into  Sheva  (2  Sam.  xx  ; 
25),  Shxsha  (I  Kings  iv:3),  and  Shavsha  (i 
Chron.  xviii:i6). 

2.  The  son  of  Azariah,  the  high-priest  at  the 
time  that  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  Chaldaeans. 
He  was  sent  prisoner  to  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Rib- 
lah,  who  put  him  to  death  (2  Kings  xxv:i8;  i 
Chron.  vi:i4;  Jer.  Hi  124;  Ezra  vii:i),  B.  C.  588. 

3.  The  son  of  Azriel,  one  of  the  persons  charged 
with  the  apprehension  of  Jeremiah  and  Baruch 
(Jer.  xxxvi:26),  B.  C.  606. 

4.  The  son  of  Neriah,  who  held  a  high  office  in 
the  court  of  King  Zedekiah,  the  nature  of  which 
is  somewhat  uncertain  (Jer.  li:59,  61).  In  the 
Auth.  Vers,  we  have,  This  Seraiah  was  a  (juict 
prince/  where  the  words  rendered  'quiet  prmce' 
according  to  Kimchi  means  *a  chamberlain/  or 
one  who  attended  the  king  when  he  retired  to 
rest;  but  better,  perhaps,  according  to  Gesenius, 
'chief  of  the  quarters'  for  the  king  and  his  army, 
that  is  quarter-master-general.  This  Seraiah  was 
sent  by  Zedekiah  on  an  embassy  to  Babylon,  prob- 
ably to  render  his  submission  to  that  monarch, 
about  seven  years  before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  (B. 
C.  594).  He  was  charged  by  Jeremiah  to  com- 
municate to  the  Jews  already  in  exile  a  book,  in 
which  the  prophet  had  written  out  his  prediction 
of  all  the  evil  that  should  come  upon  Babylon. 
It  is  not  stated  how  Seraiah  acquitted  himself  of 
his  task;  but  that  he  accepted  it  at  all,  shows  such 
respect  for  the  prophet  as  may  allow  us  to  con- 
clude that  he  would  not  neglect  the  duty  which 
it  imposed. 

6.  The  son  of  Tanhumeth,  an  accomplice  of  Ish- 
mael  in  the  conspiracy  against  Gedaliah  (2  Kings 
XXV  :23;  Jer.  xl:8),  B.  C.  587. 

6.  The  son  of  Asiel,  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  (i 
Chron.  iv:35),  B.  C.  before  720. 

7.  A  priest,  and  son  of  Hilkiah,  who  returned 
from  the  Captivity  (Ezra  ii:2;  Neh.  x:2;  xi:ii; 
xii:i,  12),  B.  C.  536.  He  is  called  Azariah  (Neh. 
vii:7). 

8.  The  son  of  Kenaz,  and  father  of  Joab  (1 
Chron.  iv:i3.  14),  B.  C.  about  1560. 

SEBAFHUC  (sSr'4-frm)   or  SEAAFHS,  the 

plural  of  the  Heb.  *T5^,  saw-rawf^  « burning*  or 

•fiery*;  Sept.  ^pa<f>lii,  in  Is.  vi:2-6. 

(1)  Name.  The  meaning  of  the  word  "seraph" 
is  extremely  doubtful;  the  only  word  which  re- 
sembles it  in  the  current  Hebrew  is  saw-raf,  "to 
bum/'  whence  the  idea  of  brilliancy  has  been  ex- 
tracted. Such  a  sense  would  harmonize  with  other 
descriptions  of  celestial  bemgs  (e.  g.  Ezek.  i:i3; 

•a 


Matt.  xxviii:3;  but  it  is  objected  that  the  He^ 
brew  term  never  bears  this  secondary  sense.  Ge- 
senius (Thes.  p.  1341)  connects  it  with  an  Arabic 
term  signifying  htgh  or  exalted;  and  this  may 
be  regarded  as  the  generally  received  etymology; 
but  the  absence  of  any  cognate  Hebrew  term  is 
certainly  worthy  of  remark.  The  similarity  be- 
tween the  names  Seraphim  and  Sarapis,  led  Hit- 
zig  (in  Is.  vi:2)  to  identify  the  two,  and  to  give 
to  the  former  the  figure  of  a  winged  serpent.  But 
Sarapis  was  unknown  in  the  Egyptian  Pantheon 
until  the  tin^e  of  Ptolemy  Soter  (Wilkinson's 
Arte.  Eg.  iv.  360,^^.)  ;  and,  even  had  it  been  other- 
wise, we  can  hardly  conceive  that  the  Hebrews 
would  have  borrowed  their  imagery  from  such  a 
source: 

(2)  Thev  Were  Celestial  Beings,  described  as 
an  order  of  angels  or  ministers  of  God,  who  stand 
around  his  throne,  having  each  six  wines,  and 
also  hands  and  feet,  and  praising  God  with  their 
voices.  They  were  therefore  of  human  form,  and 
like  the  Cherubim,  furnished  with  wings  as  the 
swift  messengers  of  God.  As  the  Seraphim  are 
nowhere  else  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  our  concep- 
tions of  their  appearance  must  be  restricted  to 
the  above  particulars,  aided  by  such  uncertain 
light  as  etymology  and  analogy  will  supply.  We 
may  observe  that  the  idea  of  a  winged  human  fig- 
ure was  not  peculiar  to  the  Hebrews;  among  the 
sculptures  found  at  Mourghaub  in  Persia,  we 
meet  with  a  representation  of  a  man  with  two 
pairs  of  wings,  springing  from  the  shoulders,  and 
extending,  the  one  pai«*  upwards,  the  other  down- 
wards, so  as  to  admit  of  covering  the  head  and  the 
feet  (Vaux's  Nin.  and  Persep,  p.  322).  The  wings 
in  this  instance  imply  deification;  for  speed  and 
ease  of  motion  stand,  in  man's  imagination,  among 
the  most  prominent  tokens  of  Divinity. 

(3)  Occupation.  There  is  much  symbolical 
force  and  propriety  in  the  attitude  in  which  the 
Seraphim  are  described  as  standing;  while  two 
of  their  wings  were  kept  ready  for  instant  flight 
in  the  service  of  God,  with  two  others  they  hid 
their  face,  to  express  their  unworthiness  to  look 
upon  the  divine  Majesty  (comp.  Exod.  iii:6),  and 
with  two  others  they  covered  their  feet,  or  the 
whole  of  the  lower  part  of  their  bodies — a  prac- 
tice which  still  prevails  in  the  East  when  persons 
appear  in  a  monarch's  presence.  Their  occupa- 
tion was  twofold — to  celebrate  the  praises  of  Jeho- 
vah's holiness  and  power  (verse  3),  and  to  act  as 
the  medium  of  communication  between  heaven 
and  earth  (verse  6).  From  their  antiphonal 
chant  ("one  cried  unto  another")  we  may  con- 
ceive them  to  have  been  ranged  in  opposite  rows 
on  each  side  of  the  throne. 

(4)  Belation  to  Cherubim.  Some  have  in- 
deed identified  the  cherubim  and  seraphim  as 
the  same  beings,  but  under  names  descriptive  of 
different  qualities;  seraphim  denoting  the  burn- 
ing and  dazzling  appearance  of  the  beings  else- 
where described  as  cherubim.  It  would  be  diffi- 
cult either  to  prove  or  disprove  this;  but  there 
are  differences  between  the  cherubim  of  Ezekiel, 
and  the  seraphim  of  Isaiah,  which  it  docs  not  ap- 
pear easy  to  reconcile.  The  'living  creatures'  of 
the  former  prophet  had  four  wing^s ;  the  'seraphim' 
of  the  latter  six :  and  while  the  cherubim  had  four 
faces,  the  seraphim  had  but  one  (comp.  Is.  vi:2, 
3;  Ezek.  i:5-i2).  If  the  figures  were  m  all  cases 
purely  symbolical,  the  difference  does  not  signify; 
and  whether  they  were  so,  or  not.  must  be  deter- 
mined by  the  considerations  which  have  been  in- 
dicated under  Cherub;  Cherubim  (which  see). 

SSBED  (se'red),  (Heb.  *'^9,  seh*red,  fear;  Sept 
Sfp^d,  se-red\  in  Gen.;  Y,ap4^,  sa-red' ,  in  Num.), 


SERGEANTS 


1554 


SERPENT 


Zebulun's  firstborn  son*  (Gen.  xlvi:i4;  Num. 
xxvi:26),  and  head  of  the  family  called  Sardites 
(Num.  xxvi:26).    (B.  C.  about  1864). 

SERGEANTS  (sar'jVnts),  (Gr.  ^fido'iKOi,  hrab- 
doo'khos,  rod-holder,  Acts  xvi:35);  properly  Ro- 
man lictors,  public  servants  who  bore  a  bundle  of 
rods  before  the  magistrates  of  cities  and  colonies 
as  insignia  of  their  office,  and  who  executed  the 
sentences  which  they  pronounced.  (Smith,  Diet, 
of  Class,  Ant.) 

SEBGIT7S  PAXTLT7S  (ser'ji-us  pau'lus),  (Gr. 
14pyu>s  naCXo5,  Sergius  Paulus),  a  Roman  proconsul 
in  command  at  Cyprus,  who  was  converted  by  the 
preaching  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  (Acts  xiii:7). 
A.  D.  44. 

The  title  given  to  this  functionary  exhibits  one 
of  those  minute  accuracies  which,  apart  from  its 
inspiration,  would  substantiate  the  sacred  book  as 
a  genuine  and  contemporary  record.  Cyprus  was 
originally  a  prcetorian  province  (ffrparriyuci/i),  and 
not  proconsular;  but  it  was  left  by  Augustus  un- 
der the  Senate,  and  hence  was  governed  by  a  pro- 
consul  (di^jJraTOf),  as  stated  by  the  Evangelist 
(Acts  xiii:6,  8,  12;  Dion  Cass,  page  523;  Kuin- 
oel,  on  Acts  xiii:7).  Sergius  is  described  by  the 
Evangelist  as  a  *discreet'  or  ^intelligent*  man;  by 
which  we  are  probably  to  understand  that  he  was 
a  man  of  large  and  liberal  views,  and  of  an  in- 
quiring turn  of  mind.  Hence  he  had  entertained 
Elymas,  and  hence  also  he  bec.ame  curious  to 
hear  the  new  doctrine  which  the  apostle  brought 
to  the  island.  Nothing  of  his  history  subsequent 
to  his  conversion  is  known  from  Scripture. 

SERMON  ON  THE  MOUNT  (ser'mun  dn  the 
mount). 

The  name  usually  given  to  a  discourse  deliv- 
ered by  Jesus  to  his  disciples  and  a  multitude 
on  a  mountain  near  (Tapernaum,  A.  D.  perhaps  28 
(Matt,  chapters  v-vii;  Luke  vi:20,  sqi).  It  was 
probably  delivered  after  the  choice  of  the  twelve 
(Edersheim.  Life  aud  Times  of  Jesus,  i.  524).  He 
groups  together  Luke  vi:i2,  13,  17-19;  comp.  with 
Mark  iii:i3-i5,  and  Matt.  v:i,  2). 

(1)  The  Discourse  Itself.  "It  is  the  same  as 
that  found  in  Luke  vi  120-49;  for  although  dif- 
fering in  respect  of  its  contents,  style,  and  ar- 
rangement from  that  of  Matthew,  yet,  judging 
from  its  characteristic  introduction  and  close,  its 
manifold  and  essential  identity  as  regards  the  sub- 
ject-matter, as  well  as  from  its  mentioning  the 
circumstance  that  immediately  after  Jesus  cured 
the  sick  servant  in  Capernaum  (Luke  vii:i,  sq.), 
it  is  clear  that  Matthew  and  Luke  do  not  record 
two  different  discourses"  (Meyer,  Com.). 

(2)  Plan  of  the  Sermon.  Whedon  (Com.,  in 
loc.)  suggests  the  following  plan: 

(i)  Christian  piety,  as  distinguished  from  irre- 
ligion  (Matt.  v:3-i6).  Nine  benedictions  upon 
humility,  penitence,  meekness,  aspirations  after 
goodness,  mercy,  purity,  peacemaking,  and  holy 
suffering  for  righteousness'  sake  (verses  3-12). 
Woes  pronounced  upon  contrary  traits  (Luke  vi: 
24-26).  Active  duties  enjoined  upon  the  blessed 
ones  (Matt,  v:  13-16). 

(2)  Christian  piety,  as  distinguished  from  Juda- 
ism (Matt.  v:i7-vi:i8).  The  completion  of  Pure 
Judaism  (v:i7-2o).  Distinguished  from  degen- 
erate Judaism,  in  regard  to  angry  passions,  sexual 
purity,  oaths,  conciliation,  moral  love,  sincerity  in 
alms,  prayer,  and  fasting  (y:20,  vi:i8). 

(3)  Christianity,  as  distinguished  from  Genttl- 
ism  (Matt.  vi:i9,  vii:27).  (a)  Supreme  trust  in 
God  our  provident  Father  (vi:i9-34).  The  earth- 
treasures  must  not  come  into  competition  with 
the  heavenly  treasures  (vi  :i9-23).  The  world-god 
must  not  stand  in  competition  with  our  heavenly 


Father  (verses  24-34).  (b)  Supreme  reverence 
for  God  as  our  adjudging  Father  (vii:i-27). 
Usurp  not  his  place  as  Judge  (verses  1-6).  Con- 
fide in  his  more  than  earthly  parentage  (verses 
(7-12).  Enter  the  narrow  way  to  him,  avoiding 
false  guides  (verses  13-20).  Profession  no  assur- 
ance before  his  judgment  bar  (verses  21-23). 
(c)  We  stand  or  fall  in  judgment  only  by  obe- 
dience to  Christ's  words  (verses  24-27). 

SERPENT  (ser'p^it),  (Heb.  ^W,  naw-khawsh'. 
a  snake). 

(1)  Two  Classes.  Serpents  may  be  divided 
generally  into  two  very  distinct  sections, — ^the  first 
embracing  all  those  that  are  provided  with  mova- 
ble tubular  fangs  and  poison  bags  in  the  upper 
jaw;  all  regarded  as  ovoviviparous,  and  called  by 
contraction  vipers;  they  constitute  not  quite  one- 
fifth  of  the  species  hitherto  noticed  by  naturalists. 
The  second  section,  much  more  numerous,  is  the 
colubrine,  not  so  armed,  but  not  therefore  always 
entirely  innocuous,  since  there  may  be  in  some 
cases  venomous  secretions  capable  of  penetrating 
into  the  wounds  made  by  their  fixed  teeth,  which 
in  all  serpents  are  single  points,  and  in  some 
species  increase  in  size  as  they  stand  back  in  the 
jaws.  The  greater  part,  if  not  all,  of  the  innocu- 
ous species  are  oviparous,  including  the  largest 
or  giant  snakes,  and  the  pelamis  and  hydrophis, 
or  water  serpents,  among  which  several  are  ven- 
omous. 

Scriptural  evidence  attests  the  serpent's  influ- 
ence on  the  early  destinies  of  mankind;  and  this 
fact  may  be  traced  in  the  history,  the  legends,  and 
creeds  of  most  ancient  nations.  It  is  far  from 
being  obliterated  at  this  day  among  the  pagan, 
barbarian,  and  savage  tribes  of  both  continents, 
where  the  most  virulent  and  dangerous  animals 
of  the  viviparous  class  are  not  uncommonly 
adored,  but  more  generally  respected,  from  mo- 
tives originating  in  fear ;  and  others  of  the  ovipa- 
rous race  are  suffered  to  abide  in  human  dwell- 
ings, and  are  often  supplied  with  food,  from  causes 
not  easily  determined,  excepting  that  the  serpent 
is  ever  considered  to  be  possessed  of  some  myste- 
rious superhuman  knowledge  or  power.  (See 
Serpent  Worship.) 

(2)  "Winged  Serpents/'  The  supposed  winged 
serpent  which  appears  to  be  alluded  to  in  Hhe 
fiery  flying  serpent'  of  Isaiah  (xiv:29;  xxx:6), 
although  the  term  is  thought  by  some  to  be  a  fig- 
urative one  (see  Serpent,  Fiery),  seems,  as  well 
as  the  'adder,*  to  have  been  probably  one  of  the 
more  eastern  species  or  varieties,  which  have  the 
faculty  of  actually  distending  the  hood,  as  if  they 
had  wings  at  the  side  of  the  head,  and  are  the 
same  as,  or  nearly  allied  to,  the  well-known  spec- 
tacle snake  of  India. 

(3)  The  Leffah,  though  little  more  than  a  foot 
long,  regarded  by  Shaw  at  least  as  the  most  for- 
midable serpent  of  Northern  Africa,  may  be  the 
Ephoeh,  Arabic  Epha,  and  Persian  Mar-tefy;  but 
as  there  is  some  difference  in  dimensions  and 
markings,  as  well  as  a  still  greater  extent  of  region 
assigned  to  these,  more  than  one  species  of  viper 
is  most  likely  included  in  the  above  names.  But 
that  the  Ephoch  is  a  name  of  most  ancient  date 
is  plain  from  its  being  employed  in  Job  xx  :i6  and 
Is.  XXX :6;  while  under  the  form  of  'viper,'. it  oc- 
curs in  the  New  Testament  (Matt.  Hi  7;  xii:34; 
xxiii:33;  Luke  iii:7;  and  Acts  xxviii:3). 

(4)  Petlien  (Deut.  xxxii:33;  Job  xx:i4,  16; 
Ps.  lviii:4;  xci:i3;  Is.  xi:8)  is  more  properly 
the  Baetan  of  Forskal ;  the  Coluber  (vipera)  Lebe- 
Una  of  Linn,  and  by  him  characterized  as  one  foot 
in  length,  the  body  spotted  with  black  and  white, 
ind  oviparous  (?),  tnough  excessively  poisonous. 


SERPENT,  BRAZEN 


lfi55 


SERPENT  WORSHIP 


This  is  usually  regarded  as  the  'asp'  of  the  an- 
cients, and  the  deaf  adder  of  Ps.  Iviii  :4,  5.  This  is 
uncertain;  and  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  so- 
called  'deaf  adder'  is  not  without  hearing,  but  is 
only  not  obedient  to  the  musical  notes  of  the  ser- 
pent charmers. 

(5)  Tzimmaon  (Deut.  viiiiis)  appears  to  be 
the  'Drought*  of  some  versions,  so  called  because 
of  the  intolerable  thirst  occasioned  by  its  bite.  If 
this  translation  be  correct,  it  will  form  in  modern 
nomenclature  one  of  the  genus  Hurria,  and  sub- 
genus Dipsas  or  Bongarus.  But  no  species  of  this 
division  of  snakes  has  yet  been  found  in  Western 
Asia. 

(6)  Anotlieir  Serpent  mentioned  in  Scripture 
is  the  tsiphoni,  translated  'cockatrice'  in  Prov. 
xxiii:32,  and  Is.  xi:8.  This  is  an  indefinite  Eng- 
lish name,  which  belongs  to  no  identified  serpent, 
and  now  appears  only  in  the  works  of  ancient 
compilers  and  heralds,  where  it  is  figured  with  a 
crest,  though  there  is  no  really  crested  or  frilled 
species  known  to  exist  in  the  whole  Ophidian  or- 
der. There  are,  however,  two  very  distinct  species 
of  horned  serpents  in  Egypt  and  Northern  Af- 
rica, probably  extending  to  Syria  and  Arabia. 
They  are  of  different  genera ;  for  the  Cerastes, 
supposed  to  be 

(7)  The  Shef-ee-fone'  (F?^  of  the  Bible  is  a 

viper  with  two  scales  on  the  head,  one  above  each 
eye,  standing  erect  somewhat  in  the  form  of  horns. 
This  is  a  dangerous  species,  usually  burrowing  in 
sand  near  the  holes  ot  jerboas,  and  occasionally  in 
the  cattle  paths ;  for  there  are  now  few  or  no  ruts 
of  cart  wheels,  whereas  it  is  related  they  used  to 
conceal  themselves  to  assault  unwary  passers.  It 
is  still  common  in  Egypt  and  Arabia. 

Figurative,  (i)  Satan  seduced  our  first  par- 
ents, and  for  that,  as  well  as  his  craft,  malice, 
and  ruinous  influence,  is  called  the  old  serpent 
(Gen.  iii;  Rev.  xx:2).  (2)  Saints  are  charged  to 
be  wise  as  serpents;  they  are  to  put  off  their  old 
man,  and  vain  conversation;  are  to  be  daily  re- 
newed in  the  spirit  of  their  minds  (Matt.  x:i6). 

(3)  The  malice  of  the  wicked  is  compared  to  the 
"poison  of  the  serpent"  (Ps.  Iviii  14;  comp.  cxl:3). 

(4)  The  poisonous  bite  of  the  serpent  is  a  figure 
of  the  baneful  influence  of  wine  (Prov.  xxiii:3i, 
32).  (5)  Unexpected  evil  is  like  the  bite  of  a 
serpent  lurking  in  a  wall  (Eccles.  x:8),  and  a 
"babbler"  like  an  uncharmed  serpent,  which  bites 
(x:ii).  (6)  Enemies  like  the  Chaldaeans,  who 
harass  and  destroy,  are  compared  to  serpents  (Is. 
xiv:29;  Jer.  viii:i7).  (7)  The  voice  of  discom- 
fited Egypt  is  likened  to  serpents  roused  from 
their  lair  by  the  woodman  (Jer.  xlvi:22).  Ser- 
pents and  scorpions  are  put  for  things  extremely 
dangerous  (Luke  xrip).  King  Uzziah  and  Hez- 
ekiah  are  likened  to  serpents,  because  they  terribly 
harassed  and  destroyed  the  Philistines  (Is.  xiv: 
29).  (8)  The  brazen  serpent  prefigured  Jesus  as 
assuming  the  likeness  of  sinful  flesh,  and  being 
lifted  up  on  the  cross,  and  in  the  gospel,  that  we, 
stung  by  sin,  looking  to  him  by  faith,  may  be- 
come whole  (Num.  xxi;  John  Hi:  14-16). 

SEBFENT,  BRAZEN  (ser'pent.  bra'z*n),  (Heb. 
n]j^}  ^n?,  naw'khawsh'  nekh-o' sheth,  serpent  of 

copper  (Num.  xxiri-g;  2  Kings  xviii:4). 

As  a  punishment  for  the  murmuring  of  the  Is- 
raelites, God  sent  into  the  midst  of  the  camp  a 
venomous  serpent,  called  "fiery,"  probably  from 
the  burning  which  followed  its  deadly  bite.  There 
are  many  species  of  such  dangerous  serpents  still 
found  in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai,  the  various 
kinds  of  which,  or  perhaps  some  particular  spe- 
cies, may  here  be  intended.    The  destruction  of 


life  was  fearful,  and  the  people  entreated  Moses 
to  intercede  for  their  deliverance.  To  test  the 
sincerity  of  their  penitence,  Moses  was  com- 
manded to  make  a  serpent  of  brass  resembling 
the  serpents  which  were  among  them,  and  put  it 
upon  a  pole,  that  it  might  be  seen  from  all  parts 
of  the  camp,  and  then  whoever  was  bitten  should 
be  healed  by  simply  looking  at  the  brazen  figure ; 
and  it  was  accordingly  done,  and  all  the  promised 
effects  followed.  This  passage  of  history  is  al- 
luded to  by  our  Savior  as  an  illustration  of  the 
work  he  came  to  do  (John  iii:i4,  15). 

The  brazen  serpent  was  destroyed  hy  Hezekiah 
about  800  years  after,  because  it  was  idolatrously 
worshiped  (2  Kings  xviii:4). 

SEBFENT  OHABMINa  (ser'pent  ch^rm'Ing), 

the  art  of  taming  serpents  (Heb.  ^?X  lakh' ash,  a 

whisper,  Jer.  viii:i7;  Eccles.  x:ii)  while  those  who 
practiced  the  art  were  }snovrmsfnen'akh'ash''eem* 

(Heb.  D^'^OW). 

There  is  a  remarkable  power  which  has  long 
been  exercised  by  certain  people  in  the  East  over 
poisonous  serpents.  The  art  is  most  distinctly 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  allusion  is  made  to  it 
by  James  (iii  17).  The  usual  species  operated  upon, 
both  in  Africa  and  in  India,  are  the  hooded 
snakes  (Naja  tripudians  and  Naja  haje)  and  the 
horned  Cerastes. 

SEBFENT,    FIEBY  (ser'pent,  fier-j^),    (Heb. 

n^?,  Mw-rao/*,  burning.  Num.  xxi:6;  Deut.  viii: 

15;  Is.  xiv .'29;  XXX :6). 

The  phrase  in  Isaiah  may  be  a  figurative  ex- 
pression for  the  swiftly  darting  sand  serpents  of 
Eastern  deserts,  or  a  mere  poetic  expression,  like 
the  entirely  fabulous  dragon  or  winged  serpent  of 
modern  literature. 

SEBPENT  WOBSHIP.  The  subject  of 
serpent  worship  is  one  of  the  most  truly  fascinat- 
ing that  ever  engages  the  attention  of  anthro- 
pologists. However  much  has  been  written  in 
relation  to  it,  we  are  still  only  just  awakening  to 
the  necessity  of  understanding  the  origin  of  this 
superstition  as  well  as  that  of  tree  worship. 

(1)  Symbol  of  Deities.  The  student  of 
mythology  knows  that  certain  ideas  were  asso- 
ciated by  the  peoples  of  antiquity  with  thie  serpent, 
and  that  it  was  the  favorite  symbol  of  particular 
deities;  but  why  that  animal  was  chosen  for  this 
purpose  is  yet  uncertain. 

It  is  believed  that  serpent  worship  was  not 
adopted  by  any  nation  belonging  to  the  Semitic  or 
Aryan  stock;  the  serpent  worship  of  India  and 
Greece  originating  with  older  peoples.  How- 
ever this  belief  may  be  accepted  the  superstition 
was  certainly  not  unknown  to  either  Aryans  or 
Semites. 

The  brazen  serpent  of  the  Hebrew  Exodus  was 
destroyed  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  owing  to  the 
idolatry  to  which  it  gave  rise. 

(2)  Widely  Spread  Superstition.  In  the 
mythology  of  the  Chaldaeans,  from  whom  the  As- 
syrians seem  to  have  sprung,  the  serpent  occupied 
a  most  important  position.  Among  the  allied 
Phoenicians  and  Egyptians  it  was  one  of  the  most 
divine  symbols. 

In  Greece,  Hercules  was  said  "to  have  been  the 
progenitor  of  the  whole  race  of  serpent-worship- 
ing Scythians,  through  his  intercourse  with  the 
serpent  Echidna,;"  and  when  Minerva  planted  the 
sacred  olive  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  she 
placed  it  under  the  care  of  the  serpent-deity 
Erechthonios. 

As  to  the  Latins,  Mr.  Ferguson  (to  whom  we 
are  indebted  for  a  large  array  of  facts)  remarks 


SERPENT  WORSHIP 


1566 


SERPENT  WORSHIP 


that  "Ovid's  'Metamorphosed  are  full  of  passages 
referring  to  the  important  part  which  the  serpent 
performed  in  all  the  traditions  of  classic  my- 
thology." 

The  superstitions  of  that  animal  are  supposed 
not  to  have  existed  among  the  ancient  Gauls  and 
Germans;  but  this  is  extremely  improbable,  con- 
sidering that  it  appears  to  have  been  known  to  the 
British  Celts  and  to  the  Gothic  inhabitants  of 
Scandinavia.  In  eastern  Europe  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  serpent  superstition  was  anciently 
prevalent,  and  Mr.  Ferguson  refers  to  evidence 
proving  that  "both  trees  and  serpents  were  wor- 
shiped by  the  peasantry  in  Esthonia  and  Finland 
within  the  limits  of  the  century  just  past,  and  even 
with  all  the  characteristics  possessed  by  the  old 
faith  when  we  first  became  acquainted  with  it" 

The  seri>cnt  entered  largely  into  the  mythology 
of  the  Ancient  Persians,  as  it  does  into  that  of  the 
Hindus.  In  India  it  is  associated  with  both  Siva- 
ism  and  Vishnuism,  although  its  actual  worship 
perhaps  belonged  rather  to  the  aboriginal  tribes 
among  whom  Buddhism  is  thought  by  recent 
writers  to  have  originated. 

The  modem  home  of  the  superstition,  however, 
is  Western  Africa,  where  the  serpent  is  not  mere- 
ly considered  sacred,  but  is  actually  worshiped  as 
divine.  On  the  other  side  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
traces  of  the  same  superstition  are  met  among  the 
peoples  of  the  Indian  Islands  and  of  Polynesia, 
and  also  in  China. 

(8)  Symbolio  Sculpture  and  Eartbmarks, 
The  evidences  of  serpent  worship  on  the  Ameri- 
can continent  have  long  engaged  the  attention  of 
archaeologists,  who  have  found  it  to  be  almost  uni- 
versal, under  one  form  or  another  among  abor- 
iginal tribes.  That  animal  was  sculptured  on  the 
temples  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  its  form  is  said 
by  Mr.  Squier  to  be  of  frequent  occurrence  among 
the  mounds  of  Wisconsin. 

The  most  remarkable  of  the  symbolic  earth- 
works of  North  America  is  the  great  serpent 
mound  of  Adams  county,  Ohio,  the  convolutions 
of  which  extend  to  a  length  of  i,ooo  feet.  At  the 
Edinburg  meeting  of  the  British  Association  in 
1871,  Mr.  Phen6  gave  an  account  of  his  discovery 
in  Argyleshire  of  a  similar  mound  several  hun- 
dred feet  long,  and  about  fifteen  feet  high  by  thir- 
ty feet  broad,  tapering  gradually  to  the  tail,  the 
head  being  surmounted  by  a  circular  cairn,  which 
he  supposes  to  answer  to  tlie  solar  disc  above 
the  head  of  the  Egyptian  Uraeus,  the  posi- 
tion of  which,  with  the  head  erect,  answers  to  the 
form  of  the  Oban  serpent-mound.  This  discov- 
ery is  of  great  interest,  and  its  author  is  probably 
justified  m  assuming  that  the  mound  was  con- 
nected with  serpent  worship. 

(4)  Principal  Characteristica.  The  chief 
characteristics  of  the  serpent  throughout  the  East 
in  all  ages  seems  to  have  been  their  supposed 
power  over  the  wind  and  rain. 

Among  the  Chinese,  the  dragon  is  regarded  as 
the  giver  of  rain,  and  in  time  of  drought,  offerings 
are  made  to  it.  In  the  spring;  and  fall  of  the  year 
it  is  one  of  the  objects  worshiped,  by  command  of 
the  Emperor,  by  certain  mandarins. 

Another  equally  strong  belief  is  the  power  of 
the  serpent  in  its  connection  with  health.  Mr.  Fer- 
guson says  that,  when  we  first  meet  with  serpent 
worship,  either  in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai,  the 
groves  of  Epidaurus,  or  in  the  Sarmattan  huts, 
the  serpent  is  always  the  agatho-darmon,  the 
bringer  of  health  and  good  fortune. 

(5)  Attributea.  One  of  the  best-known  at- 
tributes of  the  serpent  is  wisdom. 

The  Hebrew  account  of  the  fall  speaks  of  that 
animal  as  the  most  subtile  of  the  oeasts  of  the 


field;  and  the  founder  of  Christianity  tells  his 
disciples  to  be  "as  wise  as  serpents,"  though  "as 
harmless  as  doves."  Thus  we  see  that  the  serpent 
was  anciently  the  symbol  of  wisdom,  life,  and 
healing,  and  also  that  it  was  thought  to  have 
power  over  the  wind  and  rain.  This  last  attribute 
is  easily  understood  when  the  importance  of  rain 
in  the  East  is  considered. 

(6)  Daoeaaed  Anceatora.  Among  various  Afri- 
can tribes  this  animal  is  viewed  with  great  venera- 
tion, under  the  belief  that  it  is  the  re-embodiment 
of  a  deceased  ancestor.  This  notion  is  also  prev- 
alent amon^  the  Hindus,  who,  like  the  Kafirs, 
will  never  kill  a  serpent,  although  it  is  usually  re- 
garded more  with  dislike  than  veneration.  North 
American  Indians  entertain  a  superstitious  regard 
for  the  rattlesnake. 

Though  always  avoiding  they  never  destroy  it, 
lest  "the  spirit  of  the  reptile  should  excite  its 
kindred  to  revenge."  Heckwelder  relates  that  the 
Linni  Linape  called  the  rattlesnake  'grandfather,' 
and  would  on  no  account  allow  it  to  be  destrc^ed. 

The  most  curious  notion,  however,  is  that  of  the 
Mexicans,  who  always  represented  the  first  wom- 
an, whose  name  was  translated  by  the  old  Span- 
ish writers  "the  woman  of  our  flesh,"  as  accom- 
panied by  a  great  male  serpent. 

(7)  The  Serpent  Sun.    The  serpent  is  the  sun- 

fod  Tonacatlcoats,  the  principal  deity  of  the 
lexican  Pantheon,  and  his  female  companion,  the 
foddess  mother  of  mankind,  has  the  title  China 
^ohuatt,  which  signifies  "the  woman  of  the  ser- 
pent." 

With  the  Peruvians,  also,  the  principal  deity 
was  the  serpent  sun,  whose  wife,  the  female  ser- 
pent, gave  birth  to  a  boy  and  a  girl,  from  whom 
all  mankind  were  said  to  be  descended. 

(8)  Summary.  The  facts  cited  prove  that  the 
serpent  superstition  is  intimately  connected  with 
ancestor  worship,  probably  originatin|^  among  un- 
cultured tribes,  who,  struck  by  the  noiseless  move- 
ment and  the  activity  of  the  serpent,  combined 
with  its  peculiar  gaze,  and  power  of  casting  its 
skin,  viewed  it  as  a  spirit  embodiment.  As  such, 
it  would  be  supposed  to  have  the  superior  wisdom 
and  power  ascribed  to  the  denizens  of  the  invisi- 
ble world,  and  from  this  would  originate  also  the 
ascription  to  it  of  the  power  over  life  and  health, 
and  over  the  moisture  on  which  those  benefits  are 
dependent.  These  few  facts  far  from  exhaust  the 
subject,  but  they  appear  to  justify  the  following 
conclusions : 

(i)  The  serpent  has  been  viewed  with  awe  or 
veneration  from  primeval  times,  and  almost  uni- 
versally as  a  re-embodiment  of  a  deceased  human 
being,  and  as  such  there  were  ascribed  to  it  the 
attributes  of  life  and  wisdom,  and  the  power  of 
healing. 

(2)  The  idea  .of  a  simple  spirit  re-incarnation  of 
a  deceased  ancestor,  gave  rise  to  the  notion  that 
mankind  originally  sprang  from  a  serpent,  and  ul- 
timately to  a  legend  embodying  that  idea. 

(3)  This  legend  was  connected  with  nature, 
or  rather  sun,  worship;  and  the  sun  was,  there- 
fore, looked  upon  as  the  divine  serpent — father  of 
man  and  nature. 

(4)  Serpent  worship,  as  a  developed  religious 
system,  onginated  in  Central  Asia,  the  home  of 
tne  great  Scjrthic  stock,  from  whom  all  the  civil- 
ized races  of  the  historical  period  sprang.  {Ser- 
pent Worship,  C.  Staniland  Wade.) 

[Note— When  man  had  sinned  and  gone  away 
from  God,  his  first  instinct  seems  to  have  been 
adoration  for  the  things  of  the  universe.  Hence 
the  earliest  literature  of  the  Hindus  is  the  Veda, 
containing  their  hymns  of  praise  to  earth,  air  and 
sky— to  the  sun  and  stars.    The  worship  of  "the 


SERUG 


1667 


SEVEN 


host  of  heaven"  (Deut.  ivrig;  xvii:i3;  Job  nxxi: 
26,  27)  was  one  of  the  earliest  forms  of  idolatry. 
The  constellations  may  have  been  the  first  ob- 
jects which  received  the  adoration  of  fallen  man. 

The  serpent  as  the  prophecy  of  the  sin  power 
was  first  found  in  the  sky.  **By  his  spirit  he  hath 
garnished  the  heavens:  his  hand  hath  formed  the 
crooked  serpent"  (Job  xxvi.ia).    (See  Star.) 

Hence  men  who  began  by  worshiping  the  con- 
stellation were  soon  bringing  oblations  to  the 
reptiles  at  their  feet. 

There  is  another  constellation  which  is  a  glo- 
rious prophecy  of  redemption,  the  cross  which 
blazes  in  the  southern  sky.  It  has  been  drifting 
slowly  southward,  having  been  seen  in  the  horizon 
of  Jerusalem  about  the  time  of  the  crucifixion. 
This,  too,  with  other  constellations,  was  early 
seized  upon  as  an  object  of  veneration,  apd  all 
untoowing  of  the  great  Sacrifice  which  it  pre- 
figured, men  bowed  before  its  glory  in  the 
heavens  and  used  its  form  as  a  sacred  symbol 
upon  the  earth.  Although  it  has  been  thus  wrest- 
ed from  its  divine  mission,  it  was  ever  the  pro- 
phecy of  Calvary,  and  it  shall  show  forth  the 
story  of  redemption  through  the  ages  of  eternity. 

E.  A.  R.] 

SEBT7G  (sg'rug),  (Heb.  ^'»*^^,  ser-ao^,  shoot, 
tendril;  Sept.  and  New  Testament,  'Ltpo^x* struck), 
son  of  Reu,  and  father  of  Nahor  the  grandfather  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xi:2o;  i  Chron.  1:20),  B  C.2352- 

2122. 

He  was  130  years  oM  at  the  birth  of  Nahor, 
and  died  at  the  age  of  330.  The  name  occurs  in 
the  genealogy  of  Christ  (Luke  iii  :35).  The  Jew- 
ish traditions  affirm  that  Serug  was  the  first  of 
his  line  who  fell  into  idolatry ;  and  this  seems  to 
be  sanctioned  by,  and  is  probably  built  upon,  the 
charge  of  idolatry  brought  against  Terah  and  the 
fathers  beyond  the  Euphrates  in  Josh,  xxiv  :2. 

SEBVANT  (serv'ant),  (Philem.  16).  The  word 
so  rendered  is  generally  to  be  interpreted  "bond- 
man" or  "slave."  But  there  were  also  servants  in 
our  sense  of  the  term;  thus,  Joshua  was  servant 
to  Moses,  Elisha  to  Elijah,  and  Elisha  himself 
had  a  servant,  (Jehazi.  There  are  other  instances. 
(See  Slave.) 

SEBVANT  OF  JEHOVAH  (serv'ant,  j^hS-vi), 

(Heb.  "^5?  '"^J'T,  yeh'ho-vaw'  eh' bed;  Gr.  «ovXof  rw 

Kvplov,  ddo'/os  too  koo-ree*oo,  "servant  of  the  Lord," 
"my  servant,"  etc.),  a  term  used  figuratively  in 
several  senses: 

1.  A  worshiper  of  (5od  (Neh.  i  :io),  and  Dan- 
iel in  particular  (Dan.  vi:2o);  pious  persons,  as 
Abraham  (Ps.  cv:6,  42),  Joshua  (Josh,  xxiv  129; 
Judg.  ii:8),  and  many  others. 

2.  A  minister  or  ambassador  of  God  (Is.  xlix: 
6),  c.  g.,  Nebuchadnezzar,  whom  God  used  to 
chastise  his  people  (Jer.  xxvii:6;  xliii:io);  or 
some  favorite  servant,  as  the  angels  (Job  iv:i8), 
prophets  (Ezra  ix:ii;  Jer.  vii:25:  Dan.  ix:6; 
Amos  iii  7)  ;  and  especially  Moses  (Deut.  xxxiv : 
S;  Josh.  1:1,  13,  15;  Ps.  cv:26).  Paul  and  other 
Apostles  call  themselves  the  "servants  of  Jesus 
Cnirist"  and  "of  God"  (Rom.  i:i;  Col.  iv:i2; 
Tit.  i  :i ;  James  i  :i ;  2  Pet,  i  :i ;  Jude  i ;  Rev.i  :i). 

8.  The  Messiah  is  typified  as  the  servant  of  the 
Lord  (Is.  xlii:i;  lii:i3;  comp.  Matt.  xii:i8). 

4.  The  term  "servant"  is  also  applied  to  the 
relation  of  men  to  others :  as  Eliezer,  who  had  a 
position  in  Abraham's  household  something  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  a  prime  minister  at  court  (Gen.  xv: 
2;  xxiv  :2)  ;  Joshua,  in  relation  to  Moses  (Exod. 
xxxiii:ii)  ;  Gehazi,  in  relation  to  Elisha  (2  Kings 
vv:i2),  etc 


SEBVIOE  (servTs).  Several  Hebrew  and  Greek 

words:  Heb.  "^3?,  aw'had\  to  serve,  work;  ^'l^^ 

ser-awd't  stitching,  service;  ^5v,  shaw-rath',  to 

attend;  ^"^^yawdt  a  hand;   Gr.  dtcucoWa,  dee^k-on* 

^^'a^,  attendance;  XetTowp^fa,  li-toorg-ee* ah,  public 
function,  as  of  a  priest;  dovWw,  dool-yoo^o^  to  be  a 
slave;  y^oLrpebfa^  lat-ryoo'o,  to  minister. 

While  there  were  persons  employed  for  wages 
(see  Hireling),  the  servants  of  the  Israelites  con- 
sisted chiefly  of  slaves — men  and  maid  servants — 
held  as  property.  These  were  bought  from  for- 
eigners, although  they  could  not  be  sold  (Lev< 
XXV  :44-46)  ;  they  were  captives  taken  in  war,  or 
children  of  slaves  born  in  the  house  of  the  master 
((Jen.  xiv:i4).     (See  Slave.) 

SEBVITOB  (serv'I-ter),  (Heb.  ^W^^  meh-shaw 
rayth'),  one  in  waiting;  but  not  a  menial  (2  Kings 

iv;43).  

SEK VITUDE  (serv'l-tod).  See  SERVICE;  Serv- 
ant; Slave. 

SETH  (s6th),  (Heb.  Viflt  i^^ii^M,  compensation; 
Sept.  Z-tie,  seih). 

The  third  son  of  Adam,  to  whom  Eve  gave  this 
name  in  consequence  of  regarding  him  as  sent  to 
replace  Abel,  whom  Cain  had  slain  ((Jen.  iv:25, 
26;  v:3,  so,).  He  died  at  the  age  of  nine  hundred 
and  twelve  (Gen.  iv:25,  26;  v:3-8;  i  Chron.  i:i; 
Luke  iii:38),  B.  C.  4042. 

SETHXJB  (s5-thur),  (Heb.  ^^.,  seth-oor*.  hid- 
den ;  Gr.  l^Mpt  sathur). 

The  son  of  Michael,  who  represented  the  tribe 
of  Asher  among  those  sent  by  Moses  to  explore 
the  promised  land  (Num.  xiii:i3),  B.  C.  1657. 

SEVEN  (s«v"n).  (Heb.  ^3^,  she'ba,  whence  the 

Greek  ^rd,  hefita,  seven,  the  aspirate  breathing 
beine  substituted  for  the  sibilant  letter,  as  in  if, 
six,  for  tt71&,  etc.,  which,  however,  appears  again  in 
the  Latin  septem,  and  the  English  seven).  This 
word  is  used  to  express  the  number  6  +  i* 

(1)  Used  to  Denote  an  Indefinite  Number. 
The  Lexicons,  generally,  both  ancient  and  modern, 
also  assign  to  the  word  and  its  derivatives  the  fur- 
ther office  of  a  round  or  indefinite  number,  to  ex- 
press a  small  number,  in  the  sense  of  several  (as 
we  use  ten  or  a  dozen).  It  appears  to  us  possible 
to  "resolve  all  the  other  passages  referred  by 
Gesenius"  and  others  to  this  class,  into  the  idea 
of  sufficiency,  satisfaction,  fullness,  completeness, 
perfection,  abundance,  etc.,  intimated  in  the  He- 
brew root  r3t7,  from  which  the  numeral  in  ques- 
tion is  derived.  For  instance,  in  i  Sam.  ii  :5,  The 
barren  hath  born  seven ;'  that  is,  hath  been  blessed 
with  an  ample  family  (Vulg.  Sterilis  peperit 
plurimos) ;  Is.  iv:i,  'Seven  women  shall  take 
hold  of  one  man,'  where  the  idea  seems  to  be  that 
of  abundance  of  females  compared  with  the  men, 
so  many  of  the  latter  having  been  slain  in  war 
(see  Lowth  in  loc.)  ;  Ruth  iv:i5,  'Better  to  thee 
than  seven  sons,*  /.  e.,  an  abundance  of  them ; 
Prov.  xxvi:25.  There  are  seven  abominations  in 
his  heart,'  i.  e.,  completeness  of  depravity  (comp. 
Prov.  vi:3i),  where  the  thief  is  said  to  make  a 
'sevenfold/  that  is,  complete,  restitution  (comp. 
Exod.  xxii:i-4).  Thus  also  the  phrase,  To  flee 
seven  ways'  (Deut.  xxviii:;)  denotes  a  total  over- 
throw; to  'punish  seven  times'  (Lev.  xxvi:24),  to 
punish  completely;  'Six  and  seven  troubles,'  a 
very  great  and  entire  calamity  (Job  vrip)  ;  'Give 
a  portion  to  seven,  also  to  eight,'  be  not  only  duly 
liberal,  but  abundant;  'Silver  purified  seven 
tunes,'  perfectly  purified  (Ps.  xii:6);  'Seven 
times  a  day  do  I  praise  thee,'  I  fully  perform 
the  duty  of  thanksgiving  (Ps.  cxix:i64).    Rabbi 


SEVENTY 


1568 


SHAALABBIN 


Solomon,  however,  contends  for  the  literal  iHter- 

E relation  of  this  passage,  which  seems  to  have 
een  acted  upon  by  certain  Jews  and  Christians. 
Some  of  the  Greek  versions  in  Montfaucon's 
Hexapla  render  the  Hebrew  word  by  pleis  takis^ 
'often,*  'frequently.' 

(2)  Abundance  or  Completen«ss.  The  above 
explanation  applies  to  Gesenius*s  instances  of 
'poetical  fictions,'  viz.,  Job's  seven  sons  and  seven 
thousand  sheep  (i:2,  3),  and  the  seven  days  and 
seven  nights  during  which  his  friends  sat  with 
him  in  silence  on  the  ground  (ii:i3).  The  word 
is  used  in  the  New  Testament  to  express  the  same 
idea  of  abundance  or  completeness;  thus,  'Mary 
Magdalene,  out  of  whom  Jesus  cast  seven  devils* 
(Mark  xvi:9) ;  where  we  must  either  suppose  the 
Evangelist  to  give  by  inspiration  a  numerical 
statement,  or  that  his  words  mean  a  most  entire 
case  of  extraordinary  and  not  understood  disease. 

Our  Lord's  comparison  of  the  men  of  that  gen- 
eration to  the  case  of  the  demon  which  had  gone 
out  of  a  man,  returning  with  seven  other  spirits 
more  wicked  than  himself,  seems  to  mean  that  if 
Jesus  were  to  grant  the  sign  demanded  by  the 
Pharisees,  no  other  result  would  ensue  than  a  mo- 
mentary conviction,  followed  by  consummate  un- 
belief (Matt.  xii:45). 

'The  seven  spirits  before  the  throne'  would 
seem  to  be  a  periphrasis  of  perfection,  denoting 
the  Holy  Spirit  (Rev.  i:4).  Multiples  of  this 
number  convey  the  idea  of  super-abundance.  Thus, 
Gen.  iv  124,  *H  (Tain  be  avenged  sevenfold  [that  is 
abundantly],  surely  Lamech  seventy  and  seven- 
fold,* whose  guilt  from  accidental  homicide  is  so 
much  less.  Similar  is  St.  Peter's  question  respect- 
ing the  forgiveness  of  injuries,  and  the  answer  he 
received.  It  is  most  likely  that  the  idea  of  suffi- 
ciency and  completeness  became  originally  associ- 
ated with  the  number  seven,  from  the  Creator 
having  finished,  completed,  or  made  sufficient,  all 
his  work  on  the  seventh  day ;  and  that  hence  also 
it  was  adopted  as  a  sacred  number,  or  a  number 
chiefly  employed  in  religious  concerns,  in  order  to 
remind  mankind  of  the  creation  and  its  true  au- 
thor. Thus  there  were  seven  offerings  in  making 
a  covenant  (Gen.  xxi  :28) ;  seven  lamps  in  the 
golden  candlestick  (Exod.  xxxvii  123)  ;  the  blood 
was  sprinkled  seven  times  (Lev.  iv:i6,  17)  ;  every 
seventh  year  was  sabbatical,  seven  sabbaths  of 
years  in  the  jubilee  (xxv:8);  seven  trumpets, 
seven  priests  that  sounded  them  seven  days  round 
Jeriiho,  seven  lamps,  seven  seals,  etc.,  etc.  Seven 
was  considered  a  fortunate  number  among  the 
Persians  (Esth.  i. "10-14;  ii:  9).  Cicero  calls  it 
the  knot  and  cement  of  all  things,  as  being  that 
by  which  the  natural  and  spiritual  world  are  com- 
prehended in  one  idea  (Tusc.  Qu<BSt.  i,  10).  Nor 
is  this  subject  devoid  of  practical  utility.  The  ref- 
erences which  occur  in  the  patriarchal  history  to 
the  number  seven,  as  denoting  a  week  or  period 
of  seven  days,  sufficiency,  etc.,  and  a  sacred  num- 
ber, aflford  a  minute,  indirect,  but  not  an  inconsid- 
erable argument,  that  the  institution  of  the  Sab- 
bath was  both  established  and  observed  from  the 
commencement;  and  not,  as  Paley  thinks,  during 
the  wandering  in  the  wilderness:  an  argument 
abundantly  confirmed  by  the  regard  to  the  seventh 
day  which  has  prevailed  too  far  and  wide  among 
various  nations,  to  be  attributed  to  their  com- 
paratively late  intercourse  with  the  Jews  (Jose- 
phus,  Cont.  Ap,  ii,  39). 

J.  F.  D. 

SEVENTY  (s«v"n-tj^),  as  compounded  of  7 
multiplied  by  10— the  full  number  seven  and  the 
perfect  number  ten— appears  frequently,  e.  g., 
tfV^ntyfold  (Gen.  iv:24;  Matt.  xviii:22).    Its  def- 


inite use  appears  in  the  offerings  of  seventy  shek- 
els (Num.  vii:i3,  19,  sq.) ;  the  seventy  elders  (xi: 
16);  seventy  years  of  captivity  (Jer.  xxv:ii). 

SEVENTY    DISCIPLES    OF    OXJB    LOAD 

(Luke  x:i,  17).  These  were,  doubtless,  other 
persons  than  the  "twelve,"  whom  our  Lord  seems 
to  have  kept  by  his  side.  Considerable  speculation 
has  arisen  owing  to  the  number  seventy,  some 
thinking  that  Jesus  had  in  view  the  ancient  He- 
brew analogue  of  the  seventy— originally  seventy- 
two — elders  of  the  people  (Num.  xi:  16-25). 
Godet  {Com.,  on  Luke)  says:  "There  is  another 
explanation  of  the  number  which  seems  to  us 
more  natural.  The  Jews  held,  agreeably  to  Gen. 
X,  that  the  human  race  was  made  up  of  seventy 
(or  seventy-two)  peoples — fourteen  descended 
from  Japhet,  thirty  from  Ham,  and  twenty-six 
from  Shem. 

SEVENTY  WEEKS  (sgv'*n-tj^  weks). 

That  the  seventy  weeks  mentioned  by  Daniel 
denote  weeks  of  years  is  agreed  by  almost  every 
commentator,  but  not  the  time  when  these  seventy 
weeks,  or  490  years,  began.  It  is  plain  they  began 
from  an  edict  or  warrant  to  build  the  city  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  not  from  an  edict  to  rebuild  the  tem- 
ple; they  could  not  therefore  begin  at  the  edict 
of  Cyrus,  or  Darius,  for  rebuilding  the  temple; 
but  at  the  edict  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  for 
repairing  the  city,  either  in  the  seventh  year  of 
his  reign,  when  he  gave  Ezra  his  commission  for 
that  effect  (Ezra  vii  and  viii)*,  or  in  the  twentieth 
year  of  it,  when  he  gave  Nehemiah  his  (Neh.  ii). 
The  edict  in  the  seventh  year  of  his  reign  was 
most  favorable,  and  was  ratified  by  the  counsel- 
lors, as  well  as  by  the  king,  and  appears  to  have 
been  just  490  years  before  our  Savior's  death,  by 
which  he  finished  transgression,  and  made  an  end 
of  sin,  by  his  complete  atonement.  Of  these, 
seven  weeks,  or  forty-nine  years,  were  spent  in 
rebuilding  the  city  and  its  walls,  with  great  trou- 
ble ;  and  these  ended  about  the  death  of  Nehemiah. 
Sixty-two  more  weeks,  or  434  years,  elapsed,  be- 
fore the  public  ministry  of  John  or  Christ  began ; 
and  after  confirming  the  covenant  with  many, 
Jesus,  in  the  last  half  of  the  seventieth  week,  that 
is,  at  the  end  of  it,  made  the  sacrifice  and  oblation 
to  cease  in  point  of  obligation.  If,  with  Mercator 
and  Petavius,  we  allow  Artaxerxes  to  have  reigned 
with  his  father  ten  years,  and  so  the  twentieth  to 
be  but  the  tenth  after  the  death  of  his  father 
Xerxes,  then  483  years  will  elapse  between  that 
and  the  commencement  of  our  Savior's  public 
ministry,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  seventieth  week, 
or  about  three  years  and  a  half  after,  the  sacri- 
fices were  abolished  by  his  death.  If  we  date  the 
commencement  of  these  weeks  from  the  twentieth 
of  Artaxerxes  after  the  death  of  his  father,  the 
death  of  our  Savior  happened  478  years  after,  in 
the  middle  of  the  sixty-ninth  week;  and  we  must 
leave  the  seventieth  for  the  events  connected  with 
the  destruction  of  the  Jewish  nation,  between  A. 
D.  65  and  72,  in  which,  after  making  covenants  or 
leagues  with  a  variety  of  the  eastern  princes,  Ves- 
pasian and  his  son  Titus  entirely  overturned  the 
Jewish  church  and  state.  But,  after  all,  it  must 
be  allowed  that  the  chronology  of  that  period  is 
not  so  absolutely  fixed  and  clear  as  to  justify  any 
warm  dispute  about  a  few  years;  it  being  of  no 
great  moment  whether  these  490  years  be  reckoned 
from  the  seventh  or  twentieth  year  of  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus  (Dan.  ix  124-26).  (Brown,  Bib. 
Diet.)     (See  Daniel,  Book  of;  Week.) 

SHAALABBIN  (sha'al-ab'bin).  (Heb.  TS^I^ft 

shah'al-ab-been\  place  of  foxes.  Josh.  xix:43). 
See  Shaalbim. 


SHAALBIM 


1559 


SHAHARAIM 


SHAALBIM  (sha^U'bim),  (Heb.  D*'?^?^,  sAaA- 

al'bccm',  city  of  foxes).  Salabin,  called  also 
SItaalbin,  a  city  of  the  tribe  of  Dan  (Josh,  xix: 
42),  but  of  which  it  could  not  for  a  long  while 
dispossess  the  Amorites  (Judg.  i:35). 

In  the  time  of  Solomon  it  was  the  station  of 
one  of  the  twelve  officers  on  intendants  appointed 
to  regulate  the  collection  of  provisions  for  the 
court  (i  Kings  ivrp).  One  of  David's  worthies 
belonged  to  this  place  (2  Sam.  xxiii  132 ;  i  Chron. 

xi:33). 

SHAAIiBONITE  (sha-ai'bo-nlte),  (Heb.  ^^3??^. 

shah-al-bo-nee*),  Eliahba  "the  Shaalbonite"  was 
one  of  David's  heroes  (2  Sam.  xxiii  132;  i  Chron. 
xi:33)»  and  a  native  of  Shaalbon,  which  is  perhaps 
identical  with  Shaalbim. 

SHAAPH  (sha'aph),  (Heb.  ^t,  shah'af,  divi- 
sion; Gr.  2ad0,  saaph). 

1.  The  son  of  Jahdai,  of  Judah  (i  (Hiron.  ii: 
47),  B.  C.  after  1612. 

2.  The  third  son  of  Caleb  by  his  concubine, 
Maachah,  and  the  founder  of  the  town  of  Mad- 
mannah  (i  Chron.  ii:49),  B.  C.  after  1612. 

SHAAKAIM  (sha'a-ra'im).  (Heb.  0?!?^*  shah- 
ar-ah'yim,  two  gates). 

1.  A  city  in  the  lowland  of  Judah,  apparently 
the  Sharaim  of  Judah;  not  identified  (Josh,  xv: 


36^. 


8.  A  town  in  Simeon  (i  Chron.  iv:3i),  supposed 
to  be  identical  with  Tell  Sheriah,  between  Gaza 
and  Beer-sheba.     (See  Sharuhen.) 

SHAASHGAZ  (sba-^h'g&z),  (Heb.  U^?^,  sAaA- 

ash'gaz* ;  Sept.  Vat,  gai),  the  appropriate  name 
(meaning  in  Persian,  servant  of  the  beautiful)  of  a 
Persian  eunuch,  the  keeper  of  the  women  in  the 
court  of  Ahasuerus  (Esth.  ii:i4)»  B.  C.  about  525. 

SHABBETHAI  (shab-b€th'a-i),  (Heb.  ^P?S^» 
shab'beth-ah'ee,  sabbath-born). 

1.  A  Levite  who  assisted  in  enumerating  those 
who  had  married  foreign  wives  (Ezra  x:i5),  B. 
C.  about  450. 

2.  A  chief  of  the  Levites  who  assisted  Nehe- 
miah  in  instructing  the  people  in  the  law  (Neh. 
viii:7;  xi:i6). 

SHABIAH  (sha-bi'ah).    See  Shachia. 

SHACHIA  (sha-ki'a).  (Heb.  •"';??^^  shawk-yaw', 

fame  of  Jah),  The  sixth  son  of  Shaharim  by 
Hodesh(i  Chron.  viii:  10),  B.C.  after  1612. 

SHADDAI  (shid'da-I),  (Heb.  ^!1^,  shaddah'ee, 

the  Almighty;  Vulg.  in  Pentateuch,  Omntfiotens\ 
an  epithet  or  name  applied  to  Jehovah,  some- 
times with  (Gen.  xvii:i;  Exod.  vi:3),  and  some- 
times without  (Gen.  xlix:25;  Ruth  i:2o,  21,  and  else- 
where), the  prefix  El. 

In  the  Authorized  Version  the  name  is  given 
as  El-Shaddai  where  it  first  occurs ;  but  is  every- 
where else  rendered  by  'Almighty,*  which  is  the 
true  signification,  the  word  being  a  pluralis  excel- 
leniicB  from  the  singular,  'mighty/  'powerful.* 

SHADOW   (shad'6),   (Heb.  ^3?,   tsale,  or  ^^5f» 

tsay  'lel\  ^3^?^,  tsal-maw  'veth  ;  Gr.  (FKid,  skee*ah  ; 

dwoffKlafffjM,  aP'OS'kee' aS'tnahf  shading  off;  raracriri- 
<£f(w,  fcat'OS-kee-ad' 20,  obscuration). 

As  the  shadow  of  a  man,  etc.,  when  it  falls  on 
the  ground,  is  of  different  lengths  at  different 
times  of  the  day,  and  as  the  time  of  the  day  was 
originally  estimated  by  this,  the  first  sun-dial,  so 
it  is  very  natural  that  the  hireling,  who  wished 
his  day  of  labor  ended,  should  desire  the  shadow 
(Job  vii:2),  meaning  the  long  shadow  falling  on 


the  ground,  and  issuing  in  the  shadow  of  night 
itself.  Indeed,  it  seems  to  have  been  customary  in 
later  ages  to  estimate  the  time  of  day  by  the  length 
of  the  shadow ;  so  we  have  in  Aristophanes,  Con- 
don: "When  the  letter  of  the  alphabet  denoted 
the  shadow  to  be  ten  feet  long,  it  was  time  to 
think  of  dressing  and  going  to  supper,*'  that  is, 
the  sun  began  to  grow  low;  for  twelve  feet  was 
the  full  length  of  the  shadow  (comp.  Ps.  cii:ii; 
Jer.  vi:4). 

Figurative,  (i)  Shadow  is  figuratively  used 
for  unsubstantial ;  so  Job  says,  "Jwy  members  arc 
a  shadow"  (xvii  7)  ;  that  is,  they  are  diminished 
to  a  total,  or  comparative,  privation  of  substance. 
Hence,  the  Mosaic  economy  is  called  a  shadow, 
a  very  obscure  representation  of  things,  which  in 
the  gospel  are  clearly  revealed.  But  it  is  thought 
that  this  word  (Heb.  x:i)  alludes  to  the  sketch 
of  an  artist  or  painter,  who  first  forms  (with 
chalk)  on  his  canvas,  the  rude  outlines  of  his  sub- 
ject, a  just  visible,  rough,  merely  indicative  repre- 
sentation of  what  is  to  be  afterwards  finished 
correctly  and  carefully.  To  this  is  strongly  op- 
posed the  complete  image,  the  beautiful  statue  ex- 
hibited in  the  gospel ;  yet  this  statue,  be  it  remem- 
bered, is  not  living,  not  animated ;  the  full  perfec- 
tion of  life,  motion,  sensibility  and  happiness  is 
reserved  for  the  world  of  bliss  and  glory,  the 
celestial  state.  (2)  As  a  shadow  follows  the  sun 
or  interposing  body,  and  is  perpetually  varying, 
till  at  last,  perhaps  suddenly,  it  vanishes,  we,  and 
our  days,  are  likened  to  a  shadow,  to  intimate  how 
unsubstantial  our  mortal  appearances  are,  how 
transient  our  life,  and  sudden  our  death  (i  Chron. 
xxix:i5;  Job  xiv:2,  and  xvii  7).  (3)  As  dark- 
ness and  gloominess  attend  shadows,  so  terrible 
darkness,  trouble,  or  death,  are  called  a  shadow  of 
death  (Job  iii:5;  xvi:i6,  and  xxiv:i7;  Ps.  xxiii: 
4).  (4)  As  in  warm  countries  it  is  very  agreeable 
to  be  screened  from  the  scorching  heat  of  the  sun, 
so  government  protection,  and  refreshing  influence, 
are  called  a  shadow  (Lam.  iv:2o;  Ezek.  xxxi:6; 
Sol.  Song,  ii:3;  Ps.  xci:i,  and  lxiii7).  (5) 
Christ  and  his  Father  are  a  shadow,  because  they 
govern,  protect,  and  refresh  persons  and  churches 
(Is.  iv:6;  xxv:4,  and  xxxii:2).  (6)  Make  your 
shadow  as  the  night,  in  the  midst  of  noon;  in  the 
Jews*  troubles  protect  and  conceal  them,  ye  Moab- 
ites,  to  the  utmost  of  your  power  (Is.  xvi:3). 
(7)  The  evening,  or  time  when  shadows  abound, 
is  called  the  shadow  (Job  vii:2).  (8)  The  signs 
of  approaching  desolation  and  ruin  are  called 
shadows  of  the  evening  (Jer.  vi:4).  (9)  Shadow 
also  is  put  for  any  small  appearance  of  a  thing 
(James  1:17). 

SHADRAOH   (sha'drak).    (Heb.   '1^1^.    shad- 

rak'),  one  of  the  three  friends  of  Daniel,  who  were 
delivered  from  the  burning,  fiery  furnace,  B.  C. 
606.    (See  Abednego.) 

SHAFT  (shift).    1.    (Heb.  ^I,  yaw-rake',  a 

thigh),  used  of  the  standard  of  the  golden  candle- 
stick (Exod.  XXV 131;  xxxvii:i7;  Num.  viii  14). 

2.    (Heb.  Vf?,  khayts^  a  dart),  used  figuratively 
of  the  expounder  of  the  word  (Is.  xlix:2). 

SHAGE  (sha'ge),  (Heb.  ^3f ,  shaw-gay\  erring; 

Alex.2a7iJ,5a-;ray  ),fatherof  the  Hararite,Jonathan, 
one  of  Davia*s  guard  (i  Chron.  xi:34),  called 
Sham M AH  in  2  Sam.  xxiii  133.    B.  C.  about  1050. 

SHAHAB  (sha'har),   title   of    Ps.  xxii.    See 
Psalms. 

SHAHABAIM    (sha-ha-raMm),    (Heb.    0:?n$. 

shak-ar-ah'yim,  two  dawns;  Alex.  Gr.  ^adprifi,  sah- 
aA'raim),sin  obscure  Benjamite,who  was  the  father 


SHAHAZIMAH  1 

of  several  children  in  the  country  of  Moab  (i 
Oiron.  viii:8).  Probably  a  son  of  Gera  (B.  C. 
before  1612). 

SHAHAzmAH  (sha-hSz'i-mab).  (Heb.  ■'^^'V^jlf , 
ihakh-als-ee' maw,  height),  a  town  of  Issachar,  be- 
tween Tabor  and  the  river  Jordan  (Josh.  xixi22). 
Site  not  known. 

SHAIT  (shait).    See  Thorns  and  Thisti^s. 

SHAEED  (sbi'ked),  (Heb.  '9^,  sJiaw-ittde' 
wakeful),  occurs  in  several  passages  of  Scripture, 
and  is  generally  acknowledged  to  mean  the 
aiinond;  as  in  den.  xliiiiii,  wnere  Jacob  desires 
his  sons  to  take  into  Egypt  of  the  best  fruits  of  the 
Xsni  aimonds{sha&eiiim),elc.  Id  Exod.]txv:33,34; 
Kxxvii:l9,  bowls  are  directed  to  be  made  like  unto 
almonds. 

In  Num.  xvii  :8,  the  rod  of  Aaron  is  described 
as  having  'brought  forth  buds,  and  bloomed  blos- 
soms, and  yielded  almonds'  (shakedim).  The 
word  occurs  in  the  singular  in  Eccles.  xii  :5,  and  in 
Jer.  i:ii.  The  form  of  the  almond  would  lead 
10  its  selection  for  ornamental  carved  work,  inde- 
pendently of  its  forming  an  esteemed  esculent,  as 
well  as  probably  yielding  a  useful  oil.  In  Eccles. 
xii:5,  it  is  said:  'The  almond  tree  shall  flourish, 
and  the  fruit  of  the  caper  (Abiyonau,  which  sec) 
droop,  because  man  goeth  to  his  lon^  home.'  This 
evidently  refers  10  the  profuse  Howermg  and  white 
appearance  of  the  almond  tree  when  in  full  bloom, 


and  before  its  leaves  appear.  It  is  hence  adduced 
as  illustrative  of  the  hoary  hairs  of  age,  in  the 
same  way  as  the  drooping  of  the  fruit  of  the  caper 
seems  to  refer  to  the  hanging  down  of  the  head. 
There  are  two  species  of  Atnygdalus  in  Palestine ; 
the  common  almond  tree  and  ihe  peach  tree :  both 
are  in  blossom  in  January  in  every  part  of  Pales- 
tine, on  both  sides  of  the  Jordan.  It  was  doutrt- 
less  from  this  winter  blossoming  of  the  almond 
(ree,  not  less  than  from  the  snowy  whiteness  of 
the  blossoms,  that  the  hoary  head  of  the  aged 
man  is,  by  a  beautiful  metaphor,  said  in  Scripture 
lo  flourish  like  Ihe  almond  Iree  (Physic.  Hist,  of 
Palestine).    (See  Almond.)  J.  F.  B. 

SHAI.EU  (sha'lem),  (Heb.  ^'^t.  skaw-lamt' 
peaceful),  a  place  near  Shechem,  where  Jacob  re- 
paired OH  his  return  from  Mesopotamia,  according 
to  the  A.  V.  (Gen.  xxxiii:i8,  20).  It  is  probably 
not  a  proper  name,  but  an  adverb,  'Jacob  came 
(w^ace  to  Shechem.' 

SHALIM  (sha'lim).  (Heb.  n">^,  shah-al-eem' , 
foxes'  region;  Sept.  IryaKlii),  a  district  named  in 


60  SHALLUN 

1  Sam.  ix:4;  probably  that  in  which  Shaalbim  was 
situated.  Schwarz  {Palest,  p.  IJS)  identifies  it 
with  SAual,  not  far  from  Ophrah. 

SHAXI8HA  (shai'i-sha),  (H^h.^t^'P,  skaw-lee- 
shavi',  Iriangularl, 

A  district  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mountains  of 
Ephraim  (1  Sam.  ix:4),  in  which  appears  to  have 
been  situated  the  city  of  Baal-Shalisha  (3  ICings 
ivi43).  This  city  is  called  by  Eusebius  Beth- 
Shalisha,  and  is  placed  by  him  fifteen  miles  from 
Diospolis  (Lydda),  towards  the  north. 

SHAIXBCHETH,  THE  GATE  (sbfU'le-kilth, 
the  gate).  (Heb."?^S,  shal-leh- keth).  the  gate  of  the 
priests'  chamber  (i  Chron.  xxvi;i6). 

One  of  the  gates  of  the  "house  of  Jehovah." 
Ii  was  the  gate  to  the  embankment  which  led  up 
from  the  central  valley  of  the  town  to  the  sacred 
inclosure.  As  the  causeway  is  still  in  existence, 
the  gate  Shallecheth  can  hardly  fail  to  be  identical 
with  the  Bah  SiUiUh,  or  Sir%sleh,  which  enlers  the 
west  wall  of  the  Haram  area  opposite  the  south 
end  of  the  plaform  of  the  Dome  of  the  Rock,  alMut 
600  feet  from  the  southwest  corner  of  the  Haram 
waU. 

SHAUiiUH  (shU'lum),  (Heb.  0'^?,  s/iaf/ootn\ 
retribution). 

1<  The  fifteenth  king  of  Israel.  In  the  troubled 
times  which  followed  the  death  of  Jeroboam  II 
(B.  C.  772).  his  son  Zech3rL;ih  was  slain  in  the 
presence  of  the  people  by  Shallum,  who  by  this 
act  extinguished  the  dynasty  of  Jehu.  Shallum 
then  mounted  the  throne  (B.  C.  771),  but  occupied 
it  only  one  month,  being  opposed  and  slain  by 
Menahcm,  who  mounted  the  throne  thus  vacated 
(2  Kings  xv:io-i5). 

8.  A  king  of  Judah,  son  of  Josiah  (Jer.  xxii: 
11),  better  known  by  the  name  of  Jehoahaz  (B.  C. 
781).     (See  Jehoahaz,  2.) 

3.  The  husband  of  Huldah,  the  prophetess  (3 
Kings  xxii:i4),  B.  C.  about  630. 

4.  Son  of  Kore  {i  Chron.  ixng,  31).  He  was 
spared  in  the  desert,  when  the  earth  opened  and 
swallowed  up  his  father  (Num.  xvi:3l).  His 
descendants  had  an  office  in  the  temple,  to  take 
care  of  the  cakes  that  were  fried  there.  He  seems 
to  be  the  same  Shallum  whose  posterity  returned 
from  the  captivity  (Ezra  ii:42;  x;z4;  Neh.  vii : 
45),  B.  C.  about  1050. 

5-  Son  of  the  high-priest  Zadok,  and  father  of 
Hilkiah  the  high-priest  (1  Chron,  vi:i2,  13;  ix: 
II),  and  forefather  of  Ezra  (Ezra  vii:3),  B.  C. 
after  950.  Called  Meshullara  in  I  Chron.  ix;ii; 
Neh.  xi:ii.     (See  Meshullam,  3.) 

6.  The  last  son  of  Napthali  (i  Chron.  vii:i3). 
Called  Sbilleu  (Gen.  xlvi:24),  B.  C.  1874. 

7.  Son  of  Shaul,  a  descendant  of  Simeon  (1 
Chron.  iv:25),  B.  C.  before  1618. 

8.  Son  of  Sisamat,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  house 
of  Sheshan  (i  Chron.  11:40,41),  B.  C.  after  1300. 

9.  An  Ephraimite,  and  father  of  Jehizkiah,  of 
Ihe  time  of  Ahaz  aijd  Pekah  (2  Chron.  xxviii  :i2), 

B.  C.  before  740. 

10.  A  priest,  descended  from  Bani,  who  married 
a  foreign  wife  (Ezra  X.-42),  B.  C.  457- 

11.  A  Levite  porter  who  married  a  Gentile  wife 
(Ezra  xr24),  B.  C.  457. 

18.  Son  of  Halohesh.  He  was  ruler  over  "the 
holy  part  of  Jerusalem,"  and  with  his  daughters 
assisted  in  rebuilding  the  walls  (Neh.  iii:i2),  B. 

C.  445.  , 
SHALLVN  (shU'Iun),  (Heb.  P&,  shttl-loon' ,tz- 

iribution;  another  form  of  Shallum). 


SHALMAI 


1661 


SHAMMAH 


ing  the  spring  gate  and  the  wall  of  the  pool  of 
Has-shelach,  or  Siloah.     (B.  C.  445.) 

SHALMAI  (shai'ma-i),  (Heb.,  Ezra  ii:46,  ^^^f» 

shatn-lah'ee,  my  thanks;    Neh.  vii:48,  **5r^.  -J^^- 

mah'ee,  my  garments),  one  whose  children  were 
among  the  Nethinim  who  returned  from  captivity 
with  Zerubbabel.     B.  C.  before  536. 

SHALMAN  (shai'man),  (Heb.  V^)t ,  s/taZ-man', 

fire  worshiper),  a  shorter  form  of  Shalmaneser 
(Hos.  x:i4). 

SHALMANESER    (shM  '  ma  -  ne  '  zer),  (Heb. 

■©SJ^pS,  shalman-eh' ser^  Salman  is  gracious),  a 

king  of  Assyria,  whose  reign  lasted  from  B.  C. 
727-722,  coming  between  those  of  Tiglath-pileser 
and  Sargon. 

He  comes  into  Biblical  notice  as  the  invader  of 
Israel.  The  king,  Hoshea,  had  revolted,  but  he 
conquered  and  exacted  a  tribute  (2  Kings  xvii:3). 
He  then  returned  home,  but,  as  Hoshea  revolted 
a  second  time,  and  allied  himself  with  So,  king  of 
Egypt,  Shalmaneser  returned,  ravaged  Samaria, 
besieged  Hoshea  in  his  capital,  and  after  three 
years  the  city  fell.  But  during  this  time  a  rebel- 
lion headed  by  Sargon  had  broken  out  in  Assyria, 
and  Shalmaneser  was  deposed.  It  is  not  stated  in 
2  Kings  xvii:6  that  Shalmaneser  took  Samaria, 
but  that  the  king  of  Assyria  did.  (See  Assyria; 
Sargon  II  and  His  Monuments.) 

SHAMA    (sha-ma),    (Heb.    ^?^,    shaw-maw', 

hearing,  obedient;  Alex.  Gr.  2<£/ijua,  samma),  one  of 
David's  famous  guards,  the  son  of  Hothan,  prob- 
ably a  Reubenite  (i  Chron.  xi:44;  v:8).  B.  C.  about 
1020. 

SHAMAKIAH    (sham'a-ri'ah).    (Heb.     •"'t1??» 

sA^m-ar-yaw',  whom  Jehovah  protects;  Alex.  Gr. 
la^iapMf  somorta),  son  of  Rehoboam  (2  Chron.  xi; 
19).     (See  Shemariah.) 

SHAMBLES  (sh&ra-b'ls),  (Gr.  fuiKeWov,  mak'ei- 
ion,  I  Cor.  x:25),  a  place  where  meat  which  had 
been  offered  as  sacrifice  to  idols  was  brought  for 
sale. 

SHAME  (sham),  (Gr.  aUrx^^*  ahee-skhoo'nay, 
shame;  a^(^,  ah€e-doce\  shamefacedness,  i  Tim. 
ii  :9 ;  Heb.  xii  :2) . 

Uses  and  Applications,  (i)  To  uncover  the 
shame,  ignominy,  or  nakedness  of  a  person,  are 
synonymous  terms  (Lev.  xviii:i5,  17,  etc.).  (2) 
Isaiah  (xx:4)  threatens  the  Egyptians,  that  they 
should  be  led  away  captive,  without  anything  to 
cover  their  shame  or  nakedness.  (3)  The  golden 
calf  worshiped  by  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness, 
is  called  by  Moses  (Exod.  xxxii:25)  a  shame,  an 
idol  of  dross  and  filth.  (4)  Paul  (Rom.  i:26) 
calls  shameful  or  vile  affections  those  ignomini- 
ous passions  which  were  indulged  by  pagans 
(Prov.  iii:35).  (S)  "Shame  shall  be  the  promo- 
tion of  fools;"  that  is,  their  promotion  shall  be 
their  own  shame,  and  the  disgrace  of  those  who 
promote  them  (Prov  ix:7).  (6)  "He  that  re- 
proveth  a  scorner,  getteth  to  himself  shame;"  he 
loses  his  labor,  and  shall  only  get  discredit  or 
calumny,  abuse  and  disgrace,  a  retort  neither 
courteous  nor  considerate  (Ps.  Ixxxiii:i6).  (7) 
"Fill  their  faces  with  shame;"  reprove  them,  O 
Lord,  and  then  let  them  fall  into  disgrace.  (8) 
When  the  Syrians  took  King  Joash  captive,  they 
executed  shameful  judgments  against  him;  they 
treated  him  shamefully,  made  him  suffer  correc- 
tions that  were  shameful,  not  befitting  the  dignity 
of    a    king   (2   Chron.   xxiv:24).     (Robinson's 


SHAMED  (sha'med),  (Heb.  "^9??.  sheh*mer,  per- 
haps watch,  keeper).  Properly  Shamer,  or  She- 
mer;  a  Benjamite,  the  third  son  of  Epaal,  and 
founder  of  Ono  and  Lod  (i  Chron.  viii:i2),  B.  C. 
after  161 8. 

SHAMEFACEDNESS  (sham'fas'^'n6s).  A 
corruption  in  i  Tim.  ii:^,  for  shame  fastness.  The 
Greek  word  is  atdotas,  at'doce,  which  the  A.  V.  trans- 
lates "reverence"  (Heb.  xii .28). 

SHAMEB  (shamer).  (Heb.  *^W,  sheh' nur\ 
keeper,  or  lees  of  wine). 

1.  A  Merarite  Levite,  son  of  Mahli,  and  father 
of  Bani  (i  Chron.  vi:46),  B.  C.  about  1658. 

2.  Second  son  of  Heber,  an  Asherite  (i  Chron. 
vii:34),  B-  C.  before  1658. 

SHAMGAB  (shim'gar),  (Heb.  ^^t,  sham-gan 

Sept.  lafieydp,  sam^ar),  son  of  Anath,  and  third 
juage  of  Israel  (B.C.  1429). 

It  is  not  known  whether  the  only  exploit  rec- 
orded of  him  was  that  by  which  his  authority  was 
acquired.  It  is  said  that  he  'slew  of  the  Philis^ 
tines  600  men  with  an  ox-goad'  (Judg.  iii:3i).  It 
is  supposed  that  he  was  laboring  in  the  field  with- 
out any  other  weapon  than  the  long  staff  armed 
with  a  strong  point,  used  in  urging  and  guiding 
the  cattle  yoked  to  the  plow,  when  he  perceived 
a  party  of  the  Philistines,  whom,  with  the  aid  of 
the  husbandmen  and  neighbors,  he  repulsed  with 
much  slaughter.  The  date  and  duration  of  his 
government  are  unknown,  but  may  be  probably 
assigned  to  the  end  of  that  long  period  of  repose 
which  followed,  the  deliverance  under  Ehud.  In 
Shamgar's  time,  as  the  song  of  Deborah  informs 
us  (Judg.  v:6),  the  condition  of  the  people  was  so 
deplorably  insecure  that  the  highways  were  for- 
saken, and  travelers  went  through  byways,  and, 
for  the  same  reason,  the  villages  were  abandoned 
for  the  walled  towns. 

SHAMHXTTH    (shto'huth).     (Heb.     HVip^, 

Sham-hooth\  perhaps  desolation,  waste),  the 
captain  for  the  nfth  month  in  David*s  arrangement 
of  the  army  (i  Chron.  xxvii:8),  B.C.  1020. 

SHAMnt  (sha'mir),  (Heb.  "^''Pf ,  skawnteer). 

1.  A  precious  stone,  named  in  Jer.  xvii  :i ;  Ezek. 
iii:9;  Zech.  vii:i2.  The  Sept.  in  Jer.  xvii:i,  and 
the  Vulgate  in  all  the  passages,  take  it  for  the 
diamond.  The  signification  of  the  word,  *a  sharp 
point,'  countenances  this  interpretation,  the  dia- 
mond being  for  its  hardness  used  in  perforating 
and  cutting  other  minerals.  Indeed,  this  use  of 
the  shamir  is  distinctly  alluded  to  in  Jer.  xvii:i, 
where  the  stylus  pointed  with  it  is  distinguished 
from  one  of  iron  (comp.  PI  in.  Hist.  Nat.  xxxvii, 
15).  The  two  other  passages  also  favor  this  view 
by  using  it  figuratively  to  express  the  hardness 
and  obduracy  of  the  Israelites.  Our  Authorized 
Version  has  'diamond*  in  Jer.  xvii:i,  and  'ada- 
mant' in  the  other  texts;  but  in  the  original  the 
word  is  the  same  in  all. 

2.  A  city  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv:48). 

3.  A  city  in  the  mountains  of  Ephraim,  wheie 
Tola  lived  and  was  buried  (Judg.  x:i,  2). 

4.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  son  of  Michah,  and  a 
servant  under  David  in  the  sanctuary  (i  (Thron. 
xxiv:24),  B.  C.  about  1020. 

5.  See  Thorns  and  Thistles. 

SHAMMA  (sham'mi),  (Heb,  ^^t,  sham-maw', 

desolation),  an  Asherite,  and  the  eighth  son  of  Zo- 
phah  (I  Chron.  vii:37)»  B.C.  after  1658. 

SHAMMAH  (sh^'mah),  (Heb.  ^"0,  sham- 
maw\  astonishment). 


SHAMMAI 


1562 


SHAPHAN 


1.  One  of  the  three  chief  of  the  thirty  champions 
of  David.  The  exploit  by  which  he  obtained  this 
high  distinction,  as  described  in  2  Sam.  xxiii:ii, 
12,  is  manifestly  the  same  as  that  which  in  i 
Chron.  xi:i2-i4,  is  ascribed  to  David  himself,  as- 
sisted by  Eleazar  the  son  of  Dodo.  The  inference, 
therefore,  is,  that  Shammah's  exploit  lay  in  .the 
assistance  which  he  thus  rendered  to  David  and 
Eleazar.  It  consisted  in  the  stand  which  the 
others  enabled  David  to  make,  in  a  field  of  lentiles, 
against  the  Philistines.  Shammah  also  shared  in 
the  dangers  which  Eleazar  and  Jaahobeam  in- 
curred in  the  chivalric  exploit  of  forcing  their  way 
through  the  Philistine  host  to  gratify  David's 
thirst  for  the  waters  of  Bethlehem  (2  Sam,  xxiii : 
16),  B.  C.  1061. 

2.  A  son  of  Reuel  (Gen.  xxxvi:i3,  17;  i  Chron. 
i;37),  B.  C.  before  1850. 

3.  A  brother  of  David  (i  Sam.  xvirp;  xvii:i3), 
who  is  elsewhere  called  Shimeah  (2  Sam.  xiii  :3, 
32)    and  Shimma  (i  Chron.  ii:i3),  B.  C.  1068. 

4.  One  of  David*s  thirty  champions,  seemingly 
distinct  from  the  chief  of  the  same  name  (2  Sam. 
xxiii  :33). 

5.  Another  of  the  champions  distinguished  as 
Shammah  the  Harodite  (2  Sam.  xxiii  :25) ;  he  is 
called  Sham  MOTH  in  i  Chron.  xi:27,  and  Sham- 
HUTH  in  I  Chron.  xxvii:8.  That  three  of  the 
thirty  champions  should  bear  the  same  name  is 
somewhat  remarkable. 

SHAMKAI  (sh&m'ma-f),  (Heb.  ^^^,  sAam- 
mahUe^  desolated;  Gr.  ^LayjoX^  Samai). 

1.  Son  of  Onam,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (i  Chron. 
ii:28-32,  B.  C.  about  1618. 

2.  Son  of  Rekem  and  the  founder,  or  father  of 
Maon  of  Judah  (i  Chron.  ii:44,  45),  B.  C.  after 
1618. 

8.  The  sixth  child  of  Ezra  of  Judah  and  brother 
of  Miriam  (i  Chron.  iv:i7),  B.  C.  after  1618. 
Possibly  the  same  as  Shimon  (verse  20). 

SHAMMOTH  (shim'moth),  (Heb.  ^*^t.  Sham- 
mdth\  desolations. 

The  Harorite.  one  of  David's  guards  ( i  Chron. 
xi:27),  apparently  the  same  as  Shammah  (2 
Sam.  xxiii  125),  and  Shamhuth  (i  Chron.  xxvii: 
8). 

SHAMMT7A  (sham-mu'a),  (Heb.  f'l^^,  sham- 
moo'ak), 

1.  Son  of  Zaccur,  and  the  representative  of  the 
tribe  of  Reuben  among  the  spies  sent  to  Canaan 
(Num.  xiii:4),  B.  C.  1657. 

2.  Son  of  David  by  Bathsheba  (i  Chron.  xiv: 
4).  In  the  A.  V.  (2  Sam.  v:i4)  he  is  called 
Shammuah,  and  in  i  Chron.  iii:5  Shimea. 

3.  A  Levite.  father  of  Abda,  and  grandson  of 
Jeduthun  (Neh.  xi:i7),  B.  C.  before  450.  He  is 
called  Shemaiah  in  i  (Thron.  ix:i6. 

4.  A  priest  of  the  family  of  Bilgali  or  Bilgai,  un- 
der Joiakim  (Neh.  xii:i8),  B.  C.  about  500. 

SHAMSinJAH  (sharo-mQ'ab),  (Heb.  ^^'^^.sham- 

moo' ah,  renowned;  Alex.  Gr.  ZaM/iove.  samue),  son 
of  David  (2  Sam.  v:i4),  elsewhere  written  Sham- 
mua  and  Shimea. 

SHAMSHEBAI  (shim'she-ra'I),  (Heb.  ■*!!*??. 

sham-sher-ah* ee^  heroic;  Alex.  Gr.  l.a\tJiTikpm,  sam- 
saria),  son  of  Jeroham,  of  Jerusalem  (i  Chron.  viii: 
26),  B.  C.  after  1500. 

SHAFHAM    (sha'pham).    (Heb.    ^^,    shaw 

fawm't  bold),  a  chief  of  the  Gadites,  and  second  in 
authority,  in  the  days  of  Jotham  (i  Chron.  v:i2), 
B.  C.  about  750. 


(sha'phan),  1.  (Heb.1?  V,  shaw-fawfC* 

coney),  occurs  in  Lev.  xi:5;  Deul.  xiv:;;  Ps.civ.  18; 
Prov.  XXX  :26). 

Commentators  in  general  now  conclude,  on  the 
most  satisfactory  grounds,  that  those  versions 
which  give  coney  for  the  Hebrew  shaw-fawn'  are 
incorrect ;  but  several  maintain  that  the  species  to 
which  shaW'fawn'  belongs  ruminates,  which  may 
be  an  error.  The  shaw-fawn'  is,  as  Bruce  justly  in- 
dicated, the  same  as  the  Ashkoko,  the  Ganam,  not 
Daman,  Israel,  the  Wabber  of  the  Arabs,  and  in 
scientific  zoology  is  one  of  the  small  genus  Hyrax. 
In  the  upper  jaw  it  has  no  incisors,  but  two  rather 
pointed  tusks  directed  downwards,  with  an  open 
space  between  them;  in  the  lower  are  four  short, 
separated,  roundish  incisors,  pointing  obliquely 
forward ;  there  are  six  molars  on  each  side,  above 
and  bek>w,  the  upper  round  on  the  surface,  some- 
what resembling  the  human  back  teeth,  and  the 
lower  more  narrow,  but  neither  composed  of  al- 
ternate laminae  of  bony  and  enamel  substance  as 
in  ruminants;  nor  is  the  jawbone  articulated  so 
as  to  admit  freely  of  a  similar  action ;  finally,  the 
internal  structure  as  well  as  the  whole  osteology 
represents  that  of  a  rhinoceros  in  miniature,  and 
has  no  appearance  of  the  complicated  fourfold 
stomachs  of  ruminants ;  therefore  the  hyrax  is 
neither  a  rodent  like  hares  and  rabbits,  nor  a 
ruminant,  but  is  anomalous,  and  most  nearly  allied 
to  the  great  pachyderms  of  systematic  zoology. 
Externally,  the  hyrax  is  somewhat  of  the  size, 
form  and  brownish  color  of  a  rabbit,  and,  though 
it  has  short,  round  ears,  is  sufficiently  like  for 
inexact  observers  to  mistake  the  one  for  the  other. 
Navigators  and  colonists  often  carry  the  local 
names  of  their  native  land  to  other  countries,  and 
bestow  them  upon  new  objects  with  little  pro- 
priety; this  seems  to  have  been  done  in  the  in- 
stance before  us ;  there  being  reason  to  believe  that 
the  Phoenicians,  on  visiting  the  western  shores  of 
the  European  side  of  the  Mediterranean,  found  the 
country,  as  other  authorities  likewise  assert,  in- 
fested with  rabbits  or  conies,  and  that  without  at- 
tending to  the  difference  they  bestowed  upon  them 
the  Hebrew  or  Phoenician  name  of  shaw-fawn', 
applying  it  also  to  the  country  itself  by  forming 
spnattt  mto  sphanih,  which  they  intended  should 
mean  'the  land  of  conies ;'  and  from  this  misnomer 
'Hispania'  and  our  'Spain'  are  presumed  to  be 
derived. 

The  hyrax  is  of  clumsier  structure  than  the 
rabbit,  without  tail,  having  long  bristlv  hairs 
scattered  through  the  general  fur;  the  feet  are 
nadced  below,  and  all  the  nails  are  flat  and  rounded, 
save  those  on  each  inner  toe  of  the  hind  feet, 
which  are  long  and  awl-shaped;  therefore  the 
species  cannot  dig,  and  is  by  nature  intended  to 
reside,  not,  like  rabbits,  in  burrows,  but  in  the 
clefts  of  rocks.  This  character  is  correctly  ap- 
plied to  the  shaw-fazvn'  by  David.        C.  H.  S. 

2.  (Heb.  as  above.)  The  scribe  or  secretary 
of  Kingjosiah  (2  Kings  xxii  .-3, 12;  Jer.  xxxviiig; 
comp.  Ezek.  viii:ii),  S.  C.  about  628.  Contempo- 
rary with  him  was  a  state  officer  named  Ahikam, 
constantly  mentioned  as  'the  son  of  Shaphan'  (2 
Kings  xxii:  12;  xxv:22;  Jer.  xxvi:24;  xxxix:i4)  ; 
but  this  Shaphan,  the  father  of  Ahikam,  says 
Kitto.  can  hardly  be  the  same  with  Shaphan  the 
scribe,  although  one  may  be  apt  to  confound  them. 
On  the  other  hand  it  is  held  that  there  seems  to 
be  no  sufficient  reason  for  supposing  that  Shaphan, 
the  father  of  Ahikam,  and  Shaphan  the  scribe, 
were  different  persons. 

The  history  of  Shaphan  brings  out  some  points 
with  regard  to  the  office  of  scribe  which  he  held. 
He  appears  on  an  equality  with  the  governor  of 


SHAPHAT 


1603 


SHARON ITE,  THE 


the  city  and  the  royal  recorder,  with  whom  he  was 
sent  by  the  king  to  Hilkiah  to  take  an  account  of 
the  money  which  had  been  collected  by  the  Le- 
vites  for  the  repair  of  the  temple  and  to  pay  the 
workmen  (2  Kings  xxii:3;  2  Chron.  xxxiv:8; 
comp.  2  Kings  xii:io),  B.  C.  about  639.  Ewald 
calls  him  minister  of  finance  {Gesch,  iii:697).  It 
was  on  this  occasion  that  Hilkiah  communicated 
his  discovery  of  a  copy  of  the  law,  which  he  had 
probably  found  while  making  preparations  for  the 
repair  of  the  temple.  Shaphan  was  intrusted  to 
deliver  it  to  the  king,  who  was  so  deeply  moved 
upon  hearing  it  read  that  he  sent  Shaphan,  with 
the  high  priest  and  others,  to  consult  Huldah  the 
prophetess.  Shaphan  was  then  apparently  an  old 
man,  for  his  son  Ahikam  must  have  been  in  a  po- 
sition of  importance,  and  his  grandson  Gedaliah 
was  already  born.  Be  this  as  it  may,  Shaphan 
disappears  from  the  scene,  and  probably  died  be- 
fore the  fifth  year  of  Jehoiakim,  eighteen  years 
later,  when  we  find  Elishama  was  scribe  (Jer. 
xxxvi:i2),  (Smith  Bib.  Did.,  under  that  word). 


(sha'phat).  (Heb.  ^57,  shawfawt', 
judge). 

1.  Son  of  Hori,  and  the  representative  of  the 
tribe  of  Simeon  among  the  spies  sent  to  explore 
the  promised  land  (Num.  xiii:5),  B.  C.  1657. 

2.  The  father  of  the  prophet  Elisha  (i  Kings 
xix:i6,  19;  2  Kings  iii:ii;  vi:3i),  B.  C.  before 
900. 

3.  A  son  of  Shemaiah  in  the  line  of  Judah  (i 
Chron.  iii:22),  B.  C.  350 

4.  A  chief  of  the  Gadites,  who  lived  in  Bashan 
(i  Chron.  v:i2),  B.  C.  about  750. 

5.  Son  of  Adlai,  who  looked  after  David's  herds 
in  the  valley  (i  Chron.  xxvii:29),  B.  C.  about 
1020. 

SHAFHEB,  MOUNT  (sha'pher,  mount),  (Heb. 

"^S^"^?,  har-shaw'fer,  brightness),  the  name  of  a 

desert  station  between  Haradah  and  Kehelathah 
(Num.  xxxiii:23),  where  the  Israelites  encamped, 
site  unknown. 

BHAKAB  (sha'rab),  (Heb.  3^^,  shawrawb'). 

This  word  properly  means  *heat  of  the  sun,'  as 
in  Is.  xlix:io.  Hence  it  is  used  to  designate  a 
phenomenon  which  is  frequent  in  Arabia  and 
Egypt,  and  may  be  occasionally  seen  in  the  south- 
ern parts  of  Europe;  called  by  the  Arabs  Serdb, 
and  by  the  French  le  Mirage^,  by  which  name  it 
is  also  commonly  known  in  English.  Descriptions 
of  this  illusion  are  often  given  by  travelers.  It  is 
produced  by  the  refraction  of  the  rays  of  light 
during  the  exhalation  of  vapors,  by  the  excessive 
heat  of  the  sun ;  and  it  frequently  exhibits,  along 
with  the  undulating  appearance  of  water,  the 
shadows  of  objects  within  or  around  the  plain, 
both  in  a  natural  and  in  an  inverted  position.  The 
deception  is  most  complete;  and  to  the  weary 
traveler  who  is  attracted  by  it,  in  the  highest  de- 
gree mortifying ;  since,  instead  of  refreshing 
water,  he  finds  himself  in  the  midst  of  nothing 
but  glowing  sand.  It  is  often  used  proverbially, 
or  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  bv  the  Arabs,  as 
in  the  Koran  (Sur.  xxiv.  39)  :  *But  as  for  those 
who  believe  not,  their  works  are  like  the  Serab 
of  the  plain ;  the  thirsty  imagines  it  to  be  water, 
but  when  he  reaches  it  he  finds  it  is  nothing.* 
The  same  figure  occurs  in  Is.  xxxv  :y :  'The 
sharab  shall  become  a  lake,  f.  e.,  the  illusive  ap- 
pearance of  a  lake  in  the  desert  shaP  become  a 
real  lake  of  refreshing  waters.  See  Gresenius  and 
Henderson  on  Isaiah,  and  comp.  the  description: 
and  explanations  in  Kitto's  Physical  History  of 
Palestine,  pp.  147,  150,  151. 


SHABAI  (shir'a-i),  (Heb.    ^^^,  shawrah'ee, 

hostile),  a  "son"  of  Bani,  who  married  Gentile 
wives  after  the  Captivity  (Ezra  x:4o),  B.  C.  about 
457. 

SHABAIM  (shar'a-Im),  (Heb.  ^TSt,  shak-ar- 
ah'yim,  two  gates,  Josh.  xv:36).    See  Shaaraim. 

SHABAB    (sha-rar),    (Heb.  ''^^,  shaw-rawr', 

hostile),  father  of  Ahiam,  the  Hararite,  one  of 
David's  guards  (2  Samuel  xxiii:33),  B.  C.  about 
1040,  called  Sacar  (i  Chron.  xi:35). 

SHABE  (shdr),  (Heb.  f^f  ?G?,  makh-ar-eh! sheth, 
a  small  hoe  or  spade;  i  Sam.  xiii:20). 

SHABEZEB  (sha-re'zer),  (Heb.  "^^^I^,  shar- 
eh'iser,  prince  of  fire). 

!•  A  son  of  Sennacherib,  one  of  those  who  slew 
his  father  (2  Kings  xix:37;  Is.  xxxvii:38).  An- 
other person  of  this  name  occurs  in  Zech.  vii:2, 
B.  C.  after  711. 

2.  A  messenger  sent  by  the  people  who  had  re- 
turned from  captivity  to  inquire  about  fasting  in 
the  fifth  month  (Zech.  vii:2),  B.  C.  519. 

SHABON  (shir'on),  (Heb.  V*^.  shaw-rone',  a 
plain). 

i.  A  level  tract  along  the  Mediterranean,  be- 
tween Mount  Carmel  and  Caesarea,  celebrated  for 
its  rich  fields  and  pastures  (Josh.  xii:i8;  Cant. 
ii:i;  Is.  xxxiii:9;  xxxv:2;  lxv:io;  i  Chron. 
xxvii:29).  Called  also  Saron  (Acts  ix:35).  It  is 
twenty-five  or  thirty  miles  in  length,  and  from 
eight  to  fifteen  miles  in  width. 

(1)  Scripture  History.  Sharon  is  first  no- 
ticed in  the  Bible  as  Lasharon,  the  Hebrew  arti- 
cle being  taken  as  part  of  the  word  (Josh,  xii: 
18).  It  was  renowned  for  its  fertility.  The  flocks 
of  David  fed  there,  and  Isaiah  praised  its  excel- 
lency and  uses  it  both  in  promise  and  in  threaten- 
ing (i  Chron.  xxvii:29;  Is.  xxxv:2;  lxv:io; 
xxxiii:9). 

(2)  Present  Condition.  The  luxuriance  and 
fertility  of  the  plain  of  Sharon  are  noted  to  this 
day,  although  the  frequent  raids  of  the  Bedouins 
make  its  cultivation  difficult.  The  plain  has  on 
the  north  a  range  of  inland  cliffs.  A  portion  of 
the  plain  is  composed  of  marl  and  alluvial  soil, 
another  portion  of  red  sandstone  and  shelly  brec- 
cias of  blown  sand  in  large  patches.  The  hills  are 
of  softest  chalk,  gently  sloping,  partly  covered  by 
woods  of  oak,  the  trees  standing  at  intervals  like 
a  park,  the  ground  being  sandy  in  some  places  and 
01  a  loam  or  limestone  character  in  others. 

Sharon  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  Gilead 
in  Bashan  in  i  Chron.  v:i6.  Stanley,  noting  the 
difficulty  of  supposing  that  the  pasture  lands  of 
Gad  could  have  been  so  far  from  the  home  of  the 
tribe  east  of  the  Jordan  as  Sharon  would  have 
been,  thinks  that  "Sharon" — which  has  in  the  He- 
brew exactly  the  same  meaning  as  Mishofy—maiy 
signify  the  Mishor,  or  "upland  downs,"  of  Gilead 
and  Bashan  (Schaff,  Bib.  Diet.) 

Figurative.  The  rose  of  Sharon  was  a  simile 
•f  all  that  a  lover  would  express  (Cant.  ii:i).  It 
is  made  an  emblem  of  a  fruitful  country  (Is. 
xxxiii:9)  and  of  the  church  of  God  (Is.  xxxv:2, 
and  Ixvrio). 

2*  A  district  on  the  east  of  Jordan  near  Gilead 
and  Bashan  (i  Chron.  v:i6).    Site  unknown. 

SHABONITE,  THE  (shdr'on-Ite  the),  (Heb. 
•*J11^n^  ha-shaw-ro-nee* :  Alex.  Gr.  Sopwp^n^; 
saroniUs).  Shitrai,  who  had  charge  of  the  royal 
herds  pastured  in  Sharon,  is  the  only  one  in  the 
Bible  having  this  designation  (i  Chron.  xxvii:29X 


SHARUHEN 


1564 


SHEBA 


(sha-ru'hcn),  (Heb.  V?^'^^,  shaw 

roO'khcn',  abode  of  pleasure).  A  town  of  Tudah, 
in  the  south  country,  afterwards  allotted  to  Simeon 
(Josh.  xix:6)  ;  called  Shilhim  (Josh.  xv:32),  and 
Shaaraim  (i  Chron.  iv:3i).  It  is  probably  iden- 
tical with  tell  Sheriah,  half  way  between  Beer- 
sheba  and  Gaza. 

SHASHAI  (sha'sha-l),  (Heb.  ^^^l,  shaw-shah'ee 

whitish).   A  *son*  of  Bani,  who  divorced  his  for- 
eign wife  after  the  captivity  (Ezra  x:4o),  B.  C. 
457. 
aTTAOTTAir  (sha'shak),  (Heb.  pl^^.  shaw-shak', 

pedestrian).  A  son  of  Beriah,  of  Benjamin,  and 
father  of  Ishpan  (i  Chron.  viii:i4,  25),  B.  C. 
after  1618. 

SHAXTL  (sha'ul  or  shaul).  (Heb.  ^'^f .  shaw-ooV , 

asked).  1-  Son  of  Simeon  by  a  Canaanitish  woman 
((Jen.  xlvi:io;  Ex.  vi:i5;  Num.  xxv:i3;  i  Chron. 
iv:24),  B.  C.  about  1880.  Sometimes  identified  as 
Zimri. 

2.  Shaul  of  Rehoboth,  one  of  the  kings  of 
Edom  ( I  diron.  i  :48,  49) ;  called  Saul  ((^en. 
xxxvi:37). 

8.  A  Kohathite,  the  son  of  Uzziah  (i  Ohron. 
vi:24),  B.  C.  1030. 

SHAT7LITES  (sha'uMtes  or  shaurites),  (Heb. 
"^r^^,  shaw'oo-lee^  the  descendants  of  Shaul,  i 
(Num.  xxvi:i3). 

SHAVE  (shav).  See  Beard;  Hair;  Mourn- 
ing. 

SHAVEH  (sha'veh),  (Heb.  •^!l?»  shaw-vay^vdXW^ 

of  the  plain),  a  valley  on  the  north  of  Jerusalem, 
called  also  the  King's  Dale  (Gen.  xiv:i7;  comp. 
2  Sam.  xviii.'iS). 

SHAVEH-KIBIATHAIM  (sha '  veh  -  kfr'i  -  a- 

tha'im).  (Heb.  ^^t  °^Pt1P,  shaw-vay*  kir-yaw- 

thah'yim,  plain  of  Kirjathaim).  A  plain  near  the 
city  of  Kirjathaim,  beyond  Jordan,  which  eventu- 
ally belonged  to  Reuben  (Gen.  xiv  :5 ;  Num.  xxxii : 
37;  Josh,  xiiirig). 

SHAVSHA  (shav-sha),  (Heb.  ^flt ,sAaV'sAaw\ 

joyful),  secretary  to  King  David  (i  Chron.  xviii:  16), 
called  Serai  ah  (2  Sam.  viii:i7). 

SHAWM  (sham),  a  musical  instrument  rc*s*':i; 
bling  the  clarinet  or  hautboy  (Ps.  ^cviii:6). 

SHBAF  (shef).  Three  Hebrew  words  are  thus 
translated  (Heb.  Al'Oom-maw\  ^'^^bound.Gcu. 
xxxvii:7;  Ps.  cxxvl:6;  cxxix:7;  Aw-meer*,  '^^'P?* 
bunch,  Amos  ii:i3;  Jer.  ix:22;  Mich.  iv:i2;  jZech. 

xii:6;  O'mer,  "^9^,  a  heap). 

The  day  after  the  feast  of  the  Passover,  the 
Hebrews  brought  into  the  Temple  a  sheaf  of  corn, 
as  the  first  fruits  of  the  barley  harvest,  with  ac- 
companying ceremonies.  On  the  fifteenth  of 
Nisan,  in  the  evening,  when  the  feast  of  the  first 
day  of  the  Passover  was  ended,  and  the  second 
day  begun,  the  house  of  judgment  deputed  three 
men  to  go  in  solemnity  and  gather  the  sheaf  of 
barley.  The  inhabitants  of  the  neighboring  cities 
assembled  to  witness  the  ceremony,  and  the  barley 
was  gathered  into  the  territory  of  Jerusalem.  The 
deputies  demanded  three  times,  if  the  sun  were 
set;  and  they  were  as  often  answered,  It  is. 
They  afterwards  demanded  as  many  times  if  they 
might  have  leave  to  cut  the  sheaf;  and  leave  was 
as  often  granted.  They  reaped  it  out  of  three 
different  fields,  with  three  different  sickles,  and 


put  the  ears  into  three  boxes  to  carry  them  to  tlie 
Temple. 

The  sheaf,  or  rather  the  three  sheaves,  being 
brought  into  the  Temple,  were  thrashed  in  the 
court.  From  this  they  took  a  full  omer,  that  is, 
about  three  pints  of  the  grain;  and  after  it  had 
been  well  wmnowed,  parched  and  bruised,  they 
sprinkled  over  it  a  log  of  oil,  to  which  they  added 
a  handful  o>f  incense;  and  the  priest  who  received 
this  offering  waved  it  before  the  Lord,  toward  the 
four  Quarters  of  the  world,  and  cast  part  of  it  on 
the  altar.  After  this  every  one  might  begin  his 
harvest. 

SHEAIi  (shg'al),  (Heb.  ^?9, 5A?;i-a«//'.  asking), 

a  "  son "  of  Bani,  who  divorced  his  Gentile  wife 
after  the  Captivity  (Ezra  x:29),  B.  C.  457. 

SHEALTIBL  (she-il'ti-el).  (Heb.  ^8^C^)^i<*  sheh- 

al'Ue-ale',  asked  of  God),  the  father  of  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  iii:2;  Neh.  xii:i;  Hag.  1:12,  14;  ii:2);  called 
also  SalcUhiel  (i  Chron.  iii:i7),  B.  C.  about  58a 

SHEABIAH  (she'a-n'ah),  (Heb.  ^Ti^^.  sheh- 

ar-yaw',  whom  Jehovah  estimates),  a  son  of  Azel, 
who  was  a  descendant  of  Saul  (i  Chron.  viii:^^; 
ix:44),  B.  C.  considerably  after  1000. 

SHEABINO  H0T7SE,  THE    (shSr'Ing  hous. 

the).  (Heb.  ^^V^^  "^HS  ^^^,  bayth  ay'ked  hawrth 
eem\  a  "  house  of  binding  of  the  shepherds"). 

A  place  between  Jezreel  and  Samaria,  at  which 
Jehu,  on  his  way  to  the  latter,  encountered  forty- 
two  members  of  the  royal  family  of  Judah,  whom 
he  slaughtered  at  the  well  or  pit  attached  to  the 
place  (2  Kings  x:i2,  14).  The  translators  of  our 
version  have  given  in  the  margin  the  literal  mean- 
ing of  the  name — "house  of  binding  of  the  shep- 
herds.*' It  is  probable  that  the  original  meaning 
has  escaped,  ^usebius  mentions  it  as  a  village 
of  Samaria  "in  the  great  plain  [of  Esdraelon], 
fifteen  miles  from  Legeon**  (Smith,  Bih.  Diet., 
under  Esdraelon). 

SHEAB-JASHXTB  (she'ar-ja'shub),  (Heb.  3^ 

^^r,  sheh-awr*  yaW'Shoob\  the  remnant  shall  re- 
turn; Sept.  6  icoraXet^^elj 'leurojJ^,  the  remnant  Ja- 
sub),  son  of  the  prophet  Isaiah,  who  accompanied 
his  father  when  he  proceeded  to  deliver  to  king 
Ahaz  the  celebrated  prophecy  contained  in  Is.  vh. 
(see  verse  3). 

As  the  sons  of  Isaiah  sometimes  stood  for  signs 
in  Israel  (Is.  viii:i),  and  as  the  name  of  Maher- 
shalal-hash-baz  was  given  to  one  of  them  by  way 
of  prophetic  intimation,  it  has  been  conjectured 
that  the  somewhat  remarkable  name  of  Shear- 
jashub  intimated  that  the  people  who  had  then  re- 
tired within  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  should  return 
in  peace  to  their  fields  and  villages.  But  we  can- 
not build  on  this,  as  it  is  not  distinctly  stated 
that  the  name  of  Shear-jashub  was  chosen,  like 
that  of  his  brother,  with  any  prophetic  intention. 
(B.  C.  about  735)- 


(sheth).  A  case  for  the  sword  or 
dagger  (i  Sam.  xvii:5i;  2  Sam.  xx:8;  Ezek.  xxi:3, 
4.  5»  30;  scabbard,  Jer.  xlvii:6;  John  xviii :ii). 

SHEBA  (sh6ba).  (Heb.  ^??,  sheb-aw*). 

1.  Son  of  Raamah  (Gen.  x:7;  i  Chron.  i:^)  who,  it 
is  thought,  inhabited  Arabia  Felix,  where  his  father 
Raamah  dwelt.    B.  C.  after  2515.    (See  4.) 

2.  Son  of  Joktan  (Gen.  x:28;  i  C^hron.  i:22), 
whom  Bochart  places  in  Arabia  Felix.  (See  4.) 
3.  C.  about  2350. 

3.  The  elder  son  of  Jokshan,  son  of  Keturah 
(Gen.  XXV :3;  i  Chron.  i:32),  B.  C.  probibl/  after 


SHEBA 


1565 


SHEBAH 


2200.  "He  evidently  settled  oomewhere  in  Arabia, 
probably  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Arabian  Gulf, 
where  his  posterity  appear  to  have  become  incor- 
porated with  the  earlier  Sabeans  of  the  Joktanic 
branch."    B.  C.  about  1980.     (See  Sabeans.) 

4.  Kingdoi^i  of  Sheba  or  Seba  (see  also  Sa- 
beans). In  the  A.  V.  the  term  seems  to  be  ap- 
plied to  three  different  tribes. 

(i)  to  the  Sehaiim  (with  a  satnech)  the  de- 
scendants of  Seba  or  Saba,  son  of  Cush,  who 
ultimately  settled  in  Ethiopia  (see  the  article 
Seba). 

(2)  The  Shebaiim  (with  a  shin),  the  descend- 
ants of  Sheba,  son  of  Joktan,  the  Sab<B,  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  who  settled  in  Arabia  Felix. 
They  are  the  'Sabaeans'  of  Joel  iii  :8,  to  whom  the 
Jews  were  to  sell  the  captives  of  Tyre.  The 
unpublished  Arabic  Version,  quoted  by  Pocock, 
has  *the  people  of  Yemen.*  Hence  they  are  called 
*a  people  afar  off,'  the  very  designation  given  in 
Jer.  vi:20  to  Sheba,  as  the  country  of  frankin- 
cense and  the  rich,  aromatic  reed,  and  also  by  our 
Lord  in  Matt.  xii:42,  who  says,  the  queen  of 
Sheba,  or  *the  south,'  came  'from  the  earth's  ex- 
tremes.' 

(3)  To  another  tribe  of  Shebans  (also  with  a 
shin),  a  horde  of  Bedawee  marauders  in  the  days 
of  Job  (ch.  i:i5)  ;  for  whether  we  place  the  land 
of  Uz  in  Idumaea  or  in  Austitis,  it  is  by  no  means 
likely  that  the  Arabs  of  the  south  would  extend 
their  excursions  so  very  far.  We  must,  there- 
fore, look  for  this  tribe  in  Desert  Arabia;  and 
it  is  singular  enough,  that  besides  the  Seba  of 
Cush,  and  the  Shaba  of  Joktan,  there  is  another 
Sheba,  son  of  Jokshan,  and  grandson  of  Abraham, 
by  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv:3);  and  his  posterity  ap- 
pear to  have  been  'men  of  the  wilderness,'  as 
were  their  kinsmen  of  Midian,  Ephah,  and  Dedan. 
To  them,  however,  the  above-cited  passage  in 
the  prophecy  of  Joel  could  not  apply,  because 
in  respect  neither  to  the  lands  of  Judah  nor 
of  Uz  could  they  be  correctly  described  as  a 
people  'afar  off.*  As  for  the  Sabaim  of  Ezek. 
xxiii  :42  (which  our  version  also  renders  by  'Sa- 
bseans').  while  the  Kethib  has  the  term  'drunk- 
ards,' which  better  suits  the  context.  Yet,  as  if 
to  increase  the  confusion  in  the  use  of  this  name 
of  'Sabaeans,'  it  has  also  been  applied: 

(4)  To  the  ancient  star  worshipers  of  Western 
Asia,  though  they  ought  properly  to  be  styled 
Tsabians,  and  their  religion  not  Sabaism  but 
Tsabaism,  the  name  being  most  probably  derived 
from  the  object  of  their  adoration,  the  host^  i.  e., 
of  heaven  (see  an  excursus  by  Gesenius  m  his 
translation  of  Isaiah,  On  the  Astral  Worship  of 
the  Chaldceans), 

(5)  The  name  of  Sabaeans,  or  Sabians,  has  also 
been  given  to  a  modern  sect  in  the  East,  the 
Mandaites,  or,  as  they  are  commonly  but  incor- 
rectly called,  the  'Christians'  of  St.  John;  for 
they  deny  the  Messiahship  of  (Thrist,  and  pay 
superior  honor  to  John  the  Baptist.  They  are 
mentioned  in  the  Koran  under  the  name  of 
Sabionna,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  Arabs  con- 
founded them  with  the  ancient  Tsabians  above 
mentioned. 

5.  The  eldest  son  of  Cush  (Gen.  xiy;  i  Chron. 
1:9),  who  gave  name  to  the  country  of  Seba  or 
Saba,  and  to  one  of  the  tribes  called  Sabaeans, 
not,  however,  the  Shebaiim  (with  the  letter  shin), 
but  the  Sebaiim  (with  the  letter  samech).  There 
seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  their  ultimate  set- 
tlement was  in  that  region  of  Africa  which  was 
known  to  the  Hebrews  as  the  land  of  Cush,  and 
to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  Ethiopia ;  and  the 
Scriptural  notices  respecting  them  and  their  cbtm- 


try  have  been  already  anticipated  in  the  articles 
Cush  and  Ethiopia.  If  the  kingdom  of  Seba 
was  the  far-famed  Meroe,  and  the  kingdom  of 
Sheba,  the  no  less  famous  Yemen,  then  it  is  with 
peculiar  propriety  that  the  king  of  African  Seba 
in  the  west  and  the  king  of  Asiatic  Sheba  in 
the  east  are  represented  by  the  Psalmist  (Ps. 
lxxii:io)  as  bearing  their  united  homage  to  the 
'great  king  of  Judah.'  The  commerce  and  wealth 
of  these  Sabaeans  of  Ethiopia,  as  also  their  gi- 
gantic stature,  are  alluded  to  by  the  prophet 
Isaiah  (ch.  xliii:3;  xlv:i4),  and  his  testimony 
is  confirmed  by  the  profane  writers  of  antiquity. 
The  passages  quoted,  however,  are  the  only  places 
in  Scripture  where  the  Sabaeans  of  Africa  are  ex- 
pressly mentioned;  for  the  Sabaeans  of  Job  i:i5 
were  a  tribe  of  Bedawees,  or  'men  of  the  desert, 
descended  from  Sheba,  grandson  of  Keturah; 
and  the  Sabaeans  of  Joel  iii:8  were  the  posterity 
of  another  Sheba,  son  of  Joktan,  in  Arabia 
Felix.  There  was,  indeed,  another  Sheba,  the 
son  of  Raagmah  and  the  grandson  of  Cush,  and 
consequently  the  nephew  of  the  Seba  who  is  the 
subject  of  the  present  article,  but  his  posterity 
appear  to  have  mingled  with  those  of  his  uncle. 
As  for  the  'Sabaeans'  mentioned  in  our  version  at 
Ezek.  xxiii  :42,  although  the  Keri  reading  be 
Sabaim,  the  Kethib  has  Sobeim,  'drunkards,'  which 
gives  a  better  sense;  besides  that  elsewhere  the 
African  Sabaeans  are  not  styled  Sabaiim,  but 
Sebaiim,  and  the  Arab  Sabaeans,  Shebaiim. 

N.  M. 

6.  Son  of  Bichri,  of  Benjamin,  a  turbulent 
fellow,  who,  after  the  defeat  of  Absalom,  when  the 
tribe  of  Judah  came  to  David,  and  brought  him 
over  the  river  Jordan,  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem, 
sounded  a  trumpet,  and  proclaimed,  "We  have 
no  share  in  David."  Israel,  in  consequence,  for- 
sook David,  and  followed  Sheba  (2  Sam.  xx:i, 
etc),  B.  C.  1023.  When  the  king  arrived  at  Jeru- 
salem, he  sent  Abishai  in  pursuit  of  the  traitor. 
Joab  also  took  soldiers,  and,  crossing  the  country 
north  of  Jerusalem,  he  arrived  at  Abel-beth- 
maacah,  a  city  at  the  entrance  of  the  pass  between 
Libanus  and  Anti-libanus,  to  which  Sheba  had  re- 
tired. Joab  besieged  the  place;  but  a  discreet 
woman  inhabiting  the  city,  having  persuaded  the 
people  to  cut  oft  Sheba's  head,  and  to  throw  it 
over  the  wall,  Joab  and  his  army  retired. 

7.  A  Gadite  chieftain  who  lived  in  Bashan  in 
the  time  of  Jeroboam  II  (i  Chron.  v:i3),  B.  C. 
781. 

8.  A  cky  of  Simeon  (Josh.  xix:2).  Its  site 
may  be  the  Tell  es-Seb'a,  a  little  east  of  Bccr- 
sl^ba.  i^ 

/v.  Queen  of  Sheba  (i  Kings  x;  2  (Dhron.  ix),^ 
/called  queen  of  the  South  (Matt.  xii:d2;  Luke 
xi  131),  was,  according  to  some,  a  queen  of  Arabia ; 
but,  according  to  others,  a  queen  of  Ethiopia. 
Josephus  says  that  Saba  was  the  ancient  name 
of  the  city  of  Meroe,  and  that  the  (jueen.  of  whom 
we  are  speaking,  came  thence;  which  opinion  has 
much  prevailed.  The  Ethiopians  still  claim  this 
princess  as  their  sovereign,  and  say  ^  that  her 
posterity  reigrned  there  for  a  long  time.  The 
eunuch  of  queen  Candace,  who  was  converted  and 
baptized  by  Philip  (Acts  viii  127)  was  an  officer 
..belonging  to  a  princess  of  the  same  country — 
Ethiopia. 

SHi^AH  (shS'bah),  (Heb.  ^^^t,  shih-aw', 
seven  or  an  oath). 

A  famous  well,  which  gave  its  name  to  the 
city  of  Beer-sheba  (Gen.  xxvi:33).  The  name 
was  bestowed  by  Isaac  because  of  the  covenant 
he  had  made  with  Abimelech  at  the  time  the  well 
was  dug.    It  should  not  be  ove'-looked  that,  ic* 


SHEBAM 


1566 


SHECHEM 


cording  to  the  narrative  of  an  earlier  chapter,  the 
well  owed  its  existence  and  its  name  to  Isaac's 
father  (xxi:32).  Some  commentators,  as  Kalisch 
(Com.,  on  Gen.  xxvi  133 ),  looking  to  the  fact  that 
there  are  two  large  wells  at  Bir  es  Seba,  propose 
to  consider  the  two  transactions  as  distinct,  and 
as  belonging,  the  one  to  the  one  well,  the  other 
to  the  other.  Others  see  in  the  two  narratives 
merely  two  versions  of  the  circumstances  under 
which  this  renowned  well  was  first  dug. 

SHEBAM    (she'bam),    (Heb.    °9V,   seb-awnC. 

spice),  a  town  east  of  the  Jordan  eiven  to  the 
tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad  upon  tneir  demand 
(Num.  xxxii:3).    Site  not  known. 

SHEBANIAH  (sheb'a-nl'ah),  (Heb.  •"^t?39' 
sheb-an-yaw' f  whom  Jehovah  built  up). 

1.  A  Levite  of  Ezra's  time,  who  offered  the 
prayer  of  thanksgiving  and  confession,  and  sealed 
the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  ( Neh.  ix  14,  5 ;  Neh. 
x:io).  In  the  LXX  of  Neh.  ix:4,  he  is  called  the 
son  of  Sherebiah.    B.  C.  459. 

2.  A  priest,  or  priestly  family,  who  sealed  the 
covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x:4;  xii:i4). 
Called  Shechaniah  (Neh.  xii:3),  B.  C.  459. 

3.  A  Levite  who  covenanted  with  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  x:i2),  B.  C.  459. 

4.  A  priest  of  David,  who  blew  the  trumpet  be- 
fore the  ark  when  it  was  carried  from  Obed-edom 
to  Jerusalem  (i  Chron.  xv:24),  B.  C.  1043. 

SHEBABIM  (shSb'a-rtm),  (Heb.  Q*"")?^'?,   ha. 

sheb'aw'reem\  with  the  def.  article,  breaches, 
ruins;  Gr.  awirpirj/ay;  sabarim,  they  shattered). 

A  point  where  the  Israelites  halted  in  their 
flight  from  Ai  (Josh.  vii:5).  R.  V.  "quarries,"  and 
not  a  proper  name.  Harper  {The  Bible,  etc.,  p. 
150)  thinks  it  was  "some  ridge  near  the  steep 
precipice  of  the  pass  up  which  the  corps  had 
ascended." 

SHEBAT  (shS'bat),  ^?f  ,  sheb^wt,  sabat),  the 

eleventh  month  of  the  Hebrew  year,  from  the  new 
moon  of  February  to  the  new  moon  of  March. 
The  name  only  occurs  once  in  Scripture  (Zech. 
i  :7),  and  is  the  same  which  is  given  in  the  Arabic 
and  Syriac  languages  to  the  same  month. 

SHEBEB  (she'ber)  (Heb.  "^Sf .  sheh'ber,  break- 

irtg,  ruin).  Son  of  Caleb  ben-Hezoon,  by  his 
concubine  Maachah  (i  Chron.  ii;48).  B.  C.  after 
1856.  . 

SHEBNA   (shgb'ni),    (Heb.    ^j??,  sheb-naw', 

a  youth;  Sept.  Xe/Sydj,  sebnas),  the  prefect  of  the 
palace  to  King  Hezekiah  (Is.  xxii:i5);  afterwards 
promoted  to  be  scribe  or  secretary  to  the  same 
monarch,  when  his  former  office  was  given  to 
Kliakim  (xxxvi:3;  2  Kings  xviii:26,  27;  xix:2), 
15.  C.  /13. 
SHEBTJEL  (sh«b'u-el),    (Heb.   ^i^^^,  sheb-oo- 

ale',  captive  of  God).  1.  The  eldest  son  of  Ger- 
shom,  son  of  Moses,  who  had  the  care  of  the 
treasures  of  the  Temple  (i  Chron.  xxiii:i6; 
xxvi  124),  called  Subael.  (i  Chron.  xxiv:2o), 
B.  C.  1013. 

2.  One  of  the  fourteen  sons  of  the  minstrel 
Heman,  and  leader  of  the  fifteenth  band  in  the 
Temple  service  (i  Chron.  xxv:4;  called  Shubael 
(i  Chron.  xxv:2o),  B.  C.  1013. 

SHEOANIAH  (shgk'a-nl'ah),  (i  Chron.  xxivrii; 
2  Chron.  xxxi:i5).    See  Shechaniah. 

SHECHANIAH    (sh^k'a-nl'ah),    (Heb.   ^V'^^ 

shek-an-yaw't  Jehovah  has  dwelt);  XcxeWos,  sec- 
henias).  1.  A  descendant  of  Zerubbabel,  and  father 
of  Shemaiah  (i  Qiron.  iii:2i,  22),  B.  C.  about  410. 


Perhaps  the  same  as  Euakim   (Matt  1:13)9  Ofi 
Joseph  (Luke  iii:26). 

2.  A  "son"  of  Parosh  and  ancestor  of  a  Zecha- 
riah,  who  returned  from  the  Captivity  in  the  time 
of  Artaxerxes  (Ezra  viii:3),  B.  C.  before  459. 

3.  A  person  mentioned  as  the  forefather  of  the 
son  of  Jahaziel,  who  returned  from  captivity  with 
Ezra  (Ezra  viiits),  B.  C.  459. 

4.  The  son  of  Jehiel,  and  the  one  who  suggested 
to  Ezra  that  the  Israelites  put  away  their  Gentile 
wives  (Ezra  x:2),  B.  C  458. 

5.  The  father  of  Shemaiah  the  keeper  of  the 
east  gate  of  Jerusalem,  and  who  repaired  a  part 
of  the  wall  (Neh.  iii:29),  B.  C.  before  446. 

6.  The  son  of  Arab  and  father-in-law  of  the 
Tobiah  who  was  hostile  to  the  Jews  during  the  re- 
building of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  via 8),  B.  C.  about  434. 

7.  The  head  of  a  priestly  family  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii:3).  He  is  also  called 
Shebaniah,  Shecaniah  (Neh.  xii:i4),  and  was 
tenth  in  order  of  the  priests  in  the  reign  of  David. 
B.  C.  536. 

8.  Chief  of  the  tenth  course  of  priests  under 
David  (i  Chron.  xxivrii),  B.  C.  1014. 

9.  The  last  mentioned  of  those  priests  appointed 
by  Hezekiah  to  distribute  the  tithes  among  the 
other  priests  (2  Chron.  xxxi:i5),  B.  C.  726. 

SHECHEM  (she'kem),  (Heb.  ^f ,  sheh'kem,  a 
shoulder  or  ridge). 

i*  A  town  of  central  Palestine,  in  Samaria, 
among  the  moutains  of  Ephraim  (Josh.  xx:7; 
I  Kings  xii:25),  in  the  narrow  valley  between  the 
mountains  of  Ebal  and  Qtnzxm  (comp.  Judg.  ix: 
7;  Joseph.  Antiq,  iv.  8,  44),  and  consequently 
within  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  (Josh.  xxi:2i).  It  is 
in  N.  lat.  32°  17',  E.  long.  35**  20',  being  thirty-four 
miles  north  of  Jerusalem  and  seven  miles  south 
of  Samaria. 

(1)  Early  Origin.  It  was  a  very  ancient  place, 
and  appears  to  have  arisen  as  a  town  in  the  mter- 
val  between  the  arrival  of  Abraham  in  Palestine 
and  the  return  of  Jacob  from  Padan-aram,  loi 
it  is  mentioned  only  as  a  place,  described  by  refer- 
ence to  the  oaks  in  the  neighborhood,  when  Abra- 
ham came  there  on  first  entering  the  land  of 
Canaan  (Gen.  xii:6).  But,  in  the  history  of  Jacob 
it  repeatedly  occurs  as  a  town  having  walls  and 
gates :  it  could  not,  however,  have  been  very  largje 
or  important  if  we  may  judge  from  the  conse- 
quence which  the  inhabitants  attached  to  an  alli- 
ance with  Jacob,  and  from  the  facility  with  which 
the  sons  of  the  Patriarch  were  able  to  surprise  and 
destroy  them  (Gen.  xxxiii:i8^  19;  xxxiv:i,  2,  20, 
24,  26). 

(2)  Importanco.  After  the  conquest  of  the 
country,  Shechem  was  made  a  city  of  refuge 
Hosh.  XX  7),  and  one  of  the  Levitical  towns 
(Josh.  xxi:2i),  and  during  the  lifetinje  of  Joshua 
it  was  a  center  of  union  to  the  tribes  (Josh,  xxiv : 
i{  25),  probably  because  it  was  the  nearest  con- 
siderable town  to  the  residence  of  that  chief  in 
Timnath-serah.  In  the  time  of  the  judges,  She- 
chem became  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  set  up 
by  Abimelech  (Judg.  ix:i,  jg.),  but  was  at  length 
conquered  and  destroyed  by  him  (Judg,  ix:34). 
It  must,  however,  have  been  ere  long  rebuilt,  for  it 
had  again  become  of  so  much  importance  by  the 
time  of  Rehoboam's  accession  that  he  there  gave 
the  meeting  to  the  delegates  of  the  tribes,  which 
ended  in  the  separation  of  the  kingdom  (i  Kings 
xii:25).  It  was  Shechem  which  the  first  monarch 
of  the  new  kingdom  made  the  capital  of  his  domin- 
ions (i  Kings  xii:25;  comp.  xiv:i7),  aldiough 
later  in  his  reign  the  pleasantness  of  Tirzah  in- 
duced him  to  build  a  palace  there,  and  to  make  it 


SHECHEM 


■  residence  of  his  court;  which  gave 
it  such  importance,  that  it  at  length  came  to  be 
regarded  as  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  till  Sa- 
maria eventiiall;^  deprived  it  of  thai  honor  (i 
Kings  xiv:?;  xvi:24;  see  Israel),  Shechem,  how- 
ever, still  throve. 

(3)  Seat  of  Worship.  It  subsisted  during  the 
Exile  (Jer.  xliij),  and  eominued  for  many  ages 
after  the  chief  seat  of  the  Samaritans  and  of  their 
worship,  their  sole  temple  being  upon  the  moun- 
tain (Gerezim)  at  whose  foot  the  city  stood  (Jo- 
seph. Aniig.  xi.  8,  6;  comp.  John  iv:20;  and  see 
alsothe  articles  EsALandGERIZIM;  Sahakitans). 


JiC 


I,  Sychar 


The  city  was  taken,  and  the  temple  destroyed,  by 
John  Hyrcanus,  B.  C.  129  (Joseph.  Aniig.  xiii.  9, 
I ;  De  Bell  Jud.  i.  2,  6).  In  the  New  Testament 
it  occurs  under  the  name  of  Sychar  (John  iv:5), 
which  seems  to  have  been  a  sort  of  nick- name 
(perhaps  from  sheker,  'falsehood',  spoken  of  idols 
in  Hab.  ii:l8;  or  from  shikkor,  'drunkard,'  in  al- 
lusion to  Is.  xxviii:i,  7), — such  as  the  Jews  were 
fond  of  imposing  upon  places  they  disliked;  and 
nothing  could  exceed  the  enmity  which  existed 
between  them  and  the  Samaritans,  who  possessed 
Shechem.  Stephen,  however,  in  his  historical 
retrospect,  still  uses  the  proper  and  ancient  name 
(Acts  vii:i6).  Not  long  after  the  times  of  the 
New  Testament  the  place  received  the  name  of 
Neapolis,  which  it  slili  retains  in  the  Arabic  form 
of  Nabulus,  being  one  of  the  very  few  names  im- 
posed by  the  Romans  in  Palestine  which  have 
survived  to  the  present  day.  It  had  probably  suf- 
fered much,  if  it  was  not  completely  destroyed, 
in  the  war  with  the  Romans,  and  would  seem  to 
have  been  restored  or  rebuilt  by  Vespasian,  and 
then  to  have  taken  this  new  name. 

(4)  Froflent  Condition.  There  is  no  reason  to 
question  that  the  present  town  occupies  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Shechem,  although  its  dimensions 
are  probably  more  contracted.  The  fertility  and 
beauty  of  the  deep  and  narrow  valley  in  which 
the  town  stands,  especially  in  its  immediate  neigh- 
borhood, .have  been  much  admired  by  travelers,  as 
far  exceeding  what  ihey  had  seen  in  any  other 
part  of  Palestine.  The  town  itself  is  long  and 
narrow,  extending  along  the  northeast  base  of 
Mount  Gerizim,  and  partly  resting  upon  iti  de- 
Modern  Shechem,  called  Nablus  (or  Nabulus), 
has  an  estimated  population  of  from  ten  to  twenty 
thousand,  among  whom  ar;  about  one  thousand 


the  Samaritan  Codex. 

2.  Son  of  Hamor,  prince  of  the  country  or 
district  of  Shechem,  in  which  Jacob  formed  his 
camp  on  his  return  from  Mesopotamia.  This 
young  man  having  seen  Jacob's  daughter  Dinah, 
was  smitten  with  her  beauty,  and  deflowered  her. 
This  wrong  was  terribly  and  cruelly  avenged  by 
the  damsel  s  uterine  brothers,  Simeon  and  Levi, 
as  described  in  the  article  Dinah  (Gen  xxxiv), 
B.  C.  igo6.  It  seems  likely  that  the  town  of 
Shechem,  even  if  of  recent  origin,  must  have 
existed  before  the  birth  of  a  man  so  young  as 
Hamor's  son  appears  to  have  been;  and  we  may 
therefore  suppose  it  a  name  preserved  in  the 
family,  and  which  both  the  town  and  the  princes 
inherited.  Shechem's  name  is  always  connected 
with  that  of  his  father  Hamor  (Gen.  xxxiii:ig; 
xxxiv;  Acts  vii:i6). 

3.  Son  of  Gilead,  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh, 
and  founder  of  the  Shechemites  (Num.  xxvi:3i), 
B.  C.  after  1856. 

4.  A  Gileadite,  son  of  Shemidah  (i  ChrOD. 
vii:i9).  B.  C.  after  1856. 

SHBGHEHTTEB  (she '  kem  -  lies).  (Heb.  "???• 
shik-mte'\.  the  posterity  of  Shechem,3,  mentioned 
in  Num.  xxvi:3i. 

(shfi-kl'ni),   (Heb.  ■■S"?!?.   skek- 
,  residence).    See  Shekinah. 

{sh6d'e-ur),(Heb.  I*"!!?,  sked-ay 
oor',  darting  of  fire,  or  sender  of  a  revelation). 
The  father  of  the  Eliiur,  who  was  chief  of  the 
tribe  of  Reuben  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus  (Num. 
1:5:  ii:io;  vii:3o,  3S;  x:i8).  B.  C.  before  1658. 

SHEEP  (sbep),  (Heb.  '^..  say:  '^.  tione).  It 
appears  to  be  occasionally  used  as  a  collective 
term,  including  goats;  Arab,  sam,- Heb. '''?^,  ifetfji' 
bes'  a  lamb  under  a  year  old;  '*!!,  ajil,  the  adult 
ram,  but  originally  applied  also  to  the  males  of 
ts,  such  as  deer,  etc.;  "^  rachal,  a 


Broad-Tailed  Sbeep  at  tbe  Oileal. 

female  or  ewe  sheep — all  referable  to  Hebrew 
roots  with  opposite  meanings,  deserving  the  more 
confidence  since  the  earliest  patriarchs  of  the 
nation,  being  themselves  shepherds  and  graiiers, 
had  never  at  any  time  received  this  portion  of 
their  domesticated  cattle  from  foreign  nations, 
and  therefore  had  indigenous  names  for  them. 

The   normal    animal,    from   which    all    or   the 
greater  part  of  the  western  domestic  races  are 


SHEEP  la 

assumed  to  be  descended,  is  still  found  wild  in  t!ie 
high  mountain  regions  of  Persia,  and  is  readily 
distinguished  from  two  other  wild  species  border- 
ing on  the  same  region.  What  breeds  the  earliest 
shepherd  tribes  reared  in  and  about  Palestine 
can  now  be  only  inferred  from  negative  charac- 
ters; yet  ihey  are  sufficient  to  show  that  they 
were  the  same,  or  nearly  so,  as  the  contmon  horned 
variety  of  Egypt  and  continental  Europe:  in  gen- 
eral white,  and  occasionally  black,  although  there 
was  on  the  Upper  Nile  a  speckled  race ;  and  so 
early  as  the  time  of  Aristotle  the  Arabians  pos- 
sessed a  reddish  breed,  another  with  a  very  long 
tail,  and  above  all  a  broad-tailed  sheep,  which 
at  present  is  commonly  denominated  the  Syrian. 
Flocks  of  the  ancient  breed,  derived  from  the 
Bedouins,  are  now  extant  in  Syria,  with  little  or 
no  change  in  external  characters,  chiefly  the  broad- 
tailed  and  the  common  horned  white,  often  with 
black  and  white  about  the  face  and  feet,  the  tail 
somewhat  thicker  and  longer  than  the  Eurooean. 
The  others  are  chiefly  valued  for  the  fat  of  their 
broad  tails,  which  tastes  not  unlike  marrow;  for 
the  flesh  of  neither  race  is  remarkably  delicate, 
nor  are  the  fleeces  of  superior  quality.  Sheep  in 
the  various  conditions  of  existence  wherein  they 
would  occur  among  a  pastoral  and  agricultural 
people,  are  noticed  in  numerous  places  of  the  Bible, 
and  furnish  many  beautiful  allegorical  images, 
where  purity,  innocence,  mildness,  and  submission 
are  portrayed — the  Savior  himself  being  denomi- 
nated 'the  Lamb  of  God,'  in  twofold  allusion  to 
his  patient  meekness  and  to  his  bein^  the  true 
paschal  lamb,  'slain  from  the  foundation  of  the 
world'  (Rev.  xiii  ;8).  The  meaning  of  the 
Hebrew  word  kesitak  (droves),  occurring  only  in 
Gen.  xxxiiiig,  and  Job  xxi  ;n.  should  be  trans- 
lated iheep  or  lambs.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Rabbinical  expounders  have  rendered  it  money. 
The  Jewish  shakal,  'to  weigh,'  indicates  this  early 
character  of  money ;  and  its  use  is  plainly  shown 
in  Gen.  xxiii:i6,  where  Abraham,  buying  a  field 
and  cave,  weighs  out  four  hundred  shekels  of 
silver,  a  kind  of  current  money,  the  medium  of 
exchange  between  merchants,  but  not  therefore 
coin,  which  implies  a  characteristic  impression  on 
the  metal.  In  Gen.  xxxiiiig.  kesilah  may  be  a 
Canaanitish,  or  more  properly  a  Scylho-Chaldaic 
designation  ot  sheep  in  the  lime  of  Jacob,  already 
represented  by  silver,  most  probably  cast  in  the 
form  of  that  animal,  and  of  a  standard  weight, 
for  the  Hebrews  were  not  as  yet  a  people,  and 
the  Egyptians  cast  their  weights  in  metal  shaped 
like  cattle,  etc.;  and  that  Phornicia,  at  a  later 
period,  had  sheep  actually  impressed  on  a  silver 
coin.  C.  H.  S. 

Figurative.  The  nature  of  the  sheep  and  their 
relation  to  man  have  given  rise  to  many  beautiful 
figures,  (i)  Jehovah  was  the  Shepherd  of  Israel, 
and  they  were  his  flock  (Ps.  Kxiii:i:  Ixxivri; 
Ixxviii  :S2 ;  Ixxix  :I3 ;  Ixxx  :i ;  Is.  xl  :ii ;  Jer. 
xxiii:i,  a,  etc.).  (2)  All  the  sheep  offered  in  the 
ancient  sacrifices  represented  Christ.  {3)  He  and 
his  people  are  likened  to  sheep  and  lambs,  to  rep- 
resent their  innocence,  patience,  harmlessness,  use- 
fulness, and  exposure  to  troubles  and  enemies 
(Is.  liii:?;  John  x:i-26,  and  xxilis-I?).  (4) 
Christ  is  God's  Lamb,  whom  he  provided,  and  the 
sacrifice  ot  whom  fully  satisfied  his  offended  jus- 
tice (John  i:29)-  (5>  Men  in  general  are  com- 
pared to  sheef  and  lambs,  to  denote  their  stupid- 
ity, their  weakness,  exposure  to  danger,  and  need 
of  government  (i  Kings  xxii:!?;  Hos.  iv:i6;  Is. 
liii:6).  (6)  Or  for  their  innocency  and  harm- 
lessness as  to  a  particular  sin  (2  Sam.  xxivri?). 
(7)  Sinners  are  likened  to  sheep,  to  mark  thejr 
nnthoughtf Illness,  their  proneness  to  wander,  their 


S  SHEETS 

exposure  to  ruin,  their  inability  to  defend  vr  re- 
cover themselves,  and  their  need  to  be  saved,  led, 
and  nourished  by  Jesus  the  great  Shepherd  (Ps. 
xlix:i4;  Is.  liii:6;  1  Pet.  ii:2S;  Luke  xv;4-6). 
(8)  Apostasy  of  sinners  frctm  God  is  likened  to 
the  straying  of  a  lost  sheep  (Ps.  cxix:i76;  Is. 
Iiii:6;  Jer.  1:6). 

BEEEFCOTB  (shep'kof).     See  Sheepfold. 

SHSEFFOIJ}  (shep'fold').  The  Heb.  words  for 
this  expression  in  the  Old  Testament  are: 

1.  Gked-ay-rww',  C"'^'^,  inclosure;  "cote," 
iSam.xxiv:3;  "fo1d,"Num.xxxii:i6,  24,36;  Zeph. 
ii:6),  a  built  pen,  such  as  joins  buildings,  and  used 
fur  cattle  as  well  as  sheep. 

2.  Mii-/aw\  {^)^P.  pen;  "sheepfold,"  Ps. 
lxxviii:70;  "folds,"  Ig;  Hab.  111:17),  is  probably 
what  we  understand  hy  stalh. 

3.  Naw-veh',  (p^i,  habitation;  "sheepcote," 
2Sam.vii:8;  I  Chron.  xvii:?;  "fold.-Is.  lxv:io; 
Jer.xxiii:3;  E:ek.  xxxiv:i4;  "stable,"  xxv:5},  in  a 
general  sense  is  a  place  where  flocks  repose  and 
feed. 

4.  O-m-lay',  (Gr.  oiXij,  court;  John  x;i),  the  roof- 
less inclosure  in  the  open  country  in  which  flocks 
were  herded  at  night. 


EasteiD  Sheepfold. 

SHEEP  QATE,  THE  (shep  gai).  (Heb.  P^^ 
"'Pe,  shah'ar,  opening,  or  door;  Aels-lione',  flock). 

One  of  the  Jerusalem  gates,  which  was  rebuilt 
by  Ncheraiah  (Neh.  iiin.  32;  xii:39;  John  v:2). 

SHEEP  MABKET  (shEp  mar'k^t),  (Gr.  irpopar- 
uci), prob-at-it-ay' ,  relating  to  sheep),  properly  not 
a  "market,"  as  there  is  nothing  in  the  original  lo 
mean  that  (John  v:2). 

SHEEP-HASIEB  (shep'mas'ter),  a  shepherd 
(2Kingsiii:4). 

8HEEP-BHEABEB  (shep-shet'gr),  (Heb.  from 
^^,  gavi-xaz' ,  to  shear),  one  who  shears  or  cuts 
oS  the  wool  from  sheep. 

Sheep- shea  ring  was  a  time  of  rejoicing  to  a 
pastoral  people  (Gen.  xxxviii;i2;  2  Sam.  xiii:23. 
2A). 

BHEEFSEIN'S  (shep'skfns),  (Gr.  /ii|Xi,>t4.  may- 
lo-Cay').  A  garment  made  of  the  pelt  of  the  sheep 
(Heb.  xi:37).  and  indicative  of  poverty. 

SHEETS  (shets),  (Judg.  xiviIJ,  13,  "shirts"  in  the 
margin].  The  Heb.  is  saw-deen',  T"?,  elsewhere 
only  in  Prov.  xxxi  :24  and  Is,  iii:23.  where  the 
A.  V.  renders  'fine  linen."  The  LXX  has  in 
the  different  places  fiMtt  or  piiraira  and  the 
Vulg.  sindones.  It  was  a  garment  worn  Iw  men 
and  women,  as  the  above  passages  show.  It  may 
have  been  a  thin  covering  of  linen  worn  next 
to  the  body  as  a  shirt  (Furst,  Keil),  or  a  night- 
wrapper  thrown  around  one  on  taking  off  his 
other  garments  (Saalschutz).  It  was  part  of  the 
raiment  which  Samson  was  to  give  the  Philistines 


SHEHARIAH 


1569 


SHELAM 


if  they  should  discover  his  riddle  within  the  ap- 
pointed time  (Judg.  xiv:i2,  sq.).  It  was  evidently 
an  article  of  value  or  luxury  among  the  Philis- 
tines, as  it  was  still  later  among  the  Hebrews 
(Is.  iii:23;   Prov.  xxxi:24). 

8KEHAKTAH    (sbe'ba-ri'ah),   (Heb.   ^rV^» 

Shekh-ar-yaw't  Jehovah  seeks),  son  of  Jehoram,  a 
Benjamite  living  at  Jerusalem  at  the  time  of  the 
captivity  (i  Chron.  viii.*26),  B.C.  588. 

SHEKEL  (shSk'l).  See  Weights  and  Meas- 
ures. 

SHEEENAH  or  SHECHINAH  (shi'kl'nii), 
(Heb.  •''}''??,  shek'ee-naw\  resident),  a  term  ap- 
plied by  the  ancient  Jews,  especially  in  the 
Chaldee  Targums,  to  that  visible  symbol  of 
of  the  divine  glory  which  dwelt  in  the  tabernacle 
and  temple.  The  word,  though  nowhere  met 
with  in  this  form  in  the  Scriptures,  is  a  direct 
derivative  from  the  Hebrew  root  sh4kan^  'to 
dwell/  'to  dwell  in  a  tent  or  tabernacle,'  which  is 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  sacred  writers,  and 
is  used  mainly  to  imply  the  tabernacled  presence 
and  residence  of  the  Most  High,  by  a  visible 
symbol  among  the  chosen  people. 

Though  found  in  several  connections,  where  the 
sense  of  secular  habitation  is  obvious,  yet  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  dominant  idea  is  that  of 
sacred  indwelling,  of  which  the  following  pas- 
sages afford  striking  specimens:  Exod.  xxv:8, 
'Let  them  make  me  a  tabernacle  that  I  may  dwell 
among  them/  Exod.  xxix  145,  *And  I  will  dwell 
among  the  children  of  Israel,  and  will  be  their 
God.'  Num.  V  :3,  That  they  defile  not  their  camps, 
in  the  midst  whereof  I  dwell/  Ps.  Ixviii  :i6.  This 
is  the  hill  which  God  delighteth  to  dwell  in,  yea, 
the  Lord  will  dwell  in  it  for  ever/  Ps.  Ixxix: 
2,  'Remember — this  Mount  Zion  wherein  thou  hast 
dwelt.*  It  is  more  especially  employed  when  the 
Lord  is  said  to  'cause  his  name  to  dwell,'  im- 
plying the  stated  visible  manifestation  of  his 
presence.  Ezra  vi:i2,  'And  the  God  that  hath 
caused  his  name  to  dwell  there,  literally,  hath 
shakinized  his  name'  (comp.  Deut.  xii:ii;  xiv: 
23;  xvi:6;  xxvi:2).  It  is  emphatically  employed 
in  speaking  of  the  cloud  of  divine  glory  dwelling 
upon  Mount  Sinai:  Exod.  xxiv:i6,  'And  the 
glory  of  the  Lord  abode  upon  Mount  Sinai.*  The 
term  shekinah  is  defined  by  Buxtorf  as  meaning 
primarily  habitation,  or  inhabitation,  but  as  hay- 
ing a  dominant  reference  to  the  divine  glory  in 
its  outward  visible  manifestation.  The  term  is 
of  very  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Chaldee  Tar- 
gums,  where  it  is  employed  interchangeably  with 
'Glory/  'Glory  of  the  Lord/  'Angels  of  the  Lord,' 
and  often  with  'Lord'  (Jehovah)  itself.  The  cita- 
tions that  follow  will  more  fully  disclose  the  usage 
in  this  respect ;  Ps.  Ixxiv  :2,  'Remember  thy  con- 
gregation which  thou  hast  purchased  of  old,  this 
Mount  Zion  wherein  thou  hast  dwelt.'  Targ. 
Exod.  XXV  :8,  'Let  them  make  me  a  tabernacle 
that  I  may  dwell  among  them.'  Chal.,  'I  will 
make  my  shekinah  to  dwell  among  them/  Arab., 
'I  will  make  my  light  (or  splendor)  to  dwell 
among  them.'  Haggai  i  :8,  'Go  up  to  the  moun- 
tain, and  bring  wood,  and  build  the  house,  and 
I  will  take  pleasure,  and  will  be  glorified,  saith 
the  Lord/  Targ.  *I  will  make  my  shekinah 
to  dwell  there  in  glory.'  Ps.  lxxxv:9,  'His  sal- 
vation is  nigh  them  that  fear  him,  that  glory 
may  dwell  in  our  land.'  Thus  explained  by  Aben 
Ezra,  'That  the  shekinah  may  be  established  in 
the  land.' 

As  to  the  precise  nature  of  the  phenomenon 
thus  exhibited,  we  can  only  say,  that  it  appears 
99 


to  have  been  a  concentrated  glowing  brightness, 
a  preternatural  splendor,  an  effulgent  something, 
which  was  appropriately  expressed  by  the  term 
'Glory;'  but  whether  in  philosophical  strictness 
it  was  material  or  immaterial,  it  is  probably  im- 
possible to  determine.  A  luminous  object  of  this 
description  seems  intrinsically  the  most  appro- 
priate symbol  of  that  Being  of  whom,  perhaps 
in  allusion  to  this  very  mode  of  manifestation,  it 
is  said,  that  'he  is  light/  and  that  'he  dwelleth 
in  light  unapproachable,  and  full  of  glory/  The 
presence  of  such  a  sensible  representation  of  Je- 
hovah seems  to  be  be  absolutely  necessary  in  order 
to  harmonize  what  is  frequently  said  of  'seeing 
God'  with  the  truth  of  his  nature  as  an  incor- 
poreal and  essentially  invisible  spirit.  While  we 
are  told  in  one  place  that  'no  man  hath  seen 
God  at  any  time,'  we  are  elsewhere  informed  that 
Moses  and  Aaron,  and  the  seventy  elders,  'saw 
the  (jod  of  Israel/  when  called  up  to  the  summit 
of  the  Holy  Mount.  So  also  Isaiah  says  of  him- 
self (Is.  vi:i,  s)  that  'in  the  year  that  king  Uz- 
ziah  died  he  saw  the  Lord  sittinpj  upon  his  throne/ 
and  that,  in  consequence,  he  cried  out,  *I  am  un- 
done ;  for  mine  eyes  have  seen  the  Lord  of  hosts.' 
In  these  cases  it  is  obvious  that  the  object  seen 
was  not  God  in  his  essence,  but  some  external,  vis- 
ible symbol,  which,  because  it  stood  for  God,  is 
called  by  his  name. 

Of  all  the  divine  appearances  granted  in  the 
earlier  ages  of  the  world,  the  most  signal  and 
illustrious  was  undoubtedly  that  which  was  vouch- 
safed in  the  pillar  of  cloud  that  guided  the  march 
of  the  children  of  Israel  through  the  wildemes* 
on  their  way  to  Canaan. 

A  correct  view  of  this  subject  clothes  it  ^t 
once  with  a  sanctity  and  grandeur  which  seldonv 
appear  from  the  naked  letter  of  the  narrative. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  columnar  cloml 
was  the  seat  of  the  shekinah.  We  have  already 
seen  that  the  term  shekinising  is  applied  to  the 
abiding  of  the  cloud  on  the  summit  of  the  moun- 
tain (Exod.  xxiv:i6).  Within  the  towering 
aerial  mass  we  suppose  was  enfolded  the  inner 
effulgent  brightness  to  which  the  appellation 
'Glory  of  the  Lord,'  more  properly  belonged,  and 
which  was  only  occasionally  disclosed.  In  sev- 
eral instances  in  which  God  would  indicate  his 
anger  to  his  people  it  is  said  that  they  looked 
to  the  cloud  and  beheld  the  'Glory  of  the  Lord' 
(Num.  xivrio;  xv:i9,  42).  So  when  he  would 
inspire  a  trembling  awe  of  his  Majesty  at  the 
giving  of  the  Law,  it  is  said,  the  '(jlory  of  the 
Lord  appeared  as  a  devouring  fire*  on  the  summit 
of  the  Mount. 

Nor  must  the  fact  be  forgotten  in  this  connec- 
tion that  when  Nadab  and  Abihu,  the  two  sons  of 
Aaron,  offended  by  strange  fire  in  their  offerings, 
a  fatal  flash  from  the  cloudy  pillar  instantaneously 
extinguished  their  lives.  The  evidence  would 
seem  then  to  be  conclusive,  that  this  wondrous 
pillar-cloud  was  the  seat  or  throne  of  the  she- 
kinah,  the  visible  representative  of  Jehovah,  dwell- 
ing in  the  midst  of  his  people. 

See  Lowman,  On  the  Shekinah;  Taylor's  Let' 
tcrs  of  Ben  Mordecai;  Skinner's  Dissertation  on 
the  Shekinah;  Watt's  Glory  of  Christ;  Upham, 
On  the  Logos;  Bush's  Notes  on  Exodus;  Teni- 
son,  On  Idolatry;  Fleming's  Christology. 

G.  B. 

SHELAH  (she'lah).  (Heb.  ^?S?.  shay-law,  pe- 
tition). 1.  The  youngest  son  of  Judah  (Gen. 
xxxviii:  5,  11,  14,  26;  xlvi:i2;  Num.  xxvi:2o; 
I  Chron.  ii:3,  iv:2i),  B.  C.  before  1873.  His  de- 
scendants were  called  Shelanites  (i  C!hron.  iv:2i* 

23)- 


SHELANITES,  THE 


1570 


SHEMAIAH 


2.    (Htb.^^,  sA^A'lakk).    The  proper  form  of 

the  name  of  Salah,  the  son  of  Arphaxad  (i  Chron. 
i:i8»  24).    (See  Sela.) 

SHEIiANITES,  THE  (she'Ian-ites,  the),  (Heb. 
"^iJBi?,  ha-shti^  law-nee').  The  descendants  of 
Shblah,  i»  8CID  of  Judah  (Num.  xxvi:20). 

SHETiEMTAH  (shgl'e-ml'ah),  (Heb.  ^^^4^^ 
shel-em-yaw' ,  whom  Jehovah  repays). 

1.  A  "son"  of  Bani  who  divorced  his  Crentile 
wife  (Ezra  x:39),  B.  C.  458. 

2.  Father  of  Hananiah,  who  repaired  a  part  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii:8,  30),  B.  C.  be- 
fore 446. 

3.  A  priest  and  treasurer  during  Nehemiah's 
reign  (Neh.  xiii:i3),  B.  C.  about  434. 

C  Father  of  the  Jehucal,  or  Jucal,  whom  Zede- 
kiah  ordered  to  ask  Jeremiah  to  intercede  for  the 
city  (Jer.  xxxvii:3;  xxxviiiii),  B.  C.  before  589. 

5.  Father  of  the  Irijah  who  arrested  Jeremiah 
(Jer.  xxxvii:i3),  B.  C.  before  589. 

6.  The  same  as  Meshelemiah  (i  Chron.  ix:2i; 
xxvi:i,  2)  and  Shallum  (i  C^ron.  ix:i7,  31).  A 
Levite  appointed  under  David  to  guard  the  east 
entrance  of  the  tabernacle.  His  son  Zechariah 
had  the  north  gate   (i   Chron.  xxvi:i4),  B.  C. 

7.  Another  "son"  of  Bani  who  divorced  his 
Gentile  wife  (Ezra  x:4i),  B.  C.  458. 

8.  The  son  of  Cushi  and  ancestor  of  Jehudi, 
who  was  sent  by  the  princes  to  Baruch,  requesting 
Jeremiah's  roll  to  be  read  to  them  (Jer.  xxxvi: 
14),  B.  C.  much  before  605. 

9.  (Om  in  LXX.)  Son  of  Abdeel,  and  one  of 
those  who  were  commanded  to  apprehend  Jere- 
miah and  Baruch  (Jer.  xxxvi  126) ,  B.  C.  604. 

SHELEPH   (she'leph).   (Heb.    1^^,    shek'lef, 

drawing  out.  plucking).  Second  of  the  thirteen 
sons  of  Joktan  (Gen.  x:26;  i  Chron.  i:20).  He 
was  the  founder  of  a  tribe  which  has  been  well 
identified  in  the  district  of  Sulaf,  (B.  C.  much 
after.  5 1 5.)  ... 

SHELESH    (she'lesh),   (Heb.   ^?f,   sheh^lesh, 

triplet).  The  third  of  the  four  sons  of  Helem,  the 
brother  of  Shamer  the  Asherite  (i  (^ron.  vii:35), 
B.  C.  about  1015. 

SHELOMI  (sh«l'o-mI),  (Heb.  '*?**  shel-o-mee'. 

pacific),  the  .father  of  the  Ahihud  who  was  ap- 
pointed as  a  representative  from  the  tribe  of 
Asher  to  oversee  the  division  of  the  promised 
land  (Num.  xxxiv:27),  B.  C,  before  1618. 

SHELOMITH  (sh«l'o-mIth).  Heb.  ^^XP"^,  shel- 
(hmeeth't  peaceful). 

1.  Daughter  of  Dibri,  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  and 
mother  of  that  blasphemer  who  was  condemned 
to  be  stoned  (Lev.  xxiv:io,ii),  B.  C.  before  1658. 

2.  Daughter  of  Zerubbabel  (i  Chron.  iii:  19),  B. 
C  after  536. 

3.  A  Levite  chief  of  the  time  of  David  (i  Chron. 
xxiii:i8);  called  Shelomoth  in  i  Chron.  xxiV: 
22.    B.  C.  1013. 

4.  A  descendant  of  Moses  and  treasurer  in  the 
Temple  during  David's  reign  (i  Chron.  xxvi:25, 
26,  ^),  B.  C.  1013. 

5.  A  Gershonite,  son  of  Shimei,  of  the  time 
of  David  (i  Chron.  xxiii:9),  B.  C.  1013. 

6.  A  man  whose  "sons"  returned  from  Baby- 
Ion  with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii:io),  B.  C.  before  459. 

7.  The  last  of  the  children  of  Rehoboam  by 
his  wife  Maachah  (2  Chron.  xi:2o),  B.  C.  ajbout 
970.  .  . 

SHELOMOTH     (shSro-mSth).    (Heb.     f^^P'P. 

$hel-0'meeih\  love  of  peace).    See  Shblomith. 


(shelQ'mi-el).     (Heb.    ^i<"9^?» 

shel'OO'tnee-ale',  friend  of  God).  Son  of  Zeru- 
shaddia,  prince  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  at  the  time 
of  the  Exodus,  having  59,300  men  under  him 
(Num.  i:6,  ii:i2,  vii:36,  41,  x:i9).    B.  C.  1057. 

SHEM  (sh^m),  (Heb.  ^t,   shofne),   one  of  the 

three  sons  of  Noah  (Cxen.  v:32),  from  whom 
descended  the  nations  enumerated  in  (jen.  x: 
22,  sq.,  and  who  was  the  progenitor  of  that 
great  branch  of  the  Noachic  family  (called  from 
him  Shemitic  or  Semitic)  to  which  the  Hebrews 
belong  (B.  C.  2613).  The  name  of  Shem  is  placed 
first  wherever  the  sons  of  Noah  are  mentioned 
together;  whence  he  would  seem  to  have  been 
the  eldest  brother.  But  against  this  conclusion  is 
brought  the  text  ((Jen.  x:2i),  which,  according 
to  the  Authorized,  and  many  other  versions,  has 
*Shem  the  brother  of  Japheth  the  elder;'  whence 
it  has  been  conceived  very  generally  that  Japheth 
was  really  the  eldest,  and  that  Shem  is  put  first 
by  way  of  excellency,  seeing  that  from  him  the 
holy  line  descended.  But  this  conclusion  is  not 
built  upon  a  critical  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew, 
which  would  show  that  *the  elder,'  must  in  this 
text  be  referred  not  to  Japheth,  but  to  Shem,  so 
that  it  should  be  read  *Shem  ....  the  elder  brother 
of  Japheth.'  Assuming  that  the  ages  of  the  patri- 
archs recorded  in  the  Hebrew  Bibles  are  correct, 
Methusaleh  lived  one  hundred  years  after  Shem's 
birth.  He  was  six  hundred  years  old  when  he 
died.  Respecting  the  posterity  of  Shem,  see  Na- 
tions, Dispersion  of. 


(she'mi).  (Heb.  ^5*,  sAeA'maA,  hear- 

ing,  rumor).  A  town  of  southern  Judah  (Josh. 
xv:26).  In  the  parallel  list  (Josh.  xix:2)  the 
name  is  Sheba,  which  is  perhaps  more  nearly  cor- 
rect. 

SHEMA  (she'mi),  (Heb.  ^?f .  sAeA'maA,  rumor; 

Gr.  Zo/ui,  Samma).  1.  AReubenite,sonof  Joel  and 
father  of  Azaz  (i  Chron.  v:8)  ;  probably  the  She- 
maiah  of  i  Chron.  v  14.    B.  C.  before  1090. 

2.  (Sa'ma),  a  Benjamite,  the  son  of  Elpaal, 
and  one  who  helped  to  drive  the  inhabitants  from 
Gath  (i  Chron.  viii;i3),  B.  C.  after  1618. 

3.  One  of  Ezra's  attendants  while  he  read  the 
law  (Neh.  viii:4),  B.  C.  458. 

4.  The  fourth  and  last  of  the  sons  of  Hebron, 
a  descendant  of  C^leb  and  Judah  (i  Chron.  ii: 
43,  44)',  B.  C.  before  1658. 

SHEMA  AH   (she-ma'ah).   (Heb.  •"^?^^,  sAim- 

aw',  rumor).  A  Benjamite,  father  of  Ahiezer  and 
Joash,  who  came  to  David  at  Ziklag  (i  Chron. 
xii:3),  B.  C.  before  1054. 

8HEMATAH  (shgm'a-l'ah).  (Heb.  ^t?^^.  sAefff^ 

aA'j^aw',  or  ^'^t?^?*  sAem-aA-yaw' Aoo,  heard  of 

Jehovah).  1.  A  prophet  who  was  sent  to  Rehoboam, 
king  of  Judah,  with  a  message  from  God,  to  forbid 
his  war  against  Israel  (i  Kings  xii  :22 ;  2  Chron.  xi : 
2).  Some  years  after  this,  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt, 
came  in  hostile  array  into  Judea,  against  Re- 
hoboam, and  took  the  best  places  of  his  king- 
dom. The  prophet  Shemaiah  told  Rehoboam,  and 
the  princes  of  Judah,  who  had  retired  into  Jeru- 
salem, that  they  had  forsaken  the  Lord,  and 
now  he  in  his  turn  would  forsake  them,  and 
deliver  them  into  the  hands  of  Shishak.  The 
king  and  the  princes,  being  in  a  consternation, 
answered,  "The  Lord  is  just  ;  but,  ihey  humbling 
themselves,  God  moderated  his  anger  and  their 


SHEMAIAH 


1571 


SHEMARIM 


suflferings.    Shemaiah  wrote  the  history  of  Reh(>- 
boam  (2  Chron.  xiiiis),  B.  C.  972. 

2.  A  Levite,  son  of  Nethaneel,  secretary  of 
the  Temple  (i  Chron.  xxiv:6),  and  registrar  of 
the  priests  at  the  time  they  were  divided  into 
twenty-four  orders.     (B.  C.  1014.) 

3.  A  son  of  Delaiah,  a  false  prophet  in  the  time 
of  Nehemiah,  who,  being  corrupted  by  Sanballat, 
and  the  other  enemies  of  Nehemiah,  would  have 
persuaded  him  to  retire  into  the  Temple  (Neh.  vi: 
10),  B.  C.  446. 

4.  A  person  who,  without  authority,  assumed 
the  functions  of  a  prophet  among  the  Israelites  in 
exile  (B.  C.  606).  He  was  so  much  annoyed  by 
the  prophecies  which  Jeremiah  sent  to  Babylon, 
the  tendency  of  which  was  contrary  to  his  own, 
that  he  wrote  to  Jerusalem,  denouncing  the 
prophet  as  an  impostor,  and  urging  the  atithorities 
to  enforce  his  silence.  In  return  he  received  new 
prophecies,  announcing  that  he  should  never  be- 
hold that  dose  of  the  bondage  which  fie  fancied  to 
be  at  hand,  and  that  none  of  his  race  should  wit- 
ness the  re-establishment  of  the  nation  ( Jer.  xxix : 

24-32). 

6.  Son  of  Joel,  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben  (i  Chron. 
v:  4),  B.  C.  after  1874. 

6.  Son  of  Elizaphan.  He  was  chief  of  his  house 
and  took  part  in  the  ceremonies  connected  with 
bringing  the  Ark  from  the  house  of  Obed-edom 
(i  Chron.  xv:  8,  11),  B.  C.  1043. 

7.  The  first  of  the  eight  sons  of  Obed-edom, 
and  a  gate  keeper  of  the  Temple  (i  Chron.  xxvi: 
4,  6,  7),  B.  C.  1014, 

8.  A  Levite  who  in  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  as- 
sisted in  instructing  the  people  in  the  law  (2 
Chron.  xvii:  8),  B.  C.  909. 

9.  Father  of  Shimri  (i  Chron.  iv:37),  B.  C 
much  before  'utI^.   Perhaps  the  same  as  Shimei. 

10.  A  descendant  of  Jeduthun,  and  assistant  in 
the  purification  of  the  Temple  and  reformation  of 
the  service.  He  with  Uzziel  represented  his  fam- 
ily on  the  occasion  (2  Chron.  xxix:i4),  B.  C. 
726. 

11*  A  Levite  of  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  who  was 
appointed  to  distribute  the  tithes  to  the  priests  (2 
Chron.  xxxi:  15),  B.  C.  726.  Perhaps  the  same 
as  10. 

12.  A  chief  Levite  of  the  reign  of  Josiah,  who 
with  his  brothers  contributed  to  the  sacrifice  of 
the  Passover  (2  Chron.  xxxv:9),  B.  C.  628. 

13.  Father  of  Urijah,  the  prophet  (Jer.  xxvi : 
20),  B.  C.  before  608. 

14.  Father  of  Delaiah,  who,  with  other  princes, 
heard  Baruch's  roll  (Jer.  xxxvi:  12),  B.  C.  before 
60s. 

16.  A  chief  priest  who  returned  from  the  Cap- 
tivity with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  xii :  6,  18),  B.  C.  536. 
He  was  one  who  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehe- 
miah (Neh.  x:  8). 

16.  One  of  the  supplementary  heads  of  families 
of  Adonikam  who  returned  with  Ezra  from  cap- 
tivity (Ezra  viii:  13),  B.  C.  459- 

17.  A  head  of  a  family  whom  Ezra  sent  for  at 
the  river  Ahava  in  order  to  obtain  ministers  and 
Levites  for  the  Temple  (Ezra  viii:  16),  B.  C. 
459.^ 

lo.  A  priest,  "son"  of  Harim,  who  put  away  his 
Gentile  wife  after  the  Captivity  (Ezra  x:2i),  B.  C. 
4S8. 

19.  A  la3rman,  "son"  of  Harim,  who  put  away 
his  Gentile  wife  (Ezra  x:3i),  B.  C.  458. 

20.  A  priest,  the  father  of  Jonathan  (Neh.  xii: 
35),  B.  C.  before  446. 

21.  The  son  of  Galal  and  father  of  Obadiah,  the 
Levite  (i  Chron.  ix:i6),  B.  C.  before  446.  He  is 
called  Shammua  (Neh.  xi:  17). 


t 


22.  A  son  of  Shechaniah.  He  assisted  in  re- 
pairing the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  and  was  keeper  of 
the  east  gate  (Neh.  iii:  29),  B.  C.  446. 

23.  A  Mesarite  Levite,  son  of  Hasshub,  ^^ho 
lived  at  Jerusalem  and  was  an  overseer  of  the 
Temple  (Neh.  xi:  15),  B.  C.  446. 

24.  A  prince  of  Judah,  who  took  part  in  the 
celebration  over  the  completion  of  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  (Neh.  xii :  34),  B.  C.  446. 

25.  One  of  the  choir  which  assisted  in  the  dedi- 
cation of  the  new  wall  of  Jerusalem  under  Ezra 
(Neh.  xii:  ^6),  B.  C.  446. 

26.  A  priest*  who  performed  on  trumpets  at  the 
celebration  of  the  completion  of  the  walls  of  Jeru- 
salem (Neh.  xii:  42),  B.  C.  446. 

27.  Son  of  Shechaniah  and  descendant  of  Ze- 
rubbabel (i  Chron.  iii:  22),  B.  C.  about  380. 

SHEMABIAH  (shSm'a  ri'ah).  (Heb.  H?')!?*, 
shem-ar-yaw* t  whom  Jehovah  keeps). 

!•  A  Benjamite  warrior  under  David,  who 
came  to  him  at  Ziklag  (i  Chron.  xii:5},  B.  C 

1054. 

2.  A  layman  of  Israel,  of  the  family  of  Harim, 
who  put  away  his  foreign  wife  after  the  Captivity 
(Ezra  x:32),  B.  C.  4S8. 

3.  One  of  the  "sons"  of  Bani,  who  also  di- 
vorced his  Gentile  wife  (Ezra  x:4i),  B.  C.  458.  ^ 

4.  The  second  son  of  Rehoboam  by  Abihail 
2  Chron.  xi:i9).  Auth.  Vers.  Shamariah.  (B. 
.  about  973.) 

SHEMABIM  (she-ma'iYm),  (Heb.  Q*"??^,  shem- 

aw-reem\  from  "^^Y,  sAaw'mar,  to  keep,  to  pre- 
serve). 

This  term  is  generally  understood  to  denote 
the  lees  or  dregs  of  wine,  and  it  is  asserted  that 
the  radical  idea  expresses  the  fact  that  these  pre- 
serve  the  strength  and  flavor  of  the  wine.  There 
is  evidently  a  reference  to  this  in  Ps.  lxxv:8: 
Tor  in  the  hand  of  Jiehovah  there  is  a  cup,  and 
the  wine  (^^  yayin)  is  red  (or  thick  and  turbid, 
hhawmar)  ;  it  is  full  of  mixture  imesech),  and 
he  poureth  out  this ;  but  the  dregs  thereof  (shetn^ 
awreetn)  all  the  rebels  of  the  earth  shall  press 
and  suck;*  in  this  verse  alone  we  have  four  of 
the  terms  rendered  *wine'  by  the  translators  of 
the  English  Bible.  The  inference  is,  that  sheni' 
drim  httt  denotes  the  dregs  of  wine.  This 
cannot  be  the  meaning  of  the  term,  however, 
in  Is.  XXV  :6,  where,  we  think,  it  must  refer 
to  some  rich  preserves  appropriate  to  the  feast 
of  which  that  text  speaks  (Ttrosh  lo  Yayin,  iv: 
8).  The  verse  may  be  rendered  thus: — ^'And  Je- 
hovah of  hosts  shall  make  to  all  peoples  in  this 
mountain  a  feast  of  fat  things  (snemawnitn) ,  a 
feast  of  preserves  (shentawrtm) ,  of  the  richest 
fatness,  of  preserves  well  "cfined.*  Considerable 
diversity  of  opinion  has  obtamec  among  Biblical 
critics  in  regard  to  both  the  literal  meaning  and 
prophetic  bearing  of  this  text.  The  most  usual 
interpretation  supposes  a  reference  to  wines  on 
the  lees;  but  shemdrim  of  this  text  was  a  solid 
article,  different  from  ashishah,  grape-cake  (Ge- 
senius,  Heb.  Lex,,  sub  t/(?c.),asnot  oeing  pressed 
in  any  particular  form,  and  different  from  tsttn- 
mukim,  dried  grapes,  as  being  refined  and  pre- 
pared for  being  served  up  at  a  sumptuous  enter- 
tainment. Those  commentators,  however,  who 
suppose  that  Isaiah  here  speaks  of  good  old 
fermented  wine,  advocate  an  article  which  is 
rather  offensive  than  agreeable  to  the  Hebrew 
taste.  In  Cant,  ii  :4,  the  bride  says  of  the  object 
of  her  affection,  'He  brought  me  to  the  house  of 
grapes'  an  arbor  being  referred  to,  probably  simi- 
lar to  those  found  in  our  gardens  and  orchards, 
or  perhaps  larger  (Robinson's  Palestine,  vol.  i,  p. 


SHEMEBER 


1572 


SHEOL 


314) ,  such  houses  or  tents  being  common  in  vine- 
yards, and  resorted  to  at  the  time  of  the  vintage. 
The  sweetness  of  honey  seems  to  have  been  pre- 
ferred in  their  wines;  for  in  Cant.  v:i,  the  bride- 
groom says,  *I  have  eaten  my  honey  (not  honey- 
comb, as  'some  have  falsely  and  carelessly  ren- 
dered it* — Gesenms;  see  Honey)  with  my  grape 
syrup' ;  and  the  mildness  of  milk  was  also  agree- 
able, for  he  adds,  *I  have  drunk  my  wine  with 
my  milk.'  That  which  *goeth  down  sweetly*  is 
approved  of  (Cant.  vii:9),  as  well  as  that  which 
has  the  flavor  of  spices,  with  the  addition  of  the 
juice  of  the  pomegranate  (Cant.  viii:2),  or  that 
of  other  fruits.  Wisdom,  too  (Prov.  ix:2),  is 
said  to  have  'mingled  her  wine,'  a  circumstance 
which  plainly  indicates  that  the  wine  referred  to 
was  thick  and  syrupy,  and  for  use  required  to  be 
mingled  with  a  quantity  of  water  equal  to  that 
which  had  been  evaporated  by  boiling.  The  an- 
cient Jews  had  two  objects  in  view  in  mingling 
their  wine— one  of  which  we  have  now  mentioned, 
and  the  other  was  by  the  mixture  of  drugs  to 

froduce  a  highly  intoxicating  drink  (Is.  v:22). 
t  would  be  no  compliment,  therefore,  to  a  sober 
Israelite  to  be  promised  an  abundant  supply  of 
old  fermented  wine  at  a  rich  entertainment;  in 
fact,  it  would  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of  mockery. 

We  may  state  briefly  the  results  to  which  the 
preceding  observations  conduct  us : 

(a)  The  term  shemdrim  does  not  naturally 
call  up  the  idea  of  wine. 

(&)  It  properly  signifies  preservers  or  pre^ 
serves, 

(c)  There  is  a  paronomasia  in  the  text  in 
the  words  shemdnim  (delicacies)  and  shemdrim 
{preserves),  the  beauty  of  which  is  increased  by 
the  repetition  of  these  terms. 

(rf)  The  interpretation  of  rich  preserves  is  the 
only  one  that  suggests  an  article  worthy  of  being 
placed  side  by  side  with  the  rich  delicacies  which 
interpreters  acknowledge  to  be  designated  by  the 
accompanying  term. 

{e)  Wine  filtered  or  drawn  oflF  from  the  lees 
was  not  in  high  repute. 

(/)  The  Hebrew  taste  was  in  favor  of  a  solid 
preparation  of  the  grape. 

Neither  of  the  other  passages  (Jet.  xlviii:ii; 
Zeph.  1:12)  which  relate  to  shemdrim  is  invested 
wim  special  interest.  The  wine  was  separated 
from  the  lees,  sometimes  at  least,  by  being  drawn 
off  from  one  vessel  to  another,  as  appears  from 
Jeremiah  xlviii:ii. 

Moab  is  here  represented  as  spending  a  life  of 
quiet  indifference,  living  undisturbed  in  sin.  Such, 
too,  was  the  situation  of  those  of  whom  Jehovah 
says  (Zeph.  i:i2),  T  will  punish  the  men  that  are 
settled  on  their  lees';  that  is,  those  who  disre- 
garded his  admonitions  and  prosecuted  their  sin- 
ful courses,  unmoved  by  his  threatenings.  (See 
Wine.)  P.  M. 

SHEMEBEB     (sh«m'e-ber),     (Heb.    ^W?t^ 

shem-ay'ter^  lofty,  flight),  king  of  Zeboim,  one  of 
the  five  'cities  of  the  plain'  (Gen.  xiv:2),  B.C. 
about  2088. 

SHEMEB  (shS'mer),  (Heb.  ^^'^,  sheh'mer^  lees), 

the  owner  of  the  hill  of  Samaria,  which  derived  its 
name  from  him.    B.  C.  917. 

Omri  bought  the  hill  for  two  talents  of  silver, 
and  built  thereon  the  city,  also  called  Samaria, 
which  he  made  the  capital  of  his  kingdoni  (i 
Kings  xvi:24)  (see  Samaria).  As  the  Israelites 
were  prevented  by  the  law  (Lev.  xxv:23)  from 
thus  alienating  their  inheritances,  and  as  his  name 
occurs  without  the  usual  genealogical  marks,  it 
is  more  than  probable  that  Shemer  was  descended 


from  those  Canaanites  whom  the  Hebrews  had 
not  dispossessed  of  their  lands. 

SHEMTDA    (she-mi'd4),    (Heb.    ^T^\  shem- 

ee-daw',  fame  of  knowledge).  A  son  of  Gilead 
(Num.  xxvi:32;  i  Chron.  vii:i9),  and  founder  of 
the  family  of  Sbemidaites.    B.  C.  after  1856. 

SHKMTDAH   (she-ml'dah),    (i    Chron«   vii:i9). 
See  Shemida. 

SHEMIDAITES  (she-mi'da  Ites),  (Heb.  ^VT^'^.* 

shem-ee-daw-ee*),  descendants  of  Gilead  by  his  son 
Shemida  (Num.  xxvi:32;  Josh.  xvii:2). 

(sh€m'i-nrth),    (Heb.     ^^i"V^f 


shem-ee-neeth't  the  eight).    Title  of  the  Ps.  vi;  i 
Chron.  xv:2i. 


[OTH    ( she  -  mir'a-mdth ),     ( Heb. 
r1)S5"*9¥,  shem-ee-raw-rndth't  name   most   high). 

1-  A  Levite,  who  played  in  the  choir  of  David 
(i  Chron.  xv:i8,  20;  xvi:5),  B.  C.  1043. 

2.  A  Levite  teacher  of  the  books  of  the  Law 
sent  out  by  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron.  xvii:8),  B.  C. 
909. 

SHBMITES  (shemltz),  the  descendants  of 
Shem.  The  ^eat  branch  of  the  Noachic  family  is 
called  Shemitic  or  Semitic  (see  (}en.  xi:io,  11; 
x:22.) 

The  portion  of  the  earth  occupied  by  the  de- 
scendants of  Shem  (Gen.  x:2i-3i)  intersects  the 
portions  of  Japheth  and  Ham,  and  stretches  in  an 
uninterrupted  line  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
to  the  Indian  Ocean.  It  includes  Syria  (Aram), 
Chaldaea  (Arphaxad),  parts  of  Assyria  (Asshur), 
of  Persia  (Elam),  and  of  the  Arabian  peninsula 
(Joktan).    (See  Shem.) 

SHEMUEL    (she-mfl'el),  (Heb.  ''S'itt^,  shem- 

00-ale',  Samuel).  1.  Son  of  Ammihud,  and  the 
one  appointed  by  Moses  from  the  tribe  of  Simeon 
to  divide  the  promised  land  (Num.  xxxiv:2o), 
B.  C.  1618. 

2.  A  more  correct  form  of  Samuel^  the  prophet 
(i  Chron.  vi:33). 

3.  A  descendant  Of  Tola,  and  one  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  in  the  time  of  David 
(i  Chron.  vii:2),  B.  C.  1014. 

SHEN  (sh«n),  (Heb.  l^t?.  with  the  article,  hash- 

shane',  the  tooth).  The  place  near  which  Samuel 
set  up  the  stone  eben-czer,  commemorating  the 
defeat  of  the  Philistines  (i  Sam.  vii:i2).  Site 
not  known. 

SHEKAZAB  (she-na'zar),  (Heb.  '^^^it,  shen- 

atS'tsar'),  the  fourth  of  the  seven  sons  of  king 
Jeconiah  and  brother  of  Salathiel  (i  Chron.  iii:i8), 
B.  C.  after  606. 

SHENIB  (shg'nir),  (Heb.  ^'^i^,  shen-eer',  Deut. 

iii:9;   Cant.  iv:8;   sen-eer',  *''*?:,  i  Chron.  v:23; 

Ezek.  xxvii:5,  Pointed,  peak),  the  name  by  which 
the  Amorites  called  Mount  Hermon. 

SHEOL  (she'ol).  (Heb.  ^*'«*,  sheh-ol^.  Hades, 

or  the  world  of  the  dead),  a  word  usually  derived 

from  ^8^,  shavhal',  *'  to  ask  or  seek." 

The  invisible  world,  or  the  place  of  departed 
spirits,  in  the  intermediate  state,  prior  to  the  res- 
urrection. The  corresponding  term  in  Hebrew 
is  Sheol,  which  is  derived  from  the  root  shoe,  to 
demand,  inquire;  and  either  signifies  the  place 
with  respect  to  which  it  may  be  asked,  Man 
giveth  up  the  ghost,  and  where  is  hef"  (Job  xiv: 
10)  or  the  insatiable  receptacle  which  crieth  Give, 


SHEPHAM 


1673 


SHEPHERD 


give,  and  never  saith,  It  is  enough  (Prov.  xxx: 
15,  16).  Both  words,  Sheol  and  Hades,  are  em- 
ployed to  express  the  state  of  the  dead,  in  its 
most  comprehensive  point  of  view ;  including  the 
grave  as  the  invisible  residence  of  the  body,  and 
the  world  of  spirits  as  the  invisible  abode  of  the 
soul.  At  other  times  they  are  used,  either  of 
the  one  or  the  other,  taken  separately.  They  are 
often  very  improperly  rendered  hell  in  our  com- 
mon version;  the  instances  being  comparatively 
few  in  which  the  words  have  the  accessory  sig- 
nification of  the  place  of  punishment.  In  other 
passages  the  term  grave  is  too  limited  a  rendering. 
The  reader  must  judge  from  the  context,  and  all 
the  circumstances  of  the  case,  in  which  acceptation 
of  the  words  are  to  be  taken. 

That  the  Hebrews,  however,  ordinarily  under- 
stood something  beyond  the  grave  by  the  term 
Sheol  is  evident  from  the  circumstance  that  the 
common  name  for  that  receptacle  oi  the  human 
body  is  Keher;  so  that  when  in  any  given  instance 
they  did  apply  it  in  this  sense,  it  was  only  designa- 
ting a  part  for  the  whole.  It  was  the  state  in  which 
the  aged  patriarch  expected  to  meet  his  deceased 
son  (Gen.  xxxvii:35),  into  which  the  fathers  had 
entered,  and  whither  their  posterity  were  removed 
at  death  to  join  their  society  (Gen.  xxv:8,  xxxv: 
29,  xlix:29;  Dcut.  xxxii:5o).  In  all  these  pas- 
sages, the  being  "gathered  to  one's  people,'  is 
spoken  of  as  something  distinct  from  mere  burial ; 
and,  indeed,  in  the  cases  of  Abraham  and  Moses, 
it  is  obvious  that,  in  such  a  sense,  no  phrase  can 
be  more  incongruous,  since  the  former  had  no 
people  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  Sarah  being  the 
only  individual  who  as  yet  had  been  buried  in 
it;  and  of  the  grave  of  the  latter,  the  children 
of  Israel  were  profoundly  ignorant.  To  his  peo- 
ple he  certainly  was  not  gathered,  if  by  the  phrase 
be  meant  that  his  body  was  deposited  m  his 
family  grave.  It  has  justly  been  observed  that 
Hades,  and  the  corresponding  Hebrew  word  Sheol, 
are  always  singular,  in  meaning  as  well  as  in  form. 
The  word  for  grave  is  often  plural.  The  former 
never  admit  the  possessive  pronouns,  being  the 
receptacle  of  all  the  dead,  and  therefore  inca- 

?able  of  appropriation  to  individuals;  the  latter 
requently  does.  Where  the  disposal  of  the  body 
or  corpse  is  spoken  of,  taphos,  or  some  equivalent 
term,  is  the  name  of  its  repository.  When  men- 
tion is  made  of  the  spirit  after  death,  its  abode 
is  called  Hades,    (See  Hades.) 

SHEFHAM  (she'pham),  (Heb.  OP^,  shef-awm% 

a  place  mentioned  by  Moses  as  one  of  the  land- 
marks on  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  promised 
land  (Num.  xxxiv.io,  11).    Site  undetermmed. 

(shSf'a-thl'ah),  (l    Chron. 


6.  One  of  the  chief  of  those  valiant  men  who 
went  to  David  when  at  Ziklag  (i  Chron.  xii;5), 
B.  C.  1054, 

7.  The  governor  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  in  the 
time  of  David  (i  Chron.  xxvii:i6},  B.  C.  1014. 

8.  Son  of  Reuel  and  father  of  Meshullam,  the 
chieftain  of  Benjamin  at  the  time  of  the  Captivity 
(i  Chron.  ix:8),  B.  C.  before  588. 


ix:8).    See  Shephatiah. 

SHEPHATIAH  (sh«f 'a  -  ti'ah),  (Heb.  ^^W^.* 
shef-at-yaw^  whom  Jehovah  defends). 

1.  A  son  of  David  by  Abital  (2  Sam.  iii:4;  i 
Chron.  iii:3),  B.  C.  1050. 

2.  One  of  the  nobles  who  urged  Zedekiah  to 
put  Jeremiah  to  death   (Jer.  xxxviii:i),  B.  C. 

589. 

3.  One  of  the  heads  of  families  who  settled  in 
Jerusalem  after  the  Exile  (Neh.  xi:4),  B.  C.  be- 
fore 536. 

4.  The  head  of  one  of  the  families  numbering 
three  hundred  and  seventy-two  persons,  of  the 
returned  exiles  (Ezra  ii  :4,  57 ;  Neh.  vii  rp) ,  B.  C. 
before  536. 

5.  A  son  of  king  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron.  xxi:2), 
B.  C  887. 


»^.»*^*..«i..i»..,  ^^^^^  (shef-e'lah  the).  (Heb. 

with    the   article   •  V???,   hash'Shef-ay-law',   the 

low),  the  name  of  that  part  of  the  country  lying 
between  the  highlands  of  Palestine  and  the 
Mediterranean. 

Smith  (HisU  Geog,  Holy  Land)  says :  "Thoujgh 
the  name  may  originally  have  been  used  to  in- 
clude the  maritime  plain,  yet  the  Shephelah  proper 
was  the  region  of  low  hills  between  that  plam  and 
the  high  central  range." 

SHEPHEBB  (sh8p-erd),  (from  Heb.  •"^J,  raw- 
aw*,  to  tend;  Gr.  woifi^tf, poy-mam'). 

The  shepherd  or  "sheep-master"  was  constantly 
with  his  flocks  by  night  and  by  day,  to  number, 
gather,  feed,  conduct,  and  guard  them  (Gen.  xxxi : 
39;  Luke  ii:8),  and  was  often  attended  with  a 
despised  dog  (Job  xxx:i).  His  care  of  the  sheep 
was  constant  and  tender,  and  his  control  over 
them  very  great  (Is.  xl:ii;  John  x:i-i6).  Rev. 
John  Hartley,  a  missionary  in  Greece,  tells  us 
that  he  was  once  passing  by  a  flock  of  sheep,  and, 
having  heard  it  said  they  would  obey  the  shep- 
herd's voice,  he  asked  him  to  call  one  of  his  sheep, 
which  instantly  left  its  pasturage  and  approached 
the  hand  of  the  shepherd  with  a  prompt  obedience 
which  he  never  saw  in  any  other  animal.  It  is 
also  universally  true  in  that  country  that  a 
stranger  they  will  not  follow.  They  flee  from 
him,  for  they  know  not  the  voice  of  a  stranger. 

It  is  said  that  the  shepherds  of  Judaea  gave  each 
lamb  a  distinct  name,  and  that  they  instantly 
obeyed  the  voice  of  the  shepherd,  coming  and 
going  daily  at  his  call.  An  ancient  Jewish  writer, 
born  and  educated  in  Egypt,  states  that  the  sheep, 
in  the  season  of  shearing,  would  run  to  the  shep- 
herd at  his  call,  and,  stooping  a  little,  put  them- 
selves into  his  hands  to  be  shorn  and  stand  quietly 
until  he  had  done. 

It  was  the  business  of  the  shepherd  to  count 
the  sheep  daily,  perhaps  oftener,  and  he  was  ac- 
countable for  any  that  were  missing  (Gen.  xxxi: 
38,  39;  Exod.  xxii:i2,  13;  Lev.  xxvii:32;  Jer. 
xxxiii:i3).    (See  Rod,  Staff,  Scepter.) 

Sometimes  a  lamb  was  taken  into  the  tent  and 
brought  up  like  a  dog  (2  Sam.  xii:3).  It  is 
common  in  Armenia  to  see  shepherds  carrying  in 
their  bosoms  the  lambs  of  the  flock  they  are  tend- 
ing. They  are  too  feeble  to  roam  with  their  dams, 
and  nothing  evinces  more  tenderness  and  care 
than  gently  leading  such  as  are  with  young  or 
such  as  have  young  lambs  to  which  they  give 
suck  (Is.  xl:ii).  Two  of  our  American  mis- 
sionaries tell  us  that  while  traveling  in  Armenia 
they  passed  several  shepherds,  probably  from  the 
neighboring  villages,  carrying  in  their  bosoms  the 
lambs  of  the  flocks  they  tended.  The  same  scene 
had  already  frequently  interested  them  by  present- 
ing the  source  of  the  beautiful  imagery  of  the 
prophet.  It  is  exhibited  only  at  one  season  of 
the  year,  when  lambs  are  frequently  brought  forth 
during  the  day  at  a  distance  from  the  fold.  The 
newcomers,  being  too  weak  to  follow  the  flock 
in  its  rovings  after  grass,  are  carried  in  the  bosom 
of  the  shepherd,  and  not  un frequently  they  so 
multiply  as  to  fill  his  arms  before  night.  Th^ 
are  then  taken  to  the  fold,  and  guarded  there  until 
sufficiently    strong   to   ramble  with  their  dams. 


SHEPHERD 


1574 


SHESH 


One  of  these  enclosures  presents  an  amusing  scene 
when  the  sheep  return  anxiously  bleating  in  the 
evening  from  their  day's  pasture,  and  scores  of 
hungry  young  ones  are  conducted  by  shepherds' 
boys  each  to  its  own  mother.   (Schaff,  Bib.  Diet.) 

The  office  of  the  eastern  shepherd,  as  described 
in  the  Bible,  was  attended  with  much  hardship, 
and  even  danger.  He  was  exposed  to  the  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold  (Gen.  xxxi  140)  ;  his  food  fre- 
quently consisted  of  the  precarious  supplies  af- 
forded by  nature,  such  as  the  fruit  of  the  "syca- 
more," or  Egyptian  fig  (Amos  vii  114),  the  "husks" 
of  the  carob-tree  (Luke  xv:i6),  and  perchance 
the  locusts  and  wild  honey  which  supported  the 
Baptist  (Matt.  iii:4);  he  had  to  encounter  the 
attacks  of  wild  beasts,  occasionally  of  the  larger 
species,  such  as  lions,  wolves,  panthers,  and  bears 
(i  Sam.  xvii:34;  Is.  xxxi  14;  Jer.  v:6;  Amos  iii: 
12)  ;  nor  was  he  free  from  the  risk  of  robbers 
or  predatory  hordes  ((Jen.  xxxi  139).  To  meet 
these  various  foes,  the  shepherd's  equipment  con- 
sisted of  the  following  articles :  A  mantle,  made 
probably  of  sheep's-skin  with  the  fleece  on,  which 
he  turned  inside  out  in  cold  weather,  as  im- 
plied in  the  comparison  in  Jer.  xliii  :i2  (cf.  Juv. 
xiv.  187)  ;  a  scrip  or  wallet,  containing  a  small 
amount  of  food  (i  Sam.  xvii:4o;  Porter's  Damas- 
cus^ ii.  100)  ;  a  sling,  which  is  still  the  favorite 
weapon  of  the  Bedouin  shepherd  (i  Sam.  xvii:4o; 
Burckhardt's  Notes,  i.  57)  ;  and,  lastly,  a  staff, 
which  served  the  double  purpose  of  a  weapon 
against  foes  and  a  crook  for  tne  management  of 
the  flock  (i  Sam.  xvii:40;  Ps.  xxiii:4;  Zech.  xi: 
7).  If  the  shepherd  was  at  a  distance  from  his 
home  he  was  provided  with  a  light  tent  (Cant. 
i;8;  Jer.  xxxv:7),  the  removal  of  which  was 
easily  effected  (Is.  xxxviii:i2).  In  certain  locali- 
ties, moreover,  towers  were  erected  for  the  double 
purpose  of  spying  an  enemy  at  a  distance  and  pro- 
tecting the  flock;  such  towers  were  erected  by 
Uzziah  and  Jotham*  (2  CHiron.  xxvi:io,  xxvii:4), 
while  their  existence  in  earlier  times  is  testified 
by  the  name  Migdal-Eder  (Gen.  xxxv:2i,  A.  V. 
"tower  of  Edar  f  Mic.  iv  :8,  A.  V.  "tower  of  the 
flock").    (See  Sheep;  Pasturage.) 

Figurative,  (i)  Political  rulers  in  the  state, 
and  captains  in  the  army,  are  called  shepherds  or 
pastors;  their  office  requires  them  to  gather, 
lead,  protect,  and  provide  for  the  welfare  of  their 
subjects  and  armies,  which  are  their  flocks  (Is. 
xliv:^,  and  lxiii:i4;  Jer.  xii:io,  and  xxv:34; 
Neh.  iii:i8;  Jer.  xxiii;  Ezek.  xxxiv).  (2)  Per- 
haps the  shepherd  and  stone  of  Israel,  signifies 
not  God,  the  source  of  all  blessings,  but  Joshua, 
Gideon,  and  other  rulers  of  Israel,  descended  from 
the  tribes  of  Ephraim,  or  Manasseh,  who  as 
shepherds,  ruled,  and  as  a  stone  established  the 
Hebrew  nation  (Gen.  xlix:24).  (3)  The  Chal- 
d^ean  princes  and  their  armies  were  the  shepherds 
and  flocks  that  ruined  Judah  (Jer.  vi:3,  and  xii: 
10).  (4)  Christ  is  God's  Shepherd;  because  his 
father  has  given  him  his  flock  of  chosen  men,  and 
appointed  him  to  die  for,  call,  and  feed  them 
(2fech.  xiii:7).  (5)  He  is  called  the  one  Shep- 
herd; because  he  alone  owns  the  sheep,  and  can 
in  every  respect  answer  and  supply  all  their  wants 
(Ezek.  xxxiv  123;  John  x:  16).  (6)  He  is  called  the 
great  and  chief  Shepherd;  he  is  infinitely  great  in 
himself;  he  is  highly  exalted  as  our  Mediator;  he 
has  the  supreme  management  of  the  church  in  his 
hand;  and  ministers  and  magistrates  are  but  in- 
struments subject  to  him  (Heb.  xiii:2o;  i  Pet.  v: 
4).  (7)  He  is  the  good  Shepherd;  in  infinite  kind- 
ness he  redeemed  his  sheep  from  ruin,  by  the  price 
of  his  blood ;  kindly  he  sympathizes  with  them,  and 
gives  them  his  own  flesh  and  blood  for  their  pro- 
vision; and  nothing  good  will  he  withhold  n'om 


them  (John  x:i4).  (8)  He  is  the  Sheplierd  and 
Bishop  of  souls;  it  is  men's  souls  he  leads,  restores 
and  satisfies;  and  their  spiritual  and  eternal  inter- 
ests are  the  great  *object  of  his  care  (i  Pet  ii:25; 
Ps.  xxiii  :2,  3;  Jer.  xxxi:27).  (9)  Ministers  are 
shepherds;  it  is  their  work  to  gather,  lead,  watch 
over,  feed  with  sound  doctrine,  and  every  way 
endeavor  to  promote  the  spiritual  life,  safety, 
growth,  health,  and  comfort  of  their  people  (Jolm 
xxi:i5,  16;  Eph.  iv;ii;  i  Pet.  v;i-4). 

SHEFHI  (she'phi).  (Heb.  ^^t,  shef-ee\  a  naked 

hill),  son  of  Shobal  (i  Chron.  i:4o);  also  written 
Shepho  (Gen.  xxxvi;23),  B.  C.  about  1920. 

SHEPHO     (she'pho),    (Heb.    '^%    shef-oh', 
smoothness.)    See  Shephi  (Gen.  xxxvi:23). 

SHEPHUPHAN  (she-phS'phan).  (Heb.  I?''^?* 

shef-oO'fawn\  serpent;  Gr.  T^ipovipiLik^  Sephupham, 
son  of  Bela  and  grandson  of  Benjamin  (i  Chron. 
viii:5).  The  name  is  also  written  Shephupham ; 
Shupham  (Num.  xxvi:39);  Shuppim  (i  Chroa 
vii:  12,  15,  and  Huppim  (Gen.  xlvi:2i). 

SHERAH  (she'rah).  (Heb.  •"'TSf,  sheher-aw', 

kinswoman;  Gr.  Zo/^d,  Sara),  a  daughter  of  Eph- 
raim, and  founder  of  the  two  Beth-horons.  The 
town  Uzzen-Sherar  was  named  after  her  (i  Chron. 
vii  124),  B.  C.  about  161 2. 


(sherd).    (Is.  xxx.  14;  Ezek.  xxiii  134). 
See  Potsherd  ;  Potter. 

SHEBEBIAH  ( sh«r'e-bi'ah ),  (Heb.  •'^I?!?*, 
shay-rayb-yaw\  heat  of  Jehovah). 

A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Mahli,  the  son  of 
Merari,  who  joined  Ezra  at  the  river  Ahava  (Ezra 
viii:i8,  24).  He  assisted  Ezra  in  instructing  the 
people  in  the  law  (Neh.  viii:7),  took  part  in  the 
solemn  fast  after  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Neh. 
ix:4,  5),  sealed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
x:i2),  and  was  among  the  chief  of  the  Levijes  in 
the  choir  (Neh.  xii:8,  24),  B.  C.  459. 

SHEBESH  (she'resh),    (Heb.  W,  sheh* resh, 

in  pause,  root),  son  of  Machir,  of  Manasseh,  by 
Maachah  (i  Chron.  vii:  16),  and  father  of  Ulam  and 
Rakem.    B.  C.  before  1658. 

SHEBEZEB  (she-re'zer).  (Heb.  ^W$.   shar- 

^^'/j^r,  prince  of  fire;  Gr.  lapourdp,  sarasar),  (Zech, 
vii:2).    (See  Sharezer.) 

^SHEBHTS  (shSr'Ifs).    (Heb.   ^^^<^,  tif-tah'ee, 

a  lawyer,  or  a  iudge).  Only  mentioned,  Dan.  iii  :2, 3. 
He  was  probably  one  who  decided  points  of  law. 

SHESH  (shesh).  1.  (Heb.  ^$,  shaysh,  bleached), 

also  SHESHI  (she'shi),  translated/w^f  linen  in  the 
Authorized  Version,  occurs  twenty-eight  times  in 
Exodus,  once  in  Genesis,  once  in  Proverbs,  and 
three  times  in  Ezekiel. 

(1)  Distinctions.  In  the  article  Byssus  we 
have  seen  that  the  word  had,  translated  linen,  oc- 
curs in  various  passages  of  the  Old  Testament, 
but  that  the  word  hutz,  translated  Une  linen  and 
white  linen,  is  employed  only  at  a  later  period. 
Under  the  word  Karpas,  used  in  Esth.  i:6,  we 
have  shown  the  probability  of  its  being  derived 
from  the  Sanscrit  karpasum,  and  that  it  signifies 
'cotton.'  We  have  there  stated  our  opinion  that 
cotton  was  known  to  the  Hebrews  when  in  Per- 
sia, and  that  buts,  which  is  not  used  before  the 
time  when  the  book  of  Chronicles  was  written, 
probably  also  signifies  cotton.  Ethun,  as  well  as 
othonion,  appears  to  have  been  applied  either  to 
linen  or  cotton  cloth.  Bad  we  conceive  may  mean 
linen  only.  Pishtah,  flax,  we  know,  was  one  of 
the  great  productions  of  Egypt. 


SHESH 


1575 


SHETHAR 


In  the  several  passages  where  we  find  the  word 
shcsh  "Used,  we  do  not  obtain  any  information  re- 
specting the  plant;  but  it  is  clear  it  was  spun  by 
women  (Exod.  xxxv:25),  was  used  as  an  article 
of  clothing,  also  for  hangings,  and  even  for  the 
sails  of  ships,  as  in  Ezek.  xxvii:7,  *fi9ie  linen 
(sites It)  with  broidered  work  from  Egypt  was 
that  which  thou  spreadest  forth  to  be  thy  sail.' 
It  is  evident  from  these  facts,  that  it  must  have 
been  a  plant  known  as  cultivated  in  Egypt  at  the 
earliest  period,  and  which,  or  its  fiber,  the  Israel- 
ites were  able  to  obtain  even  when  in  the  desert. 
As  cotton  does  not  appear  to  have  been  known  at 
this  very  early  period,  we  must  seek  for  shesh 
among  the  other  fiber-yielding  plants,  such  as 
flax  and  hemp.  Both  these  are  suited  to  the  pur- 
pose, and  were  procurable  in  those  countries  at 
the  times  specified.  Lexicographers  do  not  give 
us  much  assistance  in  determining  the  point,  from 
the  little  certainty  in  their  inferences.  The  word 
shesh,  however,  appears  to  us  to  have  a  very  great 
resemblance,  with  the  exception  of  the  aspirate, 
to  the  Arabic  name  of  a  plant,  which,  it  is  cu- 
rious, was  also  one  of  those  earliest  cultivated  for 
its  fiber,  namely,  hemp.  Of  this  plant  one  of  the 
Arabic  names  is  husheesh,  or  the  herb  par  excel- 
lence. Though  we  are  unable  at  present  to  prove 
that  it  was  cultivated  in  Egypt  at  an  early  period, 
and  used  for  making  garments,  yet  there  i^  noth- 
ing improbable  in  its  having  been  so.  Indeed  as 
it  was  known  to  various  Asiatic  nations,  it  could 
hardly  have  been  unknown  to  the  Egyptians,  and 
the  similarity  of  the  word  husheesh  to  the  Arabic 
shesh  would  lead  to  the  belief  that  they  were  ac- 
quainted with  it,  especially  as  in  a  language  like 
the  Hebrew  it  is  more  probable  that  diflFerent 
names  were  applied  to  totally  different  things, 
than  that  the  same  thing  had  two  or  three  differ- 
ent names.  Hemp  might  thus  have  been  used  at 
an  early  period,  along  with  flax  and  wool,  for 
making  cloth  for  garments  and  for  hangings,  and 
would  be  much  valued  until  cotton  and  the  finer 
kinds  of  linen  came  to  be  known. 

(2)  Plax  and  Linen.  Reference  has  been  made 
to  this  article  from  Bvssus  and  from  Pishtah 
for  an  account  of  flax  and  the  cloth  made  from  it. 
So  many  words  are  translated  linen  in  the  Au- 
thorized Version  of  the  Scriptures,  that  it  has 
been  considered  doubtful  whether  they  indicate 
only  different  qualities  of  the  same  thing,  or  totally 
different  substances.  The  latter  has  by  some  been 
thought  the  most  probable,  on  account  of  the  pov- 
erty of  the  Hebrew  language;  hence,  instead  of 
considering  the  one  a  synonym  of  the  other,  wc 
have  been  led  to  inquire,  as  above,  whether  shesh 
may  not  signify  cloth  made  of  hemp  instead  of 
flax.  This  would  leave  bad  and  pishtah  as  the 
only  words  peculiarly  appropriated  to  linen  and 
Hax,  The  passages  in  which  had  occurs  have  al- 
ready been  indicated  (see  Bvssus).  On  referring 
to  them  we  find  that  it  is  used  only  when  articles 
of  clothing  are  alluded  to.  It  is  curious,  and 
probably  not  accidental,  that  the  Sanskrit  word 
pat  signifies  cloth  made  from  wax-like  substances. 
It  has  been  remarked  that  the  official  garments  of 
the  Hebrews,  like  those  of  the  Egyptians,  were  all 
made  of  linen ;  and  we  find  in  the  several  passages 
where  had  occurs,  that  linen  garments  and  clothes, 
linen  breeches,  linen  girdle,  linen  ephod,  linen 
miter,  are  intended;  so  in  Exod.  xxxix:28,  and 
they  made  for  Aaron  and  his  sons  *a  miter  of  fine 
linen,  and  goodly  bonnets  of  fine  linen,  and  linen 
breeches  of  fine  twined  linen.*  In  the  article 
Cotton  we  have  seen  that  the  mummy  cloths  are 
composed  very  generally,  if  not  universally,  of 
linen  doth. 


2.    Heb.   '"T^^S.  pish'taw',  carded,  no  doub*: 

refers  to  the  flax  plant,  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
context  of  the  passages  in  which  it  occurs.  Thus, 
in  Exod.  ix:3i,  in  the  plague  of  the  hailstorm,  it 
is  related,  *And  the  Aax  {pishtah)  and  the  barley 
was  smitten;  for  the  barley  was  in  the  ear,  and 
the  flax  was  boiled.'  or  in  blossom,  according  to 
Gesenius.  As  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  took 
place  in  the  spring,  this  passage  has  reference  no 
doubt  to  the  practice  adopted  in  Egypt,  as  well  as 
in  India,  of  sowing  these  grains  partly  in  the 
months  of  September  and  October,  and  partly  in 
spring,  so  that  the  wheat  might  easily  be  in  blade 
at  the  same  time  that  the  barley  and  flax  were 
more  advanced.  From  the  numerous  references 
to  flax  and  linen,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  plant 
was  extensively  cultivated,  not  only  in  Egypt,  but 
also  in  Palestine.  As  to  Egypt  we  have  proof  in 
the  mummy  cloth  being  made  of  linen,  and  also 
in  the  representations  of  the  flax  cultivation  in  the 
paintings  of  the  Grotto  of  El  Kab,  which  repre- 
sent the  whole  process  with  the  utmost  clearness ; 
and  numerous  testimonies  might  be  adduced  from 
ancient  authors  of  the  esteem  in  which  the  linen 
of  Egypt  was  held.  Flax  continues  to  be  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  the  present  day.  That  it  was 
also  much  cultivated  in  Palestine,  and  well  known 
to  the  Hebrews,  we  have  proofs  in  the  number  of 
times  it  is  mentioned;  as  in  Josh.  ii:6,  where 
Rahab  is  described  as  concealing  the  two  Hebrew 
spies  with  the  stalks  of  flax  which  she  had  laid  in 
order  upon  the  roof.  In  several  passages,  as  Lev. 
xiii  :47.  48.  52,  59;  Deut.  xxii  :ii ;  Jer.  xiii  :i ;  Ezek. 
xl:3;  xliv:i7,  18,  we  find  it  mentioned  as  forming 
different  articles  of  clothing,  as  girdles,  cords,  and 
bands.  In  Prov.  xxxi:i3,  the  careful  housewife 
'seeketh  wool  and  flax,  and  worketh  it  willingly 
with  her  hands.  The  words  of  Isaiah  (xlii:3), 
*A  bruised  reed  shall  he  not  break,  and  the  smok- 
ing flax  shall  he  not  quench,'  are  evidently  re- 
ferred to  in  Matt.  xii:20,  where  li'non  is  used  as 
the  name  of  flax,  and  as  the  equivalent  of  pishtah. 
But  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  this  word  being 
correctly  understood,  as  it  has  been  well  investi- 
gated by  several  authors.  J.  F.  R. 

SHESHACH  (she'shSk),  (Heb.  W,  sAay-sAak'), 

a  name  twice  given  by  Jeremiah  to  Babylon  (Jer. 
xxv:26;  li:4i).  Its  etymology  and  proper  signifi- 
cation are  duubtful. 

SHESHAI  (she'shal),  (Heb.  ^tt,  shay-shah' ee, 

whitish),  a  son  of  Anak,  living  at  Hebron  (Num. 
xiii:22)  from  whence  he  was  driven  and  slain,  with 
his  brothers,  by  Caleb  and  the  children  of  Judah 
(Josh.  xv:i4;  Judg.  i.io),  B.C.  1612. 

SHESHAN  (she'shan),  (Heb.  1^,  shay-shawn', 

lily),  a  Hebrew,  who  during  the  soioum  in  Egypt 
gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  liis  freed  Egyp- 
tian slave  (I  Chron.  11:34),  B.C.  after  1856.  (See 
Jarha.) 

SHESHBAZZAB  (shesh-b&z'zar),  (Heb.  ^^^1l* 
shaysk'batS'tsar' ,  foreign  derivation).    See  Zerub- 

BABEL. 

SHETH  (shSth),  (Heb.  ^*  shayth,  confusion). 

1.  A  form  of  Seth  (i  Chron.  i:i). 

2.  In  Num.  xxiv:i7,  A.  V.,  "the  sons  of  Sheth'' 
should  probably  be  read  "the  sons  of  confusion*' or 
"tumult." 

SHETHAB  (she'thar),  (Heb.  "^79,  shay-thawr', 

Pers.,  a  star),  one  of  the  seven  princes  of  Persia 
and  Media,  "who  saw  the  king's  face,  and  sat  the 
first  in  the  kingdom*'  (Esth.  1:14).  B.  C.  483. 


SHETHAR-BOZNAI  15" 

SHETHAB-BOZNAI  (sbe'tbar-bez'na-I),  (Heb. 
•;p3  ^ntt  shelh-ar'  bo-stn-ah' te),  Pers.,  shining 
Btar;  one  of  the  Persian  governora  in  Syria,  who 
visited  Jerusalem  in  company  with  Tatnai,  to  in- 
vestigate  th&  charges  made  against  the  Jem 
(Eira  v;3;  vi;6),  B.  C  520.    (See  Tatnai.) 

SBBVA  (sh j'vA),  (Heb.  XJ^,  tkev-avf,  falK^ 

I.David's  secretary  (2  Sam.  xx:25);  called 
Seraiah  (2  Sam.  viii:i7),  Shisha  (t  Kings  iv: 
3),Shavsha  {1  Chron,  xviii:i6), 

a.  The  last  of  the  four  sons  of  Caleb  ben-Hei- 
ron  by  his  concubine  Maachah  (l  Chron.  ii:49), 
B.  C.  about  1612. 


'■1i£ 


I  (sho'brfd).    (1)  In  the  outer 

apartment  of  the  tabernacle  on  Ihe  right  hand, 
or  north  side,  stood  a  table,  made  o(  acacia 
(shittim)  wood,  two  cubits  long,  one  broad,  and 
one  and  a  half  high,  and  covered  with  laminx  of 
gold.  The  top  of  the  leaf  of  this  table  was  encir- 
cled by  a  border  or  rim  of  gold.  The  frame  of  the 
table,  immediately  below  the  leaf,  was  encircled 
with  a  piece  of  wood  of  about  four  inches  in 
breadth,  around  the  edge  of  which  was  a  rim  or 
border,  similar  to  that  around  the  leaf.  A  little 
tower  down,  but  at  equal  distances  from  the  top 
of  the  table,  there  were  four  rings  of  gold  fastened 
to  the  legs,  through  which  staves  covered  with 
gold  were  inserted  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  it 
(Exod.  xxv:23-28;  xxxvii:io-i6).  These  rings 
were  not  found  in  ihe  table  which  was  afterwards 
made  for  the  Temple,  nor  indeed  in  any  of  the 
sacred  furniture,  where  they  had  previously  been, 
except  in  the  ark  of  the  covenant.  Twelve  un- 
leavened loaves  were  placed  upon  this  table,  which 
were  sprinkled  with  frankincense  (the  Septuagint 
adds  salt;  Lev.  xxiv:?).  The  number  twelve  rep- 
resented the  twelve  tribes,  and  was  not  diminished 
after  the  defection  of  ten  of  the  tribes  from  the 
worship  of  God  in  his  sanctuary,  because  Ihe  cov- 
enant with  the  sons  of  Abraham  was  not  formally 
abrogated,  and  because  they  were  still  many  true 
Israelites  among  Ihe  apostatizing  tribes.  The 
twelve  loaves  were  also  a  constant  record  against 
them,  and  served  as  a  standing  testimonial  that 
their  proper  place  was  before  the  forsaken  altar  of 
Jehovah.  The  loaves  were  placed  in  two  piles,  one 
above  another,  and  were  changed  every  Sabbath 
day  by  the  priests.  The  frankincense  that  had  stood 
on  the  bread  during  the  week  was  then  burnt  as  an 
oblation,  and  the  removed  bread  became  the  prop- 
erty of  the  priests,  who,  as  God's  servants,  had  a 
rif^t  lo  eat  of  ihe  bread  which  came  from  his  tabic, 
but  they  were  obliged  lo  eat  it  in  the  holy  place, 
and  nowhere  else.  No  others  might  lawfully  eat 
of  it ;  but  in  a  case  of  extreme  emergency  the 
priest  incurred  no  blame  if  he  imparted  it  to  per- 
sons who  were  in  a  state  of  ceremonial  purity, 
as  in  the  instance  of  David  and  his  men  (i  Sam. 
xxi:4-6;Matt.xii:4l. 

(8)  The  table  of  bread  was  called  B'??  Dn5 
l^?*i  shoo-lekh-awtt'  lekk'em-paw-neem',  table  oj 
the  face,  i.  e.,  of  Jehovah,  because  it  was  set  forth 
before  the  face  or  in  the  presence  of  Jehovah  in 
his  holy  place.  This  is  translated  'shewbread.' 
It  Is  also  called  'the  bread  arranged  in  order,'  and 
the  'perpetual  bread,'  because  it  was  never  absent 
from  the  table  (Lev.  xxiv:6,  7;  I  Chron.  ii:4). 

Wine  also  was  placed  upon  the  table  of  'shew- 
bread,' in  bowls,  some  larger,  and  some  smaller ; 
also  in  vessels  that  were  covered,  and  in  cups, 
which  were  probably  employed  in  pouring  in  and 
taking  out  the  wine  from  the  other  vessels,  or  in 
making  libations,  Gesenius  calls  Ihem  'patera 
lihatona;'  and  they  appear  in  the  Authoriied  Ver- 


SHIBBOLETH  (shlb'bo-ISIb),  (Heb.  ^Pt. 
shib-bo' letk),  the  word  means  a  stream  or  flood, 
and  was  hence  naturally  suggested  to  the  follow- 
ers of  Jephthah,  when,  having  seized  the  fords  of 
the  Jordan  to  prevent  the  retreat  of  the  defeated 
Ephraimiles,  they  sought  lo  distinguish  them 
through  their  known  inability  to  utter  the  aspira- 
ted sound  sh.  The  fugitives  gave  instead  the  un- 
aspirated  j,  sibboleth,  on  which  they  were  slain 
without  mercy  (Judg,  xii  :6).  The  certainty  which 
was  felt  that  ihe  Ephrairaites  could  not  pronounce 
jA,  is  very  remarkable,  and  strongly  illustrates  the 
varieties  of  dialect  which  had  already  risen  in 
Israel,  and  which  perhaps  even  served  to  distin- 
guish different  tribes,  as  similar  peculiarities  dis- 
tinguish men  of  different  countries  with  us.  If 
what  is  here  mentioned  as  the  characteristic  of  a 
particular  tribe  had  been  shared  by  other  tribes,  it 
would  not  have  been  sufficiently  tfiscriminaling  as 
a  test. 

BHIBIffAH  (shfb'mah),  (Heb.  ^9?^,  ji'j-maw. 
coolness  or  fragrance),  a  cily  of  Reuben  (Num. 
xxxiir38:  Josh,  xiiiiig),  Isaiah  (xvi;8,g)  speaks 
of  the  vines  of  Sibmah,  which  were  cut  down  by 
the  enemies  of  the  Moabites;  for  that  people  had 
taken  the  cily  of  Sibmah  (Jer.  xlviii:32),  and 
others  of  Reuben,  after  this  tribe  was  carried 
into  captivity  by  Tiglath-pileser  (i  Chron.  v:26; 
2  Kings  XV  ;29).  Jerome  says  that  between  Hesh- 
bon  and  Sibmah  Ihere  was  hardly  Ihe  distance  of 
SOO  paces.  The  sile  must  therefore  have  been  on 
the  plateau  east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  (See  Tristram, 
Land  of  Israel,  p.  535.) 

SHICBON  (shik'ron),  (Heb.  V?^.  skik-ker- 
one',  drunkenness),  a  town  on  the  western  end  of 
the  northern  boundary  of  Judah  (Josh,  xv:ii). 
Site  not  known,  though  it  may  perhaps  be  the 
ruins  of  the  present  village  Beit  Skit,  between 
Ashdod  and  Ekron. 

SHEBU)  (sheid).  The  most  ancient  defensive 
piece  of  armor  was  the  shield,  buckler,  roundel,  or 
target,  composed  of  a  great  variety  of  materials, 
very  different  in  form  and  size,  and  therefore  in  all 
nations  bearing  a  variety  of  names.  The  He- 
brews used  the  word  'll?,  tsin-naw' ,  for  a  great 
shield;  defense,  proteciiun  {Gen.  xv:i;  Ps.  xtvii:Q; 
Prov.  XKX:0,  which  Is  commonly  found  in  con- 
nection with  spear,  and  was  the  shelter  of  heavily 
armed  infantry;  IS'?,  maw-ffane'  a  buckler,  or 
smaller  shield,  which,  from  a  similar  juxtaposi- 
tion with  sword,  bow  and  arrows  appears  to  have 


SHIGGAION 


1677 


SHIMEA 


been  the  defense  of   the  other  armed  infantry 

and  of  chiefs;  and  *^1^^,  so-khay-raw*^  a  roun- 
del, which  may  have  been  appropriated  to  archers 
and  slingcrs;  and  ^5?,  sheh'iet,  synonymous  with 

maw-gan^t  only  different  in  ornament.  Then  we 
have  the  Gr.  Ovptfn,  thoo-reh-os'  (£ph.  vi:i6), 
a  large  oblong  and  square  shield.  The  ordi- 
nary shield  among  the  Hebrews  consisted  of  a 
wooden  frame  covered  with  leather,  and  could  be 
easily  burned  (Ezek.  xxxixig).  Some  shields 
were  covered  with  brass,  or  copper,  and  when 
shone  upon  by  the  sun  caused  the  redness  men- 
tioned in  Nahum  ii:3. 

Figurative,  (i)  God's  taking  hold  of  shield 
and  buckler,  denotes  his  providence,  for  the  pro- 
tection and  deliverance  of  his  people,  and  for  the 
overthrow  of  their  enemies  (Ps.  xxxv:2).  (2) 
God  is  the  shield  and  buckler  of  his  people;  his 
truth  and  favor  are  their  shield  and  buckler,  and 
he  bestows  on  them  the  shield  of  salvation  (Ps. 
xviii  :2,  35 ;  xci  14,  and  v  :i2).  (3)  Rulers  in  church 
and  state  are  the  Lord's  shields  (Ps.  xlviiiQ).  (4) 
Faith  is  a  shield  (Eph.  vi:i6).  (5)  The  truth  of 
God  is  a  shield  (Ps.  xci  :4).  (6)  The  salvation  of 
God  is  a  shield  (2  Sam.  xxii  :36). 

SHIGGAION  (shig-ga'ion.-yon).  (Heb.  )^t» 

shig'gaw-yone\  from  the  word  meaning  to  wander), 
a  particular  kind  of  psalm  (Ps.  vii:i),  probably  a 
dithyrambic  ode;  a  wild,  rambling  poem. 

SHIGIOKOTH  (shi-gi'o-ndtb),  plural  of  Shig- 
GAION  (Hab.  iii:i). 

SHIHOK  (shi'hon),  (Heb.  X^^t,  shee-ohn'),  a 
town  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix:i9).  The  site  is  per- 
haps *Ay(in  esh-Sha*in,  three  miles  northwest  from 
Mount  Tabor. 

SHIHOB-LIBKATH  (shi'hdr-irb'nath),  (Heb. 

n:5?  Iln*';?^  shee-khore*  lib-nawth'),  a  boundary 

landmark  at  the  southwestern  comer  of  Asher 
^Josh.  xix:26).  It  was  apparently  near  Carmel  and 
is  now  believed  to  be  the  Zerka,  six  miles  south  of 
Dor,  a  city  of  Asher. 

SHIHOB  OF  EGYPT  (shi'bdr  dv  S'jj^t), 
(Heb.  lin"*i;^,  shee'khore'\  one  of  the  names  of  the 
Nile  (Is.  xxiii:^;  Jer.  ii:  18).  Some  take  Sihor  (Josh. 
xiii:3),  and  Shihor  (i  Chron.  xiii:5),  to  be  the  brook 
of  Egypt,  the  present  Wady  el  Arish. 

SHIKKOTH  and  SHIKMIM  (sbTk'm5th,  shTk'- 
mSm).    See  Sycamore. 

SHILHI  (shn'hi),  (Heb.  W^,  shil'kkee\  per- 
haps armed),  the  father  of  Azubah,  Jehoshaphat*s 
mother  (i  Kings  xxii:42;  2  Chron.  xx:3i).  B.  C. 
before  946.  , 

SHTTiHTM  (shtl'him),  (Heb.  ^^^^t ,shU'kheem\ 

armed  men).  A  southern  city  of  Tudah  (Josh,  xv: 
32),  called  Sharuhen  Josh.  xix:6);  Shaaraim  (i 
Chron.  iv:3i).  It  is  perhaps  the  modem  Tell 
Sheriah,  between  Gaza  and  Beer-sheba. 

SHILLEM  (shtl'lem),  (Heb.  0^9,  shil'lame\  re- 
quital), son  of  Naphtali  (Gen.  xlvi:24;  Num.  xxvi; 
49);  called  Shallum  in  i  Chron.  vii:i3. 

SHILLEMITES,  THE  (shtl'lem-ites  the),  (Heb. 
**9k?'!?,  hask'Shtl'lay-mee'),  descendants  of  Shil- 
LEM  (Num.  xxvi:49). 

(shi-15'ah),  (Is.  viii:6).    See  Siloam. 

(shl'loh),  (Heb.  ^^^^,  shee-loo'). 

1.  The  epithet  applied,  in  the  prophetic  bene- 
diction of  Jacob  on  his  deathbed  ((jen.  xlix:io), 
to  the  personage  to  whom  'the  gathering  of  the 


nations  should  be,'  and  which  has  ever  been  re- 
garded hy  Christians  and  by  the  ancient  Jews  as 
a  denomination  of  the  Messiah.  The  oracle  oc- 
curs in  the  blessing  of  Judah,  and  is  thus  worded 
— *The  scepter  shall  not  depart  from  Judah,  nor  a 
lawgiver  from  between  his  feet,  until  Shiloh  come ; 
and  unto  him  the  gathering  of  the  people  shall 
be.*  The  term  itself,  as  well  as  the  whole  pas- 
sage to  which  it  belongs,  has  ever  been  a  fruitful 
theme  of  controversy  between  Jews  and  Christians, 
the  former,  although  they  admit  for  the  most 

?iart  the  Messianic  reference  of  the  text,  being  still 
ertile  in  expedients  to  evade  the  Christian  argu- 
ment founded  upon  it.  Neither  our  limits  nor  our 
object  will  permit  us  to  enter  largely  into  the 
theolojgical  bearings  of  this  prediction;  but  it  is 
perhaps  scarcely  possible  to  do  justice  to  the  dis- 
cussion as  a  question  of  pure  philology,  without 
at  the  same  time  displaying  the  strength  of  the 
Christian  interpretation,  and  trenching  upon  the 
province  occupied  by  the  proofs  of  Jesus  of  Naz- 
areth being  the  Messiah  of  the  Old  Testament 
prophecies. 

Various  etymologies  have  been  assigned  to  the 
term.  Some  very  eminent  commentators  trace  it 
to  the  root  word,  meaning  to  rest,  to  be  at  peace, 
and  make  it  equivalent  to  Pacificator,  Tranquil- 
izer or  Great  Author  of  Peace.  This  is  a  sense 
accordant  with  the  anticipated  and  realized  char- 
acter of  the  Messiah,  one  of  whose  crowning  de- 
nominations is  'Prince  of  Peace.*  Another  opin- 
ion is  that  it  is  derived  from  a  word  which  signi- 
fies /o  ask,  seek,  require,  so  that  its  import  is  the 
desired,  the  longed  for  one, 

2.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  situated 
among  the  hills  to  the  north  of  Bethel,  eastward  of 
the  great  northern  road,  where  the  tabernacle  and 
ark  remained  for  a  long  time,  from  the  days  of 
Joshua,  during  the  ministry  of  all  the  judges, 
down  to  the  end  of  Eli's  life  (Josh,  xviii  :i ;  i 
Sam.  iv:3).  To  this  circumstance  Shiloh  owed 
all  its  importance;  for  after  the  loss  of  the  ark — 
which  never  returned  thither  after  it  had  been  re- 
stored to  Israel  by  the  Philistines — it  sunk  into  in- 
significance. It  was,  indeed,  the  residence  of  Ahi- 
jah  the  prophet  (i  Kings  xi:29;  xiiris;  xiv:2), 
but  it  is  more  than  once  mentioned  as  accursed 
and  forsaken  (Ps.  lxxviii:6o;  Jer.  vii:i2,  14; 
xxvi:6).  The  last  mention  of  it  in  Scripture  is 
in  Jer.  xli:5,  which  only  shows  that  it  survived 
the  exile.  Dr.  Robinson  identifies  it  with  a  place 
named  Seilun,  a  city  surrounded  by  hills,  with  an 
opening  by  a  narrow  valley  into  a  plain  on  the 
south.  The  ruins  consist  chiefly  of  an  old  tower 
with  walls  four  feet  thick,  and  of  large  stones  ^nd 
fragments  of  columns  indicative  of  an  ancient  site 
(see  Robinson's  Palestine,  iii:85-89). 

SHILONI  (shi-16'ni),  (Neh.  xi:5).  This  should 
be  rendered  "  the  Shiloniie** 

SHUjOKITB,.  the    (shi'lo-nite    the).    (Heb. 

%H  N^^«),  or  N^«).  sAee^lo-nee% 

1.  The  title  of  a  native  of  Shiloh  (i  Kings  xi: 
29;  xiiris;  xv:29;  2  Chron.  ix:29;  x:i5),  but  ap- 
plied only  to  Ahijah. 

2.  The  descendants  of  Judah,  through  Shelah 
(i  Chron.  ix  :5 ;  Neh.  xi  15)  ;  doubtless  the  same  as 
the  Shelanites  (Num.  xxvi:2o)'.  . 

SHILSHAH   (shfl'shah),    (Heb.    ^tl^.    shil- 

shaw\  trial),  an  Asherite,  the  ninth  son  of  Zophah 
(I  Chron.  vii:37),  B.  C.  before  1015. 

SHIMEA  (shTm'e-a),  (Heb.  ^^?P^,  shim-aw\ 
rumor). 

1.  Son  of  David  by  Bathsheba  (i  Chron.  iii: 
5).  (Tailed also  Shammua  (2  Sam.  v:i4;  i  Chron. 
xiv:4). 


SHIMEAH 


1678 


SHIMRI 


2.  A  Meraritc  Lcvitc,  son  of  Uzza  (i  Chron. 
vi:3o),  B.  C.  before  1043. 

3.  A  Gershonite  Levite,  father  of  Berachiah, 
and  ancestor  of  Asaph  the  minstrel  (i  Chron. 
vi:39),  B.  C.  about  1200. 

4.  The  brother  of  David  and  father  of  the  Jona- 
than who  slew  Goliath's  brother  (i  Chron.  xx: 
7),  called  Shimma  (i  Chron.  ii:i3);  Shammah 
(i  Sam.  xvi:9)  ;  Shimeah  (2  Sam.  xiii:3). 

SHIMEAH  (shim'e-ah),  (Heb.  '*?'?*,  shim-aw', 
rumor,  fame). 

1.  Father  of  Jonathan  and  Jonadab  (2  Sam. 
xxi:2i).  In  2  Sam.  xiii:3,  32,  his  name  is  writ- 
ten Shim-aw.    (See  Shimea.) 

2.  A  descendant  of  Jehiel,  a  Benjamite,  and 
founder  of  Gideon  (i  Chron.  viii:32)j  called 
Shimeam  (i  Chron.  ix:38),  B.  C.  about  536. 

SHTMEAM    (shtm'e-am),    (Heb.   ^^^^,  shim- 

atxM't  fame,  name),  a  descendant  of  Jehiel  (i 
Chron.  ix:38).    (See  Shimeah,  2). 

SHTMEATH  (sWm'e-ath).  (Heb.  f^^.  shim- 

awth\  fem.  Shimeah), an  Ammonitess,the  mother 
of  Jozachar,  or  Zabad,  one  of  the  two  who  mur- 
dered King  Joash  (2  Kings  xii;2i;  2  Chron.  xxiv: 
26),  B.  C.  before  609. 

SHUEEATHITES  (sbrm'e  -  ath  -  Ites),  (Heb. 
nwp^^    skim-aw'theem'),  the    name   of  three 

families  of  scribes  resident  at  Jabez,  in  Judah  (i 
Chron.  ii:55).  They  were  possibly  descendants  of 
Shimea,  David's  brother  (2  Sam.  xxi:2i). 

SHIMEI  (shlm'e-i),  (Heb.  ^???^.  shim-ee^ 
renowned). 

1.  Son  of  Gershom  the  son  of  Levi  (Num.  iii; 
18;  I  Chron.  vi:i7,  29;  xxiii:;,  9,  10;  Zech.  xii: 
13);  called  Shimi  in  Exod.  vi:i7.  In  i  Chron. 
vi:29,  he  is  called  the  son  of  Libni,  the  son  of 
Merari,  but  as  he  is  elsewhere  called  Libni's 
brother,  it  is  supposed  that  there  is  an  omission  in 
the  text  (B.  C.  after  1874). 

2.  The  son  of  Gera,  a  Benjamite- and  a  member 
of  the  family  of  Saul,  residing  at  Bahurim. 

(i)  Curses  David.  He  grievously  insulted  and 
cursed  King  David  when  he  fled  from  Absalom 
(2  Sam.  xvi;s-i3).  Abishai  desired  to  put  an 
end  to  this  cursing,  and  requested  permission  to 
"take  oflF  his  head,"  but  was  forbidden  by  the  king, 
who  said,  "It  may  be  that  the  Lord  will  look  on 
mine  affliction,  and  that  the  Lord  will  requite  me 
good  for  his  cursing  this  day."  The  royal  party 
passed  on,  Shimei  following  them  and  casting 
stones  and  dirt  as  long  as  they  were  in  sight  (2 
Sam.  xvi:5-i3),  B.  C.  about  967. 

(2)  Spared,  The  king  not  only  saved  him  from 
the  immediate  resentment  of  his  followers,  but  on 
his  triumphant  return  by  the  same  road  after  the 
overthrow  of  his  rebellious  son,  he  bestowed  on 
Shimei  the  pardon  which  he  implored  (2  Sam. 
xix:i6).  It  seems,  however,  that  it  was  policy 
which  chiefly  dictated  this  course,  for  it  was  by  the 
advice  of  David  himself  (i  Kings  ii  :8,  9)  that  Sol- 
omon, after  his  father's  death,  made  Shimei  a 
prisoner  at  large  in  Jerusalem  (i  Kings  ii  :36,  ^7)- 

(3)  Executed.  Three  years  after  he  broke  his 
parole  by  leaving  Jerusalem  in  pursuit  of  some 
runaway  slaves,  and  was,  on  his  return,  put  to 
death  by  order  of  the  king  (i  Kings  ii  139-46) . 
B.  C.  1023. 

3.  A  faithful  adherent  of  Solomon  at  the  time 
of  Adonijah's  usurpation  (i  Kings  i:8).  Unless 
he  is  Shimei  the  son  of  Elah  (i  Kings  iv:i8), 
Solomon's  commissariat  officer,  or  Shimea,  or 
Shammah.  David's  brother,  as  Ewald  {Gesch,  iii. 


266)  suggests,  it  is  impossible  to  identify  him  (B. 
C.  lois). 

4.  The  son  of  Elah,  and  Solomon's  commis- 
sariat officer  in  Benjamin  (i  Kings  iv:i8),  B.  C. 
1015. 

5.  The  son  of  Pedaiah,  and  a  brother  of  Zerub- 
babel  (i  Chron.  iii;  19),  B.  C.  536. 

6.  A  Simeonite,  son  of  Zacchur,  and  father  of 
twenty -two  children  (i  Chron.  iv:26.  27)  ;  perhaps 
identical  with  Shemaiah  (i  Chron.  iv:37),  B.  C. 
before  1618. 

7.  Son  of  Ck)g,  a  Reubenite,  and  father  of  Mi- 
cah  (i  Chron.  v:4),  B.  C.  after  1874. 

o.  A  Gershonite  Levite,  the  son  of  Tahath  (i 
Chron.  vi:42),  B.  C.  about  1695. 
/-L     ^*^^  o^  the  tenth  division  of  singers    (i 
Chron.  xxv:i7),  and  possibly  the  son  of  Jeduthun. 
B.  C.  1013. 

^  10.  A  Ramathite  who  was  overseer  of  David's 
vinevards  (i  Chron.  xxvii  .-27),  B.  C.  1043. 

11.  A  Levite,  descendant  of  Heman,  who  as- 
sisted in  the  purification  of  the  Temple  under 
Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxix:i4),  B.  C  726: 

12.  A  Levite,  the  brother  of  Conaiah,  who  to- 
gether had  charge  of  the  oflferings  and  tithes  un- 
der Hezekiah  (2  Chron  xxxi:i2,  13),  B.  C  726. 
Perhaps  identical  with  11. 

13.  A  Levite  in  the  time  of  Ezra  who  divorced 
his  foreign  wife  (Ezra  x  123).  Called  also  Semis 
(B.C.  459). 

14.  One  of  the  family  of  Hashum,  who  divorced 
his  foreign  wife  at  Ezra's  command  (Ezra  x:33), 
B.  C.  459. 

15.  A  "son"  of  Bani,  who  had  married  a  foreign 
wifeanddivoix:ed  her  (Ezra  x:38),  B.  C  459- 

lo.  bon  of  Kish,'  a  Benjamite,  ancestor  of 
Morde^i  (Esth.  ii  15),  B.  C.  479. 

17.  A  head  of  a  Benjamite  family  living  •  at 
Jerusalem  (i  Chron.  viii:2i).    A.  V.,  Shimhi. 

SHUEBON  (shrm'e-on).  (Heb.  1^9*,  shim- 
pn€\R  hearing, or  famous  one;  Gr.lt/uiip,  Sinuon), 
a  layman  who  married  a  foreign  wife,  and  put  her 
away  (Ezra  x:3i).    (See  Simeon). 

SHIMHI(shlfm'hl),  (Heb.  ^^t,  shim-ee').  Prob- 
ably  the  same  as  She  ma,  son  of  Elpaal  (i  Chron. 
viii:2i),  B.C.  after  1618.    (See,  also,  Shimei,  17.) 

SHna  (shi'ml).  (Heb.  '^y?^,  shim^e').  See 
Shimei,  i.    Exod.vi:i7. 

SHIMITES,  THE  (shlm'ites,  the),  (Heb.  '*?9^l! 

hash'Shimee^  renowned).    Descendants  of  Shimei, 
son  of  Gershom  (Num.  iii:2i;  Zech.  xii:i3). 

SHIMMA  (shrm'mi),  (Heb.  «?^^,  shim-aw'), 
the  son  of  David  (i  Chron.  ii:i3);  also  called  Sham- 
MUAH,  Shimea  (which  see),  and  Shimua. 

SHIMON  (shrmon).  (Heb.  I^'^'^t  sheemone', 
desert),  obscure  genealogy  of  the  descendants  of 
Judah  credits  Shimon  with  four  sons  (i  Chron. 
iv:i9,  20),  B.C.  after  1618. 

SHIMRATH  (shfm'rath),  (Heb.    J^^?^.   shim- 

mw/M',  watch,  guard),  a  son  of  Shimhi,  a  Benjamite 
(i  Chron.  viii:2i),  B.  C.  after  1618. 

SHIMRI  (sMm'rl),  (Heb.  •*!?*  shim-ree',  vigi- 
lant).  ^ 

1.  A  Simeonite,  son  of  Shemaiah,  and  head  of  a 
Simeonite  family  (i  Chi-on.  iv:37),  B.  C.  after 
1618. 

2.  The  father  of  Jediael,  one  of  David's  famous 
guard  (i  Chron.  xi:4s),  B.  C.  before  1043. 

3.  A  Levite,  son  of  Elizaphan,  and  one  of  those 
who  assisted  in  the  purification  of  the  Temple 


SHIMRITH  U 

during  Huekiab's  reign  (2  Chron,  xxix:i3),  B. 
C.  726. 

4.  A  Merarite  Levite.    See  Simri. 

SHTBOIITH  (Bhlm'rith),  (Heb.  ^^IW,  skim- 
reeth',  fem.  vigilant),  mother  o£  Jehoiabad,  one  ol 
the  assassins  of  king  Joash  (2  Chron.  xxiv:26); 
called  Skomek  (2  Kings  xii:3i). 

SHUOIOM  (sblm'rom),  (1  Chron.  vii;i).  See 
Shim  RON,  2. 

SHIMBON  (Bhlm'TOD),  (Heb.  F"?^,  shim-rtnW, 
watch-height). 

1.  A  city  of  Zebulun  (Josh.  xix:i5).  It  is 
named  in  the  list  of  the  places  whose  kings  were 
called  by  jabin,  king  of  Hazor,  to  assist  against 
Joshua  {xi:i).  Its  full  name  was  perhaps  Shim- 
ron-meron  (Josh.  xii:2o).  Though  not  posi- 
tively identified,  SemOnieh,  five  miles  west  of 
Nazareth,  has  been  conjectured  among  other 
places. 

2.  The  fourth  son  of  Issachar,  and  head  of  a 
family  (Gen.  xlvi:i3;  Num.  xxvi:24);  called 
Shimbom  (I  Chron.  vii:i),  B.  C.  1874. 

BHUGtONITBB,  THE  (sblm'ron-Itea,  the), 
{ Heb.  '»^?'??,  hash-shim-ro-nee'  >.  descendants  of 
Shimron  (Num.  xxvi;24). 

SHUEBOH'-UEBON'  (sblm'ron-me'roD),  (Heb. 
liKllp  l^^P,  shim-ron^  mer-oru',  guard  of  lash- 
ing). One  of  the  ihirty-one  towns  of  Canaan  con- 
?|uered  by  Joshua  (Josh.  xii:2o);  probably  the  full 
orm  of  Shimron. 

SHIM8HAI  (shim'shal),  (Heb.  "^9,  shim- 
shah'ee,  sunny),  a  scribe  who,  with  Rehum,  a 
chancellor,  or  sort  of  satrap  ol  conquered  Judiea 
and  Samaria,  wrote  to  Artaxerxea  against  the  Jews, 
recently  returned  from  captivity  (Ezra  iv:8,9, 17, 
23),  B.C.S29-  ,^.^ 

BHINAB  (shl'nib),  (Heb.  ^?r¥,  sAin-awi',  fa- 
ther's tooth).  King  o£  Admah,  who  was  conquered 
by  Cbedorlaomer  (Gen.  xiv.  2).  Josephus  (Atti.  1,9) 
calls  him  XtrofiipTp,  Senabarace.     B.C. about  2064. 

SHINAS  (sbi'oar),  (Heb.  "'i'?^),  sAin'awr),  the 
proper  name  of  Babylonia,  particularly  of  the 
country  around  Babylon  (Gen.  ino;  xiv:i;  la.xl:!!; 
Dan,i:2;  Zech.viii).    (See  Babylonia). 

SHION  (sbl'on).    A.  V.  SHXHOIT  (Josh.  xix:i9). 

SHIP (sbTp),  (Heb.  i^'^?:,  on-ee-yaw',  conveyance; 
'V?9.  sef-ee-naw' ,  a  vessel  ceiled  with  a  deck; 
"■¥.  tite,  a  ship). 

In  few  things  is  there  greater  danger  of  modern 
associations  misleading  the  reader  of  the  Scrip- 
tures than  in  regard  to  the  subject  of  the  present 
article.    Both  the  ships  and  the  navigation  of  the 

as  dissimilar  as  things  of  the  same  kind  can  well 
he  to  the  realities  which  the  terms  now  represent. 
Navigation  confined  itself  to  coasting,  or,  if  neces- 
sity, loul  weather,  or  chance  drove  a  vessel  from 
the  land,  a  regard  to  safety  tirged  the  commander 
to  a  speedy  return,  for  he  had  no  guide  but  such 
as  the  stars  might  afford  under  skies  with  which 
he  was  but  imperfectly  acquainted.  And  ships, 
whether  designed  for  commercial  or  warlike  pur- 
poses, were  small  in  size  and  frail  in  Structltre. 

The  Jews  cannot  be  said  lo  have  been  a  seafar- 
ing people ;  yet  their  position  on  the  map  of  the 
world  is  such  as  to  lead  us  ta  feel  that  they  could 
not  have  been  ignorant  of  ships  and  the  business 
which  relates  thereunto.  Phrenicia,  the  north- 
wesiem  part  of  Palestine,  was  unquestionably 
among,  if  not  at  the  head  of  the  earliest  culCivat- 


SHIP 


ors  of  maritime  affairs.  Then  the  Holy  Land 
itself  lay  with  one  side  coasting  a  sea  which  was 
anciently  the  great  highway  of  navigation,  and  the 
center  of  social  and  commercial  enterprise.  With- 
in its  own  borders  it  had  a  navigable  lake.  The 
Nile,  with  which  river  the  fathers  of  the  nation 
had  become  acquainted  in  their  bondage,  was  an- 
other great  thoroughfare  for  ships.  And  the  Red 
Sea  itself,  which  conducted  towards  the  remote 
East,  was  at  no  great  distance  even  from  the  capi- 
tal of  the  land.  Then  at  different  points  in  its 
long  line  of  seacoast  there  were  harbors  of  no 
mean  repute.  Let  the  reader  call  to  mind  Tyre 
and  Sidon,  in  Phixnicia,  and  Acre  (Acco)  and 
Jaffa  (Joppa),  in  Palestine.  Yet  the  decidedly 
agriculiural  bearing  of  the  Israelitish  constitution 
checked  such  a  development  of  power,  activity,  and 
wealth,  as  these  favorable  opportunities  might 
bare  called  forth  on  behalf  of  seafaring  pursuits. 
It  is  evident  that  the  Israelites  must  have  only 
partially  improved  their  local  advantages,  since 
we  find  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  acting  as  carrier  by 
sea  for  Solomon,  engaging  to  convey  in  floats  to 
joppa  the  timber  cut  in  Lebanon  for  the  Temple, 
and  leaving  to  the  Hebrew  prince  the  duty  of 
transporting  the  wood  from  the  coast  to  Jerusa- 
lem. And  when,  after  having  conquered  Elath 
and  Ezion-geber  on  the  further  arm  of  the  Red 
Sea,  Solomon  proceeded  to  convert  them  into 
naval  stations  for  his  own  purposes,  he  was  still. 


Ancieot  Ship.    (Prom  >  Paintlnc  Foaad  ia  Pompeii.) 

whatever  he  did  himself,  indebted  to  Hiram  for 
'shipmen  that  had  knowledge  of  the  sea'  (i  Kings 
ix:z6;  x:22). 

The  reader  of  the  New  Testament  is  well  aware 
how  frequently  he  finds  himself  with  the  Savior 
on  the  romantic  shores  of  the  sea  of  Gennesaret. 
There  Jesus  is  seen,  now  addressing  Ihe  people 
from  on  board  a  vessel  (Matt.  xiii:2;  Luke  v:3); 
now  sailing  up  and  down  the  lake  (Matt,  viii  ;23 ; 
ix:i;  xiv:i3;  John  vi:i7).  Some  of  his  earliest 
disciples  were  proprietors  of  barks  which  sailed  on 
this  mland  sea  (Matt.  iv:2i;  John  xxi:3;  Luke 
v:3).  These  'ships'  were  indeed  small,  though 
they  were  not  mere  boats. 

The  vessels  connected  with  Biblical  history  were 
for  the  most  part  ships  of  burden,  almost  indeed 
exclusively  so,  at  least  within  the  period  of  known 
historical  facts.  In  a  ship  of  this  kind  was  Paul 
conveyed  to  Italy.  They  (naves  otierariir)  were,  for 
the  purposes  to  which  they  were  destined,  rounder 
and  deeper  than  ships  of  war.  and  sometimes  of 
great  capacity.  In  consequence  of  their  bulk,  and 
when  laden,  of  their  weight,  they  were  impelled  by 
sails  rather  than  by  oars.  On  the  prow  stood  the 
insignia  from  which  the  ship  was  named,  and  by 
which  it  was  known.   These  in  Acts  (xxvni  :iij  are 


SHIP  U 

called  parasamon,  'sign,'  which  it  appears  consisted 
in  this  case  of  figures  of  Castor  and  Pollux— 
tucidasidera — brilliant  consteH  at  ions,  auspicious  to 
navigators  (Herat.  Od.,  i,  3:  Liv.  xxxvii,  92;  Tac. 
Ann.  vi,  34;  Ovid,  Fait,  i,  10,  1).  Each  ship  was 
provided  with  a  boat,  intended  in  case  of  peril 
to  facilitate  escape,  skapha  (Acts  xxvii:i6,  31, 
32;  Cic.  De  Invent,  ii,  51) ;  and  several  anchors 
(Acts  xxvii  :29,  40 ;  Cxs.  Civ.  i,  25)  ;  also  a  plumb 
line  for  sounding  (Acts  xxvii  :2S;  Isidor.  Orig. 
xix,  4).  Among  the  sails  one  bore  the  name  of 
artemon,  translated  in  Acts  xxvii  :40,  by  'main- 
sail ;'  but  possibly  the  word  may  rather  mean  what 


this  world  (Is.  Iiv:ii)-     (4)  The  Assyrian  king- 
dom is  likened  to  a  ship,  of  which  the  king  was 


is  now  termed  the  'topsail'  (Schol.  ad  fuven.  xii, 
68).  In  great  danger  it  was  customary  to  gird 
the  vessel  with  cables,  in  order  to  prevent  her 
from  falUng  to  pieces  under  the  force  of  wind  and 
sea  (Acts  xxvii:i?;  Polyb.  xxvii.  3,  3;  Athen. 
V.  204;  Hor.  Od.,  i.  14,  6).  The  captain  was  de- 
nominated Hauklaros  (Acts  xxvii  :ii),  steersman, 
though  he  was  a  different  person  from  him  who 
had  the  actual  charge  of  the  helm,  who  bore  the 
name  of  koo-ber-nay'lace,  which  is  the  root  of 
our  word  'governor'  (Lat.  gubernator,  helmsman). 

The  dangers  of  the  ocean  to  sailors  on  board 
such  ships  as  these  were,  and  in  the  then  ignorance 
of  navigation,  caused  sailing  to  be  restricted  to 
the  months  of  spring,  summer,  and  autumn ;  win- 
ter was  avoided.  To  the  Romans  the  sea  was 
opened  in  March  and  closed  in  November  (Cfes. 
Bell.  Gall,  iv,  36;  v,  23;  Philo,  0pp.  iv,  548;  Acts 
xxvii  :g)  ;  and  ships  which  towards  the  end  of  the 
year  were  still  at  sea  earnestly  sought  a  harbor  in 
which  to  pass  the  winter  (Acts  xxvii  :I2). 

Figurative.  (1)  Siifis  ^>/ TarsAisi,  are  pat  tor 
the  merchants  and  mariners  concerned  in  them 
(Is.  xxiii:i4),  and  for  the  glory  and  strength  of 
God's  enemies  (Is.  ii:i6;  Ps.  xlviii:?).  (a)  The 
Chaldeans  cried  in  their  ships,  when  busied  in 
their  trade  in  the  river  Euphrates ;  and  when 
hastening  to  flee  away  from  Cyrus,  as  he  took 
the  city;  and  the  water  of  the  river  was  diverted. 
(3)  The  church  is  likened  to  a  tossed  ship,  to 
denote  her  troubled  and  unsettled  condition  in 


xxxiii:23,  24).  (5)  The  third  part  of  the  skips 
destroyed  under  th^  second  trumpet,  may  denote 
the  ships,  islands,  and  maritime  cities  destroyed 
by  the  Goths  and  Huns,  about  the  end  of  the 
fourth,  and  beginning  of  the  fifth  Christian  centu- 
ries; and  the  corruptions  of  multitudes  of  useful 
ministers  in  the  church  (Rev.  viii  -.g).  (6)  Man's 
life  is  likened  to  smift  ships,  or  ships  of  pleasure; 
how  quickly  it  hastens  to  an  end  I  (Job  ix:26) 
— Brown.  (7)  An  industrious  housewife  is  likened 
to  a  merchant  ship  brinsing  "her  food  from  afar"' 
(Prov.  xxxi:i4).  (8)  "Shipwreck"  is  symbolical 
of  departing  from  the  faith  (i  Tim.  i:i9),  for, 
like  a  wreck,  one  who  loses  faith  in  Christ,  be- 
comes not  only  useless,  but  dangerous. 

SHIPHI  (shi'phi),  (Heb.  '??'?,  sA(f-ee'.  abun- 
dant; 2o*a^.     A    Simeonite,  father  of    Ziia,   a 
Since  under  Heaekiah  (i  Chron.  iv:37),  B.  C. 
fore  736. 

8U1PUHITE,  THE  (shiph'mite.  the),  (Heb. 
*????,  ha-shif-nue'). 

Probably,  not  certainly,  a  native  of  Shepuau, 
an  appellation  of  Zabdi,  the  officer  in  David's 
household  who  had  charge  of  the  wine  making 
(1  Chron.  xxvii  :27). 

SHI^IKAH   (shrph'rah),   (Heb.   ^"^^t,  shi/- . 
raw').    One  of  the  midwives  of  the  Hebrews  who 
evaded  Pharaoh's  command  to  kill  the  male  chil- 
dren and  was  therefore  blessed  (Exod.  i:i5-2i), 
B.  C.  about  1740. 

SHIfHIAK  (ahlph'tan),  (Heb.  !¥?*,  sAif- 
tawn',  judicial).  Father  of  the  Kemuel,  who  was 
a  commissioner  from  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  to 
divide  Canaan  (Num.  xxxiv  :24),  B.C.  before  1618. 

SHIBHA  (shi-sha).  (Heb.  ^T^,  shee  ■  shaw' . 
whiteness),  father  of  Elihoreph  and  Ahiah,  who 
were  royal  secretaries  in  the  time  of  Solomon 
(1  Kinea  iv:!},  B.  C.  before  960.  Called  Shavsha 
(.  Chron.  xv1ii;i6). 

8HI6HAK  (shl'shak).  (Heb.  ?**?,  shte-shak'), 
a  king  of  Egypt  contemporary  with  Jeroboam,  to 
whom  he  ^ave  an  asylum  when  he  ficd  from  Solo- 
mon (I  Kings  xi:40).  He  was  the  Sheshenk  I  of 
the  monuments,  first  sovereign  of  the  Bubastite 
twenty-second  dynasty. 

(1)  The  Origin  of  the  royal  line  of  which  She- 
shenk I  was  the  head  is  extremely  obscure.  Lepsius 
gives  a  genealogy  of  Sheshenk  I  from  the  tablet 
of  Harp-sen  from  the  Serapeum,  which,  if  correct, 
decides  the  question.  In  this  Sheshenk  I  is  t]ie 
son  of  a  chief  Namuret,  whose  ancestors,  except- 
ing his  mother,  who  is  called  "royal  mother,"  are 
all  untitled  persons,  and  all  but  the  princes  bear 
foreign,  apparently  Semitic  names.  Sayce  (High. 
Crit.,  p.  381)  says:  "The  dynasty  of  Shishak  was 
of  Lybian  origin,  and  the  rise  of  its  founder  was 
due  lo  the  power  which  the  Lybian  mercenaries 
had  gained   in  the  state.    ...    It  lasted  one 


omon  closed  the  glory  period  of  Israel.  When 
Rehoboam  assembled  al!  Israel  at  Shechem  his 
final  reply  to  the  reasonable  demands  of  Israel 
ruptured  the  once  united  kingdom.  Rehoboam 
was  compelled  lo  retreat  for  safety  to  the  bounds 
of  Judah — the  original  Davidic  realm.  Jeroboam, 
who  had  fled  from  the  wrath  of  Solomon,  and 
taken  refuge  in  the  court  of  Shishak,  the  new 


SHITKAI  ISi 

Libyan  usurper  of  the  throne  of  .Egypt,  was  re- 
'  called  and  hailed  as  king  of  the  seceding  tribes. 
This  disruption  of  the  united  kingdom  gave  Sol- 
omon's son  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin, 
while  the  remainder  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  reluming 
fugitive  Jeroboam.  Thus  for  more  than  two  cen- 
turies these  rival  kingdoms  faced  each  other,  gen- 
erally in  friendly,  but  sometimes  in  hostile  rela- 
tions. They  fortified  their  realms  against  each 
other,  and  attempted  to  establish  such  pcjitical 
and  religious  policies  as  would  guarantee  patriotic 
fidelity  on  the  part  of  their  citizens  and  perma- 
nency of  government. 

The  new  Pbaraoii  of  the  twenty-second  dynasty, 
Shishak  (Sheshenk)  I,  had  dethroned  the  power 
of  the  king  whose  daughter  Solomon  had  taiten 
to  wife.  In  this  new  court  Jeroboam  had  been 
sheltered  (l  Kings  xi  ;26-40),  Doubtless  Shishak's 
ambition  had  stretched  into  Asia,  which  had  been 
eof 

_„„__„ ther 

Jeroboatn  had  any  part  in  suggesting  an  aggressive 
campaign  in  this  direction,  though  his  acquaint- 
ance made  in  his  brief  Egyptian  sojourn  cottld  not 
have  been  entirely  forgotten.  Whatever  his  mo- 
tive may  have  been,  Shishak,  in  the  fifth  year  of 
the  reign  of  Reboboam  (i  Kings  xiv:2S-28),  car- 
ried his  arms  into  Palestine.  He  overran  the 
territory  of  Judah,  stormed,  captured  and  plun- 
dered Jerusalem.  He  carried  off  to  Egypt  the 
immense  treasures  of  Solomon's  accumulation,  and 
compelled  the  proud  Rehoboam  to  acknowledge 
his  supremacy.  Shishak  also  ravaged  considerable 
territory  of  fhe  northern  kingdom,  including  the 
capture  of  9ome  of  its  prominent  cities. 

(3)  Sblahak'B  Inacrlptlon.  On  the  southern 
wall  of  the  court  of  the  great  temple  of  Amun  at 
Kamak,  Shishak  has  inscribed  a  sculpture  repre- 
senting this  campaign.  He  enumerates  13,1  places, 
towns  and  fortresses  that  he  captured,  the  north- 
ernmost being  Megiddo.  In  this  sculpture,  the 
^ani  figure  of  Shishak  is  represented  as  holding 
m  his  left  hand  the  ends  of  ropes  which  bind  long 
rows  of  captives  neck  to  neck.  Their  hands  are 
tied  behind  them,  and  the  victor's  right  hand  holds 
over  others  a  rod  with  which  he  threatens  them. 
The  names  of  the  conquered  cities  are  inscribed  on 
ovals  or  shields  that  cover  the  lower  part  of  the 
-  body  of  each  prisoner.  Some  of  the  most  familiar 
names  in  this  list  are:  Gaza,  Taanach,  Abel, 
Adullam,  Bethanath,  Beth-honon,  Aijalon,  Gibeon, 
Shunem,  and  Judah-Melech,  which  the  late  Dr. 
Birch  regarded  as  the  name  of  the  sacred  city  of 
Judah,  Jerusalem.  Prof.  Sayce  sees  in  the  heads 
of  the  conquered  those  of  Amorites,  not  of  Jews. 
They  are  the  fair-skinned,  light-haired,  blue-eyed, 
long-headed  Amorites  who  are  seen  on  the  earlier 
monuntents  of  Egypt,  This  seems  to  pmnt  to  a 
general  prevalence  of  Amorites  among  the  Jews 
at  this  time. 

Whether  the  resistance  that  Shishak  met  was  so 
stubborn  as  to  discourage  further  advances  into 
Asia  is  unknown.  Neither  is  there  any  evidence 
that  he  exercised  continued  authority  over  the 
people  and  territory  captured.  Whatever  may 
have  bMn  the  immedi«le  results  to  Judah  and 
Israel  of  tins  incursion  and  plunder,  it  is  evident 
that  within  the  next  fifteen  years  the  northern 
and  southern  kingdoms  met  in  a  mortal  combat 
without  interference  from  any  outside  power. 
(Price,  The  Man.  and  the  O.  T.,  2d  Ed.,  p. 
142.  Ji?) 

SHmUI  (shrt'ra-f),  (Heb.  ^?9,  shil-rah'a), 
a  Sharonite  who  had  oversight  of  David's  herds 
that  fed  in  Sharon  (i  Chron.  xxvii:^^),  B.  C  1043. 


1  SHITTIM 

SHITTAH  {sbii'uh).  (Heb  "^V,  skit-taw'), 
and  BHrrmi  (shit'tim),  (Heb.  ='¥'?,  ihit-teem'). 

(1)  These  words  occur  in  several  passages  of 
Exodus,  and  indicate  the  kind  of  wood  which  was 
employed  in  making  the  various  parts  of  the  tab- 
ernacle while  the  Israelites  were  wandering  in  the 
wilderness.  It  is  mentioned  also  as  forming  part 
of  the  offerings,  as  in  Exod.  xxv:s,  'rams'  skins 
dyed  red,  and  badgers'  skins  and  shillim  wood ;' 
and  in  xxxv:?,  24.  In  Is.  xliiig,  it  is  mentioned 
as  a  tree  worthy  of  planting,  'I  will  plant  in  the 
wilderness  ihe  cedar,  the  skitlah  tree,  and  the 
myrtle,  and  the  oil  tree,'  etc.    (a)  It  is  exceedingly 


probable  that  the  tree  referred  to  belongs  to  the 
Acacia,  found  both  in  Egypt  and  in  the  deserts 
of  Arabia.  'The  acacia  tree,'  says  Dr.  Shaw,  'be- 
ing by  much  the  largest  and  most  common  tree 
in  these  deserts  (Arabia  Petr:ea)j  we  have  some 
reason  to  conjecture  that  the  ihillim  wood  was 
the  wood  of  the  acacia,  especially  as  its  Rowers 
are  of  an  excellent  smell,  for  the  shittim  tree  is, 
in  Is,  xli  .-19,  joined  with  the  myrtle  and  other  fra- 
grant shrubs.'  Mr.  Kitto  says :  'The  required 
species  is  found  in  either  the  Acacia  gummifera, 
or  in  the  A.  Seyal,  or  rather  in  both.  They  both 
grow  abundantly  in  the  valleys  of  that  region  in 
which  the  Israelites  wandered  for  forty  years,  and 
both  supply  products  which  must  have  rendered 
them  of  much  value  to  the  Israelites.  We  think 
the  probability  is  that  the  A.  Seyal  supplied  the 
shittim  wood,  if,  indeed,  the  name  did  not  denote 
acacia  wood  in  general.  This  tree  grows  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  feet  in  height.'  Robinson  and 
Smith  frequently  mention  the  Seyal  as  occurring 
in  the  same  situations.  It  is  very  probable  there- 
fore that  it  yielded  the  shittim  wood  of  Scripture, 
J.  F.  R. 

mUTTIM  (shrt'tim).  1.  (Heb.  B'V'?,  skit-Uem\ 
acacia),  a  spot  in  Ihe  plain  of  Moab,  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  where  the  Israelites  formed  their  last 
encampment  before  passing  the  Jordan  (Num. 
xxv:i;  comp  Micah  vits).  (See  Wandering, 
The.) 

B.  (Heb.  see  above.)  The  valley  of  Shittim, 
mentioned  in  Joel  iii:t8. 


SHIZA 


1682 


SHORE 


It  must  certainly  have  been  west  of  the  Jor- 
dan, and  probably  in  the  neighborhood  of  Jerusa- 
lem. The  name  is  probably  to  be  regarded  as  an 
appellative — 'acacia  vale'  denoting,  perhaps,  as  that 
tree  delights  in  a  dry  soil,  an  arid,  unfruitful  vale. 
If  a  particular  valley  is  meant  it  is  the  Arabah 
about  the  Dead  Sea  (comp.  Ezek.  xlvii:i-i2). 

SHIZA  {shVzk),  (Heb.  ^f^,  sAee-zaw' ,  splen- 
dor), a  Reubenite,  father  of  Adina,  one  of  David's 
warriors  (i  Chron.  xi:42),  B.  C.  before  1043. 

SHOA   (sh5a).    (Heb.    S^^,  sAo'ah,   rich),   a 

S roper  name  occurring  only  in  connection  with  the 
Babylonians,    Chaldeans    and   Assyrians    (Ezek. 
xxiii:23). 

It  was  no  doubt  a  province  of  the  Chaldean 
empire,  and  probably  the  Shutu  of  the  Assyrians, 
lying  northwest  of  Babylon  between  the  Tigris 
and  the  mountains  of  Elam  and  Media. 

SHOBAB  (sh5'b2lb),  (Heb.  3J1l&^  sho-bawb'. 
rebellious,  erring). 

1.  Son  of  David  and  Bathsheba  (2  Sam.  v:i4; 
I  Chron.  iii:5;  xiv:4),  B.  C.  after  1044. 

2.  Apparently  the  second  son  of  Caleb  the  son 
of  Hezron  by  his  first  wife  Azubah  (i  Chron.  ii: 
18),  B.  C.  after  1874. 

SHOBACH   (sh5'b^),  (Heb.  ^^^,  shchbawk. 

expansion),  general  of  the  army  of  Hadadezer, 
king  of  Syna,  was  defeated  by  David  at  Helam 
(2  Sam.  x:i6),  B.  C.  1034;  called  Shophach  (i 
Chron.  xix:i6, 18). 

SHOBAI  (sho'ba-r),  (Heb.  "^S*,  sho-bah'ee,  tak- 
ing captive),  the  children  of  Shobai  were  door- 
keepers of  the  Temple,  who  returned  from  cap- 
tivity with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  vii:45;  Ezraii'42),  B. 
C.  much  before  536. 

SHOBAL    (sh5'bal),    (Heb.    ^3i*    sho-bawV. 

flowering,  or  a  shoot;  Gr.  StfjSdX,  sobal), 

1.  Son  of  Seir,  a  Horite,  and  one  of  the  dukes 
of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi  :20,  29;  i  Chron.  i  138),  B.  C. 
after  1963. 

2.  Son  of  Hur,  the  son  of  (3aleb,  and  founder  or 
prince  of  Kirjath-jearim  (i  Chron.  ii:SO,  52), 
B.  C.  about  1612. 

3.  In  I  Chron.  iv:i,  2,  Shobai  appears  as  a  son 
of  Judah,  and  father  of  Reaiah,  but  perhaps  iden- 
tical with  2. 

SHOBEK  (shS'bek),  (Heb.  PJ^  sho-bake'.  per- 

haps  forsaking),  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  people 
who  signed  the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh. 
x:24),  B.  C.  446. 

SHOBI  (sh5'b!),  (Heb.  -?SJ,  sho-bee",  one  who 
captures),  son  of  Nahash,  of  Rabbah,  of  the  child- 
ren of  Ammon  (2  Sam.  xvii:27),  and  one  of  those 
who  met  David  at  Mahanaim,  when  he  fled  from 
Absalom,  B.  C.  1023. 

SHOCO  (sh6'ko),  (Heb.  iDl^Z?,  so-ko',  branches), 
A  variation  of  SocoH,  Shocho,  Sochoh,  Socho, 
etc  (2  Chron,  xxviii:i8).    See  Socho. 

SHOCHO  (sh5'ko),  (i  Sam.  xvii:i).    See  Socho. 

SHOCK  OP  COBK  (sh6k  6v  k6m),  (Heb.  ^*^? 

gaw'deesh\  a  heap),  a  small  stack  of  cut  grain 
(Judg.  XV :5;  Job  v:26). 

SHOE  (shoo).  For  a  literal  treatment  of  this 
subject  see  Sandal. 

Figurative,  (i)  The  Hebrews  eating  the  first 
passover  with  their  shoes  on,  loins  girded,  and 
staff  in  their  hand,  denoted  that  they  were  imme- 
diately after  to  begin  their  journey  (Exod.  xii : 
11).  (2)  Putting  off  shoes,  implied  reverence  of 
the  presence  of  God  (Exod.  iii  :5 ;  Josh,  v  :i5).  {3) 


Want  of  shoes,  imported  mourning,  debasement, 
and  slavery  (2  Sam.  xv:3o;  Ezek.  xxiv:i7;  Is. 
XX  :2,  4).  (4)  The  plucking  off  a  shoe,  and  giving 
it  to  another,  imported  resignation  of  right  to  him 
(Ruth  iv  :7).  But  a  widow's  loosing  the  shoe  from 
the  foot  of  a  man  who  refused  to  marry  her,  and 
raise  up  children  to  his  deceased  brother,  denoted 
that  he  deserved  to  be  treated  as  a  slave  and  base 
person  (Deut.  xxvip).  (5)  To  bear  or  unloose 
one's  shoes,  imports  doing  him  the  meanest  offices 
(Matt.  iii:ii;  Luke  iii:i6).  (6)  David  cast  his 
shoe  over  Edom,  when  he  took  possession  of  the 
country  and  used  the  people  as  slaves  (Ps.  lx:8, 
and  cviii  :9).  (7)  The  saints  have  their  feet  beau- 
tiful with  shoes,  and  are  shod  with  the  preparation 
of  the  gospel  of  peace,  when  by  the  truths  of  the 
gospel  their  souls  are  made  free,  are  enabled  and 
disposed  to,  and  are  ready  in  all  holy  obedience 
(Ezek.  xviiio;  Eph.  vi:i5).  (8)  "Thy  shoes  shall 
be  iron  and  brass"  (Deut.  xxxiii:25),  meaning 
that  God's  people  should  be  fully  protected,  even 
to  their  feet,  the  figure  shoes  probably  referring  to 
a  sort  of  metallic  greaves  worn  by  the  ancients. 

SHOHAM  (shfi'hSLm),  (Heb.  =01?^  sJko'Aam). 

1.  A  precious  stone  mentioned  in  CJen.  ii:i2; 
Exod.  xxviiiig;  xxxvig,  27;  Job  xxviii:i6;  Ezek. 
xxviii;i3.  That  it  is  really  unknown  is  evinced 
by  the  variety  of  opinions  which  have  been  haz- 
arded concerning  it.  In  the  last  two  texts  the 
Septuagint  makes  it  the  beryl,  and  is  followed  by 
the  Vulgate.  Josephus  also  gives  it  the  same 
name  (Antiq,  iil  7,  5).  This  is  a  great  weight  of 
authority ;  and  whether  the  beryl  be  the  shoham  or 
not,  it  is  a  Scriptural  stone  by  virtue  of  the  men- 
tion of  it  in  Rev.  xxi  :20.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  stone  which  we  call  beryl  is  the  substance  to 
which  the  ancients  gave  the  same  name.  It  is  of 
a  pale  sea-green  color,  inclining  sometimes  to 
water-blue,  and  sometimes  to  yellow.  In  its 
crystallized  form  it  exhibits  sexagonal  columns 
striped  longitudinally.  The  shoham  furnished 
the  shoulder  pieces  in  the  breastplate  of  the 
high-priest,  on  each  of  which  six  names  were 
engraven,  and  for  this  purpose  the  stalky  beryl, 
consisting  of  long,  stout,  hexagonal  pieces,  was 
peculiarly  suited.  Beryls  are  found,  but  not  often, 
in  collections  of  ancient  gems.  In  (Jen.  ii  :i2,  the 
shoham  is  named  as  the  product  of  Havilah ;  in 
Job  xxviii  :i6,  it  is  mentioned  as  a  stone  of  great 
value,  being  classed  with  the  sapphire  and  the 
gold  of  Ophir;  in  Ezek.  xxviii  113,  it  appears  as  a 
valuable  article  of  commerce.     (See  Beryl.) 

2.  Second  son  of  Jaaziah,  a  Merarite  Levite, 
who,  with  his  brothers,  was  employed  about  the 
ark  by  David  (i  Chron.  xxiv:27),  B.  C.  1043. 

SHOMEB   (sh5'mer),  (Heb.    ^'P^^,    sho-mare', 

keeper).  1.  Second  son  of  Heber,  of  the  tribe  of 
Asher  (i  CHiron.  vii:32);  called  Shamer  in  i 
Chron.  vii:34. 

2.  Father  of  Jehozabad,  who  slew  King  Joash 
(2  Kings  xii:2i);  this  name  is  converted  into 
Shimrith  for  the  feminine  (2  Chron.  xxiv  126) . 

SHOPHACH  (sh5'fak),  (Heb.  "^l?"^^,  sho-fawk', 

extension),  a  general  of  Hadarezer  (i  Chron.  xix: 
16,  18),  called  also  Shobach  (2  Sam.  x:i6). 

SHOFHAN  (sh5'phan),  (Heb.  1?^^,  sho-fawn' , 

hidden  or  hollow).  In  the  A.  V.  a  fortified  town 
of  Gad,  east  of  Jordan  (Num.  xxxii:35);  but 
probably  it  should  be  read  as  an  affix  of  the  word 
before  it,  'Atrothshophan.' 

SHORE.  The  rendering  of  three  Hebrew  and 
two  Greek  words.  1.  Khofe  (Heb.  ^H  chafed 
by  waves*  Gesenius,  or  inclosed,  Fuerst;  comp. 


SHOSHANNIM 


1683 


SHUAL 


Eng.  cove),  a  roadstead  (Judg.  v:i7;  Jer.  xlvii: 
7;  coast"  in  Josh.  ix:i;  Ezek.  xxv:i6;  "haven" 
in  Gen.  xlix:i3;  "seaside"  in  Deut  i:7). 

2.  Kaw'tseh*  (Heb.  •^?R),  extremity  of  the  land 
(Jo6h.  XV  :2;  elsewhere  "brim"  or  "brink"). 

8.  Saw'faw'  (Heb.  ^|?,  lip),  used  in  our  sense 
of  seashore  (Gen.  xxii:i7;  Exod.  xiv:30,  etc.)* 

4«  Ahee-ghee-al-os'  (Gr.  <ay*aX6f),  the  beack, 
on  which  the  waves  dash  (Matt.  xiii:2,  48;  John 
xxi:4;  Acts  xxiis;  xxvii:39,  40). 

5.  Khi'los  (Gr.  x«*^«»  the  lip),  usually  ren- 
dered the  "lip"  (Matt.  xv:8;  Mark  vii:6;  Rom. 
iii:i3,  etc.),  once  "shore"   (Heb.  xi:i2),  as  the 

Slace  upon  or  from  which  the  waves  pour.    (Mc. 
:  Str.  Cyc.) 

SHOSHANNIM  (sho-shlUi'nIm),  (Heb.  Ps.  bcix, 

tr^i^,  and  Ps.  xlv.  ^^it^,  sko-shan-neem',  lily),  a 

musical  director  to  the  leader  of  the  choir,  prob- 
ably indicating  the  melody  "after"  or  "in  the  man- 
ner of  which"  the  psalms  were  to  be  sung. 

SHOXTIiDIiB  is  generally  the  rendering  of  Heb. 
^.^.  shek-em',  the  neck,  as  the  place  to  receive 

a  burden  (Gen.  xxi:i4;  xxivrij,  45,  etc.).  Twice 
(Num.  vi:i9;  Deut.  xviii:3)  it  represents  Heb. 

^'^"'I,  ser-o'ah,  the  arm,  the  fore  shoulder  offered 

in  sacrifice.    Shoke  (Heb.  lp*t)  is  used  especially 

of  the  right,  or  **  heave  *'  shoulder  ( Exod.  xxix: 

27;  Lev.  vii:32-34,  etc).    Kaw-thafe^  (Heb.  TP?» 

clothed)  is  the  shoulder  properly  so  called,  as  the 
spot  from  which  garments  are  suspended  (Exod. 
xxviii:i2;  xxxix:7),  especially  of  the  "shoulder 

?ieces"  of  the  high-priest  (see  Priest,  Hebrew 
RiESTHOOD).  in  Is.  xi:i4  it  is  the  peculiar  name 
of  Philistia*s  coast  land;  in  Tosh.  xv:ii,  used  fig- 
uratively of  the  shoulder  of  the  nation.  O'tnos 
(Gr.  &MOS,  Matt.  xxiii:4;  Luke  xv:5)  has  a 
similar  meaning  with  shek-em',  above. 

The  respect  paid  by  offering  the  shoulder  of  ani- 
mals to  (jod,  and  to  men  of  distinction,  as  the 
most  delicate  part,  should  not  be  overlooked.  So 
the  shoulder  of  the  heave-offering,  at  the  conse- 
cration of  priests  was  to  the  sanctified  as  above  re- 
ferred to  m  Exod.  xxix:27,  and  the  shoulder  of 
the  Nazarite's  offering  was  to  be  waved  (Num.  xvi : 
19).  So  Samuel  showed  a  mark  of  the  greatest 
respect  to  Saul,  by  reserving  the  shoulder  for  his 
eatmg  (i  Sam.  ix:24),  t.  e,,  he  treated  him  as  king 
elect.  It  is  probable  that  the  right  shoulder  had 
the  pre-eminence;  and  this  became  the  property 
of  the  priest  who  officiated.  (Comp.  Lev.  vii  132, 
34;  viii:25;  ix:2i;  x:i4.) 

Figurative,  (i)  Burdens  on  the  shoulder  de- 
note labor,  servitude,  oppression  ((jen.  xltx:i5; 
Is.  ix:4,  and  x:27;  Ps.  lxxxi:6).  (2)  To  serve 
with  one  shoulder  is  to  do  it  with  one  consent 
(Zeph.  iii  iq)..  (3)  To  pull  away  the  shoulder  is 
rebelliously  to  refuse  subjection  to  God's  law  as 
an  unruly  beast  refuses  to  draw  in  a  yoke  (Neh. 
ix:29;  Zech.  vii:ii).  (4)  To  be  carried  on  the 
shoulder  is  to  be  carried  honorably,  as  royal  per- 
sons (Is.  xlix:22).  (5)  The  government  is  on 
Christ's  j/io«/d^r;  the  whole  care  and  rule  of  the 
church  is  committed  to  his  power,  and  wisdom, 
and  love  (Is.  ix:6).  (6)  As  badges  of  honor  and 
rule  were  worn  on  the  shoulders,  keys  on  the 
shoulder  denote  the  power  of  government  (Job 
xxxi  136;  Is.  xxii  :22).  (7)  The  border  of  a  coun- 
try; as  God  dwelt  between  Benjamin's  shoulders 
ils.  xi  :i4)  ;  t.  e.,  as  his  temple  stood  on  Moriah,  in 
leir  border. 


SHOTTLDEB  BLADE   (shordSr  blad),  (Heb. 

*^9?T f  shik-maw'),  properly  the  socket  where  the 

bone  is  attached  (Job  xxxi:22). 

SHOXTLDEB  PIECE  (shsl'der  pes),  (Heb.  H^ 

kaw'thafe',  clothed),  an  ornament  on  the  ephod  of 
the  high-priest  (Exod.  xxviii:7,  2^;  xxxix:4;  "shoul* 
ders,"  xxviii:i2;  xxxix:7;  "sides,   xxviii:27;xxxix: 

20). 

SHOVEL  (8hiiv"l),  (Heb.  TO^,  rakh'aih),  the 

implement  with  which  the  ashes  were  removed 
from  the  altar  (Exod.  xxvii:3).  In  Is.  xxx:24,  it 
is  a  "  winnowing  fork." 

SHOWBBEAD  (sh5'brSd').  See  Shewbread; 
Tabernacle;  etc 

SHOWEB  (shou'er),  is  the  reading  (Ezek.  xiii: 
II,  13;  xxxiv:2i5)  for  *a  heavy  rain*;  (Job  xxiv:8), 
'a  storm';  and  (Deut.  xxxii:2;  Ps.  lxv:io;  lxxii:6; 
Jer.  iii  13;  xiv:22;  Mic  v:7)  of  *  drops.'    (See  Rain.) 

SHBED  (shrSd),  (Heb.  I^^f,  pawlakh*,  cut  to 

pieces).  And  one  went  out  into  the  field  to 
gather  herbs,  and  found  a  wild  vine,  and  gathered 
thereof  wild  gourds  his  lap  full,  and  came  and 
shred  them  into  the  pot  of  pottage;  for  they 
knew  them  not  (2  Kings  iv:39). 

SHBINE  (shrin),  (Gr.  va6f,  nah-os*,  a  temple),  a 
miniature  of  the  temple  of  Diana,  with  a  statue  of 
the  goddess. 

SHB0X7D  (Heb.  ^5".  kho'resh,  thicket,  Ezek. 

xxxi:3),  elsewhere  rendered  "cover"  or  "shelter"; 
a  wood. 

SHBT7B  (shriib).  (Heb.  0^^,  see'akh),  a  «bush' 

Oob  xxx:4, 7);  "  plant "  (Gen.  ii:5). 

SHIXA  (shu'i),  (Heb.  ^^'^,  shoo' ah,  cry  for  help). 

1*  A  Canaanite,  father  of  Judah's  wife  (i  Chron. 
ii:3;  Gen.  xxxviii:i2;  A.  V.  Shuah\  B.  C.  be- 
fore 1895. 

2.  (Heb.  shoo' aw,   ^^*),  daughter  of  Nebcr 
(i  Chron.  vii  132),  B.  C.  after  1874. 
SHIXAH  (sh^'ah),  (Heb.  0''^,  sho&akh,  pit). 

!•  Son  of  Abraham  by  Keturah,  his  wife  ((jen. 
XXV  :2;  I  Chron.  i:32),  B.  C.  before  1988. 

2.  (Heb.  '^^,  shoo'khaw',  properly  Shuchah), 

a  descendant  of  Judah  (i  Chron.  iv:ii),  B.C. be- 
fore 1612. 

8.  (Heb.  ^^,  shoo-ah'),  father  of  Judah's  v/ife, 
the  Canaanitess  ((^n.xxxviii:2, 12).  (See  Shva,  i.) 

SHUAL  (shu'al).  (Heb.  ^^^^,  shoo-awf). 

This  word  and  the  term  in  A.  V.  for  jackal 
are  both  somewhat  arbitrarily  interpreted  by  the 
word  'fox;'  although  that  denomination  is  not 
uniformly  employed  in  diflFerent  texts  (Judg.  xv: 
4;  Neh.  iv:3;  Ps.  lxiii:io;  Cant.  ii:i5;  Lam.  v: 
18;  Ezek.  xiii:4).  Fox  is  thus  applied  to  two  or 
more  species,  though  only  strictly  applicable  in  a 
systematic  view  to  Taaleb,  which  is  the  Arabic 
name  of  a  wild  canine,  probably  the  Syrian  fox, 
Vulpes  Thaleb,  or  Taaleb,  of  modern  zoologists, 
and  the  onl^  genuine  species  indigenous  in  Pales- 
tine. Fox  is  again  the  translation  of  alopax,  in 
Matt.  viii:20;  Luke  ix:58;  xiii  132;  but  here  also 
the  word  in  the'briginal  texts  may  apply  generic- 
ally  to  several  species  rather  than  to  one  only. 

None  of  the  explanations  which  we  have  seen 
of  the  controverted  passage  in  Judg.  xv  :4,  5,  rela- 
tive to  the  shoo-awf-yim,  foxes,  jackajs,  or  other 
canines,  which  Samson  employed  to  set  fire  to  the 
corn  of  the  Philistines,  is  altogether  satisfactory. 


SHUAL 


1684 


SHUR 


First,  taking  Dr.  Kennicott's  proposed  explanation 
of  the  case  by  reading  'foxes  instead  of  'sheaves/ 
and  'ends'  instead  of  'tails/  the  meaning  then 
would  be  that  Samson  merely  connected  300 
shocks  of  corn,  already  reaped,  by  bands  or  ends, 
andtthus  burned  the  whole.  We  admit  that  this, 
at  first  view,  appears  a  rational  explanation;  but 
it  should  be  observed  that  three  hundred  shocks 
of  corn  would  not  make  two  stacks,  and  therefore 
the  result  would  be  quite  inadequate,  considered 
as  a  punishment  or  act  of  vengeance  upon  the 
Philistine  population,  then  predominant  over  the 
greater  part  of  Palestine;  and  if  we  take  shocks 
to  mean  corn-stacks,  then  it  may  be  asked  how, 
and  for  what  object,  were  three  hundred  corn- 
stacks  brought  together  in  one  place?  The  task, 
in  that  hilly  region,  would  have  occupied  all  the 
cattle  and  vehicles  for  several  months;  and  then 
the  corn  could  not  have  been  threshed  out  with- 
out making  the  whole  population  travel  repeat- 
edly, in  order  finally  to  reload  the  grain  and  take 
it  to  their  threshing  floors. 

Commentators,  following  the  reading  of  the 
Septuagint,  have  with  common  consent  adopted 
the  interpretation  that  two  foxes  were  tied  to- 
gether by  their  tails  with  a  firebrand  between 
them.  Now  this  does  not  appear  to  have  been  the 
practice  of  the  Romans,  nor  does  it  occur  in  the 
fable  of  Apthonius.  We  understand  the  text  to 
mean  that  each  fox  had  a  separate  brand;  and 
most  naturally  so;  for  it  may  be  questioned 
whether  two  united  would  run  in  the  same  di- 
rection. They  would  assuredly  pull  counter  to 
each  other,  and  ultimately  fight  most  fiercely; 
whereas,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  every  canine 
would  run,  with  fire  attached  to  its  tail,  not  from 
choice,  but  necessity,  through  standing  corn,  if 
the  field  lay  in  the  direction  of  the  animal's  bur- 
row ;  for  foxes  and  jackals,  when  chased,  run  di- 
rect to  their  holes,  and  sportsmen  well  know  the 
necessity  of  stopping  up  those  of  the  fox  while 
the  animal  is  abroad,  or  there  is  no  chance  of  a 
chase.  We  therefore  submit  that  by  the  words 
rendered  'tail  to  tail'  we  should  understand  the 
end  of  the  firebrand  attached  to  the  extremity  of 
the  tail.  Finally,  as  the  operation  of  tying  three 
hundred  brands  to  as  many  fierce  and  irascible 
animals  could  not  be  effected  in  one  day  by  a  sin- 
gle man,  nor  produce  the  result  intended  if  done 
in  one  place,  it  seems  more  probable  that  the  name 
of  Samson,  as  the  chief  director  of  the  act,  is  em- 
ployed to  represent  the  whole  party  who  effected 
his  intentions  in  different  places  at  the  same  time, 
and  thereby  insured  ihat  general  conflagration  of 
the  harvest  which  was  the  signal  of  open  resist- 
ance on  the  part  of  Israel  to  the  long-endured 
oppression  of  the  Philistine  people.  (See  Fox; 
Dog;  Wolf;  Samson.)  C.  H.  S. 

(shu'al),  (Heb.  ^?'>*,  shoo-awt,  jackal). 


1.  Third  son  of  Zophah,  an  Asherite  (i  Chron. 
vii:36),  B.  C.  after  1612. 

2.  A  place  invaded  by  the  Philistines,  probably 
a  little  northeast  of  Bethel  of  Benjamin  (i  Sam. 
xiii:J7). 

SHUBi^iHi  (shu'bWl).  (Heb.  ^S?^*,  shoo-ba'tth 

ale\  captive  of  God).  Two  Levites  (i  Chron. 
xxiv:2o;  xxv:2o),  elsewhere  called  Shebuel. 

SHUHAM  (shu'ham),  (Heb.  CP'^^,  shoo-khawm: 

humility),  son  of  Dan  (Num.  xxvi:42);  called 
Hushim  (Gen.  xlvii:23). 

8HUHAMITES   (sha'ham-ftes),   (Heb.  ^^^^^, 

shoo-khaw-mee),  descendants  of  Hushim  or  Shu- 
ham,  numbering  4,460  when  the  Israelites  entered 
Canaan  (Num.  xxvi:42,  43). 


SHUHITB   (shu'hite).  (Heb.  '^O'J*  shoo-khee"), 

the  Shuhites  were  descendants  of  Abraham  by 
Keturah,  through  Shuah  (Gen.  xxv:2;  i  Chron. 
1:32).  it  is  an  epithet  applied  to  Bildad  (Job 
ii:ii,  xviii:i,  etc). 

SHULAMITS  (shu'lam-Ite),  (Heb.  f^^'S^I*  shoo- 

lam-meeth'),  a  person  addressed  in  Solomon's  Song 
(Cant  vi:i3). 

SHUIKATHITES  (sh^'matb-Ites),  (Heb.  ^^^% 

skoO'maW'thee'\  a  family  which  sprang  from  Kir- 
jath-jearim  (i  Chron.  ii:53). 

SHX7KIK  (shu'mim),  (Heb.  Ditf,  shoom,  odor). 

Occurs  only  once  in  Scripture,  and  that  in  the 
passage  which  has  already  been  quoted  under 
Abattachim^  etc.,  where  the  Israelites  are  de- 
scribed as  miumuring,  among  other  things,  for 
the  leeks,  the  onions,  and  the  garlic  (shoom)  of 
Egypt.  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  being  cor- 
rectly so  translated,  as  the  Arabic  thorn  still  sig- 
nifies a  species  of  garlic,  which  is  cultivated  and 
esteemed  throughout  eastern  countries.  Ancient 
authors  mention  that  garlic  was  cultivated  in 
Egypt.    (See  Garuc)  J.  F.  R.  ' 

SHX7KAMMITE  (shu'nam-mlte),  (Heb.  ri*'^:^]^, 

shoo-nam-nueth!),  u  e.  the  native  of  Shunem  (2 
Kings  iv:8,  12).  It  is  an  epithet  of  Abishag  (i 
Kings  i^;  £1:17;  ii:22).  See  Woodward,  Lectures 
on  the  Shunammiti, 

SHX7NEH  (shu'nem),  (Heb.  ^3^*  shoo-name', 
Sept.  2oi/yd/i,  sunam), 

A  town  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix:i8}, 
where  the  Philistines  encamped  before  Saul's  last 
battle  (i  Sam.  xxviii:4),  and  to  which  belonged 
Abishag,  the  last  wife  of  David  (i  Kings  i:3). 
and  'the  Shunamite  woman/  with  whom  Elisha 
lodged  (2  Kings  iv  18-37;  viii:i-6).  Eusebius  and 
Jerome  describe  it  as,  in  their  day,  a  village  lying 
five  Roman  miles  from  Mount  Tabor  towards  the 
south.  They  call  it  Sulem.  It  has  of  late  years 
been  recognized  in  a  village  called  Solam,  three 
miles  and  a  half  north  of  Zerin  (Jezreel),  which 
is  a  small  place  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  where  noth- 
ing occurs  to  denote  an  ancient  site  (Elliot,  ii. 
378;  Schubert,  iii.  165;  Robinson,  iii.  169,  170). 

SHXJKI  (shu'ni),  (Heb.  ^i'^'^,  sho(hnee\  quiet), 

the  son  of  Gad,  and  founder  of  the  family  of  Shu- 
nites  (Gen.  xlvi.i6;  Num.  xxvi:i5),  B.  C.  1874. 

SH UNITES  (shu'nites),  (Heb.  N'^^,  shoo-nee'), 
descendants  of  Shuni  (Num.  xxvi:i5). 
SHTTPHAH  (shu'pham),  (Heb.  Q^^^f ,  shef-oo- 

fawm\  the  "son"  of  Benjamin,  and  head  of  a 
family  of  Shuphamites  (Nunu  xxvi:39);  called 
Shephuphan  (i  Chron.  viii:5).  He  was  probably 
the  son  of  Bela  and  grandson  of  Benjamin. 

SHUFHAMITE   (shu'pham-Ite),  (Heb.  ""^^^^i 

shoo-faw-mee'),  a  descendant  of  Shvpham  (Num. 
xxvi:39),  or  Shephih^han  (i  Chron.  viii:5). 

SHUFFIM    (shiSp'pim),    (Heb.    D"5^,   shoop- 

peetn'),  !•  A  descendant  of  Benjamin,  and  son 
of  Ir  (i  C^ron.  vii:i2),  B.  C.  1856.  He  is  also 
called  Shupham,  and  Shephuphan  (which  see). 
2.  A  Levite  doorkeeper  of  the  Temple  (i  (Thron. 
xxvi:i6),  B.  C.  1013.  Probably  the  word  is 
not  a  proper  name,  but  the  last  two  syllables  of 
the  preceding  word. 

SHX7B  (shflr),  (Heb.  yft,  shoor;  Sept.  Sodp,  sur\ 
a  city  on  the  confines  of  Egypt  and  Palestine 

iC^en.  xvi:7;  xx:i>  xxv.iS;  i  Sam.  xv:7;  xxvii:8). 
osephus  makes  it  the  same  as  Pelusium  {Antiq. 


8HUSHAN  IS 

ft?.  3;  cooDp.  I  Sun.  xv:7)'.  but  this  cttf  bore 
Among  the  Hebir iv;  Jia  oame  of  Sin. 

More  probably  Shur  was  somewhere  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  modern  Suez.  The  desert  extending 
from  the  borders  of  Palestine  to  Shur,  is  called  in 
Exod.  XV  :22,  the  'desert  of  Shur,"  but  in  Num. 
xxxiii  :8,  the  'desert  of  Ethatn." 

BBUBSAX  (shu'shan),  (Heb.  1*1*  sitw-siart']. 

1-  A  word  which  occurs  in  several  passages  of 
the  Old  Testament  and  is  translated  lily  in  the 
Authorized  Version.  In  the  article  Kunon  we 
have  mentioned  that  several  plants  have  been  ad- 
duced as  ihe  lily  of  the  New  Testament,  such  as 
Amaryllis  lutea,  Ixiolirion  monlanum,  etc.,  but 
that  Lilium  clialccdotiicvm,  or  the  scarlet  mar- 
tagon  lily,  appears  to  be  ttie  one  alluded  to  by 
our  Savior.  Besides  the  above,  there  are  no 
doubt  several  other  plants  indigenous  in  Syria, 
which  might  be  grouped  with  them,  and  come 
under  the  dcnominalion  of  lil;r,  when  ihat  name 
is  used  in  a  general  sense,  as  it  often  is  by  trav- 
elers and  others.  The  term  shoo-shan'  seems 
also  to  have  been  employed  in  this  sense. 


Lams    (WBti 


Lily). 


The  shoo-ihan  of  Scripture  has  been  variously 
interpreted  by  translators,  being  by  some  thought 
to  be  the  rose,  by  others  the  violet,  or  convallarla, 
a  jasamine,  or  some  one  or  more  of  the  plants  in- 
cluded under  the  general  name  of  lily.  But  it  ap- 
pears to  us  that  none  but  a  plant  which  was  well 
known  and  highly  esteemed  would  be  found  oc- 
curring in  so  many  different  passages.  Thus,  in 
1  Kings  vii:i9-36.  and  2  Chron.  iv;5,  it  is  men- 
tioned as  forming  the  ornamental  work  of  the 
pillars  and  of  the  brazen  sea,  made  of  molten 
brass,  for  the  house  of  Solomon,  by  Hiram  of 
Tyre.  In  Canticles  the  word  is  frequently  men- 
tioned 1  and  it  is  curious  that  in  five  passages, 
Cim.  ii;a  and  i6;  iv:5;  vi  :2  and  3.  there  is  a  ref- 
erence 10  feeding  among  lilies ;  which  appears  un- 
accountable, when  we  consider  that  the  allusion  is 
made  simply  to  an  ornamental  or  sweet-smelling 
plant ;  and  this  the  shoo-shan'  appears  to  have 
been  from  other  passages  in  which  it  is  men- 
tioned. Thus  in  Cant,  ii  :i,  'I  am  the  rose  of 
Sharon  and  the  lily  of  the  valleys;'  verse  2,  'as 
the  lily  among  thorns,  so  is  my  love  among 
the  daughlers;'  v:i3.  'his  lips  like  lilies,  dropping 
sweet  smelling  myrrh ;'  vii  :2,  'thy  belly  is  like  an 
heap  of  wheat  set  about  wirti  lilies.'  If  we  coa- 
sider  that  the  book  of  Canticles  is  supposed  to 


5  SHU8HAN 

have  been  written  ya  the  occasion  of  the  marriags 
of  Solomon  whn  s  princess  of  Egypt,  it  is  natural 
to  suppose  that  some  of  the  imagery  may  have 
been  derived  from  her  native  country,  and  that  the 
above  lily  may  be  a  plant  of  Egypt,  rather  than  of 
Palestine.  And  this  appears  to  us  to  be  the  case, 
especially  as  the  water  lily  or  lotus  of  the  Nile 
seems  suitable  to  most  of  the  above  passages. 
(See  Lily.) 

2-  Shushan  Ihe  Palace.  Shushan  was  the  Elani- 
ite  capital,  Susa.  It  was  the  chief  town  and 
capital  of  Susiana,  called  Elam  in  the  Scriptures, 
in  which  the  kings  had  their  winter  residence 
(Dan.  viii:2;  Neh.  t:i;  Esther  i:2.  5).  It  waa 
situated  upon  the  Euleus  or  Choaspes,  on  the  spot 
niw  occupied  by  the  village  Schush  (Rennel, 
Geog,  of  Herodotus;  Kinneir,  Mem.  Pert.  Em- 
pire; K-  Porter,  Travels,  ii.  4,  11;  Ritter,  Erd- 
kutide  Asien,  ix.  294;  Kitto,  Pictorial  Bible,  on 
Dan,  viii;2).  At  this  place  there  are  extensive 
ruins,  extending  perhaps  twelve  miles  from  one 
extremit:^  to  the  other,  and  consisting,  like  the 
other  ruins  of  this  region,  of  hillocks  of  earth 
and  rubbish  covered  with  broken  pieces  of  brick 
and  colored  tile.  At  the  foot  of  these  mounds 
is  the  so-called  tomb  of  Daniel,  a  small  building 
erected  on  the  spot  where  the  remains  of  that 
prophet  are  locally  believed  to  rest.  It  is  appar- 
ently modern ;  nothing,  however,  but  the  belief 
that  this  was  the  site  of  the  prophet's  sepulcher 
could  have  led  to  its  being  built  in  the  place  where 
it  stands  (Malcolm,  Hist,  of  Persia,  i.  2SJ,  256)  ; 
and  it  may  be  added  that  such  identifications  are 
of  far  more  value  in  these  parts,  where  occasion 
for  them  is  rare,  than  among  the  crowded  'holy 
places"  of  Palestine.  The  city  of  Schush  is  now  a 
gloomy  wilderness,  infested  by  lions,  hyenas  and 
other  beasts  of  prey.  It  is  in  N.  lat.  31°  56'  and 
E.  long.  48°  26'. 

The  term  palace  is  used  to  translate  a  Hebrew 
word  -which  means  the  fortress  and  indeed  the 
whole  capital  city,  as  well  as  its  chief  palace  or 

Elam  was  the  southern  kingdom,  or  afterward 
province,  of  what  was  later  called  Persia.  The 
name  Persia  comes  into  use  as  the  name  Elam 
begins  to  be  lost,  when  the  successors  of  Cyrus 
preferred  to  call  themselves  kings  of  Persia  rather 
than  of  Elam.     So  the  word  Elam  points  to  a 


In  the  case  of  Susa,  the  city  may  well  be  called 
the  Palace,  as  it  was  the  palace  that  gave  it  its 
distinction  and  that  has  remained  in  splendid  ruins 
to  this  day — first  the  old  palace  of  Memnon,  then 
that  of  Darius.  We  are  indebted  for  our  knowl- 
edgje  of  Shushan  chiefly  to  the  recent  excavations 
of  M,  Dieulafoy  and  his  courageous  wife,  the 
fruits  of  which  were  only  about  three  years  ago 
put  into  Ihe  museum  of  the  Louvre  in  Paris. 

The  city  of  Shushan  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 
not  only  in  the  Book  of  Esther  as  the  place  where 
the  events  took  place,  but  also  in  the  first  verse  of 
Nehemiah  as  the  capital  from  which  the  patriotic 
Hebrew  governor  started  on  his  mission  to  re- 
build Jerusalem.  It  is  also  mentioned  in  connec- 
tion with  one  of  Daniel's  visions.  Elam  is  much 
more  frequently  mentioned,  first  in  Ihe  race  table 
in  Genesis  x,  and  often  afterwards  in  the  Proph- 
ets. The  word  Elam  simply  means  high  land, 
as  opposed  to  the  low  land  about  the  Mesopota- 

A  very  careful  study  of  Shushan  has  appeared 
within  a  few  months  in  Germany,  bv  A.  Billerbeck, 
entitled  Susa:  a  St«dy_  of  the  Ancient  History 
of  Western  Asia.  This  work  gathers  together 
the  history  of  Elam,  as  far  as  is  known  to  us,  and 
of  its  famous  and  beautiful  capital,  as  studied  br 


SHUSHAN 


1586 


SHUTTLE 


Loftus,  Dieulafoy,  and  others.  We  first  hear  of 
this  country  about  3000  B.  C,  and  it  has  even 
been  supposed  that  the  earliest  population  of 
Babylonia,  called  Accadim,  or  Sumerim,  brougfht 
their  first  civilization  out  of  the  hill  country  of 
Elam. 

But  the  earliest  population  of  Babylonia  and  of 
the  outlying  districts  of  Elam  were  of  a  widely 
extended  race  who  are  called  negritoes,  to  distin- 
guish them  from  negroes.  Their  skin  was  dark 
brown  to  black,  and  their  hair  and  eyes  were  black. 
They  were  evidently  little  mixed  with  Semitic 
blood,  and  their  descendants  are  still  found  in  the 
neighborhood ;  they  are  a  timid  and  oppressed  peo- 
ple who  have  not  entirely  lost  their  distinctive 
marks.  The  high  lands  were  occupied  from  the 
earliest  known  times  by  a  more  vigorous  race,  and 
we  may  believe  these  whites  to  have  been  Mon- 
golians which  came  from  the  north.  A  Semitic 
mvasion  starting  from  Arabia,  before  3000  B.  C, 
and  which  covered  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  must 
also  have  reached  Elam.  The  Iranians,  or  true 
Persians,  representing  an  Aryan  stock  and  culture, 
came  much  later  with  the  Persians  from  the  north. 

The  old  Mongolian  name  of  Elam  was  Ansan, 
Elam  being  the  Semitic  designation.  Our  first 
knowledge  of  the  country  reaches  back  into 
legendary  times.  In  what  is  called  the  Nimrod 
epic  of  ancient  Babylonia  we  are  told  that  the 
hero  Gilgamesh  (Izdubar,  or  Nimrod)  delivered 
Babylonia  from  an  Elamite  tyrant  Khumbaba, 
whether  representing  the  origfinal  negrito  popula- 
tion or  the  Mongol  is  not  certain,  but  more  prob- 
ably the  latter  was  the  ruling  class  even  in  the 
earliest  historical  times. 

About  2300  B.  C.  one  of  the  great  events  in  the 
world's  history  occurred,  the  irruption  from  the 
East  of  a  vast  horde  of  Mongolians  over  the  west- 
ern part  of  Asia.  One  branch  of  them  crossed  the 
northern  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  did  not  stop 
until  it  entered  Egypt,  mixed  with  the  Semites, 
whom  thev  drove  before  them,  and  established  the 
Hyksos  dynasty.  The  other  passed  over  Elam, 
and  overran  Babylonia  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  This 
gave  rise  to  the  Elamite  dynasty,  which  ruled 
Babylonia  for  perhaps  a  century,  and  wliich  we 
know  in  the  Biblical  Chedorlaomer  kin^  of  Elam, 
who  made  a  raid  nearly  as  far  as  Egypt  m  the  time 
of  Abraham.  But  the  Semitic  inhabitants  of 
Babylonia  drove  them  out,  and  established  the 
purely  Semitic  dynasty  of  Hammurabi.  The  date 
of  this  conquest  is  fixed  only  by  an  Assyrian  doc- 
ument which  tells  how  King  Assur-bani-pal  re- 
covered from  Susa  an  image  of  Nana,  the  goddess 
of  the  morning,  which  had  been  carried  off  from 
Erech  by  the  Elamites  seventeen  centuries  before. 

But  the  hill  country  is  apt  to  dominate  the  in- 
habitants of  the  low  lands,  and  about  1600  B.  C. 
another  Elamite  invasion  conquered  Babylonia  and 
ruled  for  about  two  centuries,  being  the  prevailing 
power  in  the  East,  with  its  capital  at  Susa.  The 
Assyrian  power  began  to  be  developed  about  this 
time,  and  lived  at  peace  with  Elam  until  the  ninth 
century  B.  C,  after  which  there  were  recurring 
wars,  until  Assur-bani-pal  utterly  conquered  Elam 
and  destroyed  Susa.  Meanwhile  an  Aryan  or 
Iranian  race  from  the  North  and  East  was  prepar- 
ing to  subdue  the  Mongolians;  and  Cyrus,  him- 
self, tracing  his  origin  chiefly  from  Elam,  but  with 
som^  Aryan  blood,  was  the  founder  of  the  king- 
dom of  Persia,  which  overthrew  Babylon,  conquer- 
ing Nabonidus  and  his  son  Belshazzar.  (See 
Belshazzar). 

This  was  the  beginning  of  the  period  of  the 
glory  of  Shushan  the  palace,  from  which,  once 
more,  after  nearly  two  thousand  years,  Asia  was 
ruled  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,   and 


even  Egypt  was  subjugated,  as  in  the  time  of  the 
Hyksos  invasion. 

The  monuments  give  us,  not  only  the  record  of 
the  kings  who  ruled  in  Susa,  but  actual  portraits 
of  Cyrus  and  Darius  Hystaspis.  The  profile  of 
Darius  is  purely  Aryan,  having  no  suggestion  of 
Semitic  or  Mongolian  stock,  while  the  picture  of 
Cyrus  suggests  rather  Mongolian  blood. 

The  great  palace  of  Shushan  described  in  the 
Book  of  Esther  was  built  by  Darius  Hystaspis,  but 
enlarged  by  Xerxes.  It  was  to  this  palace,  with  its 
wonderful  audience  room,  that  Dieulafoy  devoted 
the  time  allowed  him  for  excavation.  It  was  built 
on  a  platform  975  feet  long  by  650  wide.  The  au- 
dience room  was  190  feet  square  and  opening  on 
the  south.  There  were  thirty- six  marble  columns 
at  equal  distances,  six  on  a  side,  and  sixty-eight 
feet  high,  including  the  capital.  On  each  of  the 
three  closed  sides  was  a  veranda  of  two  rows  of 
six  columns.  The  walls  inside  and  out  were  deco- 
rated with  richly  colored  glazed  tiles.  Inside  and 
above  was  a  succession  of  lions  in  a  walking  posi- 
tion. On  the  outside  was  a  still  more  magnificent 
frieze  representing  the  military  guard  of  Darius, 
w^iich  consisted  of  ten  thousand  soldiers.  These 
are  represented  as  belonging  to  the  negrito  t3rpe; 
a  succession  of  six  of  them  has  been  carried  to 
Paris  and  now  forms  a  principal  treasure  of  the 
Louvre. 

In  front  of  the  Audience  Hall,  to  the  south  was 
a  beautiful  garden  or  "paradise"  from  which  vis- 
itors were  admitted  to  an  audience  with  the  king. 
Through  the  garden  the  audience  room  was  ap- 
proached by  a  broad  avenue,  flanked  with  walls 
covered  with  glazed  or  colored  tiles. 

Still  farther  south  and  at  a  forty  foot  lower 
level,  was  another  platform  three  hundred  feet 
wide,  which  served  as  an  outer  court,  with  foun- 
tains and  trees,  from  which  the  ascent  was  made 
by  a  flight  of  marble  steps,  the  sides  of  the  stair- 
case being  ornamented  with  rich  tiles.  Through 
this  outer  court,  up  this  magnificent  stairway 
flanked  with  its  wall,  and  with  flags  and  streamers 
flying  from  high  i>oles,  the  ambassadors  of  other 
powers,  and  the  princes  with  their  retinues  bearing 
their  tribute,  passed  under  the  costly  curtains  that 
shaded  the  audience  chamber,  into  the  presence  of 
the  great  king.  Here,  too,  he  held  his  public 
feasts,  and  here  occurred  the  exciting  events  in 
the  history  of  Ahasuerus,  Haman,  Esther,  and 
Mordecai;  except  those  more  private  interviews, 
which  probably  occurred  in  the  later  palace  and 
seraglio  built  by  Xerxes  (Ahasuerus)  iust  to  the 
north  of  the  great  audience  room.  Shushan  the 
Palace,  by  William  Hayes  Ward,  D.  D.,  Homi- 
letic  Review,  June,  1894. 

SHTTSHAN-EDT7TH   (shu'shan-e'duth),  (Heb. 

nn?  I^IIZ^,  shoO'Shan'ay-dooth\  Ps.  Ix.  title),  "Lily 

of  testimony."    This  word  doubtless  indicates  the 
song  to  the  air  of  which  Ps.  Ix  is  to  be  sung. 

SHUTHAIiHITES    (shu '  thai  -  hites),    (Heb. 

''HfO^,  shoo-thal'khee\  the  descendants  of  Shu- 
THELAH,  son  of  Ephraim  (Num.  xxvi:35). 

SHUTHELAH  (shu' the-lah),  (Heb.  ^X}^^. 
shoo'theh' lakh,  noise  of  breaking). 

1.  First  of  the  three  sons  of  Ephraim,  and  head 
of  the  family  of  Shuthelah  (i  Chron.  vii  120-27; 
Num.  xxvi  :35,  36),  B.  C.  between  1856  and  1802. 

2.  Son  of  Zabad,  and  sixth  in  descent  from 
1  (i  Chron.  vii:2i),  B.  C.  after  1618. 

SHUTTLE  (shut'fl),  (Heb.  W?,  eh*reg^  a  weav- 
ing), used  in  Job  vii:6  as  a  figure  of  the  swiftness 
of  life. 


SIA 


1687 


SILOAM  OR  SHILOAH 


SIA  (si'a),  (Heb.  ^?*P,  j^^-aa/',  congregation),  a 

chief  of  the  Nelhinim  whose  descendants  relumed 
from  captivity  with  Zerubbabel  (Neh.  vii:47); 
called  Si  AH  A  (Ezra  ii:44),  B.  C.  before  536. 

SIAHA   (si'a-ha),    (Heb.  ^7^9,   sfe-aA-Aaw'). 
(Ezra  ii:44).    See  Si  A. 
SIBBEOAI    (slb'be-kai),   (Heb.    '^S??,   sid-dek- 

ah'ee,  thicket  like),  Sibbechai  the  Hushathite 
(2  Sam.  xxi:i8;  i  Chron.  xxvii-.ii),  probably  so 
called  from  his  birthplace  (i  Chron.  xi:29).  He 
was  captain  of  the  twenty-four  thousand  men  who 
served  David  in  the  eighth  month.    B.  C.  1043. 

SIBBECHAI  (slb'be-kai),  (Heb.  **???,  sib-bek- 
ah'ee).    See  Sibbecai. 

SIBBOLETH  (sib'bo-lgth),  another  form  of 
Shibboleth  (Judg.  xii:6). 

SIBMAH   (slb'mah),    (Heb.   •"^?5^,  sib-maw^ 

balsam  placed  in  Num.  (xxxii:38)  called  Shibmah 
(which  see). 

SIBBAIM  (srb'ra-rm),  (Heb.  B?15P,  sib-rah'yim, 

a  twofold  hope),  a  landmark  of  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  Holy  Land  (Ezek.  xlvii:i6)  ;  not 
identified. 

SICHEM  (si'kem),  (Heb.  ^^^.^sheh'kem,  shoul- 
der, rid^e),  an  incorrect  rendering  of  Shechem 
(Gen.  xh:6). 

SICKLE   (stk'k'l),   (Heb.  *?1?,  kher-mesh'.   a 

reaping   hook,  Deut.  xviig;   xxiii:25;   '|9,  mag- 

gawi\  same  meaning,  Jer.  I:i6;  Joel  iii:i3;  Gr. 
dpivavoif,  a  sickle),  an  mstrument  for  cutting  grain. 

SIDDIM,  VAIiE  OF  (std'dim),  (Heb.  PW»  ay', 

mek,   B*"??,   has 'Sid' deem,   the  valley   of   the 

fields),  a  valley  full  of  bitumen  pits  where  the  bat- 
tle between  the  four  kings  and  the  five  occurred. 
It  was  afterwards  submerged  under  the  waters  of 
the  Dead  Sea  (Gen.  xiv:3,  8,  10). 

SIDON  (si'don).    See  ZiDON. 

SIDONIANS  (sid5'ni-anz).    See  Zidonians. 

SIEVE  (stv),  (Heb.  ^^??,  keb-aw-raw',  netted, 

Amos  ix:9;  •"'?5,  naw-faw\  Is.  xxx:28),  they  were 

often  made  of  string,  rushes,  or  reeds  by  the 
Egyptians. 

SIGN  (sin),  several  Greek  and  Hebrew  words 
are  thus  translated,  and  they  all  signify  a  token,  or 
whatever  serves  to  express  or  represent  another 
thing. 

Thus  the  Lord  gave  to  Noah  the  rainbow,  as  a 
sign  of  his  covenant  (Gen.  ix:i2,  13)  and  for  the 
same  purpose  he  appointed  circumcision  to  Abra- 
ham (Gen.  xvii:ii;  see,  also,  Exod.  iii:i2;  Judg. 
vi:i7).  In  Is.  vii:i8,  the  word  is  used  for  a 
prophetic  similitude,  "Behold,  I  and  the  children 
whom  the  Lord  hath  given  me  are  for  signs  and 
for  wonders  in  Israel."     (See  also  Ezek.  iv;3.) 

SIGNET  (sYg'net).  See  Ornaments;  Ring; 
Seal. 

SIHON  (si'hon),  (Heb.  I*'^**?,  see-khone',  sweep- 
ing away;  /.  e.,  a  warrior  sweeping  all  before  him), 
the  king  of  the  Amorites,  reignmg  at  Heshbon, 
who  was  destroyed,  and  his  kingdom  subjugated, 
in  the  attempt  to  resist  the  progress  of  the  Israel- 
ites through  his  dominions  (Num.  xxi:2i,  23,5^./ 
Deut.  1:4;  ii:24,  31,  32;  iii:2,  6;  iv:46;  xxix:/;  Josh. 
ii:io;  Jer.  xlviii:45).    (See  Amorites.) 

SIHOB  (sl'h6r),  more  properly  Shihor,  (HeK 
^^9,  shee-khore',  black,  turbid),  the  Hebrew 
proper  nam**  for  the  Nile  (Is.  xxiii;3;  Jen  ii:i8)« 


The  word  means  'black;*  and  a  corresponding 
name  or  epithet  (MAaj,  block)  was  by  the  Greeks 
applied  to  the  same  river  (Serv.  ad.  Virg.  Georg. 
iv.  291),  on  account  of  the  black  slime  left  after 
the  subsidence  of  the  inundation.  In  Josh,  xiii: 
3 ;  I  Chron.  xiii  :5,  Sihor  is  put  as  the  southwest- 
ern limit  of  Palestine,  where  one  would  rather  ex- 
pect 'the  torrent  of  Egypt.*  Opinions  vary  as  to 
the  identity  of  Sihor  (Josh,  xiii  13)  and  Shihor  (i 
(Thron.  xiii:5)  with  the  first  two.  Keil  {Com.) 
thinks  them  to  be  the  brook  of  Egypt,  the  modern 
IVady  el  Arish, 

SIHOB-UBNATH  (si'hdr-ltb'nath).    See  Shi- 

HOR-LlBNATH. 

SILAS  (sl'las),  (Gr.  2£Xaf,  see' /as,  a  contraction 
of  SiLVANUS,«7-<%?-^i«-^5',  wooded),  a  distinguished 
Christian  teacher  in  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  who, 
with  Barnabas,  was  associated  by  that  church  with 
Paul  (Acts  xv:22,  32),  and  accompanied  him  in  his 
second  journey  through  Asia  Mmor  to  Macedonia 
(Actsxv:4o;  xviiiq,  25;  xvii:4). 

He  remained  behind  at  Berea  for  a  short  time, 
when  Paul  was  obliged  to  flee  from  that  place 
(Acts  xvii:io,  14).  They  met  again  at  Corinth 
(Acts  xviiirs;  comp.  Thess.  i:i),  where  Silas  was 
active  in  the  work  of  an  evangelist  (2  Cor.  irig). 
He  is  invariably  called  Silvanus  in  the  Epistles, 
but  the  contraction  Silas  is  always  used  in  the 
Acts.  Whether  this  Silvanus  is  the  same  person 
who  was  the  bearer  of  St.  Peter's  epistle  to  the 
churches  in  Asia  Minor  (i  Pet.  v:i2)  cannot  be 
ascertained.  The  traditions  {cb.  Dorothceum  et 
Hip  poly  turn)  regard  Silas  and  Silvanus  as  dif- 
ferent persons,  making  the  former  bishop  of 
Corinth,  and  the  latter  bishop  of  Thessalonica. 

SILENCE  (sI'l^s). 

1.  Dem-aW'tnaw'  (Heb.  •"'?VI',  stillness)  is  used 

poetically   by   hendiadys    (Job   iv:i6   'PJ  *^??!' 
^-?v )»  /  hear  stillness  and  a  voice,  1.  e,,  a  still 


voice,  a  light  whisper. 
2.  Khawrash'  (Heb.  ^?,  to  be  dumb),  is  joined 

with  deafness.  Spoken  of  God  as  not  listening  to 
and  answering  the  prayers  of  men  (Ps.  xxviii:i; 
XXXV  :22;  1:3,  21). 

8.  See-gah'o  (Gr.  <rt7dw)  is  used  in  our  sense 
of  not  speaking;  of  one  wishing  to  speak  in  a 
tongue  ("unknown") I  in  which  case  he  is  not  to 
speak  unless  an  interpreter  is  present  (i  Cor.  xiv: 
28).  It  relates  to  Corinthian  women,  who  on  ac- 
count of  the  custom  of  the  times  were  not  per- 
mitted to  speak  in  the  church  (i  Cor.  xiv:34). 

(snk),  (Heb.  *'?^*  shesh-ee\  or  ^*  shaysh). 


The  only  undoubted  mention  of  silk  is  that  of 
Rev.  xviii:i2. 

The  material  called  silk  in  Prov.  xxxi:22,  was 
probably  the  byssus;  while  that  of  Ezek.  xvi:io, 
13,  was  understood  to  be  the  same  by  the  rabbins. 
It  is  probable  that  the  Jews  were  acquainted  with 
silk  from  the  time  of  the  commercial  relations 
with  other  nations  initiated  by  Solomon. 

SILLA  (stl'la),  (Heb.  «^9,  sil-law',  twig,  basket; 
Gr.  XeXXd,  sella). 

The  scene  of  the  murder  of  King  Joash  (2 
Kings  xii:2o).  Whether  it  was  a  road  extending 
from  the  Joppa  gate  to  the  Haram  area,  now 
called  David's  road,  or  a  place  in  the  valley  below, 
is  uncertain. 

SILOAH  (sMS'ah).    See  Siloam. 

SILOAM  or  SHILOAH  (sM5'am),  (Heb.  0^9* 
she  lo'akh).    It  is  also  spelled  Siloah. 

The  name  Siloah  or  Siloam  is  found  only  three 
times  in  Scripture  as  applied  to  water;  once  in 


5IL0AM  OR  SHILOAH  15 

Isaiah  (viii:6),  who  sp«aks  of  it  as  running 
water;  again,  as  a  pool,  in  Neh.  iii:i5;  and  lastly, 
also  a  pool,  in  the  account  of  our  Lord's  healing 
the  man  who  had  been  born  blind  (John  ix:^-!!). 
None  of  these  passages  afEords  any  clue  to  the 
situation  of  Siloam ;  but  this  silence  is  supplied  hy 
josephus,  who  makes  frequent  mention  of  it  as 
a.  fountain  {De  Bell.  Jud.  v,  4,  sec.  i,  2),  and  indi- 


18  SILOAM  OR  SHILOAH 

copious  stream,  which  is  conducted  into  an  en- 
closed garden  planted  with  fig-trees.  It  is  after- 
wards subdivided,  and  seems  to  be  exhaustfd  in 
irrigating  a  number  of  gardens  occupied  with  figs, 
apricots,  olive  and  other  trees,  and  some  flourish- 
ing legumes.  The  small  upper  basin  or  fountain 
excavated  in  the  rock  is  merely  the  entrance,  or 
rather  the  termination  of  a  long  and  narrow  sub- 


d  Pool  of  siloam. 


cates  its  situation  at  the  mouth  of  the  valley  of 
Tyrop<Eon,  where  the  fountain,  now  and  long 
since  indicated  as  that  of  Siloam,  is  still  found 
The  pool  of  Siloam  is  within  and  at  the  mouth 
of  the  valley  of  Tyropieon,  and  about  eighty  paces 
above  its  termination  is  that  of  Jehoshaphat.  The 
water  flows  out  of  a  small  artificial  basin  un- 
der the  cliff,  the  entrance  to  whiqh  is  excavated 
in  the  form  of  an  arch,  and  is  immediately  re- 
ceived into  a  larger  reservoir,  fifty-three  feet  in 
length  by  eighteen  feet  in  width.  The  water  passes 
out  of  this  reservoir  through  a  channel  cut  in  the 
rock,  which  is  covered  for  a  short  distance;  but 
subsequently    it   opens    and    discloses    a    Uvely 


terranean  passage  beyond,  by  which  the  water 
comes  from  the  Founlain  of  the  Virgin.  This  has 
been  established  beyond  dispute  by  Dr.  Robinson, 
who,  with  his  companion,  had  (he  hardihood  to 
crawlthrough  the  passage.  They  found  it  1,750  feet 
in  length,  which,  owing  to  its  windings,  is  several 
hundred  feet  more  than  the  direct  distance  above 
ground.  It  is  thus  proved  that  (he  water  of  both 
these  fountains  is  the  same,  though  some  travelers 
have  pronounced  the  water  of  Siloam  to  be  bad, 
and  that  of  the  other  fountain  Kood.  It  has  a 
peculiar  taste,  sweetish  and  very  sli^hdy  brackish, 
but  not  at  all  disagreeable.  Late  m  the  season, 
when  the  water  is  low,  it  is  said  to  become  more 


SILOAM,  TOWER  OF 


1589 


SIMEON 


brackish  and  unpleasant.  The  most  remarkable 
circumstance  is  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  waters, 
which,  although  often  mentioned  as  a  characteris- 
tic of  Siloam,  must  belong  equally  to  both  foun- 
tains. This  establishes  the  fact  that  the  springs 
feeding  the  waters  are  intermittent.  Dr.  Robin- 
son himself  witnessed  this  phenomenon  in  the 
fountain  of  the  Virgin,  where  the  water  rose  in 
five  minutes  one  foot  in  the  reservoir,  and  in  an- 
other five  minutes  sunk  to  its  former  level.  The 
intervals  and  the  extent  of  the  flow  and  ebb  in  this 
and  the  fountain  of  Siloam,  vary  with  the  season; 
but  the  fact,  though  it  has  not  yet  been  accounted 
for,  is  beyond  dispute. 

The  following  account  of  the  channel  and  its 
inscription  is  from  Major  C.  R.  Conder  (Pales- 
tine, p.  27,  sq.).  "The  course  of  the  channel  is 
serpentine,  and  the  farther  end  near  the  pool  of 
Siloam  enlarges  into  a  passage  of  considerable 
heip:ht.  Down  this  channel  the  waters  of  the 
sprmg  rush  to  the  pool  whenever  the  sudden  flow 
takes  place.  In  autumn  there  is  an  interval  of  sev- 
eral days;  in  winter  the  sudden  flow  takes  place 
sometimes  tw;ce  a  day.  A  natural  siphon  from  an 
underground  basin  accounts  for  this  flow,  as  also 
for  that  of  the  *Sabbatic  river*  in  North  Syria. 
When  it  occurs  the  narrow  parts  of  the  passage 
are  filled  to  the  roof  with  water. 

"This  passage  was  explored  by  Dr.  Robinson, 
Sir  Giarles  Warren,  and  others;  but  the  inscrip- 
tion on  the  rock  close  to  the  mouth  of  the  tunnel 
was  not  seen,  being  then  under  water.  When  it 
was  found  in  1880  by  a  boy  who  entered  from  the 
Siloam  end  of  the  passage,  it  was  almost  obliter- 
ated by  the  deposit  of  lime  crystals  on  the  letters. 
Professor  Sayce,  then  in  Palestine,  made  a  copy, 
and  was  able  to  find  out  the  general  meaning  of 
the  letters.  In  1881  Dr.  Guthe  cleaned  the  text 
with  a  weak  acid  solution,  and  I  was  then  able, 
with  the  aid  of  Lieutenant  Mantell,  R.  E.,  to  take 
a  proper  'squeeze.'  It  was  a  work  of  labor  and  re- 
quiring patience,  for  on  two  occasions  we  sat  for 
three  or  four  hours  cramped  up  in  the  water  in 
order  to  obtain  a  perfect  copy  of  every  letter,  and 
afterwards  to  verify  the  copies  by  examining  each 
letter  with  the  candle  so  placed  as  to  throw  the 
light  from  right,  left,  top,  bottom.  We  were  re- 
warded by  sending  home  the  first  accurate  copy 
published  in  Europe,  and  were  able  to  settle  many 
disputed  points  raised  by  the  imperfect  copy  of 
the  text  before  it  was  cleaned." 

The  inscription  records  only  the  making  of  the 
tunnel ;  that  it  began  at  both  ends ;  that  the  work- 
men heard  the  sound  of  the  picks  of  the  other 
party,  and  thus  guided  they  advanced,  and  when 
they  broke  through  were  only  a  few  feet  apart. 
The  character  of  the  letters  seem  to  indicate  that 
the  scribes  of  Judah  had  been  accustomed  for  a 
long  time  to  write  upon  papyrus  or  parchment. 

It  was  from  Siloam  that  water  was  brought  in  a 
golden  vessel  to  the  Temple  during  the  feast  of 
Tabernacles  (see^  p.  364,  col.  2)  ;  to  which  our 
Lord  probably  pointed  when  he  stood  in  the  tem- 
ple and  cried,  "If  any  man  thirst,  let  him  come 
unto  me,  and  drink"  (John  vii:37). 

SILOAM,  TOWE&  OF  ( sM5'am,  tow'er  6v\ 
(Gr.  6  TipTfot  iv  T<}  2tX(iK£M). 

A  tower,  probably  on  the  Ophel  ridge  near  Si- 
loam, which  fell  and  killed  eighteen  people  (Luke 
xiii  14).  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  in  the  village 
now  called  Silwan  or  Kefr  Siiw/ln,  east  of  the 
valley  of  Kidron,  and  to  the  northeast  of  the  pool. 
It  stands  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Mount  of 
Olives.  Edersheim  {Life  of  Jesus,  p.  222)  lo- 
cates the  tower  at  the  Siloam  Pool,  which  "had 
fallen  on  eighteen  persons  and  killed  them,"  per- 
haps in  connection  with  that  construction  of  an 


aqueduct  into  Jerusalem  by  Pilate,  which  called 
forth,  on  the  part  of  the  Jews,  the  violent  oppo- 
sition which  the  Roman  so  terribly  avenged. 

SILVANXJS  (sil-va'nus),  (2  Cor.  i:i9;  i  Thess. 
i:i;  2  Thess.  i:i;  i  Pet.  v.12).    See  Silas. 

SILVER  (sU'ver),  (Heb.  'IP?.  J^eA'sef,  white,  or 

pale).  There  is  no  mention  of  this  metal  in  Scrip- 
ture until  the  time  of  Abraham.  Before  that  time 
brass  and  iron  appear  to  have  been  the  only  metals 
in  use  (Gen.  iv:22).  ,  Abraham  was  rich  in  gold 
and  silver,  as  well  as  in  flocks  and  herds,  and  sil- 
ver in  his  day  was  in  general  circulation  as  money. 
It  was  uncoined,  and  estimated  always  by  weight. 
Coined  money  was  not  in  use  among  the  Israelites 
until  an  advanced  period  of  their  history.  The 
Romans  are  said  to  have  had  only  copper  money 
until  within  five  years  of  the  first  Punic  war, 
when  they  began  to  coin  silver  (Pliny,  Hist,  Nat. 
XXX 13).  Their  coins  were  extensively  introduced 
into  Judaea  after  it  became  a  Roman  province. 

Silver,  as  well  as  gold,  is  frequently  mentioned 
in  Scripture.  They  were  both  largely  used  by  the 
Jews  in  the  manufacture  of  articles  of  ornament, 
and  of  various  vessels  for  domestic  purposes,  and 
also  for  the  service  of  the  Temple.  Many  of  the 
idols,  and  other  objects  belonging  to  the  idolatrous 
nations,  are  stated  to  have  been  of  silver.  This 
metal  was  so  abundant  as  to  be  little  thought  of 
in  the  days  of  Solomon,  although  it  was  at  that 
time,  and  both  before  and  long  afterwards,  the 
principal  medium  of  exchange  among  the  Jews — 
the  only  recognized  standard  or  measure  of  value. 
(See  Metals.)  G.  M.  B. 

SILVEBLINa  (stl'ver-Ung),  (Heb.  19.?.  JbeA'se/, 

silver),  a  word  used  only  once  (Is.  vii  123)  for  a  piece 
of  silver. 

SILVEBSMITH  (sYrvSr-smlth),  (Acts  xix:24),  a 
worker  in  silver.    (See  Metals.) 

SIMEON  (slm'e-on),  (Heb.  P^^,  skim-one^,  fa- 
vorable hearing;  Gr.  ^vfutbv,  simeon), 

1.  The  second  son  of  Jacob,  born  of  Leah  (Gen. 
xxix:33),  and  progenitor  of  the  tribe  of  the  same 
name  (B.  C.  before  2000).  He  was  the  full  brother 
of  Levi  (Gen.  xxxiv  125 ;  xxxv  123),  with  whom  he 
took  part  in  cruelly  avenging  upon  the  men  of 
Shechem  the  iniury  which  their  sister  Dinah  had 
received  from  the  son  of  Hamor  ((kn.  xxxiv  :25, 
30).  (See  Dinah.)  The  ferocity  of  character  thus 
indicated  probably  furnishes  the  reason  that  Jo- 
seph singkd  Simeon  out  to  remain  behind  in 
Egypt,  when  his  other  brethren  were  the  first 
time  dismissed  (Gen.  x-lii  124)  ;  but  when  they  re- 
turned he  was  restored  safely  to  them  (Gen.  xliii : 
23).  Nothing  more  of  his  personal  history  is 
known.  The  tribe  descended  from  Simeon  con- 
tained 59,300  able-bodied  men  at  the  time  of  the 
Exode  (Num.  i:23),  but  was  reduced  to  22,000 
before  entering  Palestine  (Num.  xxvi:i4).  This 
immense  decrease  in  the  course  of  one  generation 
was  greater  than  that  sustained  by  all  the  other 
tribes  together,  and  reduced  Simeon  from  third 
rank  to  the  lowest  of  all  in  point  of  numbers.  It 
cannot  well  be  accounted  for  but  by  supposing 
that  the  tribe  erred  most  conspicuously,  and  was 
punished  most  severely  in  those  transactions 
which  drew  down  judgments  from  God.  As  it 
appeared  that  Judah  had  received  too  large  a  ter- 
ritory in  the  first  distribution  of  lands,  a  portion 
of  it  was  afterwards  assigned  to  Simeon.  This 
portion  lay  in  the  southwest,  towards  the  borders 
of  Philistia  and  the  southern  desert,  and  contained 
seventeen  towns  (Josh.  xix:i-9).  However,  the 
Judahites  must  afterwards  have  re-appropriated 
some  of  these  towns;  at  least  Beersheba  (i  Kings 


SIMEONITE 


1590 


SIMON 


ix:3)  and  Ziklag  (i  Sam.  xxvii:6)  appear  at  a 
subsequent  period  as  belonging  to  the  kingdom  of 
Judah.  The  remarkable  passage  in  i  Chron.  iy: 
41-43  points  to  an  emigration  of  or  from  this 
tribe,  perhaps  more  extensive  than  the  words 
would  seem  to  indicate,  and  suggests  that  when 
they  ceased  to  have  common  interests,  this  small 
tribe  was  obliged  to  give  way  before  the  greater 
power  of  Judah  and  the  pressure  of  its  population 
(comp.  Gen.  xlix:7).  >fothing  more  of  this  tribe 
is  recorded,  although  its  name  occurs  in  unhistor- 
ical  intimations  (Ezek.  xlviii:24;  Rev.  vii:8). 

2.  The  aged  person  who,  when  Jesus  was  pre- 
sented by  his  mother  at  the  Temple,  recognized 
the  infant  as  the  expected  Messiah,  and  took  him 
in  his  arms, and  blessed  him, glorifying  God  (Luke 
ii:25-35).  The  circumstance  is  interesting,  as 
evincing  the  expectations  which  were  then  enter- 
tained of  the  speedy  advent  of  the  Messiah;  and 
important  from  the  attestation  which  it  conveyed 
in  favor  of  Jesus  from  one  who  was  known  to 
have  received  the  divine  promise  that  he  should 
'not  taste  of  death  till  he  had  seen  the  Lord's 
Christ.'  It  has  been  often  supposed  that  this 
Simeon  was  the  same  with  Rabban  Simeon,  the 
son  of  the  famous  Hillel,  and  father  of  Gamaliel; 
but  this  is  merely  a  conjecture,  founded  on  cir- 
cumstances too  weak  to  establish  such  a  conclu- 
sion. 

3.  An  Israelite  of  the  family  of  Harim,  who  di- 
vorced his  foreign  wife  after  the  captivity  (Ezra 
x:3i),  B.  C.  458. 

4.  A  son  of  Judah,  and  father  of  Levi,  in  the 
genealogy  of  Christ  (Luke  iii:3o),  B.  C.  about 
886. 

5.  A  form  of  Simon  Peter  (Acts  xv:i4;  2  Pet. 


1:2)  in  certain  MSS. 
6.1 


The  proper  name  of  Niger,  an  eminent  Chris- 
tian at  Antioch  (Acts  xiii:i). 

SIMEONITB    (srm'e-on-Tte),  (Heb.,  with    the 

article  ''J^^^P*!?,  hash'Shim'd-nee%  a  patronymic 

applied  to  the  descendants  of  Simeon,  i  (Num. 
xxv:i4;  xxvi:i4;  i  Chron.  xxvii:i6). 

SIMILITTTDE  (sr-mTl't-tQd ).    1.    Tem-oo-naw' 

(Heb.  •"'J'J^J?,  or  •^^?,  an  appearance,  shape,  like- 
ness). The  form  (A.  V.  similitude)  of  Jehovah 
(Num.  xii:6-8;  Deut.  iv:i2,  15,  16)  was  not  the 
eternal  God,  for  him  no  mortal  man  can  see 
(Exod.  xxxiii:i8;  John  i:i8;  i  John  iv:i2).  It 
was  probably  the  Angel  of  His  Presence  who  was 
sent  before  the  children  of  Israel  (Exod  xxiii:20- 
22),  for  we  are  told  that  "My  name  is  in  him" 

2.  Dem-ooth'  (Heb.  ^'^^1,  model),  a  pattern  (A. 

V.  2  Kings  xvi:io)  of  an  altar;  an  image;  some- 
thing cast,  as  of  oxen  (2  Chron.  iv:3)  ;  a  likeness 
(A.  V.  (jen.  i  :26,  after  our  likeness)  ;  appear- 
ance (A.  V.  Ezek.  i:i6)  as  of  the  wheels,  of  a 
man    (Dan.    x:6).    The    verb    daw-maw    (Heb. 

•^%  to  liken,  compare)  is  used  (Hos.  xii:io)  in 

the  sense  of  employing  parables.  (See  Para- 
ble.) 

8.  Tab-neetk*  (Heb.  H'^J??),  structure,  model), 

a  resemblance,  as  "they  changed  their  glory  (1.  e., 
God)  into  the  similitude  of  an  ox"  (Ps.  cvi  :2o). 

4.  The  word  in  the  New  Testament  is  from  the 
Or.  ^/u>tof  {hom'oy-os,  similar),  and  means  that 
which  is  like,  or  similar  (Rom.  v  114;  Heb.  vii: 
15),  likeness  as  of  man  to  God  (James  iiitp). 

SIMON  (sl'mon),  {llfuap,  see'mone),  the  same 
name,  in  origin  and  signification,  as  Simeon. 

1,  Simon  Maccabaeus.  One  of  the  Maccabcan 
family.    (See  Maccabees.) 


2.  The  apostle,  to  whom  Christ  gave  the  name 
of  Peter,  after  which  he  was  rarely  called  by  his 
former  name  alone,  but  usually  by  that  of  Peter, 
or  else  Simon  Peter,    (See  Peter.) 

3.  Simon,  surnamed  Zelotes  (Zlfuav  6  ZriXtar'^ 
Simon  the  Zelot),  one  of  the  twelve  apostles  (Luke 
vi:i5;  Acts  i:i3)f  and  probably  so  named  from  hav- 
ing been  one  of  the  Zealots.  (A.  D.  27).  He  is 
(also  called  'The  Canaanite*  (Difuiiv  6  KamWri^t 
in  Matt  x:44;  Mark  iii:i8).  This,  however, 
is  not,  as  is  usually  the  case,  to  be  taken  for  a  Gen- 
tile name,  but  is  merely  an  Aramaic  word  signify- 
ing 'zeal,'  and  therefore  of  the  same  signification 
as  Zelotes.  Simon  is  the  least  known  of  all  the 
apostles,  not  a  single  circumstance,  beyond  the  fact 
of  his  apostleship,  being  recorded  in  the  Scriptures. 
He  is  probably  to  be  identified  with  Simon  the 
son  of  Cleophas ;  and,  if  so,  the  traditions  concern- 
ing that  person,  given  by  those  who  make  them 
distinct,  must  be  assigned  to  him.  These  tradi- 
tions, however,  assign  a  different  destiny  to  this 
Simon,  alleging  that  he  preached  the  Gospel 
throughout  North  Africa,  from  Egypt  to  Mauri- 
tania, and  that  he  even  proceeded  to  the  remote 
isles  of  Britain. 

4.  Son  of  Cleophas  and  Mary,  brother  of  the 
apostles  Jarmes  and  Jude,  and  a  kinsman  of  Jesus 
(Matt,  xiiirss;  Mark  vi:3).  (A.  D.  28.)  He  is 
probably  the  same  with  the  Simon  Zelotes  above 
mentioned,  and  in  that  case  we  must  regard  the 
separate  traditions  respecting  him  as  apocryphal, 
and  take  those  assigned  to  the  present  Simon  as 
proper  to  both.  They  amount  to  this,  that  after 
St.  James  had  been  slain  by  the  Jews  in  A.  D.  62, 
his  brother  Simon  was  appointed  to  succeed  him 
in  the  government  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  and 
that  forty-three  years  after,  when  Trajan  caused 
search  to  be  made  for  all  those  who  claimed  to 
be  of  the  race  of  David,  he  was  accused  before 
Atticus,  the  governor  of  Palestine,  and  after  en- 
during great  torture,  was  crucified,  being  then  120 
years  of  age  (Epiphanius,  H<Brcs.  c.  14;  Euseb. 
Hist  Eccles,  iii,  32;  Tillemont,  Hist.  Eccles,  ii, 
204). 

5.  The  father  of  Judas  Iscariot  (John  vi:7i; 
xii:4;  xiii:2,  26),  A.  D.  before  27. 

6.  A  Pharisee  who  invited  Jesus  to  his  house 
(Luke  vii:40,  43,  44),  A.  D.  28. 

7.  Simon  the  Leper,  so  called  from  having  for- 
merly been  afflicted  with  leprosy  (Matt.  xxvi:6; 
Mark  xiv:  3),  A.  D.  29.  He  was  of  Bethany,  and 
after  the  raising  of  Lazarus,  gave  a  feast,  probably 
in  celebration  of  that  event,  at  which  both  Jesus 
and  Lazarus  were  present  (comp.  John  xii:2).  He 
was,  therefore,  probably  a  near  friend  or  relation 
of  Lazarus ;  some  suppose  that  he  was  his  brother ; 
others  that  he  was  the  husband  of  Mary,  the  sister 
of  Lazarus,  who  at  this  feast  anointed  the  Lcrd*s 
feet,  and  that  Lazarus  abode  with  them.  But  all 
this  is  pure  conjecture. 

S.  Simon  the  Cyrenian,  who  was  compelled  to 
aid  in  bearing  the  cross  of  Jesus  ( Matt,  xxvii  132 ; 
Mark  xv  :2i ;  Luke  xxiii  :26) ,  A.  D.  29.  Whether 
this  surname  indicated  that  Simon  was  one  of  the 
many  Jews  from  Cyrene  who  came  to  Jerusalem 
at  the  Passover,  or  that  he  was  originally  from 
Cyrene,  although  then  settled  at  Jerusalem, 
is  uncertain.  The  latter  seems  the  more  likely 
opinion,  as  Simon's  two  sons,  Alexander  and 
Rufus,  were  certainly  disciples  of  Christ;  and  it 
was  perhaps  the  knowledge  of  this  fact  which  led 
the  Jews  to  incite  the  soldiers  to  lay  on  him  the 
burden  of  the  cross.  The  family  of  Simon  seems 
to  have  resided  afterwards  at  Rome ;  for  St.  Paul, 
in  his  epistle  to  the  church  there,  salutes  the  wife 
of  Simon  with  tenderness  and  respect,  calling  her 


SIMON 


1591 


SIN 


his  'mother/  though  he  doe€  not  expressly  name 
her:  'Salute  Rufus,  and  his  mother  and  mine' 
(Rom.  xvi:i3). 

9»  Simon  the  tanner,  with  whom  St.  Peter 
lodged  at  Joppa  (Acts  ix:43;  x:6,  17,  32),  A.  D. 
32.  He  was  doubtless  a  disciple.  His  house  was 
by  the  seaside,  beyond  the  wall,  as  the  trade  of  a 
tanner  was  one  which  the  Jews  did  not  allow  to 
be  carried  on  inside  their  towns. 

10*  Simon  Magus.  In  the  eighth  chapter  of  the 
Acts  we  read  that  Philip  the  Evangelist,  while 
preaching  the  Gospel  in  a  city  of  Samaria,  came 
in  contact  with  a  person  of  the  name  of  Simon, 
who  had  formerly  exercised  immense  power  over 
the  minds  of  the  people  by  his  skill  in  tht  re- 
sources of  magic.  So  high  were  the  pretensions 
of  this  impostor,  and  so  profound  the  impression 
he  had  made  on  the  minds  of  the  multitude,  that 
they  not  only  received  with  readiness  all  he  taught, 
but  admitted  his  clahn  to  be  regarded  as  an  incar- 
nation of  the  demiurgic  power  of  (jod. 

(1)  Preaching  of  Philip.  The  doctrines  of 
Philip,  however,  concerning  Christ  as  the  true  and 
only  incarnation  of  Deity,  supported  by  the  im- 
paralleled  and  beneficent  miracles  which  he  per- 
formed, had  the  effect  of  dispelling  this  delusion, 
and  inducing  the  people  to  renounce  their  alle- 
giance to  Simon  and  receive  baptism  as  the  dis- 
ciples of  Christ.  On  the  mind  of  Simon  himself 
so  deep  an  impression  was  also  produced,  that  he 
professed  himself  a  disciple  of  Jesus,  and  as  such 
was  baptized  by  Philip. 

(2)  Simon  Desires  to  Purchase  the  Holy 
Spirit.  On  the  news  of  Philip's  success  reaching 
Jerusalem,  Peter  and  John  went  down  to  Samaria 
to  confer  upon  the  new  converts  the  spiritual  gifts 
which  were  vouchsafed  to  the  primitive  churches. 
During  their  visit  Simon  discovered  that  by  means 
of  prayer  and  the  imposition  of  hands  the  Apostles 
were  able  to  dispense  the  power  of  the  Holy 
Ghost ;  and  supposing  probably  that  in  this  lay  the 
much-prized  secret  of  their  superior  power,  he  at- 
tempted to  induce  the  Apostles  to  impart  to  him 
this  power  by  offering  them  money.  This,  which 
for  such  a  man  was  a  very  natural  act,  intimated 
to  the  Apostles  at  once  his  true  character  (or 
rather,  to  express  more  accurately  our  conviction, 
it  enabled  them  to  manifest  to  the  people  and  pub- 
licly to  act  upon  what  their  own  power  of  dis- 
cerning spirits  must  have  already  taught  them  of 
his  true  character)  ;  and  accordingly  Peter  indig- 
nantly repudiated  his  offer,  proclaimed  his  utter 
want  of  all  true  knowledge  of  Christian  doctrine, 
and  exhorted  him  to  repentance  and  to  prayer  for 
forgiveness.  The  words  of  Peter  on  this  occasion, 
it  is  justly  remarked  by  Neander,  'present  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Gospel,  which  so  expressly  intimates 
the  absolute  necessity  of  a  right  state  of  mind  for 
the  reception  of  all  that  Christianity  conveys,  in 
direct  opposition  to  the  Magfianism,  which  denies 
all  necessary  connection  between  the  state  of  mind 
and  tJiat  which  is  divine  and  supernatural,  brings 
down  the  divine  and  supernatural  ^  within  the 
sphere  of  ordinary  nature,  and  imagines  that  di- 
vine power  may  be  appropriated  by  means  of 
something  else  than  that  which  is  allied  to  it  in 
man's  nature,  and  which  supplies  the  only  point 
of  union  between  the  two*  (Apostoi  Zeitalt,  i,  82). 
The  solemn  and  threatening  words  of  the  Apostle 
struck  dread  into  the  bosom  of  the  impostor,  who 
besought  the  Apostle  to  prav  for  him  that  none  of 
the  things  he  had  threatened  might  come  upon  him 
— an  entreaty  which  shows  that  his  mind  still 
labored  under  what  Neander  above  describes  as 
the  chief  error  of  the  Magian  doctrine. 


After  this  we  read  no  more  of  Simon  Magus 
in  the  New  Testament. 

(3)  The  Magian  Philosophy.  Simon's  doc- 
trines were  substantially  those  of  the  Gnostics, 
and  he  is  not  without  reason  regarded  as  the  first 
who  attempted  to  engraft  the  theurgy  and  egotism 
of  the  Magian  philosophy  upon  Christianity.  He 
represented  himself,  according  to  Jerome  (In 
A/a«.,Opp.  iv,  114),  as  the  Word  of  God.  the  Per- 
fection, the  Paraclete,  the  Almighty,  the  All  of 
Deity;  and  Irenaeus  (i,  ao)  tells  us  he  carried  with 
him  a  beautiful  female  named  Helena,  whom  he 
set  forth  as  the  first  iffea  of  Deity.  If  this  be  not 
exaggerated  fable  on  the  part  of  his  enemies,  we 
must  suppose  that  such  modes  of  speech  and  rep- 
resentation were  adopted  by  him  as  suited  to  thi^ 
highly  allegorical  character  of  Orientalism  ip  his 
day;  for  were  we  to  suppose  him  to  have  meant 
such  utterances  to  be  taken  literally,  we  should  De 
constrained  to  look  upon  him  in  the  light  of  a 
madman.     (A.  D.  30.) 

(See  Burton's  Heresies  of  the  AfostoKc  Age, 
Lect.  iv;  Milman,  Hist,  of  Christianity,  vol.  ii,  p. 
96,  sq.,  etc.).  W.  L.  A. 

SIMPLE  (sYm'p'l),  (Gr.  dKipatos,  ak-er* ak-yos), 
guileless,  innocent). 

This  word  is  sometimes  taken  in  a  bad  sense  in 
Scripture.  Paul  (Rom.  xvirig)  would  have  the 
Romans  "wise  unto  good,  and  simple  concerning 
evil;"  that  is,  discerning  in  their  choice  of  good; 
but  avoiding  whatever  has  the  appearance  of  evil, 
as  children  who,  without  much  reasoning,  fiy  from 
everything  that  does  but  seem  hurtful  to  them. 
We  read  (Prov.  xxii:3),  "A  wise  man  foreseeth 
the  evil ;  but  the  simple  [the  unthinking,  the  heed- 
less] pass  on  and  are  punished."  Simple  is 
sometimes  opposed  to  deception;  to  an  unjust,  or 
a  wicked  person.  It  stands  for  sincerity,  fidelity, 
innocence,  candor.  In  this  sense  Jacob  is  called 
a  plain,  or  simple  man  (Gen.  xxv:27).  Wisdom 
is  ffiven  to  the  simple  (rrov.  i:4;  xxirii). 

Simple  is  capable  of  a  ^ood,  a  bad,  or  an  in- 
different meaning.  Simplicity  of  mind  is  integrity, 
innocence  of  intention,  etc.  (Rom.  xvirig),  hon- 
esty, candor  (xii:8).  Weak  simplicity,  on  the 
contrary,  is  credulous,  easily  imposed  on,  easily 
deluded  (Prov.  xix:25;  xxii:3;  ix:4.  See  also 
Ps.  xix:7;  cxvi:6;  Ezek.  xlv:2o;  2  Cor.  i:i2; 
xi  r"?). 

SIMPLICITY  (sTm-pltsTf-ty),  (Heb.  Bh,  tome, 
innocence,  integrity),  is  predicated  of  the  two  hun- 
dred followers  of  Absalom  in  his  conspiracy  (2 
Sam.  xv:ii),  who  "knew  not  anything,  1.  ^.,  of 
their  leader's  intention. 

In  Prov.  i:22  simplicity  is  the  rendering  of 
*^9  (j>aw-thaw*\  to  let  oneself  be  enticed,  se- 
duced. In  the  New  Testament  simplicity  stands 
for  Gr,  drX^ijf  (hap-lot ace),  free  from  pre- 
tense and  dissimulation  (Rom.  xii:8;  2  Cor.  i:i2). 
The  "simplicity  that  is  in  Christ"  (2  Cor.  xi  13)  is 
that  single-hearted  faith  in  Christ  which  is  op- 
posed to  a  false  philosophy  in  matters  pertaining 
to  Christianity  (see  Grimm,  Gr.  and  Eng.  Lex,). 

SIMBI  (sim'rl),  (i  Chron,  xxvirio).  Sec 
Shimri,  4. 

SIN  (sTn),  (Heb.  ^¥9^,  khat-aw-aw* ;  Gr. 
ikfioprla,  ham-ar-tee* ah\  a  falling  away  from  or 
missing  the  right  path.  A  transgression  of  the 
law,  or  want  of  conformity  to  the  will  of  (jod 
(i  John  iii:4). 

(1)  Original  Sin,  or  native  depravity,  is  that 
whereby  our  whole  nature  is  disordered,  and  our 
inclinations  rendered  contrary  to  the  law  of  God. 
This  is  sometimes  called  indwelling  sin  (Rom. 
vii).     (See  Depravity.)     The  imputation  of  th« 


SIN 


1592 


SINAI 


sin  of  Adam  to  his  posterity  is  also  what  some 
divines,  with  some  latitude  of  expression,  call 
original  sin. 

(2)  Actual  Sin.  Actual  sin  is  a  direct  violation 
of  God's  law,  and  generally  applied  to  those  who 
are  capable  of  committing  moral  evil ;  as  opposed 
to  idiots,  or  children,  who  have  not  the  right  use 
of  their  powers.  Actual  sin  may  be  divided  into : 
(i)  Sins  of  omission  consist  in  the  leaving  those 
things  undone  which  ought  to  be  done.  (2)  Sins 
of  commission  are  those  which  are  committed 
against  affirmative  precepts,  or  doing  what  should 
not  be  done.  (3)  Sins  of  infirmity  are  those 
which  arise  from  the  infirmity  of  the  flesh,  igno- 
rance, surprise,  snares  of  the  world,  etc.  (4)  Se- 
cret sins  are  those  committed  in  secret,  or  those 
which  we,  through  blindness  or  prejudice,  do  not 
see  the  evil  of  (Ps.  xix:i2).  (5)  Presumptuous 
sins  are  those  which  are  done  boldly,  and  against 
light  and  conviction. 

(3)  The  Unpardonable  Sin.  Unpardonable 
sin  seems  to  consist  in  the  malicious  ascription  of 
the  dispensations,  gifts  and  influences  of  the  Spirit 
to  the  power  of  Satan.  The  reason  why  this  sin 
is  never  forgiven,  is  not  because  of  any  want  of 
sufficiency  in  the  blood  of  Christ,  nor  in  the  par- 
doning mercy  of  God,  but  because  such  as  commit 
it  despise  and  reject  the  only  remedy,  i.  e.,  the 
power  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  applying  the  redemption 
of  the  Gospel  to  the  souls  of  men. 

There  is,  however,  another  view  of  this  unpar- 
donable offense,  which  deserves  consideration.  It 
is  plain,  says  Bishop  Tomline,  that  this  sin  against 
the  Holy  Ghost  could  not  be  committed  while  our 
Savior  was  upon  earth,  since  he  always  speaks  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  as  not  going  to  come  till  after  his 
ascension  into  heaven.  A  few  days  after  that 
g^eat  event,  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  en- 
abled the  apostles  to  work  miracles,  and  communi- 
cated to  them  a  variety  of  other  supernatural  grifts. 
Hence  it  appears  that  the  sin  against  the  Holy 
Ghost  consisted  in  finally  rejecting  the  Gospel  as 
preached  by  the  apostles,  who  confirmed  the  truth 
of  the  doctrine  ^ich  they  taught  "by  signs  and 
wonders  and  divers  miracles,  and  gifts  of  the 
Holy  Ghost"  (Heb.  ii:4).  It  was  unpardonable, 
because  this  was  the  consummation  of  the  proofs 
afforded  to  the  men  of  that  generation  of  the  di- 
vine mission  of  Christ.  This  sin  was  manifestly 
distinct  from  all  other  sins;  it  indicated  an  in- 
vincible obstinacy  of  mind,  an  impious  and  un- 
alterable determination  to  refuse  the  offered  mercy 
of  God.  This  view  will  serve  to  explain  those 
passages  in  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  in  which 
th€  hopeless  case  of  Jewish  apostates  is  described. 

This  sin,  therefore,  is  unpardonable  not  because 
the  grace  of  God  is  not  sufficient  for  its  forgive- 
ness, but  because  it  springs  from  a  state  of  the 
soul  in  which  there  is  left  no  disposition  for  re- 
pentance and  faith  in  Jesus  Christ.  Thus  they 
who  are  in  anxiety  lest  they  have  committed  this 
sin  show  in  this  very  fact  that  such  anxiety  is 
groundless. 

BIN  (sfa),  (Heb.  V?,  seen^  clayey,  muddy;  Sept. 
2a/s,  sais), 

1.  A  City  of  Egypt,  which  is  mentioned  in 
Ezek.  XXX :  15,  16,  in  connection  with  Thebes  and 
Memphis,  and  is  described  as  'The  strength  of 
Egypt,'  showing  it  to  have  been  a  fortified  place. 

The  Sept.  makes  it  to  have  been  Sals,  but 
Jerome  regards  it  as  Pelusium.  This  latter  iden- 
tification has  been  generally  adopted,  and  is 
scarcely  open  to  dispute.  Pelusium  was  anciently 
a  place  of  great  consequence.  It  was  strongly 
fortified,  being  the  bulwark  of  the  Egyptian  fron- 
tier on  the  eastern  side,  and  was  considered  the 


*key,*  or,  as  the  prophet  terms  it,  'the  strength'  of 
Egypt  (//tj/.  Bell.  Alexand.  p.  20,  27;  Liv.  xlv:ii ; 
Joseph.  Antiq,  xiv:8,  i;  De  BelL  Jud.  i:8,  7;  {:% 
3).  It  was  near  this  place  that  Pompey  met  his 
death,  being  murdered  by  order  of  Ptolemy,  whose 
protection  he  had  claimed.  It  lay  among  swamps 
and  morasses  on  the  most  easterly  estuary  of  the 
Nile  (which  received  from  it  the  name  of  Ostium 
Pelusiacum),  and  stood  twenty  stades  from  the 
Mediterranean  (Strabo.  xvi,  p.  760;  xvii,  801,  802; 
Plin.  Hist,  Nat.  v,  ii).  The  site  is  now  only  ap- 
proachable by  boats  during  a  high  Nile,  or  bv 
land  when  the  summer  sun  has  dried  the  mud  left 
by  the  inundation;  the  remains  consist  only  of 
mounds  and  a  few  fallen  columns.  The  dimate 
is  very  unwholesome  (Wilkinson's  Mod,  Egypt, 
i,  406,  444;  Savary's  Letters  on  Egypt,  i  let.  24; 
Henniker's  Travels). 
2.   Desert    of    Sin    or    Wilderness    of    Sin 

(Heb.  l''9""^3')9,  mid-bar' seen),  the  desert  which 

the  Israelites  entered  on  turning  off  from  the  Red 
Sea(Exod.  xvi:i;  xviiii;  Num.  xxxiii:i2). 

It  is  thought  to  be  the  present  plain  of  el-Kaa, 
which  commences  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wady 
Taiyibeh,  and  extends  along  the  whole  southwest- 
ern side  of  the  peninsula.  It  was  the  scene  of 
the  murmurings  and  the  miracle  of  the  quails 
and  manna  (Exod.  xvi:i;  xvii:i;  Num.  xxxiii: 
II,  12).     (See  Deserts;  Sinai.) 

SIN  OFFEBINa  (sta  6f'fer  fag).  See  Offer- 
ing. 

SINA  (si'ni),  (Acts  vii:30.  38),  the  Greek  form 
of  Sinai. 

SINAI  (Heb.  "'i'^P.  sin-aA'ee;  Sept.  2*w,  see- 
nah').  (1)  Name.  The  Hebrew  name,  accord- 
ing to  some,  denotes  a  district  of  broken  or  cleft 
rocks,  and  is  descriptive  of  the  region  to  which  it 
is  applied.  The  name  is  a  very  ancient  one,  and 
its  meaning  not  definitely  fixed.  If  Semitic,  it, 
perhaps,  means  thorny,  i.  e.,  cleft  with  ravines, 
as  above  indicated.  A.  H.  Sayce  (High.  Crit.,  p, 
263)  says:  "  Sinai  '(the  mountain)  which  belongs 
to  Sin,  took  its  name,  like  the  desert  which  it 
overlooked,  from  the  Babylonian  moon  god,  Sin.** 
A  Himyaritic  inscription  informs  us  that  the  name 
and  worship  of  Sin  had  made  their  way  to  South- 
ern Arabia,  and  the  name  of  Sinai  makes  it  plain 
that  such  had  also  been  the  case  in  the  north. 

(2)  Geography.  That  region,  according  to 
Exod.  xix:i;  Lev.  vii:38;  Num.  i:i,  3,  4),  is  a 
wild,  mountainous  country  in  Arabia  Petraea, 
whither  the  Israelites  went  from  Rephidim,  after 
they  had  been  out  of  Egypt  for  the  space  of  three 
months.  Here  the  law  was  given  to  Moses,  which 
fact  renders  this  spot  one  of  special  and  lasting 
interest.  From  the  magnitude  and  prominence  ol 
the  Sinaitic  group  of  mountains,  the  entire  dis- 
trict of  which  it  forms  a  part  has  received  the 
name  of  the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  This  peninsula 
may  be  roughly  described  as  formed  by  a  line 
running  from  Suez  to  Ailah,  all  that  lies  on  the 
south  of  this  line  falling  within  the  peninsula.  In 
the  present  day  the  name  Sinai  is  given  by  Chris- 
tians to  the  cluster  of  mountains  to  which  we  have 
referred;  but  the  Arabs  have  no  other  name  for 
this  group  than  Jebel  et-Tar,  sometimes  adding 
the  distinctive  epithet  Sinai.  In  a  stricter  sense 
the  name  Sinai  is  applied  to  a  very  lofty  ridge 
which  lies  between  the  two  parallel  valleys  of  Shu 
*eib  and  el-Lega.  Of  this  ridge  the  northern  end 
is  termed  Horeb.  the  southern  Sinai,  now  called 
Jebel  Musa,  or  Moses*  Mount.  The  entire  dis- 
trict is  a  heap  of  lofty  granite  rocks,  with  steep 
gorges  and  deep  valleys. 

(3)  Location.    The  Sinai  ridge,  including  Ho- 


reb,  It  at  least  three  miles  in  tengtb.  It  rises 
boldly  and  majestically  from  the  southern  end  of 
the  plain  Rahah,  which  is  two  geographical  miles 


long,  and  ranges  in  breadth  from  one-third  to 
two-thirds  of  a  mile,  making  at  least  one  square 
mile.  This  space  is  nearly  doubled  by  extensions 
of  the  valley  on  the  west  and  east.  "The  exami- 
nation convinced  us,'  says  Robinson  (Biblical  Re- 
searches, i.  141),  'that  here  was  space  enough  to 
satisfy  all  the  requisitions  of  the  Scriptural  narra- 
tive, so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  assembling  of  the 
congregation  to  receive  the  law.'  Water  is  abun- 
dant in  this  mountainous  region,  to  which  the 
Bedouins  betake  themselves  when  oppressed  by 
drought  in  the  lower  lands.  As  there  is  water,  so 
also  is  there  in  the  valley  great  fruitfulness  and 
sometimes  luxuriance  of  vegetation,  as  well  as 
beauty.  What  was  the  exact  locality  from  which 
the  law  was  given,  it  is  not  easy  to  ascertain.  The 
book  of  Deuteronomy  (i:6;  iv:i8,  elc.)  makes  it 
to  be  Horeb,  which  seems  most  probable ;  for  this, 
[be  north  end  of  the  range,  rises  immediately  from 
the  plain  of  which  we  have  just  spoken  as  the 
headquarters  of  the  Israelites.  Sinai  is,  indeed, 
generally  reputed  to  be  the  spot,  and,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  southern  extremity  of  the  range  is  de- 
nominated Moses'  Mount ;  but  this  may  have 
arisen  from  confounding  together  two  meanings 
of  Sinai,  inasmuch  as  it  denotes  (i)  a  district; 
{2)  a  particular  part  of  that  district.  It  was  no 
doubt  on  Horeb,  in  the  range  of  Sinai,  that  the 
law  was  promulgated.  Robinson  imputes  the  com- 
mon error  to  tradition,  and  declares  that  'there  is 
not  the  slightest  reason  tor  supposing  that  Moses 
had  anything  to  do  with  the  summit  which  now 
bears  his  name.  It  is  three  miles  distant  from  the 
plain  on  which  the  Israelites  must  have  stood,  and 
hidden  from  it  by  the  intervening  peaks  of  mod- 
ern Horeb.  No  part  of  the  plain  is  visible  from 
the  summit,  nor  are  the  bottoms  of  the  adjacent 
valleys,  nor  is  any  spot  to  be  seen  around  it  where 
the  people  could  have  been  assembled.  Robinson 
also  ascended  the  northern  extremity  of  the  ridge, 
and  had  there  a  prospect  which  he  thus  describes: 
'The  whole  plain,  er-Rahah,  lay  spread  out  be- 
neath our  feet  with  the  adjacent  wadies  and  moun- 
tains. Our  conviction  was  strengthened  that  here, 
or  on  some  one  of  the  adjacent  cliffs,  was  the  spot 
where  the  Lord  "descended  in  fire."  and  pro- 
claimed the  law.  Here  lay  the  plain  where  the 
whole  congregation  might  be  assembled ;  here  was 
the  mount  that  could  be  approached  and  touched. 
if  not  forbidden ;  and  here  the  mountain  brow 
where  alone  the  lightnings  and  the  thick  cloud 
would  be  visible,  and  the  thunders  and  the  voice 


3  SINCERITY 

of  the  trump  be  heard  when  "the  Lord  came  down 
in  the  sight  of  all  the  people  upon  Mount  Sinai." 
We  gave  ourselves  up  to  the  impressions  of  the 
awful  scene,  and  read  with  a  feeling  that  will 
never  be  forgotten  the  sublime  account  of  the 
transactions  and  the  commandment  there  promul- 
gated.' 

Dr.  Sayce  (Higher  Cril.,  p.  268,  jg.)  argues 
that  Sinai  was  "a  mountain  of  Seir,  and  not  in 
the  so-called  Sinaitie  peninsula,"  but  adds  that 
"the  exact  site  of  'the  mount  of  God'  must  be  left 
for  further  exploration  to  discover." 

SHTAPl  (sln'i-pt),  (Gr.  U^xt,  sin'a-pi,  mustard), 
translated  'mustard  tree'  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  of  the 
New  Testament,  has  engaged  the  attention  of 
many  commentators  (Matt.  xiii:3i;  xvii:2o;  Mark 
iv:3i;  Luke  xiii:i9;  xvii:6). 

The  plant  is  Salvadora  Persica,  a  large  shrub, 
or  tree  of  moderate  size,  a  native  of  the  hot  and 
dry  parts  of  India,  of  Persia,  and  of  Arabia.  Dr. 
Roxburgh  describes  the  berries  as  much  smaller 
than  a  grain  of  black  pepper,  having  a  strong  aro- 
matic smell,  and  a  taste  much  like  that  of  garden 
cresses.     (See  Mustard  Tree.)  J.  F.  R. 


Muitird  {Sin„fh  nifra). 

_  BnrOEBE  (sTn-ser'},  (Gr  MoX«,  ad'ol-os,  \  Pet. 
ti;3,  unadulterated,  clear);  jin«f«r(i,  without  wax,  as 

SINOBBITT  (slo-sert-ij),  (Heb.  C'-an^  taw 
meem',  without  blemish),  acting  or  speaking  with- 
out hypocrisy  (Josh.  xxiv:i4:  Judg.  ix:i6, 19),  The 
Gr,  MoXoi,  arf'^Z-w,  means  unadulterated,  as  "the 
sincere  (pure)  milk  of  the  word"  (1  Pet.  ii:2). 

Sincerity  denotes  truth  and  uprightness;  an 
agreement  of  the  heart  and  tongue.  Sincerity  is 
opposed  to  double-mindedness,  or  deceit,  when  the 
sentiments  of  the  heart  are  contrary  to  the  lan- 

5uage  of  the  lips.  Paul  desires  the  Philippians 
i:io)  to  be  pure,  Iheir  behavior  innocent,  etc., 
that  thus  they  may  "be  sincere  (Gr.  kag-noce') 
and  without  offense  till  the  day  of  Christ."  Sin- 
cerity in  Eph.  vi  :24  and  Tit.  ii  7  is  the  rendering 
of  the  Gr.  af-thor-see'-ah;  the  meaning  of  ihe  first 
passage  being  to  "love  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  with 
never-diminishing  (undecaying)  love"  {A.  V. 
"love  in  uncorruptness") ;  while  in  Tit.  ii:7  the  A, 
V.  renders  "in  thy  doctrine  showing  uncorrupt- 
ness, gravity."    "'The  sincerity  of  your  love"   (3 


SINEW 


1594 


SISTER 


Cor.  viii  :8)  may  properly  be  rendered  that  "your 
love  is  legitimate"  {Gr,  gytayse^-os);  while  t'/tk- 
ree'ni-ah  means  found  pure  when  tested  by  the 
sunlight,  and  so  pure^  unsullied  (Phil.  i:io;  i 
Cor.  v:8;  2  Cor.  1:12;  ii:i7).  (Mc.  &  Str.  Cyc, 
Barnes,  Bib,  Cyc.) 
fittNEWCstn'tl),  (Heb.  ^tkl  ^h  gheed  hawn^ 

naw'sheh\    Gen.     xxxii:32,    and   P^?,   aw-rak', 
to  gnaw,  Job  xxx:i7). 

The  thigh  cord,  nervus  ischiadicus,  in  the  hip, 
which  may  be  injured  by  a  violent  strain  (Gen. 
xxxii:32).  In  Job  (xxx:i7)  it  is  uncertain 
whether  the  reference  is  to  gnawing  pains  or  the 
worms  which  were  formed  in  his  ulcers. 

SINGING.  Singing  is  figuratively  used  to  de- 
note joy  (Neh,  xii:27;  Is.  xxxv:2;  xliv:23;  li:ii), 
and  so  the  absence  of  it  is  expressed  by  the  cessa- 
tion of  song  (Is.  xvi:io). 

SINGLE  EYE  is  the  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of 
6<pea\fiSt  i,w\ovs,  of-lAal-mos'  Aap-looce'  (Matt,  yi:22; 
Luke  xi:34).  ifaP-looce*  means  simple,  that  in 
which  there  is  nothing  complicated  or  confused; 
and  here  denotes  a  healthy,  unclouded  vision. 

SINIM  (si'nim),  (Heb.  O'^rP,  see-neem*,  land  of 
the  Persians). 

A  people  whose  country,  land  of  Sinim,'  is  men- 
tioned only  in  Is.  xlix:i2,  where  the  context  im- 
plies a  remote  region,  situated  in  the  eastern  or 
southern  extremity  of  the  earth.  Many  Biblical 
geographers  think  this  may  possibly  denote  the 
Sinese  or  Chinese,  whose  country  is  Sina,  China. 
This  view  is  not  void  of  probability,  but  objections 
to  it  are  obvious  and  considerable.  Some,  there- 
fore, think  that  by  the  Sinim  the  inhabitants  of 
Pelusium  (Sin)  are,  by  synecdoche,  denoted  for 
the  Egyptians  (Bochart,  Phaleg  iv, '27).  But  as 
the  text  seems  to  point  to  a  region  more  distant, 
others  have  upheld  the  claims  of  the  people  of 
Syene,  taken  to  represent  the  Ethiopians  (Mich- 
aelis,  SpicU.  ii,  32,  sq.;  Suppl.  p.  1741,  sq.). 

SINITE  (sTn'ite),  (Heb.  N**?,  see-nee',  asenmus), 

a  people  probably  near  Mount  Lebanon  (Gen.  x: 
17;  I  Chron.  i:i5). 

"And  Canaan  begat  Si  don,  his  firstborn,  and 
Heth,  and  the  Jebusite,  and  the  Amorite,  and  the 
Girgashite,  and  the  Hivite,  and  the  Arkite,  and  the 
Sinite,  and  the  Arvadite,  and  the  Zemarite,  and 
the  Hamathite."  From  its  position  in  the  list  it 
is  inferred  that  it  lay  toward  the  north,  perhaps  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  Lebanon  district.  In  that 
regfion  were  "Sinna,  a  mountain  fortress  men- 
tioned by  Strabo  .  .  .  Sinum,  or  Sini,  the 
ruins  of  which  existed  in  the  time  of  Jerome,"  and 
others  with  somewhat  similar  names. 

SINLESSNESS  OF  OHBIST  (sYn'lgs-nte  dv 
krist),  the  perfect  freedom  of  Christ  from  sin. 

Scripture  Statement.  The  Old  Testament 
prophecies  relating  to  Christ  point  to  his  perfect 
purity  (Is.  ix:  6.  7;  ch.  liii).  The  New  Testa- 
ment bears  most  emphatic  testimony  to  the  same 
fact  (Matt.  xi:29,  30;  John  iv:34;  vi:38;  viii '.29, 
46;  xv:io;  xvii:4;  Acts  iii:i4;  Rom.  viii:3;  2 
Cor,  v:2i;  Heb.  iv:i5;  vii:26,  27;  i  Pet.  iriQ; 
ii:22;  i  John  ii:2;  iii:5).  It  is  distinctly  stated 
that  Christ  was  tempted,  and  if  so  we  must  admit 
the  possibility  of  his  sinning.  Yet  his  temptations 
were  in  no  case  such  ars  spring  from  a  sinful  na- 
ture, and  the  fact  remains  that  he  was  absolutely 
without  sin  (See  Temptation  of  Christ;  also  ar- 
ticle on  Jesus  Christ). 

SION,  MOUNT  (si'on.  mount),  (Heb.  1^^^  "'D. 
har  see-ohn'), 

1.  A  name  given  (Deut.  iv:48)  to  one  of  the 
efevations  of  the  mountain  ridge  called  Hermon. 


2.  The  name  of  one  of  the  mountains  on  which 
the  city  of  Jerusalem  was  built,  and  on  which  the 
citadel  of  the  Jebusites  stood  when  David  took 
posession  of  it,  and  transferred  his  court  thither 
from  Hebron,  whence  it  is  frequently  called  the 
city  of  David ;  and  from  his  having  deposited  the 
aric  here,  it  is  also  frequently  called  "the  holy  hill" 
(Heb.  xii:22;  Rev.  xiv:i). 

SIPHMOTH     (siph'moth),    (Heb.    ri1)Dp^,  si/- 

moth\  fruitful  places,  i  Sam.  xxx:28),  a  place 
where  David  entertained  his  friends  during  his 
early  days  in  the  south  of  Judah.    Site  unknown. 

SIPFAI  (stp'pai),  (Heb.  ''IP,  sip-pah' ee,  thresh- 
old, bowl),  a  giant  of  Gezer,  slain  by  Sibbechai  (i 
Chron.  xx:4),  called  Saph  (2  Sanu  xxi:i8). 

SntAOH  (sl'rak),  (Gr.  2etp<ix,  sei-rach',  Sira), 
the  father  of  Jesus  (Joshua),  who  wrote  the  Hebrew 
original  of  the  book  of  Ecclesiasticus. 

SIRAH  (d'rah),  (Heb.  •"^'JP,  see-raw',  retreat, 

retired,  departure,  apostasy),  a  spring  north  of 
Hebron  (2  Sam.  iii:26),  where  Joab  recalled  Abner. 
It  is  probably  'ain  Sareh,  a  mile  and  a  half  north- 
west of  Hebron. 

SnUON   (slr'i-fin).   (Heb.    fl^,   sir-yone',    in 

Deut.  iii:9;  but  in  Ps.  xxix:6,  y^r,  shir-yone),  one 

of  the  names  of  Mount  Hermon,  by  which  it  was 
known  to  the  Zidonians. 

SIBS  (sers),  (Gr.  dm^p,  an-ayr*),  a  form  of  address 
as  we  would  say  "  Gentlemen,"  "  Sirs "  (Acts 
vii:26). 

SISAMAI  (sl-sim'a-I),  (Heb.  **5P0,  sis-mah'ee, 

distinguished),  the  son  of  Eleasah,  a  descendant 
of  Sheshan  in  the  line  of  Jerahmeel  (i  Chron  ii:4o), 
B.  C.  about  i6i8c 

SISEBA  (sfe'e-r&),  (Heb.  «??''?.  see-ser-aw', 
battle  array). 

!•  The  general  in  command  of  the  might v  army 
of  the  Canaanitish  king  Jabin.  As  this  is  the  only 
instance  in  those  early  times  of  armies  being  com- 
manded by  other  than  kings  in  person,  the  cir- 
cumstance, taken  in  connection  with  others,  inti- 
mates that  Sisera  was  a  general  eminent  for  his 
abilities  and  success.  He  was,  however,  defeated 
b^  Barak,  and  slain  (Judg.  iv:2-22),  under  the 
circumstances  which  have  been  described  in  the 
article  Jael.     (B.  C,  1409.) 

2.  The  name  of  Nethinim,  who  returned  from 
captivity  under  Zerubabbel  (Ezra  ii:53;  Neh.  vii: 
55).  They  were  probably  Canaanite  captives  de- 
voted to  the  lowest  offices  of  th.e  Temple. 

SISTEB  (sts'ter),  (Heb.  f^'"?,  aw-khoth;  Gr. 
ddeX^,  ad-el-fay'). 

Among  the  Hebrews,  sister  has  equal  latitude 
with  brother.  It  is  used,  not  only  for  a  sister  by 
natural  relation,  from  the  same  father  and  mother, 
but  also  for  a  sister  by  the  same  father  only,  or 
by  the  same  mother  only,  or  a  near  relation  only 
(Matt,  xiii  :56;  Mark  vi  13).  Sarah  is  called  sister 
to  Abraham  (Gen.  xii:i3;  xx:i2)  though  only  his 
niece,  according  to  some,  or  sister  by  the  father's 
side,  according  to  others.  In  Leviticus  (chap. 
xviii:i8)  it  is  forbidden  to  wed  the  sister  of  a 
wife;  I.  e,  to  marry  two  sisters,  or,  according  to 
some  interpreters,  to  marry  a  second  wife,  having 
one  already.  Literally,  "Thou  shalt  not  take  a 
wife  over  her  sister  to  afflict  her;"  as  if  to  forbid 
polygamy. 

Figurative,  Jerusalem,  Samaria,  and  Sodom 
are  called  "sisters,"  because  the  inhabitants  of 
those  places  were  so  similar  in  wickedness  (Ter. 
iii:8,  10;  Ezek.  xvi:46).  The  saints  are  called 
Christ's  "sisters;"  they  possess  the  same  human 


SISTER'S  SON 


1595 


SLAVE 


nature;  they  are  spiritually  begotten  by  his 
Father,  and  made  like  him  in  grace;  and  dearly 
he  loves,  protects,  and  carefully  provides  for  them 
(Matt.  xh:5o). 

SISTEB'0  SON  (Gr.  'Av^tof,  a-tups* ee-os), 
translated  Col.  iv:io,  A.  V.,  should  be  rendered 
"cousin"  in  accordance  with  its  use  in  the  LXX 
and  in  classic  Greek.  Comp.  Num.  xxxvi:ii,  and 
LXX. 

SIT,  SITTINa  (stt,  rft'txng),  (Heb.  2^,  yaw 

shab' ;  Gr.  koB^^oiml,  kath-ed* zom-ahee\  the  favor- 
ite position  of  the  Orientals,  who  sit  upon  the  floor 
with  their  feet  crossed  under  them. 

"In  Palestine  people  sii  at  all  kinds  of  work; 
the  carpenter  saws,  planes,  and  hews  with  his 
hand-adze  sitting  upon  the  ground  or  upon  the 
plank  he  is  planing.  The  washerwoman  sits  by 
the  tub,  and,  in  a  word,  no  one  stands  where  it  is 
possible  to  sit"    (Thomson>  Lowrf  and  Book,  i, 

191). 

Figurative,  (i)  To  sit  with  one,  denotes  inti- 
mate fellowship  with  him  (Ps.  xxviis).  (2)  To 
sit  in  dust  or  darkness,  imports  great  poverty,  con- 
tempt, ignorance,  and  trouble  (Is.  xlvii:i;  Luke 
i:79;  Mic.  vii:8).  (3)  To  sit  on  thrones,  im- 
ports confirmed  glory,  and  authority  (Matt,  xix: 
21).  (4)  Sitting,  ascribed  to  God,  or  Christ  as 
Mediator,  imports  their  undisturbed  rest  and  au- 
thority (Ps.  xlvii:8  and  xxix:io),  or  their  judg- 
ing and  punishine  of  men  (Dan.  vii  19,  26 ;  Joel  iii : 
12;  Matt.  xxvi:64).  (5)  Christ's  sitting  at  God's 
right  hand,  denotes  his  fixed  and  peaceful  posses- 
sion of  the  most  intimate  fellowship  with  God, 
and  his  continued  power  of  governing  the  church 
and  her  concerns  (Ps.  cx:i;  Eph.  i:2o).  (6) 
The  saints  sit  together  in  heavenly  places ;  in 
Christ  their  head,  they  are  already  possessors 
of  the  celestial  glories,  and  shall  quickly  enjoy 
them  in  their  own  person  (Eph.  ii:6).  (7)  Anti- 
christ's sitting  in  the  temple  of  God,  imports  his 
residence  in  the  church,  and  his  pretense  to  rule 
the  conscience  of  her  members  (2  Thess.  ii:4). 

SITH  (stth),  (Heb.^^,eem,  Ezek.  xxxv:6),  since, 

corruption  of  Old  English.  Latimer  has  "sithens** 
and  Shakespeare  has  "sithence." 

SITNAH  (sYt'nah),  (Heb.  ^iP^;5//-waw';  accu- 
sation, strife),  a  well  dug  by  Isaac  where  there  was 
a  conflict  with  the  Philistines  (Gen.  xxvi:2i).  The 
modem  shutneh. 

SrVAN  (si'van),  (Heb.  ]T^,  see-vattm' ;  Sept. 

Nurdv,  nisan)t  the  third  month  of  the  Hebrew  year, 
from  the  new  moon  of  June  to  the  new  moon  of 
July.  The  name  admits  of  a  Hebrew  etymology ; 
but  as  it  occurs  only  in  Esth.  viii  19,  it  is  better  to 
regard  it  as  of  Persian  origin,  like  the  other 
names  of  months;  the  corresponding  Persian 
month  being  called  Sefendarmed;  Zend,  Cpenti 
Armaiti;  Pehlv.  Sapandomad  (Benfey,  Monats- 
namen,  pp.  13,  41,  sq.;  122,  sq.;  Gesen.  Thesaur, 

p.  946). 

SKIN  (sktn),  (Heb.  ^*y,  ore,  naked,  Lev.  iy:ii; 
vii:8;  leather.  Lev.  xi:j2;  xiii:48;  Num.  xxxi:20), 
the  skin  of  a  man  or  animal.  In  Ps.  cii:5  the  word 
translated  skin  properly  means  flesh. 

The  word  in  Job  xvi:i5  rendered  skin  means 
'polished'  or  'smooth.*  "Skin  for  skin"  (Job  ii: 
4)  seems  to  mean  one  endures  disease  on  one  por- 
tion of  the  skin  to  save  the  whole. 

Figurative,  (i)  To  Hay  off  the  skin,  pluck  off 
skin,  or  ilesh,  imports,  to  oppress  men  till  nothing 
but  their  mere  life  is  left  (Mic.  iii:2,  3).  (2)  To 
escape  with  the  skin  of  one's  teeth,  is  to  escape 
with  nothing  but  life,  having,  as  it  were,  the  very 


teeth  dashed  out,  and  scarcely  a  mouth  leSt  to  com- 
plain (Job  xix:20).  (3)  Skin  for  skin  was  an  an- 
cient proverb,  importing,  that  a  man  will  gladly 
save  his  own  life  at  the  expense  of  the  death  of 
relations,  or  any  other  outward  loss  (Job  ii  :4)  ; 
also  used  figuratively  in  Jer.  xiii  :23. 

SKIRT  (skert),  (Heb*.   'y^t,  shool,  train),  (Jer. 

xiii:26;  Lam.  iig;  Nah.  iii:5);  orTJ?,  kaw-nawf, 
wing  (Deut.  xxii:3o;  Ruth  iii:9). 

Figurative,  (i)  To  raise  the  skirts  of  a 
woman  was  a  symbol  of  insult.  (2)  A  man's 
spreading  his  skirt  over  a  woman,  denoted  his  tak- 
ing her  under  his  care  and  protection,  and  to  be 
his  wife  (Ruth  iii:9).  (3)  God's  spreading  his 
skirt  over  the  Hebrews,  signified  his  taking  them 
into  a  special  church  relation  to  himself,  and  giv- 
ing them  his  gracious  and  honorable  protection: 
his  spreading  his  skirt  over  his  elect,  denotes 
his  uniting  them  to  Christ,  clothing  them  with  his 
righteousness,  and  granting  them  his  spiritual 
protection  and  comfort  (Ezek.  xvi:8).  (4)  Jeru- 
salem had  filthiness  and  blood  in  her  skirts;  her 
shameless  sinning  was  marked  in  her  disgraceful 
afflictions  (Lam.  i-.g;  Jer.  ii:34).  (5)  The  Lord 
discovered  the  Jews'  skirts  on  their  faces,  when 
he  removed  every  covering  of  their  sin,  and  re- 
duced them  for  it  to  a  most  debased  and  shameful 
condition  (Jer.  xiii:26).  (6)  A  man's  uncovering 
of  his  father^ s  skirt,  imported  carnal  intimacy  with 
his  stepmother  (Deut.  xxii:3o). 

SKULL  (skill).    See  Golgotha. 

SKY  (ski),  (Heb.  p01&,  shah'khak,  vapor.)  This 

word  may  mean  the  firmament  or  the  clouds,  Deut. 
xxxiii:26;  2  Sam.  xxii:i2;  Job  xxxvii:i8. 

SLACK  (sl^),  (Heb.  ^Pl.  raw'faw\  Josh.  x:6, 

to  slacken  or  relax).  "Slack  their  duties." — 
Shakespeare. 

SLANDER  (sian'der).  (Heb.  ^?1,  dib'baw\  an 
evil  report),  (Num.  xiv:36;  Ps.  xxxi:i3;  Prov.  x:i8). 

SLAVE /Slav),  (Heb.."'i?,  oh' bed;  Vulg.  servus; 

A.  V.  servant  and  bondman). 

It  is  difficult  to  trace  the  origin  of  slavery.  It 
may  have  existed  before  the  deluge,  when  violence 
filled  the  earth,  and  drew  upon  it  the  vengeance 
of  God.  But  the  first  direct  reference  to  slavery, 
or  rather  slave-trading,  in  the  Bible,  is  found  in 
the  history  of  Joseph,  who  was  sold  by  his  breth- 
ren to  the  Ishmaelites  (Gen.  xxxvii:27,  28).  In 
Ezek.  xxvii:i2,  13,  we  find  a  reference  to  the 
slave-trade  carried  on  with  Tyre  by  Javan,  Tubal, 
and  Meshech.  And  in  the  Apocalypse  we  find 
enumerated  in  the  merchandise  of  pagan  Rome 
(the  mystic  Babylon)  slaves  (irufidTa)  and  the 
souls  of  men  (Rev.  xviii:i3). 

The  sacred  historians  refer  to  various  kinds  of 
bondage : — 

(1)  Patriarchal  Servitude.  The  exact  nature 
of  this  service  cannot  be  defined :  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  however,  that  it  was  regulated  by  principles 
of  justice,  equity,  and  kindness.  The  servants  of 
the  patriarchs  were  of  two  kinds,  those  'born  in 
the  nouse,*  and  those  'bought  with  money'  (Gen. 
xvii:i3).  Abraham  appears  to  have  had  a  large 
number  of  servants.  At  one  time  he  armed  three 
hundred  and  eighteen  young  men,  'born  in  his 
own  house,'  with  whom  he  pursued  the  kings  who 
had  taken  'Lot  and  his  goods,  and  the  women  also, 
and  the  people,*  and  recaptured  them  ((Jen.  xiv: 
1-16).  The  servants  born  in  the  house  were  per- 
haps entitled  to  greater  privileges  than  the  others. 
Eliezer  of  Damascus,  a  home-born  servant,  was 
Abraham's  steward,  and,  in  default  of  issue,  would 


SLAVE 


1596 


SLAVE 


have  been  his  heir  (Gen.  xv:2-4).  This  class  of 
servants  was  honored  with  the  most  intimate 
confidence  of  their  masters,  and  was  employed  in 
the  most  important  services.  An  instance  of  this 
kind  will  be  found  in  Gen.  xxiv:i-9,  where  the 
eldest  or  chief  servant  of  Abraham's  house,  who 
ruled  over  all  that  he  hatt,  was  sent  to  Mesopo* 
tamia  to  select  a  wife  for  Isaac,  though  then  forty 
years  of  age.  The  servants  of  Abraham  were  ad- 
mitted into  the  same  religious  privileges  with  their 
master,  and  received  the  seal  of  the  covenant 
(Gen.  xviiig,  14,  24,  27). 

There  is  a  clear  distinction  made  between  the 
'servants*  of  Abraham  and  the  things  which  con- 
stituted his  property  or  wealth.  Abraham  was 
very  rich  in  cattle,  in  silver,  and  in  gold  ((}en. 
xiii:2,  5).  But  when  the  patriarch's  power  or 
greatness  is  spoken  of,  then  servants  are  spoken 
of  as  well  as  the  objects  which  constituted  his 
riches  (Gen.  xxiv:34,  35).  A  similar  distinction 
is  made  in  the  case  of  Isaac  and  of  Jacob.  In  no 
single  instance  do  we  find  that  the  patriarchs 
either  gave  away  or  sold  their  servants,  or  pur- 
chased them  of  third  persons.  Abraham  had  serv- 
ants 'bought  with  money.'  It  has  been  assumed 
that  they  were  bought  of  third  parties,  whereas 
there  is  no  proof  that  this  was  the  case.  The 
probability  is  that  they  sold  themselves  to  the 
patriarch  for  an  equivalent;  that  is  to  say,  they 
entered  into  voluntary  engagements  to  serve  him 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  period  of  time,  in  return 
for  the  money  advanced  them.  It  is  a  fallacy  to 
suppose  that  whatever  costs  money  is  money  or 
property.  The  children  of  Israel  were  required 
to  purchase  their  firstborn  (Num.  xviii:i5,  16; 
iii  145-51;  Exod.  xiii:i3;  xxxiv:2o).  They  were, 
moreover,  required  to  pay  money  for  their  own 
souls;  and  when  they  set  themselves  or  their  chil- 
dren apart  by  vow  unto  the  Lord,  the  price  of  re- 
lease was  fixed  by  statute  (Lev.  xxvii  :2-8).  Boaz 
bought  Ruth  (Ruth  ivrio).  Hosea  bought  his 
wife  (Hos.  iii  12).  Jacob  bought  his  wives  Rachel 
and  Leah;  and  not  having  money,  paid  for  them 
in  labor,  seven  years  apiece  (Gen.  xxix:  16-23). 
That  the  purchase  of  wives,  either  with  money  or 
by  service,  was  the  general  practice,  is  plain  from 
such  passages  as  Exod.  xxii:i7,  and  i  Sam. 
xviii  125.  But  the  rdea  of  property  does  not  appear 
in  anv  of  these  purchases.  For  the  various  ways 
in  wnich  the  terms  'bought,'  *buy,'  and  'bought 
with  money,'  are  used,  consult  Neh.  v:8;  Gen. 
xlvii:  18-26,  etc.  In  Lev.  xxv:47,  will  be  found 
the  case  of  the  Israelite  who  became  the  servant 
of  the  stranger.  The  words  are,  *If  he  sell  him- 
self unto  the  stranger.*  Yet  the  51st  verse  says 
that  this  servant  was  'bought,*  and  that  the  price 
of  the  purchase  was  paid  to  himself.  For  a  fur- 
ther clue  to  Scripture  usage,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  I  Kings  xxi:20,  25;  2  Kings  xvii:i7;  Is.  lv:i; 
Iii:3;  see  also  Jer.  xxxiv:i4;  Rom.  vi:i6;  vii:i4; 
John  viii  :34.  Probably  Job  had  more  servants 
that  either  of  the  patriarchs  to  whom  reference 
has  been  made  (Job  i:2,  3).  In  what  light  he  re- 
garded, and  how  he  treated,  his  servants,  may  be 
gathered  from  Job  xxxi  113-23.  And  that  Abra- 
ham acted  in  the  same  spirit  we  have  the  divine 
testimony  in  Jer.  xxii  :i5,  16,  17,  where  his  conduct 
is  placed  in  direct  contrast  with  that  of  some  of 
his  descendants,  who  used  their  neighbor's  serv- 
ice without  wages,  and  gave  him  not  for  his  work 
(verse  13). 

(2)  Egyptian  Bondagre.  The  Israelites  were 
frequently  reminded,  after  their  exode  from 
Egypt,  of  the  oppressions  they  endured  in  that 
'house  of  bondage,'  from  which  they  had  been 
delivered  by  the  direct  interposition  of  God.  The 
design  of  these  admonitions  was  to  teach  them 


justice  and  kindness  towards  their  servants  when 
they  should  become  settled  in  Canaan  (Deut.  v:i5; 
yiii:i4;  xiig;  xv:i5;  xxiii:7,  etc.),  as  well  as  to 
impress  them  with  gratitude  towards  their  great 
deliverer.  The  Egyptians  had  domestic  servants, 
who  may  have  been  slaves  (Exod.  ix:i4,  20,  21; 
xi:5).  But  the  Israelites  were  not  dispersed 
among  the  families  of  Egypt ;  they  formed  a  spe- 
cial community  (Gen.  xlvi;34;  Exod.  viii:22,  24; 
ix:26;  x:2^;  xi:7;  iv:29;  iirg;  xvi:22;  xvii:5; 
vi:i4).  They  had  exclusive  possession  of  the 
land  of  Goshen,  'the  best  part  of  the  land  of 
Egypt.'  They  lived  in  permanent  dwellings,  their 
own  houses,  and  not  in  tents  (Exod.  xii:22). 
Each  family  seeems  to  have  had  its  own  house 
(Exod.  xii:4;  comp.  Acts  vii:2o);  and  judging 
from  the  regulations  about  eating  the  Passoven 
they  could  scarcely  have  been  small  ones  (Exod. 
xii,  etc.).  They  appear  to  have  been  well  clothed 
(Exod.  xii:ii).  They  owned  'flocks  and  herds, 
and  very  much  cattle'  (Exod.  xii  :4,  6,  32,  37,  38). 
They  had  their  own  form  of  government;  and 
although  occupying  a  province  of  Egypt,  and  trib- 
utary to  it,  they  preserved  their  tribes  and  family 
divisions,  and  their  internal  organization  through- 
out (Exod.  ii:i;  xii  rip,  21;  vi:i4,  25;  vug;  iii:i6, 
18).  They  had  to  a  considerable  degree  the  dis- 
posal of  their  own  time  (Exod.  iii:  16,  18;  xii:6; 
lirg;  iv:27,  29,  31).  They  were  not  unacquainted 
with  the  fine  arts  (Exod.  xxxii:4;  xxxv:22,  35). 
They  were  all  armed  (Exod.  xxxii:27).  The 
women  seem  to  have  known  something  of  do- 
mestic refinement.  They  were  familiar  with  in- 
struments of  music,  and  skilled  in  the  working 
of  fine  fabrics  (Exod.  xv:20;  xxxv:25,  26);  and 
both  males  and  females  were  able  to  read  and 
write  (Deut.  xi:i8,  20;  xvii.'ig;  xxvii .-3).  Their 
food  was  abundant  and  of  great  variety  (Exod. 
xvi:3;  Num.  xi:4,  5;  xx:5).  The  service  re- 
quired from  the  Israelites  by  their  task-masters 
seems  to  have  been  exacted  from  males  only, 
and  probably  a  portion  only  of  the  people  were 
compelled  to  labor  at  any  one  time.  As  tribu- 
taries, they  probably  supplied  levies  of  men,  from 
which  the  wealthy  appear  to  have  been  exempted 
(Exod.  iii:  16;  iv:29;  v:2o).  The  poor  were  the 
oppressed;  'and  all  the  service  wherewith  they 
made  them  serve  was  with  rigor'  (Exod.  i:ii-i4). 
But  Jehovah  saw  their  'afflictions  and  heard  their 

froanings,'  and  delivered  them  after  having  in- 
icted  tne  most  terrible  plagues  on  their  oppress- 
ors. 

(3)  Jewish  Servitude.  Whatever  difficulties 
may  be  found  in  indicating  the  precise  nature  of 
patriarchal  servitude,  none  exists  in  reference  to 
that  which  was  sanctioned  and  regulated  by  the 
Mosaic  institutes. 

The  moral  law  is  a  revelation  of  great  prin- 
ciples. It  requires  supreme  love  to  God  and  uni- 
versal love  among  men,  and  whatever  is  incom- 
patible with  the  exercise  of  that  love  is  strictly 
forbidden  and  condemned.  Hence  immediately 
after  the  giving  of  the  law  at  Sinai,  as  if  to  guard 
against  all  slavery  and  slave -trading  on  the  part 
of  the  Israelites,  God  promulgated  this  ordinance : 
'He  that  stealeth  a  man  and  selleth  him,  or  if  he 
be  found  in  his  hands,  he  shall  surely  be  put  to 
death*  (Exod.  xxi:i6:  Deut:xxiv:7).  The  crime 
is  stated  in  its  threefold  form,  msin-sf eating,  sell- 
ing, and  holding;  the  penalty  for  either  of  which 
was  DEATH.  The  law  punished  the  stealing  of 
mere  property  by  enforcing  restitution,  in  some 
cases  twofold,  in  others  fivefold  (Exod.  xxii:i4). 
When  property  was  stolen,  the  legal  penalty  was 
compensation  to  the  person  injured;  but  when  a 
man  was  stolen,  no  property  compensation  was 
allowed;  death  was  inflicted,  and  the  guilty  of- 


SLAVE 


1597 


SLAVE 


fender  paid  the  forfeit  of  bis  life  for  his  trans- 
gression. Such  was  the  operation  of  this  law,  and 
the  obedience  paid  to  it,  that  we  have  not  .the 
remotest  hint  that  the  sale  and  purchase  of  slaves 
ever  occurred  among  the  Israelites.  The  cities  of 
Tudsea  were  not,  like  the  cities  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  slave-markets,  nor  were  there  found 
throughout  all  its  coasts  either  helots  or  slaves. 
With  the  Israelites  service  was  either  voluntary, 
or  judicially  imposed  by  the  law.  of  God  (Lev. 
XXV  :39,  47 ;  Exod.  xxi  \^ ;  xxii  :3,  4 ;  Deut.  xx  :i4).. 
Strangers  only,  or  the  descendants  of  strangers, 
became  their  possession  by  purchase  (Lev.  xxv: 
44-46),  but,  however  acquired,  the  law  gave  the 
Jewish  servants  many  rights  and  privileges :  they 
were  admitted  into  covenant  with  God  (Deut. 
xxix:io,  13)  ;  they  were  guests  at  all  the  national 
and  family  festivals  (Exod.  xii:43,  44;  Deut.  xii: 
18;  xvi:  10-16);  they  were  statedly  instructed  m 
morals  and  religion  (Deut.  xxxi:io-i3;  Josh,  viii: 
33-35 ;  2  Chron.  xvii  :8,  9 ;  xxxv  13 ;  xxxiv  :30 ;  Neh. 
viii  :7,  8)  :  they  were  released  from  their  regular 
labor  nearly  one-half  of  their  term  of  servitude, 
viz.,  every  seventh  year  (Lev.  xxv  13-6);  every 
seventh  day  (Exod.  xx)  ;  at  the  three  annud 
festivals  (Exod.  xxiii:i7;  xxxiv  123),  viz.,  the 
Passover  and  Feast  of  Weeks,  which  lasted  each 
seven  days,  and  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  which 
lasted  eight.  Also  on  the  new  moons,  the  Feast 
of  Trumpets,  and  the  Day  of  Atonement.  Besides 
these  were  the  local  festivals  (Judg.  xxi  rig;  1 
Sam.  ix:i2,  22,  etc.),  and  the  various  family  feasts, 
as  the  weaning  of  children,  marriages,  sheep- 
shearing,  and  circumcisions;  the  making  of  cove- 
nants, etc.  ( 1  Sam.  xx  :6,  28,  29) .  To  these  must 
be  added  the  Feast  of  Purim,  which  lasted  three 
days,  and  the  Dedication,  which  lasted  eight.  The 
servants  of  the  Israelites  were  protected  by  the 
law  equally  with  their  masters  (Dent.  i:i6,  17; 
xxvii  :i9 ;  Lev.  xix  :i5 ;  xxiv  122 ;  Num.  xv  129)  ; 
and  their  civil  and  religious  rights  were  the  same 
(Num.  xv:i5,  16,  29;  ix:i4;  Deut.  i:i6,  17;  Lev. 
xxiv:22).  To  these  might  be  added  numerous 
passages  which  represent  the  Deity  as  regarding 
alike  the  natural  rights  of  all,  and  making  for  all 
an  equal  provision  (2  Chron.  xix:7;  Prov.  xxiv: 
23;  xxviii:2i;  Job  xxxiv:  19;  2  Sam.  xiv:i4; 
Ephes.  vi:9).  Finally,  these  servants  had  the 
power  of  changing  their  masters,  and  of  seeking 
protection  wliere  they  pleased  (Deut.  xxiii:i5, 
16)  ;  and  should  their  masters  by  any  act  of  vio- 
lence injure  their  persons,  they  were  released  from 
their  engagements  (Exod.  xxi:26,  27).  The  term 
of  Hebrew  servitude  was  six  years,  beyond  which 
they  could  not  be  held  unless  they  entered  into 
new  engagements  (Exod.  xxi:i-ii ;  Deut.  xv:i2)  ; 
while  that  of  strangers,  over  whom  the  rights  of 
the  master  were  comparatively  absolute  (Lev. 
xxv:44-46),  terminated  in  every  case  on  the  re- 
turn of  the  jubilee,  when  liberty  was  proclaimed 
to  all  (Lev.  xxv:8,  10,  54).  On  one  occasion  the 
state  of  the  sexennial  slavery  was  violated,  and 
the  result  was  fearful  (Jer.  xxxiv  .-8-22).  See 
also  Exod.  xxi:2o;  Lev.  xix:20-22;  Tobit  x:io 
(<r<i/iaTo);Ecclus.  vii:20,  21;  x:25;  xxxiii:24-3i. 

(4)  Oibeonitisli  Servitude.  The  condition  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Gibeon,  Chephirah,  Beeroth, 
and  Kirjath-jearim,  under  the  Hebrew  common- 
wealth, was  not  that  of  slavery.  It  was  volun- 
tary (Josh.  ix:8-ii).  They  were  not  employed 
in  the  families  of  the  Israelites,  but  resided  in 
their  own  cities,  tended  their  own  flocks  and 
herds,  and  exercised  the  functions  of  a  distinct 
though  not  independent  community  (Josh,  x: 
6-18).  The  injuries  inflicted  on  them  by  Saul 
were  avenged  by  the  Almighty  on  his  descendants 
(2  Sam.  xxi:i-9).    They  appear  to  have  been  de- 


voted exclusively  to  the  service  of  the  'house  of 
God'  or  the  Tabernacles,  and  only  a  few  of  them 
comparatively  could  have  been  engaged  at  any 
one  time.  The  rest  dwelt  in  their  cities,  one  of 
which  was  a  great  city,  as  one  of  the  royal  cities. 
The  service  they  rendered  may  be  regarded  as  a 
natural  tribute  for  the  privilege  of  protection.  No 
service  seems  to  have  been  required  of  their  wives 
and  daughters.  On  the  return  from  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity  they  dwelt  at  Ophel  (Neh.  iii:26). 
See  also  i  Chron.  ix  :2 ;  Ezra  ii  :43 ;  Neh.  vii  :24 ; 
viii:i7;  x:28;  xi:2i.     (See  Nethinim.) 

(5)  Boman  Slavery.  Our  limits  will  not  al- 
low us  to  enter  into  detail  on  the  only  kind  of 
slavery  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament,  for 
there  is  no  indication  that  the  Jews  possessed  any 
slaves  in  the  time  of  Qirist.  Suffice  it  therefore 
to  say  that,  in  addition  to  the  fact  that  Roman 
slavery  was  perpetual  and  hereditary,  the  slave 
had  no  protection  whatever  against  the  avarice, 
rage,  or  lust  of  his  master.  The  bondsman  was 
viewed  less  as  a  human  being,  subject  to  arbitrary 
dominion,  than  as  an  inferior  animal,  dependent 
wholly  on  the  will  of  his  owner.  The  master 
possessed  the  uncontrolled  power  of  life  and  death 
over  his  slave, — a  power  which  continued  at  least 
to  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian.  He  might, 
and  frequently  did,  kill,  mutilate,  and  torture  his 
slaves,  for  any  or  for  no  offense,  so  that  slaves 
were  sometimes  crucified  from  mere  caprice.  He 
might  force  them  to  become  prostitutes  or  gladi- 
ators: and,  instead  of  the  perpetual  obligation  of 
the  marriage  tie,  their  temporary  unions  i^con- 
tuhernia)  were  formed  and  dissolved  at  his  com- 
mand, families  and  friends  were  separated,  and 
no  obligation  existed  to  provide  for  their  wants 
in  sickness  or  in  health.  But,  notwithstanding  all 
the  barbarous  cruelties  of  Roman  slavery,  it  had 
one  decided  advantage  over  that  which  was  in- 
troduced in  modem  times  into  European  colonies, 
both  law  and  custom  being  decidedly  favorable  to 
the  freedom  of  the  slave  inquiry  into  the  State 
of  Slavery  among  the  Romans^  by  W.  Blair,  Esq., 
1833).  The  Mahommedan  law  also,  in  this  re- 
spect, contrasts  favorably  with  those  of  the  Eu- 
ropean settlements. 

(6)  Christian  Principles.  Although  the  con- 
dition of  the  Roman  slaves  was  no  doubt  improved 
under  the  emperors,  the  early  effects  of  Christian 
principles  were  manifest  in  mitigating  the  hor- 
rors, and  bringing  about  the  gradual  abolition  of 
slavery. 

The  laws  which  the  great  Deliverer  and  Re- 
deemer of  mankind  gave  for  the  government  of  his 
kingdom,  were  those  of  universal  justice  and 
benevolence,  and  as  such  were  subversive  of  every 
system  of  tyranny  and  oppression.  To  suppose, 
therefore,  as  has  been  rashly  asserted,  that  Jesus 
or  his  apostles  gave  their  sanction  to  the  existing 
systems  of  slavery  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
is  to  dishonor  them.  That  the  reciprocal  duties  of 
masters  and  servants  (^v\oC)  were  inculcated, 
admits,  indeed,  of  no  doubt  (Col.  iii:22;  iv:i; 
Tit.  ii:9;  i  Pet.  ii:i8;  Eph.  vi:5-9).  But  the 
performance  of  these  duties  on  the  part  of  the 
masters,  supposing  them  to  have  been  slave-mas- 
ters, would  have  been  tantamount  to  the  utter 
subversion  of  the  relation.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
either  that  'servants  under  the  yoke,'  or  the  slaves 
of  heathens,  are  exhorted  to  yield  obedience  to 
their  masters  (i  Tim.  vi:i).  But  this  argues  no 
approval  of  the  relation;  for  (i),  Jesus,  in  an 
analogous  case,  appeals  to  the  paramount  law  of 
nature  as  superseding  such  temporary  regulations 
as  the  'hardness  of  men's  hearts'  had  rendered 
necessary  (see  Slavery  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
by  the  Rev.  W.  Wright,  M.  A.,  1831,  p.  58) ;  and 


SLEEP 


1598 


SMITH 


(2),  St.  Paul,  while  counseling  the  duties  of  con- 
tentment and  submission  under  inevitable  bondage, 
inculcates  at  the  same  time  on  the  slave  the  duty 
of  adopting  all  legitimate  means  of  obtaining  his 
freedom  (i  Cor.  vii:  18-20). 

'It  is  not,'  says  Robertson,  'the  authority  of  any 
singje  detached  precept  in  the  Gospel,  but  the 
spirit  and  genius  of  the  Christian  religion,  more 
powerful  than  any  particular  command,  which 
has  abolished  the  practice  of  slavery  throughout 
the  world/  Although,  even  in  the  most  corrupt 
times  of  the  church,  the  operation  of  Christian 
principles  tended  to  this  benevolent  object,  they 
unforunateJy  did  not  prevent  the  revival  of  sla- 
very in  the  European  settlements  in  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries,  together  with  that 
nefarious  traffic,  the  suppression  of  which  has  ren- 
dered the  name  of  Wilberforce  forever  illustrious. 
Modern  servitude  had  all  the  characteristic  evils 
of  the  Roman,  except,  perhaps,  the  uncontrolled 
power  of  life  and  death,  while  it  was  destitute  of 
that  redeeming  quality  to  which  we  have  referred, 
its  tendency  being  to  perpetuate  the  condition  of 
slavery.  It  has  also  been  supposed  to  have  in- 
troduced the  unfortunate  prejudice  of  color,  which 
was  unknown  to  the  ancients  (Linstant's  Essai, 
1841).  It  was  the  benevolent  wish  of  the  philo- 
sophic Herder  (History  of  Man,  1788)  that  the 
time  might  come  'when  we  shall  look  back  with 
as  much  compassion  on  our  inhuman  traffic  in 
negroes,  as  on  the  ancient  Roman  slavery  or  Spar- 
tan helots.'  This  is  now  no  longer  a  hope,  so  far 
as  the  United  States  is  concerned,  as  she  not  only 
set  the  example  of  abolishing  the  traffic,  but 
evinced  the  soundness  of  her  Christian  principles 
by  the  grreatest  national  act  of  justice  which  his- 
tory has  yet  recorded,  in  the  total  abolition  of 
slavery  throughout  all  her  borders.  (See  Serv- 
ant.) W.  W. 

SI^EP  (slep>,  a  number  of  Hebrew  and  Greek 
words  are  translated  in  the  sense  of  repose  (Ps.iv: 
8;  cxxi:4;  Jonah  i:$,  6). 

Figurative,  (i)  The  s/ee^  of  death,  in  which 
the  soul  being  separated  from  the  body,  the  body 
becomes  quite  insensible  (Jer.  li  139 ;  Dan.  xii : 
2;  John  xi:ii;  i  Cor.  xv:5i).  (2)  God's  sleeping 
imports  his  seeming  unconcern  and  inactivity  to 
deliver  his  people,  or  punish  their  enemies  (Ps. 
xliv:23  and  lxxviii:65).  (3)  Sleeping  ?i\so  denotes 
supineness,  indolence,  or  stupid  inactivity  of  the 
wicked  (Rom.  xiiirii,  12;  Eph.  v:i4;  i  Cor.  xi: 
30). 

SLEIGHT  (slit),  (Gr. /a;/5e(o,  koo-bi^ah,  Eph.  iv: 

14). 

1.  Artifice,  fraud,  gambling.  ^  The  word  means 
literally  dice  playing  or  throwing,  from  /nJ/3of  a 
cube  or  die. 

2.  Dextrous  practice,  dexterity,  skill,  chances, 
"the  juggler's  sleight,** 

SLIME  (slim).    See  Asphaltum. 
SLIME  PITS  (slim  pYts).    See  Siddim. 

SLING  (sltng),  (Heb.  ^^1?.,  keh'/aA;  Gr.  aif>€yd6pri; 

funda).  The  sling  has  always  been  the  favorite 
weapon  of  the  shepherds  of  Syria  (i  Sam.  xvii: 
40;  Burckhardt's  Notes,  i:S7). 

SUP  (slip),  (Heb.  *^7^\,  zem-o-raw',  pruned),  a 
layer  of  a  vine. 

It  is  used  (Is.  xvii:  10)  as  figurative  of  strange 
alliances. 

SLOTHFUL  (sl5th'ful).    In  Prov.  xii  124,  "the 

slothful  shall  be  under  tribute,"  the  Heb.  ^r^\ 
rem-ee-yaw\  means  remiss,  treacherous. 

In  verse  27  we  have  an  expression  which 
means  that   such  a  man  does  not  improve  his 


opportunities.     The  Heb.   ''S?,  aw-tsoT,  has  the 

usual  meaning  of  to  be  slack,  indolent,  and  is 
generally  used  in  the  Old  Testament. 

SLOW  (sl5).  1.  Kaw-bade'  (Heb.  "^J),  means 
heavy(Exod.iv:io);  a  difficulty  in  speaking,  though 
not  exactly  stammering. 

3.  Aw-rake'  (Heb.  ^^^,  to  make  long),  is  used 

in  the  frequent  expression,  "slow  to  anger"  (Neh. 
ix:i7;  Ps.  ciii:8;  Prov.  xvi:32,  etc.). 

3.  A  peculiar  expression  is  found  in  Tit.  i:i2, 
"slow  bellies"  (Gr.  ycurr^pcs  dpyal,  gcLS-ter'es  ar- 
gah'ee)j  to  describe  the  Cretians.  The  one  word 
is  used  to  indicate  their  sensuality,  the  other  their 
sloth  (R.  V.  "idle  gluttons"). 

Men  are  slow  of  heart  to  believe  when  averse 
to  do  it  without  uncommon  or  even  improper 
evidence  (Luke  xxiv:25). 

SLXJGGABB  (sliig'gerd),  another  rendering  in 
the  A.  V.  of  the  Hebrew,  rendered  Slothful 
(which  see). 

SLT7ICE  (slus).  The  word  so  translated  (Heb. 
1?9,  seA'ker,    Is.   xix:io),  seems   to  have    been 

entirely  misapprehended  by  translators  of  the 
A.  V. 

It  means  hire,  wages,  and  the  last  clause  of  the 
verse  should  be  rendered,  "and  all  those  who 
work  for  wages  shall  be  of  a  sad  heart"  (Is.  xix: 
10),  or  as  in  R.  V.,  "All  they  that  work  for  hire 
shall  be  grieved  in  soul." 

SMITH  (smith),  (Heb.  ^'^^,  kkaw-rash').    A 

workman  in  stone,  wood  or  metal,  like  the  Latin 
faber^  but  sometimes  more  accurately  defined  by 
what  follows,  as  a  workman  in  iron,  a  smith  (i  Sam. 
xiiiiig:  Is.  xliv:i2;  liv:i6;  2  Kings  xxiv:i4'  Jer. 
xxiv:i;  xxix:2). 

In  2  Chron.  xxiv :  12,  'workers  in  iron  and 
brass  are  mentioned.  The  first  smith  mentioned 
in  Scripture  is  Tubal-Cain,  whom  some  writers, 
arguing  from  the  similarity  of  the  names,  iden- 
tify with  Vulcan  (Cierh.  Vossius,  De  Orig.  Ido- 
lol,  i.  16).  He  is  said  to  have  been  *an  in- 
structor of  every  artificer  in  brass  and  iron*  (Gen. 
iv:22),  or  perhaps  more  properly,  a  whetter  or 
sharpener  of  every  instrument  of  copper  or  iron. 

As  the  art  of  the  smith  is  one  of  the  first 
essentials  to  civilization,  the  mention  of  its 
founder  was  worthy  of  a  place  among  the  other 
fathers  of  inventions.  So  requisite  was  the  trade 
of  a  smith  in  ancient  warfare  that  conquerors 
removed  these  artisans  from  a  vanquished  nation, 
in  order  the  more  effectually  to  disable  it.  Thus 
the  Philistines  deprived  the  Hebrews  of  their 
smiths  (i  Sam.  xiiiiig;  comp.  Judg.  v;8).  So 
Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  treated  them 
in  later  times  (2  Kings  xxiv:i4;  Jer.  xxiv:i; 
xxix:2).  With  these  instances  the  commentators 
compare  the  stipulation  of  Porsenna  with  the 
Roman  people,  after  the  expulsion  of  their  kings : 
*Ne  ferro,  nisi  in  agricultura,  utefentur*  (Pliny, 
Hist.  Nat.  xxxi:i4).  Cyrus  treated  the  Lydians 
in  the  same  manner  (Herodotus,  a.  142).  Smith, 
occurs  in  2  Kings  xxiv:  14,  16;  Jer.  xxiv:i ;  xxix: 
2 ;  Vulg.  'clusor!  or  'inclusor.*  Buxtorf  gives 
'clauslraritis,  faber  ferrarius*  The  root,  to  close, 
indicates  artisans  'with  busy  hammers  closing 
rivets  up;'  which  suits  the  context  better  than 
other  renderings,  as  setters  of  precious  stones, 
seal-engravers,  etc.  In  the  New  Testament  we 
meet  with  Demetrius,  *the  silversmith,'  at  Ephe- 
sus,  argurokopos,  'a  worker  in  silver,'  Vulg.  ar- 
gentarius;  but  the  commentators  are  not  agreed 
whether  he  was  a  manufacturer  of  small  silver 


SMYRNA  15 

models  o(  the  Temple  of  Diana,  or  at  least  of 
the  chapel  which  contained  the  famous  statue 
of  the  goddess,  to  be  sold  to  foreigners,  or  used 
io  private  devotion,  or  taken  with  them  by  trav- 
elers as  a  safe^ard ;  or  whether  he  made  large 
coins  representing  the  temple  and  image.  A 
coppersmith  named  Alexander  is  mentioned  as 
an  opponent  of  St.  Paul  (2  Tim.  iv:i4).  (See 
Alexander;  Coal;  Iron;  Metals.)        J.  F.  D, 

SKTBNA  (smyi'iii),  (Gr.  Sfuljin,  smoor'naA, 
myrrh).  A  celebrated  commercial  city  of  Ionia 
(Ptolem.  V.  2),  situated  near  the  bottom  of  that 
gulf  of  the  £gean  Sea  which  received  its  name 
from  it  (Mela,  i.  ly,  3),  at  the  mouth  of  the  small 
river  Meles,  and  320  stades  north  of  Ephesus 
(Strabo,  xv.  p.  632).  It  is  in  north  latitude  38° 
26',  east  longitude  27°  7'.  Smyrna  was  a  very  an- 
cient city,  but  having  been  destroyed  by  the  Lydi- 
ans,  it  lay  waste  400  years,  to  the  time  of  Alexan- 


SNARE 


Next  to  the  Turks  the  Greeks  form 
the  most  numerous  class  of  inhabitants,  and  they 
have  a  bishop  and  two  churches.  The  unusually 
large  proportion  of  Christians  in  the  town  ren- 
ders it  peculiarly  unclean  in  the  eyes  of  strict 
Moslems,  whence  it  has  acquired  among  them 
the  name  of  Giaour  Izmir,  or  Infidel  Smyrna, 
There  are  in  it  20,000  Greeks,  8,000  Armenians, 
1,000  Europeans,  and  9,000  Jews;  the  rest  are 
Moslems. 

The  prosperity  of  Smyrna  is  now  rather  on 
the  increase  than  the  decline. 

It  stands  at  the  foot  of  a  range  of  mountains, 
which  enclose  it  on  three  sides.  The  only  an- 
cient ruins  are  upon  the  mountains  behind  the 
town,  and  to  the  >outh.  But  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  relics  of  antiquity  have  been  carried  away. 
Of  the  stadium  the  ground  plot  only  remains,  it 
being  stripped  of  its  seals  and  marble  decorations. 


der  the  Great  (Pliny  v.  29;  Fausan,  vii,  5)  ;  or, 

according  to  Strabo,  to  that  of  Antigonus,  It  was 
rebuilt  at  the  distance  of  twenty  stades  from 
the  ancient  city  (Strabo,  xiv.  p.  646),  and  we 
soon  find  it  flourishing  greatly;  and  in  the  time 
of  the  first  Roman  emperors  it  was  one  of  the 
finest  cities  of  Asia  (Strabo,  iv.  9).  It  was  at 
this  period  that  it  became  the  seat  of  a  Christian 
church,  which  is  noticed  in  the  Apocalypse,  as 
one  of  'the  seven  churches  of  Asia  (Rev.  i:li; 
ii:8-ii).  It  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in 
A.  D.  177;  but  the  emperor  Marcus  Aurelius 
caused  it  to  bs  rebuilt  with  even  more  than  its 
former  splendor.  It  afterwards,  however,  suf- 
fered greatly  from  earthquakes  and  conflagrations, 
and  must  be  regarded  as  having  declined  much 
from  its  ancient  importance,  although  from  the 
convenience  of  its  situation  it  has  still  main- 
tained its  rank  as  a  great  city  and  the  central 
emporium  of  the  Levantine  trade.  The  Turks 
call  it  Izmir.  It  is  a  better  built  town  than 
Constantinople,  and  in  proportion  to  its  size 
there  are  few  places  in  the  Turkish  dominions 
which  have  so  large  a  population.  It  is  com- 
ptited  at  130,000,  of  which  the  Franks  compose 
a  far  greater  proportion  than  in  any  other  town 
of  Turkey;  and  they  arc  generally  in  good  cir- 


It  is  supposed  to  be  the  place  where  Polycarp, 
ihe  disciple  of  St.  John,  and  probably  'the  angel 
of  the  church  of  Smyrna'  (Rev.  ii:8),  to  whom 
the  Apocalyptic  message  was  addressed,  suffered 
martyrdom.  The  Christians  of  Smyrna  hold  the 
memory  of  this  venerable  person  in  high  honor, 
and  go  annually  in  procession  to  his  supposed 
tomb,  which  is  at  a  short  distance  from  the  place 
of  martyrdom.  , 

SNAIL  (snal),(Heb.   ''''3*,   the^looT). 

Snails  and  slugs  are  not  very  common  in  coun- 
tries so  dry  in  summer  as  Palestine.  Hence, 
perhaps,  the  fact  that  there  is  only  one  allusion 
to  them  in  Scripture.  This  occurs  in  Psalm  Iviii: 
8,  where  the  figure  seems  to  be  more  significant, 
if  understood  of  snails  without  shells,  t.  e.,  slugs, 
rather   than  shell-snails,  though  true  of  both. 

SNARE  (snSre),  (usually  some  form  of  the  Heb. 
*Pr,  yatU'ioshe'  to  ensnare,  or  of  "^5,  pakh,  a 
spring  net),  a  net  or  trap  for  catching  birds  (Is. 
viii:i4;  Amosiii:5),  or  beasts  (Job  xviii:I0;  Jer. 
xviii:i2).  They  were  Bet  on  paths  or  concealed  in 
the  ground  (Ps.  cxl  :s ;  c)tix;lio;  Prov.  vii:23; 
xxii  :s ;  Jer,  xviii  :22).  It  is  used  symbolically 
of  anything  that  injures  (Josh.  xxiii:i3;  Judg. 
11:3;  I  Kings  xi:4;  Ps.  cvi:36.  etc.). 


SNARES  OF  DEATH 


1600 


SOCIETY  OF  FRIENDS,  THE 


atTABES  OF  DEATH  (sndrs  dv  d«tb),  used 
symbolically  of  anything  that  may  kill  (2  Sam. 
xxii:6;  Ps.  xviii:5). 

SNOUT  (snout),  (Heb.  H^,  a/  nostril,  or  face), 
the  nose  (Prov.  xi:22). 

SNOW  (sn5),  (Heb.  ^7t,  sheh'Ug,  white;  Gr. 
Xt^i*',  khee-one'). 

In  the  historical  books  of  Scripture  snow  is 
twice  mentioned  as  actually  falling  (2  Sam.  xxiii: 
20;  I  Chron.  xi:22;  comp.  i  Mace.  xiii:22).  In 
the  poetical  books  the  allusions  are  so  frequent  as 
to  make  it  probable  that  snow  was  an  ordinary 
occurrence  in  Palestine.  "During  most  winters 
both  hail  and  snow  fall  on  the  hilU.  On  the  Cen- 
tral Range  snow  has  been  known  to  reach  a  depth 
of  nearly  two  feet,  and  to  lie  for  five  days,  or  even 
more.  .  .  .  This  explains  the  feat  of  Benaiah, 
who  went  down  and  slew  a  lion  in  the  midst  of  a 
cistern  in  the  day  of  the  snow  (2  Sam.  xxiii :2o)." 
(Smith,  Hist.  Geog.,  p.  64,  sq.). 

Figurative,  (i)  The  whiteness  and  purity  of 
snow  are  emblematical  of  freedom  from  guilt  and 
corruption  (Is.  i:i8;  Ps.  li:7)  ;  and  of  glory  and 
excellency  (Lam.  iv:7).  (2)  God*s  scattering  of 
the  Canaanitish  kings,  and  their  armies,  was 
white  as  snow  in  Salmon;  the  providence  was 
very  just  and  glorious;  and  the  carcasses  lay  deep 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground  (Ps.  Ixviiiiis).  (3) 
Sometimes  God  has  made  snow  an  instrument  of 
his  judgments,  burying  towns  and  armies  amidst 
it  (Job  xxxviii  :22,  2^).  (4)  Snotv-water  is  reck^ 
oned  excellent  for  washing  (Job  ix  130)  ;  and  for 
refreshing  the  earth,  and  rendering  it  fruitful  (Is. 
lv:io)  ;  at  least  that  of  the  snow  of  Lebanon  was 
esteemed  an  excellent  and  refreshing  drink.  (5) 
God  is  compared  to  the  snow  of  Lebanon,  and  the 
cold  flowing  waters  that  proceed  from  it,  so  useful 
to  refresh  men  in  those  hot  countries.  How  de- 
lightful, how  refreshing,  his  goodness,  and  grace! 
and  how  foolish  to  forsake  him  for  other  enjoy- 
ments! Or  the  words  might  be  translated,  JVih 
a  man  leave  pure  waters,  springing  from  a  rock, 
for  the  melted  snow  of  Lebanon,  all  mixed  with 
mud  ?  IVill  they  ever  dig  up  the  dirty  waters  of  an 
inundation,  rather  than  waters  flowing  from  a 
fountain f  i.  e.,  will  men  ever  forsake  the  true  God 
for  mere  faith  and  vanity?   (Jer.  xviii:i4,  15). 

8NT7FF  (sniif),  (Heb.  H??.  shawaf,  to  inhale 

eagerly),  as  Ten  xiv:6,  where  the  wild  asses,  tor- 
mented by  Duming  thirst,  pant    for   wind    like 

jackals  (comp    u:24).    "Snuff**  (Heb.  '^SJ,  naw» 

fakh' ,  to  blow  at),  means  to  express  scorn  or  con- 
temptras  of  God*s  altar  (Mai.  1:13). 

SNTTFF  DISH  (snuf'dlsb),  an  article  used  in 
the  tabernacle  for  catching  the  snuff  of  the  lamps 
of  the  golden  candlesticks  (Lev.  xvi:i2;  Exod. 
XXV  .-38;  xxxvii:23;  Num.  xvi:6;  i  Kings  vii:5o). 

SNTTFFEB  (sniif'er),  a  pair  of  ton§s  for  remov- 
ing the  snuff  from  the  lamp  ( i  Kmgs  vii:5o;  2 
Chron.  iv:22;  Jer.  Iii:i8). 

SO  (s5),  (Heb.  KiD,  sd:  Sept.  Sirycip,  say-gore', 
Segor),  a  king  of  Egypt,  whom  Hoshea,  the  last 
king  of  Israel,  called  to  his  help  against  the 
Assyrians  under  Shalmaneser  (2  Kmgs  xvii:4). 

It  has  been  questioned  whether  this  So  was  the 
same  with  Sahaco,  the  first  king  of  the  Ethiopian 
dynasty  in  Upper  Egypt,  or  his  son  and  successor 
Sevechus,  the  second  king  of  the  same  dynasty, 
and  the  immediate  predecessor  of  Tirhakah. 
Winer  hesitates  between  them,  and  (jesenius  con- 
cludes for  the  latter.  Sevechus  reigned  twelve 
years,  accord inpj  to  Manetho,  fourteen  according  to 
Syncellus.  This -name,  in  Egyptian  Sevech,  is  also 
that    of   the  god    Saturn    (Champollion,    Panth, 


Egypt,  No.  21,. 22;  Winer,  ReaUWorterb,  s.  v.; 
Gesenius,  Comment,  in  Jes.  i.  696). 

S0AP(s5p),    See  Borith;  Neter. 

SOBER,  SOBERLY,  SOBRIETY  (sd'ber. 
s6'ber-iy,  s5-bri'6-ty). 

1.  (Gr.  rfiixa,  nay'fo),  temperate  (i  Thess.  v:^ 
8;  2  Tim.  iv:5;  A.  V.  "watch;*'  i  Pet.  i:i3). 

2.  (Gr.  ffUHppowita,  so-fron-eh' o\  of  a  sound  mind, 
as  of  one  who  has  ceased  to  be  under  the 
power  of  an  evil  one  (Mark  v:is;  Luke  viii:35)  \ 
the  opposite  of  ^xo^r^rat,  to  be  beside  one's  self 
(2  Cor.  v:i3);  to  (a)  place  a  moderate  estimate 
upon  one's  self  (Rom.  xii:3),  (^)  to  curb  one's 
passion  (Tit.  ii:6). 

The  following  reasons  for  sobriety  may  be  re- 
marked: (i)  In  our  inquiries  after  truth,  as  op- 
posed to  presumption;  (2)  in  our  pursuit  of  this 
world,  as  opposed  to  covetousness ;  (3)  in  the 
use  and  estimate  of  the  things  of  this  world,  as 
opposed  to  excess;  (4)  in  trials  and  afflictions, 
as  opposed  to  impatience;  (5)  in  forming  our 
judgment  of  others,  as  opposed  to  censorious- 
ness ;  (6)  in  speaking  of  one's  self,  as  opposed  to 
egotism. 

Many  motives  might  be  urged  to  this  exercise, 
as  (i)  the  general  language  of  Scripture  (i  Pet. 
v:8;  Phil.  iv:s;  Tit.  ii:i2;  i  Pet.  iv7)  ;  (2)  our 
profession  as  Christians;  (3)  the  example  of 
Jesus  Christ ;  and  (4)  the  near  approach  of  death 
and  judgment. 

SOCHO  (s5'ko).  (Heb.  tito,  so-ko'  branches; 
Gr.  Swx<^^  Socho,  i  Chron.  iv:i8),  a  city  in  the  low 
country  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv:35). 

Between  Socho  and  Azekah  (i  Sam.  xvii:i), 
the  Philistincb  took  up  their  position  for  the  mem- 
orable engagement  in  which  their  champion  was 
slain  (verse  52).  It  was  among  the  cities  in  Judah 
which  Rehoboam  fortified  after  the  revolt  of  the 
northern  tribes  (2  Chron.  xi  17)  ;  it  is  mentioned 
with  others  as  being  taken  by  the  Philistines  in 
the  reign  of  Ahaz  (2  Chron.  xxviii:i8).  Else- 
where called  SocHOH  (i  Kings  iv:io)  ;  Shochoh 
(i  Sam.  xvii:i)  ;  Shoco  (2  Chron.  xi:7)  ;  Shocho 
(2  Chron.  xxviii:i8)  ;  Socho  (Josh.  xv:35). 

SOCHOH  (s5'koh).  (i  Kings  iv:io).    See  Socho. 

SOCIETY  OF  FRIENDS,  THE. 

The  Society  of  Friends  arose  in  England  about 
the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Though 
none  of  its  doctrines  can  be  called  original,  some 
of  them  had  been  almost  lost  sight  of,  some  had 
been  practically  rejected  by  many  branches  of  the 
Christian  church,  and  they  had  not  been  pro- 
claimed as  a  whole,  since  apostolic  days,  until 
George  Fox  set  them  forth.  He  is  therefore 
rightly  called  the  founder  of  the  society. 

The  early  Friends  accepted  the  fundamental  doc- 
trines as  held  by  the  great  body  of  Christians,  but 
dwelt,  far  more  than  others,  on  the  priesthood 
of  all  believers ;  on  the  direct  communication  of 
the  will  of  God  to. the  individual;  and  on  the  im- 
mediate guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  It  is  upon 
these  doctrines  that  most  of  the  distinctive  fea- 
tures of  the  Society  depend.  Fox  placed  the 
whole  life  upon  one  plane — the  loftiest  aspira- 
tions and  the  humblest  duties  to  be  alike  governed 
by  the  same  divine  law. 

(1)  Has  No  Creed.  The  Society  has  at  dif- 
ferent times  issued  ''declarations  of  faith,"  but 
has  never  adopted  a  creed. 

The  Friends  hold  that  spiritual  baptism  and 
spiritual  communion  are  alone  essential,  and  that 
no  rites  were  instituted  by  Christ;  that  true  wor- 
ship is  of  the  spirit,  and  that  no  ritual  can  take 
the  place  of  the  reality ;  that  by  meeting  in  silence 
for  the  purpose  of  worship,  the  Spirit  has  op- 


SOCIETY   OF  FRIENDS,  THE 


1601 


SODOM 


porttmity  to  speak  directly  to  the  heart  without 
human  mediation,  and  to  call  upon  whom  he 
will  to  speak,  or  to  pray  vocally.  Ministers  are 
called  and  qualified  of  God  irrespective  of  sex,  and 
the  exercise  of  their  gifts  should  be  independent 
of  education  or  special  training,  though  the  for- 
mer is  not  to  be  undervalued  in  itself.  A  minis- 
ter is  "recorded"  as  having,  in  the  judgment  of 
the  church,  "received  a  gift  in  the  ministry,"  but 
there  is  no  ordination  or  necessary  relinquishment 
of  other  occupations.  There  may  be,  therefore, 
more  than  one  minister  in  a  congregation. 

The  Friends  believe  that  oaths  of  any  kind  are 
contrary  to  the  direct  command  of  Christ,  and 
that  war  is  wholly  opposed  to  the  spirit  of  the 
Gospel.  Simplicity  in  dress,  and  strict  truthful- 
ness in  language,  are  deemed  religious  duties. 
Uniformity  m  dress,  not  thought  of  by  the  early 
Friends,  was  the  product  of  a  later  age,  and  is 
now  practically  abandoned. 

(2)  Democratic.  The  organization  is  demo- 
cratic; there  is  no  division  into  clergy  and  laity. 
The  executive  body  is  the  "monthly  meeting;" 
several  of  these  form  a  "quarterly  meeting,"  and 
several  of  these  latter  constitute  a  "yearly  meet- 
ing," which  is  the  legislative  body,  from  which 
there  is  no  appeal.  The  bounds  of  a  "yearly  meet- 
ing" are  generally  determined  by  geograph- 
ical considerations.  "Yearly  meetings"  are  inde- 
pendent, though  there  is  at  present  a  movement 
looking  towards  some  sort  of  a  union  with*  limited 
legislative  powers.  There  are  also  in  many  places 
some  modifications  in  the  manner  of  holding  meet- 
ings for  worship. 

(3)  Missionary  Attempts.  The  early  Friends 
were  full  of  missionary  zeal,  and  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America  were  visited  by  them,  George 
Fox  himself  coming  to  America  in  1672.  The 
first  recorded  visit  to  America  was  that  of  Ann 
Austin  and  Mary  Fisher,  who  came  from  Barba- 
does  to  Boston  in  1656.  The  Puritans  treated 
these  women  shamefully,  imprisoned  them  for  five 
weeks,  and  sent  them  back.  In  spite  of  persecu- 
tion and  the  death  of  four  on  the  scaffold,  on 
Boston  Common,  Friends  kept  coming  to  Massa- 
chusetts, until  their  endurance  and  persistent 
faithfulness  to  what  they  believed  to  be  their  duty, 
won,  not  only  in  Massachusetts,  but  elsewhere  in 
America,  religious  liberty  for  themselves  and  for 
all  others.  Of  all  the  colonies,  except  the  Jerseys 
and  Pennsylvania,  which  were  settled  by  William 
Penn  and  other  Friends,  Rhode  Island  alone  at 
all  times  offered  them  a  safe  place  of  residence. 
Besides  in  New  England,  communities  sprang  up 
in  Virginia,  Maryland,  North  Carolina,  and  New 
York. 

When  persecution  ceased,  the  ardor  of  the  So- 
ciety somewhat  cooled.  Attention  was  paid  more 
to  the  enforcement  of  church  discipline,  and  to 
work  within  the  membership,  than  to  evangelistic 
labor;  and  the  Society  soon  began  to  decline  in 
numbers.  During  the  past  thirty  years  or  more, 
with  renewed  activity  in  missionary  and  evangelis- 
tic work,  the  Society  has  grown  steadily  in  mem- 
bership. 

(4)  Attitude  Towards  Oeneral  Reforms.  The 
Friends  were  among  the  very  first  to  urge  prison 
reform.  It  >yas  the  first  denomination  as  a  whole 
to  see  the  iniquity  of  slavery,  and  before  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  not  a  Friend  in  Amer- 
ica owned  a  slave.  The  Friends  became  the  most 
earnest  advocates  of  the  general  abolition  of 
slavery,  and,  owing  to  this,  three-fourths  of  their 
membership  in  the  southern  states  emigrated  to 
the  then  western  states  of  Ohio  and  Indiana.  Two- 
thirds  of  the  entire  membership  to-day  are  west 

101 


of  the  Alleghanies.  A  lamentable  division  on  doc- 
trinal grounds  took  place  in  1827-28;  much  the 
larger  part  held  to  evangelical  views,  though  each 
body  <:laims  the  name  of  Friends. 

(5)  Vitality.  The  existence  of  the  Society  for 
over  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  is  the  strongest 
proof  of  the  vitality  and  practicability  of  its  prin- 
ciples. It  is  true  that  all  which  the  early  Friends 
hoped  for  has  not  been  realized,  but  much  of  what 
was  first  reaffirmed  or  proclaimed  by  them  has  be- 
come common  property ;  as,  for  instance,  the  privi- 
lege of  affirmation  in  the  place  of  judicial  oaths; 
the  equality  of  woman  in  the  church;  religious 
liberty,  not  simply  toleration ;  a  practical  belief  in 
the  immediate  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

(6)  Denominational  Independence.  Friends 
have  from  their  very  constitution  been  unable  to 
unite  with  others,  except  on  the  broadest  grounds. 
It  is  difficult  to  see  how  a  federal  union  with  other 
bodies  could  be  made,  except  upon  a  basis  which 
would  allow  baptism  and  the  supper  to  be  reck- 
oned as  non-essential ;  which  would  recognize  the 
"recording"  of  ministers  (both  men  and  women) 
as  equivalent  to  ordination ;  and  which  would  dis- 
pense with  a  formal  creed.  A.  C.  T. 

SOCKET  (s6k'gt),  used  of  the  base  of  the  Tab- 
ernacle (Exod.  xxvi:i9);  of  a  pillar  (Exod. 
xxxviiiiio  and  Cant.  v:i5);  or  of  a  building  (Job 
xxxviii:6). 

SOCOH  (s5'koh). 

1.  (Josh.  XV 135).    See  Socho. 

2.  Also  a  city  of  Judah,  but  in  the  mountain 
district  (Josh.  xv:48).  It  is  named  in  company 
with  Anab,  Jattir.  Eshtemoh,  and  others.  It  has 
been  discovered  by  Dr.  Robinson  {Bib.  Res.  i, 
494)  in  the  Wady  el-Khaltl^  about  10  miles  south- 
west of  Hebron ;  having,  like  the  other  Socoh,  the 
name  of  esh-Shuweikeh. 

SOD  (s6d),  preterite  of  seethe;  "and  Jacob  sod 
pottage  "  (Gen.  xxv:29;  see  also  2  Chron.  xxxv:i3). 

SODDEN  (sdd'd'n),  the  past  participle  of  seethe 
(Exod.  xii:9).     See  Sod. 

SODI  (sO'di),  (Heb.  ^^^,  so-dee',  a  confidant, 

favorite).  The  father  of  Gaddiel,  the  spy  ap- 
pointed from  Zebulun  to  report  on  the  promised 
land  (Num.  xiiiiio),  B.  C.  before  1657. 

SODOM  (sdd'om),  (Heb.  °"^9,  sed-ome',  burnt),  a 

city  in  the  vale  of  Siddim,  where  Lot  settled  after 
his  separation  from  Abraham  (Gen.  xiii:i2;  xiv:i2' 
xix:i).  It  had  its  own  chief  or  'king,'  as  had  the 
other  four  cities  of  the  plain  (Gen.  xiv:2,  8,  10), 
and  was  along  with  them,  Zoar  only  excepted,  de- 
stroyed by  fire  from  heaven,  on  account  of  the 
gross  wickedness  of  the  inhabitants;  the  memory 
of  which  event  has  been  perpetuated  in  a  name 
of  infamy  to  all  generations  (Gen.  xix).  The 
destruction  of  Sodom  claims  attention  from  the 
solemnity  with  which  it  is  introduced  (CJen.  xviii: 
20-22)  ;  from  the  circumstances  which  preceded 
and  followed — ^the  intercession  of  Abraham,  the 
preservation  of  Lot,  and  the  judgment  which  over- 
took his  lingering  wife  (Gen.  xviii  125-33;  xix); 
and  from  the  nature  of  the  physical  agencies 
through  which  the  overthrow  was  effected.  It  has 
usually  been  assumed  that  the  vale  of  Siddim  oc- 
cupied the  basin  of  what  is  now  the  Dead  Sea, 
which  did  not  previously  exist,  but  was  one  of  the 
results  of  this  catastrophe.  It  has  now,  however, 
been  established  by  Dr.  Robinson,  that  a  lake  to 
receive  the  Jordan  and  other  waters  must  have  oc- 
cupied this  basin  long  before  the  catastrophe  of 
Sodom ;  but  of  much  less  extent  than  the  present 
Dead  Sea. 


SODOMA 


1602 


SOLOMON 


It  is  extremely  probable  that  its  southern  ex- 
tremity covers  the  more  fertile  vale  of  Siddim, 
and  the  site  of  Sodom  and  the  other  cities  which 
the  Lord  destroyed:  and  that,  in  the  words  of 
Dr.  Robinson — *by  some  convulsion  or  catastrophe 
of  nature,  connected  with  the  miraculous  destruc- 
tion of  the  cities,  either  the  surface  of  this  plain 
was  scooped  out,  or  the  bottom  of  the  sea  was 
heaved  up,  so  as  to  cause  the  waters  to  overflow, 
and  cover  permanently  a  larger  tract  than  for- 
merly. The  country  is,  as  we  know,  subject  to 
earthquakes,  and  exhibits  also  frequent  traces  of 
volcanic  action.  It  would  have  been  no  uncom- 
mon effect  of  either  of  these  causes,  to  heave  up 
the  bottom  of  the  ancient  lake,  and  thus  produce 
the  phenomenon  in  question.  But  the  historical 
account  of  the  destruction  of  the  cities  implies 
also  the  agency  of  fire.  Perhaps  both  causes  were 
therefore  at  work;  for  volcanic  action  and  earth- 
quakes go  hand  in  hand;  and  the  accompanying 
electric  discharges  usually  cause  lightnings  to  play 
and  thunders  to  roll.  In  this  way  we  have  all 
the  phenomena  which  the  most  literal  interpreta- 
tion of  the  sacred  records  can  demand.' 

SODOMA  (s^'o-m4),  (Gr.  IMofM,  sod'om-aA), 
the  Greek  form  of  Sodom  (Rom.  Ixiiq). 

SODOMITE    (s6d'om.ite),    (Heb.    ^i?.    Jtaw 

£lashe\  devoted,  consecrated ),  not  inhabitants  of 
Sodom,  but  men  devoted  to  the  unnatural  vice  of 
Sodom  (Gen.  xix:5). 

Sodomites  of  Hebrew  descent  were  found  in 
Judah  in  the  reign  of  Rehoboam  (i  Kings  xiv: 
24)  ;  but  they  were  removed  by  Asa  and  Jehosh- 
aphat  (i  Kings  xv:i2;  xxii:46),  and  Josiah  broke 
down  their  houses  at  a  later  time  (2  Kings 
xxiii:7). 

"The  price  of  a  dog"  is  a  figurative  expression 
used  to  denote  the  gains  of  a  kaw-dashe'  (Sodo- 
mite), who  was  called  kin'-ahee-dos,  by  the 
Greeks,  from  the  doglike  manner  in  which  he  de- 
based himself  (see  Rev.  xxii:i^,  where  the  un- 
clean are  distinctly  called  "dogs  ). 

SODOMY  (sM'iim-j^\  a  common  vice  among 
many  heathen  nations  (Rom.  i  :27).  See  Sodomite. 

SOHEBETH  (sOhe'reth),   (Heb.   TOD    so-he- 

reth')t  a  kind  of  costly  stone,  used  for  tesselated 
pavements  (Esth.  i:6). 

It  seems  to  have  been  either  a  species  of  black 
marble,  as  a  similar  word  in  Syrikc  would  sug- 
gest ;  or  else  marble  marked  with  round  spots  like 
shields,  i.  e.,  spotted  or  shielded  marble.  This  in- 
terpretation finds  the  meaning  in  the  Hebrew  word 
soheraht  which  is  the  name  for  a  shield.  It  is, 
however,  easier  to  discover  the  meaning  of  the 
name  than  the  application  of  it.  We  do  not  feel 
satisfied  with  that  which  has  been  g^iven ;  and  still 
less  with  that  of  Hartmann  {Hebruerin,  iii.  363), 
who  supposes  the  sohereth  to  have  been  tortoise 
shell,  consisting  as  it  were  of  shields ;  for  tortoise 
shell  would  hardly  be  interspersed  in  a  pavement 
with  various  kinds  of  marble. 

SOLDEB  (s6d'er),  (Heb.  p?!!,  deh'bek.  joint), 

the  welding  of  metals  (Is.  xliiy),  also  used  of  the 
joints  in  a  coat  of  mail  (i  Kings  xii:34;  2  Chron. 
xviii:33). 

SOLDIEB  (sdl  jer).  See  Arms,  Armor. 

SOLOMON  (s61'o-mon),  (Heb.  ^^^?,  shel-o-mo', 

pacific),  a  son  of  King  David  by  Bath-sheba  (2 
Sam.  xii:24;  i  Chron.  in:5). 

The  reign  of  Solomon  over  all  Israel,  although 
second  in  importance  only  to  that  of  David,  has 
so  little  variety  of  incident  as  to  occupy  a  far 


less  space  in  the  Bible  narrative.  In  the  declining 
age  of  David,  his  eldest  surviving  son,  Adonijah, 
endeavored  to  place  himself  on  the  throne,  by  the 
aid  of  Joab,  the  chief  captain,  and  Abiathar,  one 
of  the  chief  priests,  both  of  whom  had  been  as- 
sociated with  David's  early  sufferings  under  the 
persecution  of  Saul.  The  aged  monarch  did  not 
for  a  moment  give  way  to  the  formidable  usurpa- 
tion, but  at  the  remonstrance  of  his  favorite, 
Bath-sheba,  resolved  forthwith  to  raise  Solomon 
to  the  throne.  To  Joab  he  was  able  to  oppose 
the  celebrated  name  of  Benaiah;  to  Abiathar,  his 
colleague  Zadok  and  the  aged  prophet  Nathan. 
The  plot  of  Adonijah  was  at  once  defeated  by 
this  decisive  measure;  and  Solomon,  being 
anointed  by  Nathan,  was  solemnly  acknowledged 
as  king.  The  date  of  this  event  is,  as  nearly  as 
can  be  ascertained,  B.  C.  1015. 

The  death  of  David  would  seem  to  have  fol- 
lowed very  quickly  upon  these  transactions.  At 
least,  no  public  measures  in  the  interval  are  re- 
corded, except  Solomon's  verbal  forgiveness  of 
Adonijah.  But  after  the  removal  of  David,  the 
first  events  of  which  we  hear  are  the  destruction 
of  Adonijah,  Joab,  and  Shimei,  son  of  Ciera,  with 
the  degrradation  of  Abiathar. 

i.  Personal  Historp.  After  this,  the  his- 
tory enters  upon  a  general  narrative  of  the  reign 
of  Solomon ;  but  we  have  very  few  notices  of  time, 
and  cannot  attempt  to  fix  the  order  of  any  of  the 
events.  All  the  information,  however,  which  we 
have  concerning  him,  may  be  consolidated  under 
the  following  heads:  (i)  His  trafiic  and  wealth; 
(2)  his  buildings;  (3)  his  ecclesiastical  arrange- 
ments; (4)  his  general  administration;  (5)  his 
seraglio;  (6)  his  enemies. 

(1)  Wealth.  The  overflowing  wealth  in  which 
he  is  so  vividly  depicted  is  not  easy  to  reduce  to  a 
modern  financial  estimate ;  partly  because  the  num- 
bers are  so  often  misunderstood,  and  partly  be- 
cause it  is  uncertain  what  items  of  expenditure 
fell  on  the  general  funds  of  the  government.  But 
abandoning  all  attempt  at  numerical  estimates,  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  the  wealth  of  Solomon 
was  very  great ;  and  it  remains  for  us  to  consider 
from  what  sources  it  was  supplied. 

The  profound  peace  which  the  nation  enjoyed 
as  a  fruit  of  David's  victories,  stimulated  the  in- 
dustry of  all  Israel.  The  tribes  beyond  the  Jor- 
dan had  become  rich  by  the  plunder  of  the  Hagar- 
enes,  and  had  a  wide  district  where  their  cattle 
might  multiply  to  an  indefinite  extent.  The  agri- 
cultural tribes  enjoyed  a  soil  and  climate  in  some 
parts  eminentlv  fruitful,  and  in  all  richly  reward- 
ing the  toil  of  irrigation ;  so  that,  in  the  security 
of  peace,  nothing  more  was  wanted  to  develop 
the  resources  of  the  nation  than  markets  for  its 
various  produce.  In  food  for  men  and  cattle,  in 
timber  and  fruit  trees,  in  stone,  and  probably  in 
the  useful  metals,  the  land  supplied  of  itself  all 
the  first  wants  of  its  people  in  abundance.  For 
exportation,  it  is  distinctly  stated,  that  wheat, 
barley,  oil,  and  wine,  were  in  chief  demand;  to 
which  we  may  conjecturally  add,  wool,  hides,  and 
other  raw  materials.  The  king  undoubtedly  had 
lar^e  districts  and  extensive  herds  of  his  own;  but 
besides  this,  he  received  presents  in  kind  from  his 
own  people  and  from  the  subject  nations;  and  it 
was  possible  in  this  way  to  make  demands  upon 
them,  without  severe  oppression,  to  an  extent  that 
is  unbearable  where  taxes  must  be  paid  in  gold  or 
silver.  He  was  himself  at  once  monarch  and 
merchant.  By  his  intimate  commercial  union  with 
the  Tyrians  he  was  put  into  the  most  favorable 
of  all  positions  for  disposing  of  his  goods ;  and  by 
the  aid  of  their  enterprise  and  experience  carried 
on  a  lucrative  trade  with  various  countries. 


SOLOMON 


1603 


SOLOMON 


(2)  The  Visit  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba  to 
Solomon,  although  not  strictly  commercial,  rose 
out  of  commercial  intercourse,  and  may  perhaps 
be  here  noticed.  The  territory  of  Sheba,  accord- 
ing to  Strabo,  reached  so  far  north  as  to  meet 
that  of  the  Nabathaeans,  although  its  proper  seat 
was  at  the  southernmost  angle  of  Arabia  (see 
Sueba).  The  very  rich  presents  made  by  the 
queen  show  the  extreme  value  of  her  commerce 
with  the  Hebrew  monarch;  and  this  earljr  inter- 
change of  hospitality  derives  a  peculiar  interest 
from  the  fact,  that  in  much  later  ages — those 
of  the  Maccabees  and  downwards — the  intercourse 
of  the  Jews  with  Sheba  became  so  intimate,  and 
their  influence,  and  even  power,  so  great.  Jewish 
circumcision  took  root  there,  and  princes  held 
sway  who  were  called  Jewish. 

(3)  His  Buildings.  Besides  the  great  work 
which  has  rendered  the  name  of  Solomon  so 
famous — the  Temple  at  Jerusalem — we  are  in- 
formed of  the  palaces  which  he  built,  viz.,  his 
own  palace,  the  queen's  palace,  and  the  house  of 
the  forest  of  Lebanon,  his  porch  (or  piazza),  for 
no  specified  object,  and  his  porch  of  judgment,  or 
law  court.  He  also  added  to  the  walls  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  fortified  Millo  (*in  the  city  of  David,' 
2  Chron.  xxxii:5),  and  many  other  strongholds. 
In  all  these  works  he  had  the  aid  of  the  Tyrians, 
whose  skill  in  hewing  timber  and  in  carrying 
stone,  and  in  the  application  of  machines  for  con- 
veying heavy  masses,  was  of  the  first  impor- 
tance. 

(4)  Ecclesiastical  Arrangements.  After  the 
death  of  Nathan  and  Zadok,  those  faithful  friends 
of  David,  although  Solomon  continued  to  cele- 
brate with  the  same  splendor  all  the  exterior 
ceremonies  of  worship,  it  is  hard  to  believe  that 
much  of  that  spirit  of  God  which  was  in  his 
father  animated  his  ecclesiastical  proceedi;ngrs. 
Side  by  side  with  the  worship  of  Jehovah  for- 
eign idolatries  were  established;  and  the  disgust 
which  this  inspired  in  the  prophets  of  Jehovah 
is  clearly  seen  m  the  address  of  Ahijah  the  Shil- 
onite  to  Jeroboam,  so  manifestly  exciting  him  to 
rebel  against  the  son  of  David  ( i  Kings  xi  :29-39) . 

(5)  General  Administration.  Concerning  his 
general  administration  little  is  recorded  beyond 
the  names  of  various  high  officers.  Yet  it  is 
probable  that  Solomon's  peculiar  talents  and  taste 
led  him  to  perform  one  function  which  is  always 
looked  for  in  Oriental  royalty,  vis,,  to  act  per- 
sonally as  Judge  in  cases  of  oppression.  His 
award  between  the  two  contending  mothers  can- 
not be  regarded  as  an  isolated  fact;  and  'the 
porch  of  judgment'  which  he  built  for  himself 
may  imply  that  he  devoted  fixed  portions  of  time 
to  the  judicial  duties  (see  2  Kings  xv:5  of 
Jotham).  The  celebrity  which  Solomon  gained  for 
wisdom,  although  founded  mainly  perhaps  on  his 
political  and  commercial  sagacity,  must  have  re- 
ceived great  popular  impetus  from  his  adminis- 
tration of  law,  and  from  his  readiness  in  seeing 
through  the  entanglements  of  affairs  which  arise 
in  commercial  transactions. 

(6)  His  Seraglio.  For  the  harem  of  Solomon 
—consisting  of  700  wives  and  300  concubines — no 
other  apology  can  be  made  than  the  fact  that  in 
countries  where  polygamy  is  not  disreputable,  an 
unlimited  indulgence  as  to  the  number  of  wives 
is  looked  upon  as  the  chief  luxury  of  wealth,  and 
the  most  appropriate  appendage  to  royalty. 

(7)  Friendship  with  Pharaoh.  The  commer- 
cial union  of  Tyre  with  Egypt,  in  spite  of  the 
vast  diversity  of  genius  between  the  two  nations, 
was  in  those  days  very  close;  and  it  appears 
highly  probable  that  the  affinity  to  Pharaoh  was 


sought  by  Solomon  as  a  means  of  aiding  his  com- 
mercial projects.  Although  his  possession  of  the 
Edomite  ports  on  the  gulf  of  Akaba  made  him  to 
a  certain  extent  independent  of  Egypt,  the  friend- 
ship of  that  power  must  have  been  of  extreme 
importance  to  him  in  the  dangerous  navigation  of 
the  Red  Sea;  and  was  perhaps  a  chief  cause  of 
his  brilliant  success  in  so  new  an  enterprise.  That 
Pharaoh  continued  for  some  time  on  good  terms 
with  him,  appears  from  a  singular  present  which 
the  Egyptian  king  made  him  (i  Kings  ix:i6): 
'Pharaoh  had  gone  up  and  taken  Gezer,  and  burnt 
it  with  fire,  and  slain  the  Canaanites  that  dwelt  in 
the  city,  and  given  it  for  a  present  unto  his  daugh- 
ter, Solomon  s  wife ;'  in  consequence  of  which, 
Solomon  rebuilt  and  fortified  the  town.  In  his  de- 
clining years,  a  very  diflPerent  spirit  is  manifested 
towards  him  by  Shishak,  the  new  Egyptian  king; 
whether  after  the  death  of  the  princess  who  had 
been  the  link  between  the  two  kingdoms,  or  from 
a  new  view  of  policy  in  the  new  king,  is  un- 
known. 

(8)  His  Enemies.  The  enemies  especially 
named  as  rising  against  him  in  his  later  years,  are 
Jeroboam,  Hadad  the  Edomite,  and  Rezon  of 
Damascus.  The  first  is  described  as  having  had 
no  treasonable  intentions,  until  Solomon  sought  to 
kill  him,  on  learning  the  prophecy  made  to  him 
by  Ahijah.  Jeroboam  was  received  and  fostered 
by  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  and  ultimately  be- 
came the  providential  instrument  of  punishing 
Solomon's  iniquity,  though  not  without  heavy 
guilt  of  his  own. 

As  for  Hadad,  his  enmity  to  Israel  began  from 
the  times  of  David,  and  is  ascribed  to  the  savage 
butchery  perpetrated  by  Joab  on  his  people.  He 
also,  when  a  mere  child,  was  warmly  received  in 
Egypt,  apparently  by  the  father-in-law  of  Solo- 
mon; but  this  does  not  seem  to  have  been  prompted 
by  hostility  to  David.  Having  married  the  sister 
of  Pharaoh's  queen,  he  must  have  been  in  very 
high  station  in  Egypt ;  still,  upon  the  death  of 
David,  he  begged  leave  to  depart  into  Edom,  and 
during  the  earlier  part  of  Solomon's  reign  was 
probaoly  forming  his  party  in  secret,  and  prepar- 
ing for  that  dangerous  border  warfare  which  he 
carried  on  somewhat  later. 

Rezon,  on  the  contrary,  seems  to  have  had  no 
personal  cause  against  the  Hebrew  monarchy: 
but  having  become  powerful  at  Damascus  and  on 
its  frontier,  sought,  not  in  vain,  to  aggrandize 
himself  at  its  exoense.  In  the  long  continuance 
of  peace  David's  veterans  had  died,  and  no  suc- 
cessors to  them  could  have  been  trained;  and,  con- 
sidering the  other  great  expenses  of  the  court,  it 
may  be  confidently  inferred  that  the  standing 
army  had  not  been  kept  up  in  any  efficiency.  The 
revenues  which  would  have  maintained  it  were 
spent  on  a  thousand  royal  wives;  the  king  him- 
self was  unwarlike;  and  a  petty  foe,  if  energetic, 
was  very  formidable.  Such  were  the  vexations 
which  darkened  the  setting  splendors  of  the  grreat- 
est  Israelitish  king.  But  from  within  also  his 
prosperity  was  unsound.  Deep  discontent  per- 
vaded his  own  people,  when  the  dazzle  of  his 
grandeur  had  become  familiar;  when  it  had  be- 
come clear  that  the  royal  wealth,  instead  of  de- 
noting national  well-being,  was  really  sucked  out 
of  the  nation's  vitals.  Having  no  constitutional 
organ  to  express  their  discontent,  they  waited 
sullenly,  until  the  recognition  of  a  successor  to 
the  crown  should  give  them  the  opportunity  of 
extorting  a  removal  of  burdens  which  could  not 
permanently  be  endured. 

(9)  Close  of  His  Life.  Amid  such  beginnings 
of  impending  trouble  Solomon  approached  the  end 


SOLOMON'S  PORCH  1 

of  his  course.  He  died  after  a  reign  of  forty 
year&  and  was  buried  in  the  royal  sepul;her  in 
the  city  of  David,  B.  C.  about  920-  Sayce  (,High. 
Crit.  p.  32o>  thinks  tiiat  "foriy"  is  used  as  an 
Hebrew  idiom  for  an  indefinite  period,  and  that 
Solomon's  reign  was  about  thirty-two  years  long. 
Notwithstanding  his  immense  harem  we  read 
of  his  having  only  one  son,  Rehoboara  (i  Kings 
xi;4i-43).  It  may  be  that  the  historian  mentions 
only  Rehoboam  because  he  was  the  successor  to 
the  throne. 
2.  Character.     He  was  "full  of  sublime  de- 


withal  the  author  of  the  pungent  Proverbs;  able 
to  mount  up  on  rapture's  ethereal  pinion  to  the 
region  of  the  seraphim,  but  keenly  alive  to  all  the 
details  of  business,  and  shrewd  in  all  human  in- 
tercourse; zealous  in  collecting  gold,  yet  lavish 
in  expending  it;  sumptuous  in  his  tastes,  and 
splendid  in  costume;  the  patriot  intense,  the  Is- 
raelite indeed"  (Hamilton,  The  Royal  Preacher). 

Wise,  Solomon  doubtless  was;  but  to  me  he 
seems  to  have  been  so  only  in  a  very  limited 
sense,  for  that  is  surely  far  from  true  wisdom 
which  aggrandizes  the  throne  at  the  cost  of  the 
nation,  and,  after  creating  an  ephemeral  and  ar- 
tificial glory,  leaves  to  the  next  heir  onW  the 
wreck  of  a  miserable  and  exploded  failure  (Geikie, 
Hours  with  the  Bible). 

SOLOKOITS  POBCH  (s51'o-mon'n  pOrch).  A 
splendid  colonnade  on  the  east  side  oE  the  Temple 
area  (John  x:23:  Acts  iiiiii;  v:ii). 


SolDmon'i  Patch. 


1  (sQm'lIms),  (Gr.  worl,  pot-eh'), 
(Eph.ii:i3;  v:8;  CoLiiii;  Tit.  iii:3),  once,  once 
upon  a  time,  in  reference  to  the  past. 

SON  (sQn),  {Heb.  P,  bane;  Gr.  vlfc,  hivee-os' . 
son),  a  word  used  in  several  senses,  both  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments.    It  denotes; 

1.  The  immediate  offspring. 

2.  Grandson :  so  Laban  is  called  son  of  Nahor 
(Gen.  xxixrs),  whereas  he  was  his  grandson.  Iie- 
ing  the  son  of  Bclhucl  (Gen.  xxiv;29)  :  Mephlbo- 
sheth  is  called  son  of  baul,  though  he  was  the  son 
of  Jonathan,  son  of  Saul  (2  Sam.  xix  ;24). 


H  SONG 

3.  Remote  descendants :  so  we  have  tfie  sons  of 
Israel,  many  ages  after  the  primitive  ancestor. 

4.  Son-in-law :— There  is  a  son  born  to  Naomi 
(Ruth  iv;i7). 

6.  Son  by  adoption,  as  Ephraim  and  Manasseh, 
to  Jacob  (Gen.  xlviij). 

8,  Son  by  nation;  sons  of  the  East  (i  Kings 
iv;30;  Job  i:3). 

7.  Son  by  education;  that  is,  a  disciple;  Eli  calls 
Samuel  his  son  (i  Sam.iii:6).  Solomon  calls  his 
disciple  his  son,  in  the  Proverbs,  often;  and  we 
read  of  the  sons  of  the  prophets  (i  Kings  xx:35, 
et  al.),  that  is,  those  under  a  course  of  instruction 
for  ministerial  service.  In  nearly  the  same  sense  a 
convert  is  called  son  (i  Tim.  i:2;  Titus  i:4; 
Philem.  10;  I  Cor.  iv:i5;  i  Pet.v;i3). 

8.  Son  by  disposition  and  conduct,  as  sons  of 
Belial  (Judg.  xix:22;  1  Sam.  ii:i2),  unrestrain- 
able  persons;  sons  of  the  mighty  (Ps.  xxix:i, 
marg.)  ;  sons  of  the  band  (2  Chron.  xxv:i3),  sol- 
diers rank  and  file;  sons  of  the  sorceress,  who 
study  or  practice  sorcery  (Is.  lvii:3). 

B.  Son  in  reference  to  age;  san  of  one  year 
(Exod.  xii:5),  that  is,  one  year  old;  son  of  sixty 
years,  etc.  The  same  in  reference  to  a  beast 
(Micah  vi;6,   see  marg.). 

10.  A  production,  or  olfspring,  as  it  were,  from 
any  parent;  sons  of  the  burning  coal,  that  is, 
sparks,  which  issue  from  burning  wood  (Job  v  7). 
Son  of  the  ixiw,  that  is,  an  arrow  (Job  iv:i9), 
because  an  arrow  issues  from  a  bow ;  but  an  arrow 
may  also  issue  from  a  quiver,  therefore  son  of  the 
quiver  (Lam.  iii;i3}.  Son  of  the  floor,  thrashed 
corn  (Is.  xxi:io).  Sons  of  oil  (Zech.  iv;i4>.  the 
branches  of  the  olive  tree. 

11.  Son  of  beating,  that  is.  deserving  beating 

(Dent.  xxv:3).  Son  of  death;  that  is, 
deserving  death  (2  Sam.  xii:3).  Son 
of  perdition;  that  is,  deserving  perdi- 
tion (Johnxvii:l2). 

12.  Son  of  God,  by  excellence  above 
all ;  Jesus  tlie  Son  of  God  (Mark  i  :i ; 
Luke  ins;  John  i:j4;  Rom.  1:4;  Heb. 
iv:i4;  Rev.  ii:i8).  The  only-begotten ; 
and  in  this  he  differs  from  Adam,  who 
was  the  son  of  God,  by  immediate  ere-' 
aiion  (Lukeiii  18). 

13.  Sons  of  God,  the  angels  (Job  i: 
6;  xxxviii:?),  perhaps  so  called  in  re- 
spect to  their  possessing  power  dele- 
gated from  God;  his  deputies,  his  vice- 
gerents, and  In  that  sense  among  others 
his  offspring. 

14.  Genuine  Christians,  truly  pious 
persons ;  perhaps  also  so  called  in  ref- 
erence 10  their  possession  of  principles 
communicated  from  God  by  the  Holy 
Spirit,  which,  correcting  every  evil  luas, 
and  subduing  every  perverse  propen- 
sity, gradually  assimilates  the  parly  to 
the   temper,    disposition    and    conduct, 

called  the  image,  likeness  or  resemblance  of  God. 
Believers  are  sons  of  God,  (See  John  i:i2;  Phil. 
ii:iS;  Rom.  viii:i4;  i  John  iii:i.) 

16.  Sons  of  this  world  (Luke  xvi  :8)  are  those 
who  by  their  overweening  attention  to  the  things 
of  this  worid,  demonstrate  their  principles  to  be 
derived  from  the  world ;  that  is.  worldly-minded 
persons.  Sons  of  disobedience  (Eph.  ii:2;  v:6> 
are  persons  whose  conduct  proves  that  they  are 
sons  of  Bdial,  of  unrcstrainableness,  sons  of  lib- 
ertinism. Sons  of  hell  (Matt.  xxiii:s).  Sons  of 
the  devil  (Acts  xiii:io). 
BONO  (sSne),  (Heb.  1-lf,  sAeur;  Gr.  4^.  o-iiaf\ 
Songs  were  used  on  occasions  of  thanksgiving 
and  triumph,  as  the  song  of  Moses  at  the  deliver- 


SON  OF  GOD 


1605 


SONS  OF  GOD 


ance  from  Pharaoh  (Exod.  xv:i);  the  song  of 
Israel  at  the  well  of  Beer  (Num.  xxi:i7);  the 
song  of  Moses  in  Deuteronomy  (ch.  xxxii)  ;  oi 
Deborah  (Judg.  v:i2)  ;  of  David  on  bfringing  the 
ark  to  Jerusalem  (i  Chron.  xiii:8);  of  Hannah 
(i  Sam.,  ch.  ii) ;  of  the  Virgin  Mary  (Luke 
i:46) ;  the  songs  in  heaven  (Rev.  viq,  sq.;  xiv:3; 
XV :3,  sq.;  xix:4,  sq,). 

Figurative,  (i)  God  is  the  song  of  his  peo- 
ple; his  excellencies  and  favors  are  the  subject 
matter  of  it  (Exod.  xv:2).  (2)  Job  and  David 
were  the  song  of  their  enemies;  i.  e.,  were  the 
object  of  their  mockery  and  derision  (Job  xxxig; 
Ps.  Ixix:i2).  (3)  New  sonj^s,  are  such  as  are 
newly  made,  or  for  new  mercies,  and  are  ever 
sweet  and  delightful  (Ps.  xxxiii:3  and  xl:3). 
(4)  Spiritual  songs,  are  those  whose  subject-mat- 
ter is  spiritual  and  divine,  in  opposition  to  empty, 
false,  fulsome,  and  impure  songs,  called  the  song 
of  fools  (Eph.  v:i9;  Col.  iii:i6;  Eccles.  vii:5). 
They  are  called  the  Lord  s  song,  or  the  song  of  the 
Lamb,  because  God  and  his  Christ  form  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  them,  and  to  his  honor  they  are 
sung  (Ps.  xlii:8and  cxxxvii:3;  Rev.  xv:3).  (5) 
The  Jews  had  songs  sune  almost  the  whole  night 
of  their  more  solemn  feasts,  especially  on  the 
first  night  of  the  Passover  (Is.  xxx:29). 

SON  OF  QOD  (siin  dv  gdd),  a  term  applied  in 
the  Scriptures  not  only  to  magistrates  and  saints, 
but  more  particularly  to  Jesus  Christ. 

Christ,  says  Bishop  Pearson,  has  a  fourfold 
right  to  this  title,  (i)  By  generation,  as  begotten 
of  God  (Luke  i:35).  (2)  By  commission,  as  sent 
by  him  (John  x:34,  36).  (3)  By  resurrection,  as 
the  firstborn  (Acts  xiii:32,  33).  (4)  By  actual 
possession,  as  heir  of  all  (Heb.  i:2,  5). 

But,  besides  these  four,  many  think  that  he  is 
called  the  Son  of  God  in  such  a  way  and  manner 
as  never  any  other  was,  is,  or  can  be,  because 
of  his  own  divine  nature,  he  being  the  true, 
proper,  and  natural  son  of  God,  begotten  by  him 
before  all  worlds  (John  iii:i6;  Rom.  viii:3;  i 
John  iv:9).    (See  article  on  Jesus  Christ.) 

SON  OF  MAN  (sun  6v  m^n),  (Heb.  0??'1?.  den- 

aW'dawm* ;   Gr.  v\b%  rev  dvBptbirov,  hwee-os'too  an* 
thrd*  Poo)t  a  human  being  (Num.  xxiiirip). 

A  peculiarity  of  expression  of  the  prophet  Eze- 
kiel  (Ezek.  ii:i),  found  in  some  eighty-nine 
places;  it  is  applied  once  to  Daniel  (Dan.  viii:i7). 
It  is  applied  more  than  eighty  times  to  Christ  in 
the  New  Testament,  and  once,  perhaps,  in  Daniel, 
vii:i3,  where  it  is  Bar  Enosh,  not  Ben  Adam,  it 
seems  to  indicate  the  essential  humanity  of  Christ, 
as  Son  of  God  denotes  his  divinity:  he  is  very 
God  and  very  man.  (See  article  on  Jesus 
Christ.) 

SONSHIP  OF  BELIEVEBS.  See  Adop- 
tion. 

SONSHTP  OF  CHRIST  (sfin-shTp  'dv  krist),  a 
matter  of  doctrine  with  reference  to  the  divine 
nature  of  Christ. 

Jesus  Christ  is  the  Son,  the  only  begotten  Son 
of  God,  his  holy  Child;  begotten  by  eternal,  neces- 
sary, and  natural  generation.  In  respect  of  his 
Sonship,  he  was  equal  with  God  (Ps.  ii:7;  Acts 
iv:27;  John  v:i7,  19).  His  Sonship  was  not 
founded  in,  but  manifested  by,  his  miraculous 
birth,  in  our  nature,  his  resurrection,  his  high 
office,  and  glorious  heirship  of  all  things  (Luke 
i:35;  Acts  xiii:33;  John  x:35,  36;  Heb.  i:4,  $). 
(See  article  on  Jesus  Christ.) 

SONS  OF  QOD. 

A  variety  of  opinwns  has  been  held  regarding 
the  passage  in  (jen.  vi:2. 


The  sons  of  God  saw  the  daughters  of  men  that 
they  were  fair;  and  they  took  them  wives  of  all 
which  they  chose.' 

(a)  Perhaps  the  most  ancient  opinion  was  that 
the  sons  of  Ck)d  were  the  young  men  of  high  rank 
(as  in  Ps.  lxxxii:6,  "I  have  said.  Ye  are  gods, 
and  ye  are  all  the  sons  of  the  most  High"),  whilst 
the  daughters  of  men  were  the  maidens  of  low 
birth  and  humble  condition;  the  word  for  men  in 
this  passage  being  a  word  used  at  times  to  signify 
men  of  low  estate  (comp.  Is.  iiip;  v:i5).    Ac- 
cording to  this  interpretation  the  sin  lay  in  the  un- 
bridled passions  of  the  higher  ranks  of  society, 
their  corrupting  the  wives  and  daughters  of  their 
servants    and    dependents,    and    the    consequent 
spread  of  universal  licentiousness.    This  seems  to 
have  been  the  earliest  interpretation  among  the 
Jews.    It  is  adopted  by  the  Targums  of  Onkelos 
and  Jonathan,  by  Symmachus,  Aben  Ezra,  Rashi, 
Kimchi,  and  by  some  moderns,  Selden,  Vorstius, 
and  others. 

(b)  A  second  interpretation,  also  of  great  an* 
tiquity,  is  that  the  sons  of  God  were  the  angels, 
who,  moved  to  envy  by  the  connubial  happiness 
of  the  human  race,  took  to  themselves  human 
bodies,  and  married  the  fair  daughters  of  men. 
This  interpretation  is  supposed  to  have  the  sup- 
port of  some  ancient  MSS.  of  the  LXX  (as  men- 
tioned  by  August.  *De  Civ.  Dei/  xv,  23).  It  is 
argued  that  St.  Jude  (6,  7)  evidently  so  under- 
stood it,  as  he  likens  the  sin  of  the  angels  to  the 
sin  of  the  cities  of  the  plain,  "the  going  aftei 
strange  flesh."  The  same  is  thought  to  be  al- 
luded to  in  2  Pet.  ii  '.4.  Philo  (De  Gigant.  vol.  i, 
p.  262) ;  Josephus  (Antiq.  bk.  i,  chap.  4,  sec.  i)  ; 
and  the  most  ancient  of  the  Christian  fathers,  as 
Justin  Martyr,  Tatian,  Athenagoras,  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Tertullian,  Cyprian,  Lactantius, 
moved  probably  by  their  reading  of  the  LXX  and 
being  ignorant  of  Hebrew,  adopted  this  interpre- 

,  tation.  The  rationalistic  interpreters  (Gesenius, 
Ewald,  Kalisch,  Davidson,  etc.)  prefer  it  as  fa- 
voring their  belief  that  the  first  chapters  of 
Genesis  exhibit  merely  the  Hebrew  mythology. 
But  it  is  also  adopted  by  several  of  the  more  or- 
thodox German  commentators,  as  Hofmann, 
Baumgarten,  Delitzsch  and  Kurtz. 

(c)  It  was  suggested,  by  Ilgen,  that  the  Cainites 
were  called  "sons  of  the  gods"  because  of  their 
ingenuity  and  inventions,  and  that  their  inter- 
mingling themselves  with  the  other  races  of  men 
caused  the  general  corruption  of  mankind. 

(d)  The  author  of  The  Genesis  of  the  Earth  and 
of  Man  suggests  that  "the  sons  of  the  gods"  (so 
he  would  render  it)  may  mean  the  worshipers  of 
false  gods.  These  he  looks  on  as  a  pre-Adamite 
race,  and  would  render,  not  "daughters  of  men," 
but  "daughters  of  Adam."  The  pre-Adamite 
worshipers  of  the  false  gods  intermarried  with 
the  daughters  of  Adam. 

(e)  The  interpretation  which  is  the  most  prob- 
able is  that  "the  sons  of  God"  were  the  descend- 
ants of  Seth,  who  adhered  to  the  worship  and 
service  of  the  true  God,  and  who,  according  to 
some  interpretations  of  ch.  iv:26,  were  from  the 
time  of  Enos  called  by  the  name  of  the  Lord, 
and  that  "the  daughters  of  men"  were  of  the 
race  of  the  ungodly  Cain.  This  was  the  belief 
of  the  eminent  Church  fathers,  Chrysostom,  Cyril 
of  Alexandria,  Theodorct,  Augustine,  and  Jerome. 
It  was  adopted  by  Luther,  Calvin,  and  most  of 
the  reformers,  and  has  been  the  opinion  of  a  great 
majority  of  modern  commentators  (see  Speakers' 
Commentary  on  Genesis). 


SOOTHSAYER 


1606 


SOUL 


(f)  Angels  are  called  Sons  of  God  (Job  i:6; 
ii:i;  xxxviii:7;  Ps.  xxix:i, — R.  V.  Marg.).  In 
Dan.  iii  125  we  find  a  Son  of  the  gods,  R.  V. 

(g)  Magistrates,  rulers  or  men  of  the  highest 
rank,  are  called  sons  of  the  Most  High  (Ps. 
Ixxxii  :6).  Believers  are  sons  of  God  (John  i  :i2 ; 
Phil.  ii:i5,  etc.).    (See  Son.) 

SOOTHSAYER  ( sooth 'sa'er).  See  Divina- 
tion. 

SOP  (s6p),  (Gr.  \ffta/dop,  pso-mee*on^  fragment),  a 
piece  of  bread  dipped  into  the  sauce  (John  xiii: 
26-30). 

The  handing  of  the  "sop"  to  Judas  would  indi- 
cate that  his  place  at  the  table  must  have  been 
near  to  our  Lord. 

SOPATEB  (s6p'a-ter),  (Gr.  2c6«-arpof,  so'pat-ros, 
savior  of  the  father),  a  Christian  at  Berea,  and  one 
of  the  party  of  brethren  who  accompanied  Paul 
into  Asia  Minor  from  Greece  (Acts  xx:4).  He  is 
supposed  to  be  the  same  with  the  Sosipater  CLwrl- 
irarpos)  named  in  Rom.  xvi:2i;  and,  if  so,  was  a 
kinsman  of  St.  Paul.    (A.  D.  55.) 

SOPHEBETH  (s6ph'e-r«th),   ( Heb.   n!!?^^   so- 

/5rAV^M,  writer,  scribe,  Ezra  ii:55;  Neh.vii:57). 

A  family  among  the  descendants  of  Solomon's 
servants  who  returned  from  captivity  with  Zerub- 
babel  (B.  C.  before  536). 

SOBCEBEB  (s6r'cer-er).    See  Divination. 
SOREK  (so'rek),  (Heb.  P^J'*  so-rake',  red,  vine). 

1.  A  vine  of  the  finest  and  noblest  kind.  See  Is. 
v:2;  comp.  Gen.  xlix:ii,  where  sorekah,  is  trans- 
lated a  'choice  vine  ;*  and  Jer,  ii:2i,  where  ^IW, 
uhrake',  is  rendered  'noble  vine*.    (See  Vine  ) 

2.  A  valley,  probably  so  called  from  its  vine* 
yards  (Judg.  xvi:4).  It  is  probably  the  wady 
€S'Surdr,  thirteen  miles  southwest  of  Jerusalem. 

SOBJtOW,  the  rendering  of  a  number  of  He- 
brew and  Greek  words,  representing  mental  pain 
or  grief,  arising  from  the  privation  of  some  good 
we  actually  possessed.  It  contracts  the  heart, 
sinks  the  spirits,  and  often  mars  the  health  of  the 
body.    It  is: 

1.  Natural,  occasioned  by  the  death  or  depar- 
ture of  friends,  or  any  other  sore  trouble  (Acts 
xx:38;  Job  ii:i3).  We  are  to  beware  of  an  im- 
moderate degree  of  it ;  and  are  not  to  mourn  hope- 
lessly, since  there  is  a  future  resurrection  of  the 
dead  to  eternal  life  (i  Thess.  iv:i3);  nor  must 
we  express  it  in  a  superstitious  manner  by  cutting 
our  flesh,  or  the  like  (Deut.  xiv:i). 

2.  (iodly,  when  one  affected  with  the  love  of 
God  shed  abroad  in  his  heart  is  sensibly  pained 
in  soul  for  sin,  as  offensive  to  God,  or  with  God's 
withdrawment  of  his  influence  and  presence  (2 
Cor.  vii:9,  10). 

3.  A  legal  sorrow,  such  as  is  found  on  account 
of  sin  in  the  heart  oJF  unregenerate  men,  called  the 
sorrozv  of  the  world,  which  worketh  death  (2  Cor. 
vii:io,  11). 

Figurative,  (i)  The  young  offspring  of  hinds 
are  called  their  sorrows,  because  they  gfive  them 
much  pain  in  bringing  them  forth  (Job  xxxix:3). 

(2)  Often  it  signifies  both  the  passion  of  grief, 
and  the  cause  of  it  (Matt.  xxiv:8;  i  Tim.  vino). 

(3)  Sorrows  of  hell,  or  death,  are  great  troubles, 
causing  the  most  painful  grief  (Ps.  xviii:4,  5  and 
cxvi:3). 

SOSIPATEB  (so-sTp'a-ter).    See  Sopater. 

SOSTHEKES  (s6s'the-nez),  (Gr.  Zw<r&^i^f,  soc^ 
then* ace,  of  sound  strength). 

The  chief  of  the  synagogue  at  Corinth,  when 
Paul  was  in  that  city  on  his  second  journey  into 
Greece    (Acts   xviii:i7).     He   was    seized    and 


beaten  by  the  people,  before  the  judgment-seat 
of  Gallio,  on  account  of  the  tumult  raised  by  the 
Jews  against  Paul,  of  which  he  seems  to  have 
been  one  of  the  leaders.  He  is  supposed  ^o  have 
been  afterwards  converted  to  (Hiristianity,  as  a 
Sosthenes  is  mentioned  by  Paul  as  *a  brother,' 
and  coupled  with  himself  in  i  Cor.  i:i.  This 
identity  is,  however,  a  pure  conjecture,  and  not 
remarkably  probable.  Apart  from  it,  however,  we 
know  nothing  of  this  second  Sosthenes.  Eusebius 
makes  him  one  of  the  seventy  disciples,  and  later 
tradition  describes  him  as  bishop  of  Kolophon. 

SOTAI  (s5'ta-!),  (Heb.  ^S'-^,  so-tah'ee,  one  who 
turns  aside). 

The  children  of  Sotai  were  a  family  of  the  de- 
scendants of  Solomon's  servants,  who  returned 
from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii:55;  Neh. 
vii;57),  B.  C.  before  536. 

SOTTISH  (s6t'trsh).  (Heb.  ^?9,  saw-kawP,  very 
ignorant,  stupid,  and  foolish,  Jer.  iv:22). 

SOTJL  (s5l),  (generally  the  rendering  of  Heb. 
^5 J,  neh'feshtdi  breathing  creature;  Gr.  >ffvxhfPsoo- 

khay\  breath,  etc.,  the  equivalent  of  neh'fesh). 

The  Hebrew  term  "may  indicate  not  only  the 
entire  inner  nature  of  man,  but  also  his  entire 
personality,  t.  e.,  all  that  pertains  to  the  person 
of  man;"  "in  the  sense  of  persons:  somebody, 
everybody  (Deut.  xxvi:i6;  Josh.  x:39;  xi:ii, 
14) ;  and  numbers  are  reckoned,  as  well  in  the 
New  Testament  as  in  the  Old,  by  souls  (i  Pet. 
iii:2o).  It  would  thence  be  wrongly  concluded 
that  the  soul  is  what  constitutes  the  person  of 

man;  for  the  brute  is  also  called  ^55  (neh^fesh).  In 
^3  (neh'fesh)  in  itself  is  not  involved  the  con- 
ception of  the  personal  living,  but  only  of  the  self- 
living  (the  individual).  In  such  cases  ^?^.  (neh'- 
fesh) indicates  the  person  of  the  man,  but  not  the 
man  as  a  person.    The  beast  is  ^53  (neh'fesh),  as 

a  self-living  nature  by  the  power  of  the  Spirit  that 
proceeds  from  God  and  pervades  entire  nature, 
the  individual  constitution  of  which  spirit  is  the 

soul  of  the  brute;  but  man  is  ^W.  (neh'fesh)^  as  a 

self-living  nature  by  the  power  of  the  Spirit  that 
proceeds  from  God,  and  is  in  the  form  of  God,  and 
IS  therefore  personal,  the  operation  of  which 
spirit  is  his  endowment  with  soul."  (Delitzsch, 
Bih.  Psych,,  pp.  181,  182.) 

Another  philosopher,  German,  says :  "The  soul 
is  the  principle  of  the  unity  of  our  spiritual  bod- 
ily organism,  the  internal  central  unity  of  the 
functions  of  life.  It  is  related  to  the  body  as 
form  to  matter.  It  can  as  little  exist  without 
body  as  form  can  exist  separate  from  matter. 
Nor  can  the  body  exist  without  the  soul ;  both 
develop  and  involve  each  other.  The  soul  per- 
meates  the  entire  body;  is  omnipresent  in  ever>' 
molecule  of  it.  The  substratum  of  the  psychical, 
however,  is  one  which  is  extended  through  the 
entire  world,  and  linked  into  one  system  by  uni-. 
versal  force." 

It  is  that  vital,  active  principle  in  man,  which 
perceives,  remembers,  reasons,  loves,  hopes,  fears, 
compares,  desires,  resolves,  adores,  imagines  and 
aspires  after  immortality. 

The  Greek  term  yffvxfi  (psoo-khay'),  has  the 
simple  meaning  of  life  (Matt.  vi:25;  Luke  xii: 
22);  that  in  which  there  is  life,  a  living'  being 
(i  Cor.  XV 145)  ;  every  soul,  i.  e.,  every  one  (Acts 
ii:43;  iii  123;  Rom.  xiiiri). 

It  is  used  of  the  affections  (Acts  iv:32;  xiv:22: 
comp.  Matt,  xxii  137;  i  Thess.  v:23),  where  the 
soul  is  distinguished  from  the  mind,  heart  and 


SOUR  If 

spirit;  of  ihe  Jptrilual  essence,  as  distinct  from 
the  body  (Mall.  11:28).     (See  Spirit.) 

BOTTB  (sour),  (Heb.  "'52,  d^'ser.  immature,  Jer. 
xxxi:29, 30;  Ezek.  xviii:2,  and  Hos.  iv:i8). 

SOUTH  (south),  the  country,  or  quarter  of  the 
heavens,  which  the  Semite,  standing  with  his  face 
to  the  east,  supposes  to  be  on  his  right  hand.  Aa 
inportant  useot  the  wordisas  the  nameor  designa- 
tion of  the  desert  regions  lying  at  the  south  of  ludea, 
consisting  of  the  deserts  of  Shur,  Zin,  and  Paran, 
the  mountainous  country  of  Edom  or  Idumea,  and 
part  of  Arabia  Petrea  (comp.  Mai.  1:3;  Shaw's 
Travels,  p.  438;  Gen.  xiiri);  xiii:i).  In  this  region 
the  Amalekites  are  said  to  have  dwelt,  'in  the 
land  of  the  south,'  when  Moses  sent  the  spies 
to  view  the  land  of  Canaan  (Num.  xiii:29),  vie., 
the  locality  between  Idumea  and  Egypt,  and  to 
the  east  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  Mount  Seir.  (See 
AuALEKiTES.)  The  inhabitants  of  this  region 
were  included  in  the  conquests  of  Joshua  {x;40). 
Whenever  the  Septuagint  gives  the  Hebrew  word 
in  the  Greek  letters,  Nii7i!ft  ii  always  relates  to 
this  particular  district.  To  the  same  region  be- 
longs the  passage,  'Turn  our  captivity  as  the 
streams  in  the  south'  (Ps.  cxxvi:4) ;  Septuagint, 
"hos  keimaddous  en  to  Noto,"  'as  winter  tor- 
rents in  the  south'  (Vulg.,  'sicut  lorrens  in  Aus- 
Iro') ;  which  suddenly  lill  the  wadys  or  valleys 
during  the  season  of  rain  (comp.  Ezek.  viT3 
xxxiv:i3;  xxxv:8;  xxxvi:4,  6).  These  are  dry 
in  summer  (Job  vi:i5.  18).  The  Jews  had.  by 
their  captivity,  left  their  country  empty  and  deso- 
late, but  by  their  return  would  'flow  again  into  it.' 
Through  part  of  this  sterile  region  the  Israelites 
must  repass  in  their  vain  application  to  Egypt 
(Is.  xxx:6;  comp.  Eteut.  viiiiis)-  It  is  called 
the  Wilderness  of  Judea  (Matt,  iiiri;  Josh,  xvr 
61;  comp,  Ps.  Ixxv;6,  Hebrew  or  margin;  see 
also  Jer.  xvii:26;  xxxii:44;  xxxiii:i4;  Ezra  xx: 
46,  47 ;  xxi  :4 ;  comp.  Obad.  xix  :20.  Through  part 
of  this  region  lay  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to 
Gaza,  'which  is  desert'  (Acts  viii:26). 

SOTTTH,  QUEEN  07  THE  (s9nth,  kwEn  6v 
the).  See  Sheba. 

SOUTH  RAHOTH  (south  ra'molb),  (Heb.  '^'^'3 
3S,  neh'geb  raii!-moth'\  a  town  where  David 
invited  his  friends;  probably  identical  with  Ra- 
moth  of  the  South   (i   Sam.  xxx:27). 

SOVEBBIONTT  OF  OOD  (aiiv'er-In-IJ  5v  gSd}, 
a  term  by  which  is  expressed  the  supreme  ruler- 
ship  of  God.  This  is  rightly  held  to  be  not  an  at- 
tribute of  God,  but  a  prerogative  based  upon  the 
perfections  of  the  livmg  Being. 

SOWBB,  SOWING  (sO'er.  aSIng),  See  Agri- 
culture. 

SPAIN  (spain),  (Gr.  SraWo,  spanee'ah ;  Rom. 
xv:24, 28;  'lirrarla,  HUPania,  1  Macc.  viii:3). 

This  name  was  anciently  applied  to  the  whole 
peninsula  which  now  comprises  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal (Cellar,  Notit.  t.  51,  sq.).  In  the  time  of 
Paul  Spain  was  a  Roman  province,  and  many 
Jews  appear  to  have  settled  there.  It  seems  clear 
from  Rom.  xv:24,  28,  that  Paul  formed  the  de- 
sign of  proceeding  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  Spain ; 
that  he  ever  executed  this  intention  is  neces- 
sarily denied  fay  those  who  hold  that  the  apostle 
sustained  but  one  imprisonment  at  Rome— namely, 
that  in  which  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  leave  him; 
and  even  those  who  hold  that  he  was  released 
from  this  imprisonment  can  only  conjecture  that. 
in  the  interval  between  it  and  the  second,  he  ful- 
filled his  intention.  There  is.  in  fact.  durmg_the 
first  three  centuries,  no  evidence  on  the  subject 


SPECKLED 


beyond  a  vague  intimation  by  Qement,  which  is 
open  to  different  explanations  (see  Paul)  ;  and 
later  traditions  are  of  small  value, 

SPAN  (span).    See  Weights  and  Measures. 

SPAKE  (spark),  (Heb.  3'??,  shaw-beeb' ,  flame), 
probably  means  a  lamp  in  Job  Kviii;^.  In  Job  xli: 
19,  reference  is  perhaps  made  to  thick  vapor  that 
arises  from  the  nostrils  of  an  alligator.  The 
"sparks"  (Heb,  "U"?,  zee-ka-w\  to  let  fly)  are  bum' 
ing  arrows  [Is.  hi  1). 

SPABEOW  (spar'rd),  (Heb.  1''ES,ft^,V;i,w'),  oc- 
curs in  Gen.vii:i4;  Lev.  xiv:  4;  Ps-  lxxxiv:3;  cii:?; 
atpovBiotr,  Matt.  x:39;  Luke  xii:6,  7. 

The  Hebrew  word  includes  not  only  the  spar- 
row, but  also  the  whole  family  of  small  birds 
not  exclusively  feeding  on  grain,  but  denomi- 
nated clean,  or  those  that  might  be  eaten  accord- 
ing to  the  law;  hence  the  same  word  is  also,  in 
many  instances,  translated  'bird.'  the  Hebrew 
name  itself  being  evidently  an  imitation  of  the 
voice  of  small  birds,  synonymous  with  the  English 
'chirrup.'  Tsip-pore'  includes  many  insectivorous 
and  frugivorous  species,  all  the  thrushes  found 
in  Europe,  and  the  rose-colored  ousel  or  locust- 
bird,  rare  with  us.  but  numerous  and  cherished  in 
the  East,  solely  for  the  havoc  it  makes  among 
locusts,  and  named  Smurmur  by  the  Arabs,  in 
imitation  of  its  voice.  It  also  includes  perhaps  the 
starlings  (not  Zargir),  the  nightingale,  all  the 
European  larks,  the  wagtails,  and  all  the  tribe  of 
finches;  but  not  fly-catchers,  nor  indeed  swallows, 
which,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  were  reckoned, 
along  with  right-hawks  or  goatsuckers,  and  crows, 
among  the  unclean  and  prohibited  species.  In 
Syria  the  sparrow  is  the  same  vivacious,  familiar 
bird  as  is  found  in  Europe,  and  equally  frequents 
the  residence  of  man.  C.  H.  S. 


sparrow  {FMrKiajtfktu  cyamui) , 

BPEAB.     See  Arms,  Armor. 

SPEAJtHEN  (sper'm«i),  light  armed  soldiers, 
having  a  weapon  in  the  right  Sand  (Acts  xxiii;23i. 
(See  Arms,  Armor,) 

SPE0KI2D  (spSk'k'ld).  1.  Nawkode'  (Heb. 
Ipi.  maried),  spotted  (Gen.  xxx:32.  33,  3S,  29: 
xxxi:8, 10,  la). 

fl.  Tsawboo'ah  (Heb.  t^'i,  ^ed),  colored, 
mottled  (Jer.  xii  :9)  elsewhere  in  modern  Hebrew, 


SPECTACLE 


1608 


SPIRIT 


the  hyena,  but  in  the  above  passage  a  many-col'- 
cred  bird  of  prey. 

8.  Saw-roke'  (Heb.  p"^V),  red  in  color,  as  the 

horses  (Zech.  1:8). 

SPECTACLE  (sp«k-t4-k'l);  (Gr,  eiarpop,  theh' 
at-ron),  a  man  who  is  exhibited  to  be  gazed  at  and 
made  sport  of  (i  Cor.  ivig). 

SPELL  (spSl).    See  Rye;  Kussemeth. 

SPICE&Y  (spi'ser-J),  (Heb.  ^^i,nek-ohth.  Gen. 
xxxvii:25),  aromatics. 

SPICES  (spi's^z).  This  word,  which  occurs 
very  frequently  in  our  translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, has  usually  been  considered  to  indicate  sev- 
eral of  the  aromatic  substances  to  which  the  same 
general  name  is  applied  in  the  present  day.  We 
have,  therefore,  as  much  assurance  as  is  possible 
in  such  cases,  that  the  majority  of  the  substances 
mentioned  by  the  ancients  have  been  identified; 
and  that  among  the  spices  of  early  times  were  in- 
cluded many  of  those  which  now  form  articles 
of  commerce  from  India  to  Europe. 

SPIDEB  (spi'der).  (Heb.  '^^^'^,ak'kaW'beesh'\ 

Sept.  dpdx^ri,  spider),  occurs  in  Job  viii:i4;  Is. 
lix  :$.  In  the  other  instance  in  which  the  word  is 
used  in  our  version  (Prov.  xxx:28),.and  where 
the  Hebrew  has  sem-aw-meeth',  ^^'P??,  the  Sept. 

Kal-a-boUas,  spotted  lizard,  and  the  Vulg.  sU/Iio, 
there  is  most  probably  a  mistranslation.  In  the 
first  of  these  passages,  the  reference  seems  clear 
to  the  spider's  web,  or  literally,  house,  whose  fra- 
gility is  alluded  to  as  a  fit  representation  of  the 
hope  of  a  profane,  ungodly,  or  profligate  person; 
for  so  the  Heb.  word  really  means,  and  not  *hypo- 
crite,'  as  in  our  version.  The  object  of  such  a 
person's  trust  or  confidence,  who  is  always  really 
in  imminent  danger  of  ruin,  may  be  compared  for 
its  uncertainty  to  the  spider's  web.  *He  shall  lean 
upon  his  house  («.  e.  to  keep  it  steady  when  it  is 
shaken)  ;  he  shall  hold  it  fast  (t.  e.  when  it  is 
about  to  be  destroyed) ;  nevertheless  it  shall  not 
endure  (verse  15).  In  the  second  passage  (Is. 
lix:5)  it  is  said,  The  wicked  weave  the  spider's 
web,'  literally,  'thin  threads';  but  it  is  added 
'their  thin  threads  shall  not  become  garments, 
neither  shall  they  cover  themselves  with  their 
works ;'  that  is,  their  artifices  shall  neither  suc- 
ceed, nor  conceal  themselves,  as  does  the  spider's 
web.  This  allusion  intimates  no  antipathy  to  the 
spider  itself,  or  to  its  habits  when  directed  towards 
its  own  purpose;  but  simply  to  the  adoption  of 
those  habits  by  man  towards  his  fellow-creatures. 
There  has  long  been  a  popular  prejudice  against 
spiders,  and  the  poets  have  too  often  contributed 
to  the  popular  prejudices  against  insects.  Thom- 
son stigmatizes  spiders  as 

'Cunning  and  fierce — 
Mixture  abhorred;* 

but  these  epithets  are  in  reality  as  unjustly  ap- 

Elied  to  them  (at  least  with  reference  to  the  mode 
y  which  they  procure  necessary  subsistence),  as 
to  the  patient  sportsman,  who  lays  snares  for  the 
birds  that  are  to  serve  for  the  dinner  of  his  fam- 
ily; while  it  can  be  further  pleaded  in  behalf  of 
spiders,  that  they  are  actively  serviceable  to  the 
human  race,  in  checking  the  superfecundity  of 
other  insects,  and  afford  in  their  various  pro- 
cedures the  most  astonishing  displays  of  that  Su- 
preme Intelligence  by  which  they  are  directed. 

J.  F.  D. 

SPIXEKABD  (splk-nftrd).    See  Nerd. 


SPIN  (spin),  (Heb.  '"'J?,  taw-vaw' ;  Gr.  w^, 

nay'tho,  Exod.  xxxv:25,  26;  Matt.  vi:28;  Prov, 
xxxi:i9). 

SPINDLE  (spln'dl),  (Heb.  "^il^^S.  kee-shore*, 
director),  an  instrument  used  in  spinning.  It  is 
held  in  one  hand  while  the  other  draws  out  the 
thread  (Prov.  xxxiag). 

SPINNING  (sptn'nlng),  (Exod.  xxxv:25,  26; 
Matt.  vi:28;  Prov.  xxxi.iQ).  The  wheel  was  un- 
known and  the  work  was  done  by  hand,  with  the 
spindle  and  distaff. 

SPIRIT   (splr'lt),   (Heb.  0'»'>,  roo'akh,  breath, 

wind;  Gr.  vvtif/ia,  pnyoo'maA,  wind,  breath,  the 
vital  principle,  etc.).  The  leading  significations 
of  the  original  words  thus  rendered  may  be  classi- 
fied as  follows: 

1.  The  primary  sense  of  the  term  is  wind,,  *He 
that  formeth  the  mountains  and  createth  the 
vfind,*  roo^aJkh  (Amos  iv:i3;  Is.  xxvii:8).  'The 
wind  {irmjfxa,  pneuma)  bloweth  where  it  listeth* 
(John  iii  :8).  This  is  the  ground  idea  of  the  term 
'spirit' — ^air— ether;  air  refined,  sublimated  or  vi- 
talized; hence  it  denotes — 

2.  Breath,  as  of  the  mouth.  'At  the  blast  of 
the  breath  of  his  nostrils  are  they  consumed' 
(Job  iv:9).  'The  Lord  shall  consume  that  wicked 
one  with  the  breath  of  his  mouth'  (to  pneumati 
ton  stomatos,  2  Thess.  ii:8). 

3.  The  vital  principle  which  resides  in  and  ani- 
mates the  body.    In  the  Hebrew,  ^??,  neh-fesh 

is  the  main  specific  term  for  this.  In  the  Greek 
it  is  psoO'khay,  and  in  the  Latin,  anima.  'No 
man  hath  power  over  the  spirit  to  retain  the  spirit' 
(Eccles.  viii:8;  Gen.  vi:i7;  vii:i5). 

4.  In  close  connection  with  the  uses  of  the 
word  last  explained  is  another,  in  which  it  has  the 
sense  of  apparition — specter.  They  supposed  that 
they  had  seen  a  spirit,*  i.  e,,  specter  (Luke  xxiv: 
37).  *A  spirit  hath  not  flesh  and  bones,  as  ye 
see  me  have'  (verse  39;  Matt,  xiv:26). 

5.  The  soul — ^the  rational  immortal  principle, 
by  which  man  is  distinguished  from  the  brute 
creation  (Luke  xxiii:46;  Acts  vii:59;  i  Cor.  v:5; 
vi:20;  vii:34;  Heb.  xiiig). 

6.  The  race  of  superhuman  created  intelli- 
gences. Such  beings  are  denominated  spiritual 
beings  because  they  have  no  bodies  like  ours.  To 
both  the  holy  and  the  sinning  angels  the  term  is 
applied.  In  their  origfinal  constitution  their  na- 
tures were  alike  pure  spirit.  The  apostasy  occa- 
sioned no  change  in  the  nature  of  the  fallen  angels 
as  spiritual  beings. 

In  the  New  Testament  demonology,  diamon, 
diamonion,  pneuma  akatharton,  pneuma  ponaron, 
are  the  distinctive  epithets  for  a  fallen  spirit. 
Christ  gave  to  his  disciples  power  over  unclean 
spirits,  pneuma  akatharon  (Matt.  x:i;  Mark 
i:23;  Luke  iv:36;  Acts  v:i6).  The  holy  angels 
are  termed  spirits — 'Are  they  not  all  ministering 
spirits'  (Heb.  i:i4)?  'And  from  the  seven  spirits 
which  are  before  his  throne'  (Rev.  i:4). 

7.  The  term  spirit  is  applied  to  the  various  emo- 
tions and  dispositions  of  the  soul,  'Into  thy  hands 
I  commend  my  spirit'  {rb  irp€Vfxd  fwv),  (Luke  xxiii : 
46;  Acts  viir.so;  i  Cor.  v:5,  vi:2o;  vii:34;  Heb. 
xii:9).  'My  spirit  hath  rejoiced  in  God  my  Sa- 
vior' (Luke  i:47).  *Poor  in  spirit'  denotes  humil- 
ity (Matt.  v:3).  'Ye  know  not  what  manner  of 
spirit  ye  are  of  (Luke  ix:55).  where  pneuma  de- 
notes disposition  or  temper.  'He  that  hath  no  rule 
over  his  own  spirit*  (Prov.  xxv:28;  xvi:32;  Ec- 
cles. vii:9).  The  moral  affections  are  denominated 
'the  spirit  of  meekness'  (Gal.  vi:i)  ;  'of  bondage* 
(Rotn.  viiiiis);  'of  jealousy'  (Num.  v:i4);    of 


SPIRIT.  HOLY 


1609 


SPIRIT,  HOLY 


fear*  (2  Tim.  1:7) ;  'of  slumber'  (Rom.  xi:8).  In 
the  same  way  also  the  intellectual  qualities  of  the 
soul  are  denominated  'the  spirit  of  counsel'  (Is. 
xi:2);  'the  spirit  of  knowledge'  (Is.  xi:2);  *the 
spirit  of  wisdom'  (Eph.  1:17)  ;  'the  spirit  of  truth 
and  of  error'  ( i  John  iv  :6) . 

8.  "The  spirit  is  something  higher  than  the 
soul.  In  the  spirit  is  the  unity  of  our  being,  our 
true  Ego.  The  soul  is  but  an  element  in  its  serv- 
ice. At  death  the  soul  passes  away,  the  spirit 
ripens  to  a  new  existence."     (Lotze.) 

9.  Spirit,  Mind  and  Soul.  *The  first  denotes 
the  animating  faculty,  the  breath  of  intelligence, 
the  inspiring  principle,  the  spring  of  energy  and 
the  prompter  of  exertion;  the  second  is  the  re- 
cording power,  the  preserver  of  impressions,  the 
storer  of  deductions,  the  nurse  of  knowledge,  and 
the  parent  of  thoug-ht ;  the  last  is  the  disembodied, 
ethereal,  self-conscious  being,  concentrating  in  it- 
self all  the  purest  and  most  refined  of  human 
excellences,  every  generous  affection,  every  benev- 
olent disposition,  every  intellectual  attainment, 
every  ennobling  virtue,  and  every  exalting  aspira- 
tion." Dr.  Reid. 

SPIBITy  HOLY.  The  term  Spirit  is  applied 
to  the  Deity,  as  the  sole,  absolute,  and  uncreated 
Spirit.  'God  is  a  Spirit.*  This,  as  a  predicate, 
belongs  to  the  divine  nature,  irrespective  of  the 
distinction  of  persons  in  that  nature.  But  its 
characteristic  application  is  to  the  third  person  in 
the  Divinity,  who  is  called  the  'Holy  Spirit' 
Cpneuma  hagion*),  because  of  his  essential  holi- 
ness, and  because  in  the  Christian  scheme  it  is  his 
peculiar  work  to  sanctify  the  people  of  God.  He 
is  denominated  The  Spirit,  by  way  of  eminence, 
as  the  immediate  author  of  spiritual  life  in  the 
hearts  of  Christians. 

The  words  Spirit,  and  Holy  Spirit,  frequently 
occur  in  the  New  Testament,  by  metonymy,  for 
the  influence  or  effects  of  his  agency. 

a.  As  a  procreative  power — *the  power  of  the 
Highest'  (Luke  i:35). 

b.  As  an  influence,  with  which  Jesus  was  en- 
dued (Luke  iv:4). 

c.  As  a  divine  inspiration  or  afflatus ^  by  which 
the  prophets  and  holy  men  wrote  and  ^oke  (m 
the  spirit,  through  the  spirit,  by  the  spirit).  'Holy 
men  of  God  spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the 
Holy  Ghost'  (2  Pet.  i  :2i ;  Num.  xi  '.26 ;  Neh.  ix : 
30;  Ezek.  iii:i2,  14).  John  in  Patmos  was 
wrapped    in   prophetic  vision  —  was  iv  vpe^pMTi 

(Rev.  i:io;  iv:2;  xvii:3). 

d.  As  miraculous  gifts  and  powers,  with  which 
the  Apostles  were  endowed,  to  qualify  them  for 
the  work  to  which  they  were  called.  'Jesus 
breathed  on  them,  and  said  unto  them.  Receive 
ye  the  Holy  Ghost'  (John  xx:22).  'And  they 
were  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost,'  etc.  (Acts  ii:4). 
'They  were  baptized  with  the  Holy  Ghost  (with 
the  Holy  Spirit — Acts  i:5;  comp.  Joel  ii:28  with 
Acts  ii:i6-i8,  where  the  ruach  of  the  prophet  is 
translated  pneuma,  spirit,  by  the  Apostle). 

But  the  phrase.  Holy  Spirit,  is  specially  used  to 
denote  a  divine  personal  agent.  The  Holy  Spirit 
is  associated,  as  a  distinct  person,  with  the  Father 
and  the  Son,  in  the  baptismal  formula,  and  the 
apostolical  benediction.  The  Father  and  Son  are 
real  persons.  It  is  reasonable  to  think  that  the 
spirit  which  is  joined  with  them  in  this  solemn 
form  of  induction  into  the  Christian  church  is 
also  a  personal  agent,  and  not  an  abstraction — a 
mere  power  or  influence.  The  subject  is  baptized 
into  the  belief  of  three  personal  agents.  To  sup- 
pose that,  in  this  solemn  profession  of  faith,  he 
avows  his  belief  in  the  Father  and  the  Son,  and 
fhf  power  or  influence  of  God,  is  forced  and  frigid. 


He  is  baptized  into  the  name  of  each  of  the 
three — into  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the 
Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (Matt,  xxviii.'ig). 
The  word  onoma  is  the  appellation  of  a  person. 
And  when  used  tropically,  as  in  Acts  i  -.5,  it  stands 
for  persons,  and  not  for  their  influence,  or  virtue, 
or  power.  So  in  the  formula  narne,  onoma — ^the 
Holy  Ghost — by  the  usus  loquendi,  is  required  to 
be  the  designation  of  a  personal  agent.  We  are 
not  baptized  into  the  name  of  an  influence  or  a 
power,  but  into  the  name  of  a  person— of  three 
real  and  distinct  subjects,  the  Father,  the  Son, 
and  the  Holy  Ghost. 

In  the  apostolical  benedictions,  the  Spirit,  as  a 
person,  is  associated  in  the  same  way  with  the 
Father  and  Son.  'The  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  and  the  love  of  God,  and  the  communion 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  be  with  you  all'  (2  Cor.  xiii : 
13).  In  this  uniting  of  the  three  there  is  the 
recognition  of  the  distinct  personality  of  each,  in 
the  separate  charisma  which  is  appropriated  to 
each. 

Distinct  personal  acts  and  attributes  are  as- 
cribed to  the  Holy  Spirit  too  frequently  and  fully 
to  admit  of  explanation  by  the  prosopopoeia. 

The  Holy  Ghost  speaks;  by  Esaias  the  prophet 
(Acts  xxviii:25),  expressly  (i  Tim.  iv:i).  He 
teaches  (Luke  xii:i2).  He  reproves  the  world  of 
sin  (John  xvi:8).  The  Spirit  helpeth  our  infirm- 
ities, and  maketh  intercession  for  the  saints  (Rom. 
viii:26,  27).    He  is  grieved  (Eph.  iv:  30). 

Apostles  are  set  apart  to  him  in  the  work  of  the 
ministry,  and  he  appoints  them  to  that  work  (Acts 
xiii:2;  xv:28). 

These  are  all  acts  which  imply  a  personal  agent; 
and  these  acts  and  attributes  distinguish  the  Spirit 
from  the  person  of  the  Father  on  the  one  band, 
and  from  the  personal  subjects  upon  which  he 
acts  on  the  other. 

The  Spirit,  as  a  personal  agent,  comes  from  the 
Father,  is  sent  by  the  Father,  and  of  course  can- 
not be  the  Father.  As  sent  by  the  Father,  he 
maketh  intercession  for  the  saints,  according  to 
the  will  of  God,  i.  e.,  the  Father  from  whom  he 
came.  The  Spirit  searcheth  all  things,  yea,  the 
deep  things  of  God  (i  Cor.  ii:io).  If  there  be 
no  distinct  personality  of  the  Spirit  separate  from 
that  of  the  Father,  the  real  import  of  these  pas- 
sages must  be,  that  the  Father  comes  from  him- 
self, is  sent  by  himself,  makes  intercession  to 
himself,  according  to  the  will  of  himself,  and  that 
he  searches  the  deep  things  of  himself — which  is 
a  style  of  writing  not  to  be  ascribed  to  any  ra- 
tional man,  and  certainly  not  to  inspired  apostles. 

The  Spirit  of  God  (i  Cor.  ii:ii)  is  not  a  cre- 
ated spirit ;  and  if  uncreated,  it  must  be  divine  in 
the  highest  sense;  but  this  Spirit  is  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  a  proper  person ;  hence  he  is  God. 

As  the  author  of  regeneration,  or  of  the  new 
spiritual  and  incorruptible  life  in  the  heart  of  the 
believer,  he  must  be  divine.  This  change,  the 
Scriptures  abundantly  declare,  is  wrought  by  the 
Spirit  and  power  of  God. 

Blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost  is  the  only 
sin  for  which  there  is  no  remission  (Matt,  xii: 
31).  This  sin  against  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  what- 
ever it  may  consist,  is  distinguished  from  all  other 
sins  by  a  degree  of  guilt  which  renders  it  unpar- 
donable. If  he  be  not  in  his  nature  truly  God, 
there  is  nothing  in  him  to  give  to  sin  against  him 
such  a  peculiar  aggravation.  Although  it  is  not 
simply  because  the  Spirit  is  God  that  blasphemy 
against  him  is  unpardonable — for  then  would  blas- 
phemy against  the  Father  and  the  Son  also  be  un- 
pardonable— ^yet  it  is  a  sin  against  God,  and,  as  be- 
ing against  the  third  person  oi  the  Godhead,  it  is 
aggravated  to  a  degree  of  enormity  which  it  could 


SPIRITS,  DISCERNING  OF 


1610 


SPREADINGS 


not  receive  if  committed  against  any  other  being 
than  God.     (See  Sin.) 

The  divine  and  incommunicable  attributes  of 
the  Deity  are  ascribed  to  the  Spirit.  These  at- 
tributes belong  exclusively  to  the  divine  nature; 
he  who  possesses  them  must  have  the  divine  na- 
ture and  honor  as  God  (for  proof  texts,  see  Trin- 
ity) . 

Works  truly  divine  are  attributable  to  the  Holy 
Spirit,  as  creation  and  preservation,  and  especially 
the  work  of  sanctification. 

Of  the  office  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  it  is  only  nec- 
essary to  say,  that  it  is  not  ministerial,  like  that 
of  the  angels  and  apostles,  but  it  is  the  peculiar 
work  in  the  salvation  of  man  which  he  performs, 
as  sent  by  the  Father  and  the  Son.         E.  A.  L. 

SPIRITS,  DISCEBNING  OF  (spYr'lfts,  dYz- 
xern'Iog  6v).  This  was  a  gift  of  God,  which  con- 
sisted in  discerning  whether  a  man  were  really  in- 
spired by  the  Spirit  of  God,  or  was  a  false  prophet, 
an  impostor,  who  only  followed  the  impulse  of  his 
own  spirit,  or  of  Satan  (i  Cor.  xiiiio).  John  ex- 
horts believers  not  to  believe  every  spirit,  but  to 
try  the  spirits,  whether  they  were  of  God;  be- 
cause many  false  prophets  had  gone  out  into  the 
world  (i  John  iv:i).  (See  Discerning  of  Spir- 
its.) 

SPIRITUAL  GIFTS  (spYrTt-ft-al  gYfts),(Gr.rii 
vpwfMTiKdt  tah  pnyoo-tnat-ee-kah* ,  the  spiritual 
supply;  x^P^^M^f^f  Mar-is' mat-a A,  gifts),  a  phrase 
to  denote  the  endowments  bestowed  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  in  the  primitive  church  (i  Cor.  xii.i),  and 
the  same  as  "gifts"  (verse  4). 

These  ^ifts  embraced :  Words  of  wisdom,  knowl- 
edge; faith;  healing;  working  of  miracles;  proph- 
ecy; discerning  of  spirits;  tongues  and  their  in- 
terpretation (vers.  8-10) .    See  under  various  heads. 

SFIBITUALITY  (sprr'It-fi-arr-ty),  the  quality 
of  being  spiritual,  as  opposed  to  material.  Thus 
theology  bredicates  spirituality  of  God  (see 
Spirit).  The  spirituality  of  man  refers  to  the  im- 
material part  of  his  nature.  .  .  .  To  be  .y^iV- 
itually  mmded,  is,  under  the  influence  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  to  have  all  the  powers  of  our  soul  con- 
curring in  spiritual  thoughts,  desires,  and  delights, 
in  divine  and  eternal  things  (Rom.  viii:6).  The 
things  of  the  Spirit  of  God  («.  e.  things  relative  to 
Christ,  and  the  method  of  our  redemption),  are 
spiritually  discerned;  are  known,  not  by  philo- 
sophical reason,  but  by  the  peculiar  assistance  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  (i  Cor.  ii:i4). 

SPIT,  SPITTLE  (spTt.  sptt't'l),  (Heb.  PP,  raw- 

kak\  and  P^,  yaw-rak* ;  Gr.  vrictM^  ptoos'mah), 

was  regarded  by  the  Hebrews  as  a  source  of  legal 
defilement  (Lev.  xv:8),  and  to  spit  in  one's  face 
was  a  base  insult  (Num.  xii:i4;  Deut.  xxv:9;  Is. 
1:6;  Matt.   xxvi.*67|    xxvii:30).     Spittle  was  em- 

81oyed  by  Christ  m  his  cure  of  the  blind  man 
ohn  ix:^. 

SPOIL  (spoil),  is  to  despoil  or  plunder  (Gen. 
xxxiv:27,  29;  Exod.  iii:22;  Col.  ii:8). 

SPOIL  (spoil),  the  translation  of  a  number  of 
Hebrew  and  Greek  words,  consisted  of  captives 
of  both  sfexes,  cattle,  and  whatever  a  captured 
city  might  contain,  especially  treasures  ot  gold, 
silver,  etc. 

Within  the  limits  of  Canaan  no  captives  were 
to  be  made  (Deut.  xx:i4,  16)  ;  beyond  those  lim- 
its, in  case  of  warlike  resistance,  all  the  women 
and  children  were  to  be  made  captives,  and  the 
men  put  to  death. 

Of  the  booty  taken  from  the  Midianites,  the 
warriors  had  the  one-half,  and  God  a  five-hun- 
dredth part  of  it;  the  congregation  of  Israel  had 


the  other  half,  and  the  Lord  a  fiftieth  part  of  it; 
but  this  appears  to  have  been  no  standing  law 
(Num.  xxxi).  David  enacted  a  law  that  tiie 
troops  who  guarded  the  baggage  should  share 
equally  of  the  booty,  as  those  engaged  in  bat- 
tle (i  Sam.  XXX  :24,  25).  The  Jews  affirm  that 
their  kings  had  the  whole  spoil  of  the  conquered 
king  and  half  of  the  rest.  It  is  certain,  Abraham 
gave  Melchizedek  a  tenth  part  of  the  spoil  which 
his  troops  took  from  Chedorlaomer  (Gen.  xiv:20). 
A  portion  of  the  spoil  was  assigned  to  the  op- 
pressed, the  aged,  widows,  and  orphans  (2  Mace. 
viii:28,  30).  The  division  of  the  spoil  was  a  joy- 
ous occasion  for  the  people  (Is.  ix:2). 

Figurative.  (i)  The  spoil  of  the  poor  is 
what  is  violently  forced  from  them  (Is.  iii:i4). 

(2)  The  spoil  of  beasts  covered  Babylon,  when 
their  brutal  ravages  and  murder  of  the  Jewish 
nation  were  returned  on  their  head  (Hab.  ii:i7). 

(3)  Christ  spoiled  principalities  and  powers  when 
by  his  death  he  removed  the  gjuilt  of  sin  and  the 
curse  of  the  law;  and  so  deprived  Satan  and  his 
agents  of  power  to  hurt  his  people  (Col.  ii:is). 

SPOILEB  (spoil'er),  a  plunderer  (Judg.  ii:i4; 
Jer,  vi:26;  vii:i2). 

SPOKE  (sp6k),  (Heb.  ^^^,  khish-shoor'),  this 

would  better  be  translated  hub,  where  the  spokes 
join  (i  Kings  vii:33). 

SPONGE  (spiioj),  (Gr.  o^r^ot,  spon^goSt  a  por- 
ous body.  Matt,  xxvii  148;  Mark  xv:30;  John  xix: 
29).  The  commercial  value  of  the  sponge  was 
known  from  very  early  times. 

SPOOK  (spODo),  (Heb.  ^^\  kap-poth\  a  hollow 

pan,  with  a  handle,  used  as  a  censer  in  .the  Taber- 
nacle and  Temple  (Exod.  XXV :29;  Num.iv:7;  vii;i4; 
I  Kings  vii:5o;  2  Rings  xxv:i4;  2  Chron.  xxiv:i4; 
Jer.lii:i8,  19). 

SPOBT  (spQrt).    See  Games. 

SPOT  (spdt).  1.  Moom  (Heb.  D^?2),  a  blemish, 
and  usually  so  rendered;  either  physical  (Lev. 
xxi:i7,  sq,;  xxii:20;  xxiv:i9,  20,  etc;  2  Sam.  xiv: 
25;  (jant.  iv7)  ox  moral  (Deut.  xxxiirs;  Job  xi: 
15;  xxxi  7;  rrov.  ix:7). 

2.  Bo-heh'reth  (Heb.  ^7i\  a  whitish  spot  on 

the  skin,  the  "bright  spot"  of  incipient  leprosy  (Lev. 
xiii:2-39;  xiv:56). 

8.  Bo*hak  (Heb.  p^S,  to  be  paie\  the  "  freckled 
spot'*  of  pronounced  leprosy  (Lev.  xiii:39). 

4.  Khab^r-boo-raw*  (Heb.  ^??'33n,  a  streak), 

according  to  Gesenius,  the  stripes  of  the  tiger  (Jer. 
xiii:23),  used  as  an  illustration  of  the  inability  of 
men  to  rid  themselves  of  evil  character. 

5.  TaW'law'  (Heb.  ^J$,  to  cover  with  pieces), 

spotted,  variegated;  as  "sheep  or  goats"  (Gen. 
xxx:32-39;  Ezek.  xvi:i6,  A.  V.  "divers  colors"). 

6.  Christ  offered  himself  to  God  without  spot 

(dfi»/iot,  am'o-mos).    The  Greek  word  doviXot,  has*- 

pee-los,  means  spotless,  free  from  censure  (i  Tim. 

vi:i4),  from  vice,  and  so  unsullied  (2  Pet.  iii-14). 

(Mc.  &  Str.  Cyc;  Barnes,  Bib.  Cyc) 

SPOUSE  (spouz).    See  Marriage. 

SPBEADINGS  (sprSd'lngs),  (Heb.  "^V^,  mif- 
rawce',  an  expansion). 

"Also  can  any  understand  the  spreading  of  the 
clouds?"  (Job  xxxvi;29).  Here  spreading  does 
not  mean  bursting,  but  spreadings  (comp.  Ezek. 
xxvii  7).  *It  is  the  growth  of  the  storm  clouds, 
which  collect  often  from  a  beginning  'small  as  a 
man's  hand'  (i  Kings  xviii:44),  that  is  intended. 


SPRIG 


1611 


STAR 


SFBIG  (sprig),  (Heb.  ^i)l,  zal-za/ ' ,  iremulous 

Is.  xviii:5;  •^^^f,  Peh-o-raw*^  ornamentation  or  fo- 
liage), a  branch  (Ezek.  xvii:6),or  a  twig  (Is.  xviii:5). 
SPBINa  (spring).    See  Palestine. 

SPBINEXING  (sprink'Ung).  Instances  of 
sprinkling  are  given  in  the  Scriptures,  viz.,  with 
blood  (Exod.  xxix:i6,  20,  21;  Lev.  i:5,  11,  etc.; 
see  Sacrifice);  with  water  (Lev.  xivrsi;  Num. 
viii:7;  xix:i3,  20,  etc.);  with  oil  (Lev.  xiv:i6). 
(See  Anointing.) 

Figurative.  The  sprinkling  of  the  blood,  oil, 
and  water  of  separation,  under  the  law,  shadowed 
torth  God's  cleansing  of  sinners  from  their  sin 
(Lev.  xiv:7,  16;  Heb.  ix:i3;  Is.  liins;  Ezek. 
xxxvi:25;  i  Pet.  i:2;  Heb.  x:22,  and  xii:24). 
The  sprinkling  of  blood,  water,  or  oil  on  the  tip 
of  the  right  ear,  thumb,  and  toe,  in  the  consecra- 
tion of  priests,  or  cleansing  of  lepers,  denoted  a 
preparation  to  hear  holy  words,  touch  holy  things, 
and  walk  in  holy  places;  and  signified  a  purifica- 
tion of  the  whole  man,  soul  and  body,  and  a  con- 
secration thereof  to  the  service  of  God  (Exod. 
xxix:2o;  Lev.  viii:23;  xiv:i4,  17.) 

Having  our  hearts  cleansed  from  an  evil  con- 
science" (Heb.  z^:22)  stands  over  by  contrast  with 
mere  physical  cleansing  (Heb.  ix:i3,  19;  comp. 
Exod.  xxiv:8;  Lev.  viii:ii). 

"So  shall  he  sprinkle  many  nations"  (Is.  Hi:  15), 
would  seem  to  be  a  figure  setting  forth  the  ex- 
piation and  purifying  of  many  nations. 

STACHYS  (sta'kis),  (Gr.  ^Ti.xvi,  stakh'oos,  an 
ear  of  grain),  an  unknown  person;  from  his  name 
apparently  a  Greek,  a  disciple  at  Rome,  and  a 
friend  of  Paul  (Rom.  xviig),  A.  D.  55. 

STACK  (st^),  a  heap  of  grain  (Exod.  xxii.^). 

STAOTE  (st^k't^).    See  Nataf. 

STAFF  (staf).    See  Scepter. 

STAnt  (star),  (Heb.  usually  '"^^S^Q,  tnak-ai-eh', 

or  •  V?5,  ptah-al-aw^  an  ascent;  once  •^J!3T9,  mad- 

ray-gaw',  Cant.  ii:i4,  a  Precipice,  "  steep  place," 

Ezek.  xxxviii:2o;bV?,  lool,  a  winding  stair,  i  Kings 
vi:8;  see  also  Neh.  iii:i5;  i  Kings  vi:8).  These 
probably  ran  around  the  inside  of  the  quadrangle 
of  the  house.    (See  House). 

STAKE  (stak),  (Heb.  T»;,  yaw-thade',  a  nail, 

peg),  a  tent  pin  (Is.  xxxiii:2o;  liv:2). 

STAIjL  (stal),  a  stable  for  cattle  where  they 
were  often  fattened  (Prov.  xv:i;j).  It  often  means 
2iPair{l  Kings  iv:26;  2  Chron.  ix:25;  xxxii:28). 

STAMMEBEB   (stto'mer-er),  (Heb.   ^V,   ii- 

^^y^%  a  stutterer.  Is.  xxxii:4;  ^4, /aw-ag',  to  speak 

unintelligibly.  Is.  xxviii.ii;  xxxiii:ir^).  To  mock 
Cf  to  dende. 

STANDABB    BEABEB    (st&nd'erd     bdr'er), 

(Heb.  ^Pi  naw-sas',  one  who  is  sick).    "And  they 

shall  be  as  when  a  standard  bearer  fainteth  "  (Is. 
x;i8). 

STANDABDS  (stand'erds).  (Heb.  ^3?,  deh'gel). 

Standards  and  ensigns  are  to  be  regarded  as  effi- 
cient instruments  for  maintaining  the  ranks  and 
files  of  bodies  of  troops ;  and  in  Num.  ii  :2  they  are 
particularly  noticed,  the  Israelites  being  not  only 
enjoined  to  encamp  'each  by  the  standard  of  his 
tribe  and  the  ensign  of  his  father's  house,'  but,  as 
the  sense  evidently  implies,  in  orders  or  lines. 
It  is  clear,  when  this  verse  is  considered  in  con- 
nection with  the  religious,  military,  and  battle 
pictures  on  Egyptian  monuments,  that  the  He- 
brews had  ensigns  of  at  least  three  kinds,  namely : 


(1)  Standards  of  the  Tribes,  etc.  The  great 
standards  of  the  tribes,  serving  as  rallying  signals 
for  marching,  forming  in  battle  array,  and  for 
encamping. 

(2)  DivisionaL  The  divisional  standards 
(mishpachoth)  of  clans,  and  those  of  houses  or 
families  (beth  aboih)  ;  which  after  the  occupation 
of  the  Promised  Land  may  gradually  have  been 


Egyptian  Standards. 

applied  more  immediately  to  corps  and  companies, 
when  the  tribes,  as  such,  no  longer  regularly  took 
the  field. 

(3)  Varied  Forms.  What  the  form,  colors, 
materials  and  symbols  of  the  Hebrew  ensigns 
were  it  is  more  difficult  to  determine,  but  we  may 
be  certain  that  they  could  not  have  resembled 
modern  banners,  as  has  been  generally  supposed. 
We  know  that  as  early  as  the  days  of  the  exode 
of  Israel  the  Egyptians  had  ensigns  of  different 


Egyptian  Standards. 

kinds,  and  it  is  very  likely  that  the  standards 
in  use  among  that  people  were,  under  proper 
modifications,  adopted  by  the  Israelites  when  they 
were  about  to  become  wanderers  over  the  desert 
regions,  where  order  and  discipline,  directing  sig- 
nals, telegraphs,  and  indications  of  water  would 
be  most  useful.  C.  H.  S. 

STAB  (star),  (Heb.  ^DiS,  ko-kawb\    round  or 

shining;  Gr.  ixrriip,  as-tare'), 

"And  he  made  the  stars  also"  (Gen.  i:i6). 
Over  the  finished  work  of  creation  "the  morning 
stars  sang  together"  (Job  xxxviii.7).  "The  music 
of  the  spheres"  is  more  than  poetry,  though  it  has 
taken  many  centuries  for  science  to  learn  that 
the  planets  move  in  rhythmic  harmony  through 
the  realms  of  space. 

"The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God"  (Ps. 
xix:i),  but  "his  glory  is  above  the  heavens"  (Ps. 
cxiii:4). 


STAR  GAZER 


1612 


STATISTICS 


When  and  by  whom  the  constellations  were 
named  is  one  of  the  many  unsolved  problems  of 
history.  Among  many  peoples  the  signs  of  the 
Zodiac  and  the  names  of  the  constellations  reach 
backward  into  the  dim  and  unknown  past.  Jo- 
sephus  and  the  Jewish  rabbis  claim  that  the 
science  of  astronomy  originated  with  the  imme- 
diate descendants  of  Seth,  who  was  the  son  of 
Adam  (Josephus,  Ant.,  bk.  i.  chap.  ii.  3). 

Prof.  O.  M.  Mitchel,  the  soldier  and  scientist, 
asserts  that  in  looking  for  the  earliest  students 
of  astronomical  lore,  "we  must  pass  beyond  the 
epoch  of  the  Deluge,  and  seek  our  first  discov- 
erers among  those  sages  whom  God  permitted  to 
count  their  age  by  centuries"  (Planetary  and 
Stellar  Worlds,  p.  43). 

Many  critics  claim  that  Job  is  the  oldest  book 
of  the  Bible,  and  yet  we  here  read  of  the  "Maz- 
zaroth,"  or  the  twelve  signs  of  the  Zodiac;  of 
"the  sweet  influences  of  the  Pleiades;"  of  "the 
bands  of  Orion,"  and  of  "Arcturus  with  his  sea- 
sons" (Job  xxxviii:3i,  32). 

In  Jeremiah,  as  well  as  Job,  we  read  of  "the 
ordinances  of  the  moon  and  the  stars"  (Jer. 
xxxi:35;  Job  xxxviii  133 ). 

And  hence  we  seem  to  be  thrown  back  upon 
the  simple  Biblical  statement:  "He  telleth  the 
number  of  the  stars.  He  calleth  them  all  by 
their  names"  (Ps.  cxlvii:4;  Is.  xl:26). 

Figurative.  As  a  symbol  of  the  purity  of 
God :  "Even  the  stars  are  not  pure  in  his  sight" 
(Job  XXV  :5).  As  a  symbol  of  the  exaltation  of 
his  children:  "They  shall  shine  as  the  stars  for- 
ever and  ever"  (Dan.  xii:3). 

The  word  stars  was  sometimes  used  to  denote 
the  patriarchs  or  princes  of  the  earth  (Gen. 
xxxvii:9;  Dan.  viii:io;  Rev.  vi:i3;  viii:io-i2; 
ix:i). 

Christ  is  called  "the  bright  and  the  Morning 
Sta/'  (Rev.  xxii:i6),  and  as  the  supreme  reward 
of  redeemed  humanity,  it  is  said :  "I  will  give  him 
the  Morning  Star"'  (Rev.  ii:28). 

Ministers  are  called  stars  in  Christ's  right  hand; 
upheld  by  him,  and  directed  in  their  course,  they, 
in  their  high  stations,  convey  light,  knowledge, 
and  comfort  to  men  (Rev.  i:2o).  When  they 
apostatize  from  the  truth  and  fall  into  error  and 
wickedness,  and  lead  others  into  it,  they  are  rep- 
resented as  wandering,  smitten,  and  fallen  stars 
(Jude  13;  Rev.  viii:  10-12,  and  xii:4). 

Saints  are  called  stars,  to  denote  their  glory 
and  usefulness,  and  their  diversity  of  appearance 
(Dan.  xii:3);  and  the  day-star  which  rises  in 
their  heart,  is  either  the  more  clear  discoveries 
of  divine  things  now  under  the  gospel,  or  the 
full  vision  of  God  in  heaven  (2  Pet.  i:i9). 

STAB  GAZEB  (star  gaz'er).    See  Magic. 

STAB  IN  THE  EAST   (star  Xn  the  est),  (Or. 

dffT^pa  ip  rij  ivarokfj),  Matthew  (ch.  ii:2,  sg.)  relates 
that  at  the  time  of  the  birth  of  our  Lord  there 
came  wise  men  (magi)  from  the  East  to  Jerusalem, 
to  inquire  after  the  newly-born  King  of  the  Jews, 
in  order  that  they  might  offer  him  presents  and 
worship  him.  A  star,  which  they  had  seen  in  the 
East,  guided  them  to  the  house  where  the  infant 
Messiah  was.  Having  come  into  his  presence, 
they  presented  unto  him  gifts— gold,  ana  frankin- 
cense and  myrrh. 

The  solid  learning  and  free  conjecture  of  Chris- 
tian divines  have  combined  with  the  unfriendly 
daring  of  infidelity  to  render  imperceptible  and 
obscure  the  particulars  involved  in  this  passage 
of  Holy  Writ.  Our  space  will  not  allow  us 
to  review  and  examine  what  has  been  written 
by  friends  and  enemies  (last  of  all,  by  Strauss, 
Leben  Jesu»  i,  249,  4th  edit.)  on  the  subject.    We 


must  content  ourselves  with  a  brief  statement  of 
the  theory  of  the  distinguished  astronomer  Kepler, 
which  appears  to  us  the  right  view  of  the  case : 

"These  wise  men  were  Chaldaean  magi.  A  con- 
viction had  long  been  spread  throughout  the  East, 
that  about  the  commencement  of  our  era  a  great 
and  victorioiis  prince,  or  the  Messiah,  was  to  be 
born.  His  birth  was,  in  consequence  of  words  of 
sacred  Scripture  (Num.  xxiv:i7),  connected  with 
the  appearance  of  a  star.  Calculations  seem 
to  have  led  the  astrological  astronomers  of  Meso« 
potamia  to  fix  the  time  for  the  advent  of  this  King 
m  the  latter  days  of  Herod,  and  the  place  in  the 
land  of  Judaea.  Accordingly,  at  the  appointed 
time,  two  planets,  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  were  in 
conjunction  imder  such  circumstances  as  to  ap- 
pear one  resplendent  heavenly  body,  and  to  mar- 
shal the  way  for  the  magi  from  their  own  homes 
to  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem,  and  the  inn." 

Kepler  made  his  calculations,  and  found  that 
Jupiter  and  Saturn  were  in  conjunction  in  tho 
constellation  of  the  Fishes  (a  fish  is  the  astro- 
logical symbol  of  Judaea)  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
year  of  Rome  747,  and  were  joined  by  Mar 5  m 
748.  The  two  planets  went  past  each  other  three 
times,  came  very  near  together,  and  showed  ttem- 
selves  all  night  long  for  months  in  conjunction 
with  each  other,  as  if  they  would  never  separate 
again.  Their  first  union  in  the  East  awoke  the 
attention  of  the  magi,  told  them  the  expected 
time  had  come,  and  bade  them  set  off  without  de- 
lay towards  Judaea  (the  fish  land).  When  they 
reached  Jerusalem  the  two  planets  were  once 
more  blended  together.  Then,  in  the  evening, 
they  stood  in  the  southern  part  of  the  sky,  point- 
ing with  their  united  rays  to  Bethlehem,  where 
prophecy  declared  the  Messiah  was  to  be  bom. 
The  magi  followed  the  finger  of  heavenly  light, 
and  were  brought  to  the  child  Jesus.  The  con- 
clusion, in  regard  to  the  time  of  the  advent,  is, 
that  our  Lord  was  born  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
year  of  Rome  747,  or  six  years  before  the  com- 
mon era.  The  literature  connected  with  the  sub- 
ject is  abundant,  but  appears  to  the  writer  to  have 
lost  much  of  its  interest  since  Kepler's  views 
have  found  acceptance.  Those,  however,  who  wish 
to  ascertain  what  works  have  been  written  on 
the  subject  are  referred  to  Walch,  Bibliotheca 
Theol.  ii.  422,  sq.;  Thiess,  Krit.  Comment,  ii.  350, 
sq.;  Trench,  Star  of  the  Wise  Men,         L.  R.  B. 

STATELY  (stat'15^),  (Heb.  •'^J''^?,  keb-ood-dav/ , 
magnificent,  Ezek.  xxiii:4i). 

STATEB  (sta'ter),  a  piece  of  money  (Matt.  xvii*. 
24, 27).    See  Money. 

STATISTICS.  An  early  Mosaic  la-v  required 
that  when  the  people  were  numbered  the  firstborn 
of  man  and  of  beast  should  be  set  apart,  the  first 
to  be  redeemed,  and  the  others,  with  one  exception 
(Exod.  xiii:i2,  13;  xxii.29),  offered  to  God.  A 
later  enactment  (Exod.  xxx:i2,  13)  required  that 
whenever  the  census  was  taken  an  offering  of  a 
half-shekel  should  be  made  by  every  man  above 
twenty  years  of  age.  The  instances  of  numbering 
the  people  which  are  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment are  as  follows: 

(1)  During  the  encampment  at  Sinai  in  the 
third  or  fourth  tnonth  after  the  Exodus  (Exod. 
xxxviii:26).  This  was  done  largely  for  the  pur- 
pose of  raising  money  for  the  Tabernacle.  The 
result  of  the  census  was  603,550  men.  This  was 
the  exact  figure,  which  is  sometimes  alluded  to 
in  round  numbers  as  the  600,000  who  left  Egypt 
(Exod.  xii  :27). 

(2)  Apparently  somewhat  later  a  census  was 
taken  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  number 


STATURE 


1613 


STEPHEN 


of  fighting  men  between  the  ages  of  twenty  and 
fifty,  and  also  to  determine  the  amount  of  the 
redemption  offering  due  on  account  of  the  first- 
born, both  of  men  and  of  animals.  On  this  occa- 
sion the  numbers  were  taken  of  all  the  firstborn 
males  of  the  whole  people  over  a  month  old.  This 
included  also  those  of  the  same  age  in  the  tribe 
of  Levi. 

The  Levites,  whose  numbers  amounted  to  22,- 
000,  were  taken  in  lieu  of  the  firstborn  males  of 
the  rest  of  Israel,  whose  numbers  were  22,273,  and 
for  the  number  over  22,000  a  money  payment  of 
five  shekels  each  was  made  to  Aaron  and  his  sons 
(Num.  iii:39,  51).  The  results  were  the  same 
as  at  first,  and  this  circumstance  has  led  some 
critics  to  suppose  that  the  two  accounts  pertain  to 
the  same  census,  the  first  showing  one  object  of 
the  numbering,  while  the  second  relates  to  the 
other  purpose. 

(3)  Another  census  was  taken  thirty-eigfht  years 
afterwards,  before  the  entrance  into  Canaan,  and 
this  time  the  total  number  of  males,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Levites,  amounted  to  601,730  show- 
ing a  decrease  of  1,870.  Most  of  the  tribes  had 
shown  an  increase,  but  the  greatest  loss  was  in  the 
tribe  of  Simeon;  and  this  may  probably  be  ac- 
counted for  by  the  plague  which  followed  the 
crimes  of  Zimri  and  others  (Num.  xxv:i,  9). 
None  were  numbered  in  this  census  who  were  in- 
cluded in  the  first,  except  Caleb  and  Joshua,  the 
others  having  died  in  the  wilderness  (Num.  xxvi: 
64,65). 

(4)  The  next  regular  census  was  taken  during 
the  reign  of  David,  who  presumptuously  ordered 
the  people  to  be  nimibered  without  requiring  the 
legal  offering  of  the  half  shekel.  The  number  of 
Israel  was  found  to  be  1,100,000,  and  of  Judah, 
470,000,  making  a  total  of  1,570,000,  besides  the 
tribes  of  Levi  and  of  Benjamin,  which  were  not 
numbered  (i  Chron.  xxi:5,  6),  the  census  not 
being  completed  because  "there  fell  wrath  for  it 
against  Israel.  Neither  was  the  [total]  number 
put  in  the  account  of  the  Chronicles  of  King  Da- 
vid" (i  Chron.  xxvii:24). 

(5)  The  census  which  was  begun  under  David 
was  completed  by  Solomon,  who  caused  all  cap- 
tives and  foreigners  also  to  be  numbered.  These 
classes  amounted  to  153,600,  and  they  were  em- 
ployed in  the  work  of  construction  (Josh.  1x127; 
I  Kings  v:i5;  ix:20,  21;  i  Chron.  xxii:2:  2 
Chron.  ii:i7,  18). 

In  noting  the  somewhat  varying  accounts  of  Jo- 
sephus  and  others,  we  must  consider  the  different 
times  of  the  taking  of  the  census,  and  also  the 
fact  that  sometimes  the  whole  number  of  the  peo- 
ple is  given,  sometimes  all  of  the  men  over  twenty 
years  of  age,  and  sometimes  only  the  adult  males, 
exclusive  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  or  the  priesthood. 
(See  Discrepancies,  Biblical.)  E.  A.  R. 

STATT7BE  (stSt-ar),  (Gr.  ^X/icof,  hay4ee*kos, 
literally  how  much  ?) 

1.  The  height  of  one's  body  (Matt.  vi:27). 

2.  A  suitable  age  in  which  to  receive  the  full- 
ness of  Christ  (Eph.  iv:i3). 

STAVES  (stSvz),  the  plural  of  staff.  See  Scep- 
ter; Tabernacle. 

STAY  (sta),  (Heb.  ^5?,  saw-mak\  Is.  xxvi:3),  to 

support.  In  the  A.  V.  of  Is.  xix:i3,  "even  they 
that  are  the  stay  of  the  tribes  thereof,"  is  the  ren- 
dering of  the  Heb.  •^??,  pin-naw*,  an  angle;  in 

Is.  xxxi:i,  ''stay"  is  used  in  the  sense  of  reiy 
(comp.  xlviii:2).  In  the  description  of  Solomons 
throne  (i  Kings  xrig;  2  Chron.  ix:i8),  "stays"  is 

the  rendering  of  the  Heb.  T,  (yawd,  hand),  i,  e,, 

arms  on  both  sides  of  the  seat. 


Figurative.  God  is  the  stay  of  his  people;  he 
preserves  and  upholds  them  amidst  distress,  and 
comforts  them  when  under  grief  (Ps.  xviii:i8). 
Magistrates  and  great  men  are  the  stay  of  a  na- 
tion, which  preserves  them  in  order,  and  from 
ruin  (Is.  xix:i3).  The  means  by  which  man's  life 
is  preserved,  and  nations  supported,  is  called  a 
stay  and  staff  (Is.  iiiri). 

STEADFASTNESS  (stM'fast-ngs). 

1.  Ster-eh' o-mah  (Gr.  arep^iafiA)  is  that  upon 
which  a  thing  can  rest;  in  Col.  ii:^,  "steadfastness 
of  faith,"  the  term  is  used  figuratively  in  a  military 
sense,  solid fronL 

2,  Stav-rig'tnos'  (Gr.  arifpiy/iSs,  2  Pet.  111:17),  "^ 
the  usual  sense  of  firnmess,  stability. 

STEEL  (stel),  (2  Sam.  xxii:35;  Job  xx:24; 
Ps.  xviii:34,  35;  Jer.  xv:i2;  Ezra  viii:27).  The 
ancient  Hebrews  were  probably  not  acquainted 
with  steel,  and  the  words  so  translated  should  be 
rendered  copper  or  brass.     (See  Metals.) 

STEPHANAS  (stgph'a-n^),  (Gr.  lr€<pa»as,  sUf- 
an-as',  crowned),  a  disciple  at  Corinth,  whose  house- 
hold Paul  baj)tized  (i  Cor.  i:i6),  being  the  first  con- 
verted to  Christianity  in  Achaia  (i  Cor,  xvi:i5). 
A.  D.  54. 

STEPHEN  (ste'v'n),  (Gr.  Zr^^awf,  stefan-os, 
crown),  one  of  the  seven  first  deacons,  and  the 
proto-martyr  of  the  Christian  church.  There  have 
been  various  conjectures  respecting  his  early  his- 
tory, but  the  first  authentic  notice  we  find  of  him 
is  in  Acts  vi:5.  In  the  distribution  of  the  com- 
mon fund  that  was  intrusted  to  the  apostles  (Acts 
iv:35-37)  for  the  support  of  the  poorer  brethren 
(see  Mosheim,  De  Rebus  Christ,  ante  Const,  p. 
118,  2Lnd  Dissert,  ad  Hist.  Eccles.  pertin.),  the 
Hellenistic  Jews  complained  that  a  partiality  was 
shown  to  the  natives  of  Palestine,  and  that  the 
poor  and  sick  among  their  widows  were  neglected. 

(1)  First  Deacon.  The  complaint  of  the  Hel- 
lenists having  reached  the  ears  of  the  Apostles,  im- 
mediate directions  were  given  by  them  with  a  view 
to  remove  the  cause  of  it.  Unwilling  themselves 
to  be  called  away  from  their  proper  employment 
of  extending  the  bounds  of  the  Christian  commu- 
nity, they  told  the  assembled  multitude  of  be- 
lievers to  select  seven  men  of  their  own  number, 
in  whose  faith  and  integrity  they  might  repose 
entire  confidence,  for  the  superintendence  of  every- 
thing connected  with  the  relief  of  the  poor.  The 
proposal  of  the  Apostles  met  with  the  approbation 
of  the  brethren,  who  proceeded  at  once  with  the 
choice  of  the  prescribed  number  of  individuals, 
among  whom  Stephen  is  first  mentioned,  hence 
the  title  of  first  deacon,  or  first  of  the  deacons,  is 
given  to  him  by  Irenaeus  (Iren.  i.  12). 

(2)  Pull  of  Faith.  He  is  distinguished  in 
Scripture  as  a  man  *full  of  faith  and  of  the  Holy 
Ghost'  (Acts  vi:5).  The  newly  elected  individ- 
uals were  brought  to  the  Apostles,  who  ordained 
them  to  their  office,  and  they  entered  upon  their 
duties  with  extraordinary  zeal  and  success.  The 
number  of  the  disciples  was  greatly  increased,  and 
many  priests  were  among  the  converts.  In  this 
woric  Stephen  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  the 
miracles  he  performed  before  the  people,  and  by 
the  arguments  he  advanced  in  support  of  the 
Christian  cause. 

(3)  Addressed  Himself  to  Hellenists.  From 
his  foreign  descent  and  education  he  was  naturally 
led  to  address  himself  to  the  Hellenists,  and  in  his 
disputation  with  Jews  of  the  Synagogue  of  the 
Libertines  and  Cyrenians,  etc.  (see  Synagogue; 
Libertines),  he  brought  forward  views  of  the 
Christian  scheme  that  could  not  be  relished  by 
the  bigots  of  the  ancient  faith.  As  they  were  un- 
able to  withstand  his  powers  of  reasoning,  their 


STEWARD 


1614 


STONE 


malice  was  excited ;  they  suborned  false  witnesses 
against  him,  and  dragged  him  before  the  Sanhe- 
drim as  a  blasphemer. 

(4)  His  Defense.  The  speech  which  Stephen 
made  in  defending  himself  against  this  accusation 
is  well  deserving  of  the  most  careful  study.  He 
first  enters  upon  a  historical  statement  involving 
a  refutation  of  the  charges  which  had  been  made 
against  him  of  hostility  to  the  Old  Testament  in- 
stitutions, but  at  the  same  time  showing  that 
acceptance  with  God  does  not  depend  upon  out- 
ward relations.  Under  the  same  form  he  illus- 
trates the  providential  care  exercised  by  the  Al- 
mighty in  regard  to  the  Jewish  people,  along  with 
the  opposition  exhibited  by  the  Jews  towards  those 
sent  to  them  by  God.  And  he  points  the  ap- 
plication of  his  whole  discourse  by  charging  his 
carnal-minded  hearers  with  resisting,  like  their 
fathers,  the  Holy  Ghost. 

(5)  Cruel  Death.  The  effect  upon  his  auditors 
was  terrible.  Conscience  smitten,  they  united  in 
wreaking  their  vengeance  on  the  faithful  de- 
nouncer of  their  guilt.  They  drowned  his  voice 
with  their  clamorous  outcries,  they  stopped  their 
ears  against  him,  they  rushed  on  him  with  one 
accord  in  a  tumultuary  manner,  they  carried  him 
forth,  and,  without  waiting  for  the  authority  of 
law,  they  stoned  him  to  death  as  a  blasphemer 
(see  Stoning).  The  frantic  violence  of  his  per- 
secutors did  not  disturb  the  tranquillity  of  the 
martyr,  and  he  died  praying  that  his  murderers 
might  be  forgiven  (Acts  vii:6o). 

The  only  other  particular  connected  with  Ste- 
phen mentioned  in  Scripture  is,  that  'devout  men 
carried  him  to  his  burial,  and  made  great  lamen- 
tation over  him*  (Acts  viii:2). 

STEWABD  (stu'erd),  (usually  Heb.  ''^,   sar, 

head  person;  Gr.  irlrpoTos,  epi'tro-pos^  manager; 
oUop6fu>t,  ayk'O-no'most  overseer),  one  who  manages 
or  superintends  the  aflPairs  of  another. 

Thus  Eliezer  was  the  steward  of  Abraham's 
house  (Gen.  xv:2);  Christian  ministers  are  the 
stewards  of  God  over  his  church  or  family  (Tit. 
1:7;  I  Cor.  iv:i,  2),  and  believers  are  stewards  of 
his  gifts  and  graces;  to  dispense  the  benefits  of 
them  to  the  world  (i  Pet.  iv:io). 

On  reading  the  parable  of  the  unjust  steward, 
who  defrauds  his  principal  by  collusion  with  his 
debtors  (Luke  xvi),  we  find  it  concluded  by  what 
seems  to  be  a  strange  expression  (ver.  12)  :  "If 
ye  have  not  been  faithful  in  that  which  is  an- 
other man's,  who  shall  give  you  that  which  is  your 
OTVfif"  Certainly  that  which  is  a  man's  own  he 
may  naturally  expect  should  be  given  him;  for 
who  has  a  right  to  withhold  it  ?^  The  propriety  of 
the  phrase,  therefore,  and  the  inferential  connec- 
tion of  the  sentiment  with  the  parable,  is  not  clear 
to  a  general  reader;  but  this  kind  of  allowance, 
though  appearing  extremely  singular  to  us,  is  both 
ancient  and  general  in  the  East.  It  is  found  in  the 
Gentoo  Laws  (chap,  ix)  :  "If  a  man  has  hired  any 
person  to  conduct  a  trade  for  him,  and  no  ag^ree- 
ment  is  made  in  regard  to  wages,  in  that  case  the 
person  hired  shall  receive  one  tenth  of  the  profit. 
If  the  person  be  hired  to  attend  cattle,  he  shall 
receive  one  tenth  of  the  milk.  If  the  person  be 
hired  for  agriculture,  one  tenth  of  the  crop.  If  he 
plow  the  ground,  receiving  victuals,  one  fifth  of 
the  crop;  if  he  receive  no  victuals,  one  third." 
(Halhed's  Code  of  Gentoo  Laws,  p.  140.) 

STOCK  (st6k),  the  trunk  of  a  tree  (Is.  xliv: 
19;  Job  xl:2i),  or  stump  (Job  xiv:8;  Is.  xl:24). 
In  Jer.  ii  :27 ;  x  :8,  it  is  used  of  a  tree  or  a  stick ; 
and  in  Acts  xiii:26;  Phil.  iii:5,  of  a  transplanted 
plant.    Used  figuratively  of  a  race  (Nah.  iii  :6). 


STOCKS   (stdks),  (Heb.  ^I??.  mah-peh'ketK 

wrench,  Jer.  xx:2,  3;  2  Chron.  xvi:io),  a  wooden 
frame  for  holding  the  body  in  a  bent  position.  The 

*^6,  sad^  was  a  block  of  wood  fastened  to  the  feet 
(Job  xiii:27;  xxxiii:i  i).    The  p^^V,  tsee'tioke*,  was  a 


stocks. 

confinement  for  the  feet  (Jer.  xxix:26).  Other 
forms  of  stocks  are  referred  to  (Acts  xvi:24;  Prov. 
vii:22).  The  stocks  of  Hos.  iv:i2,  were  idols  made 
of  wood. 

STOICS  and  EPICX7BEANS  (sto'iks  and  «p'i- 
ku-re'anz).  Reference  is  made  in  Acts  xvii:i8 
to  certain  philosophers  belongfing  to  these  cele- 
brated sects  as  havmg  'encountered  Paul  at  Athens.' 

The  Stoics  derive  their  name  from  an^d,  'a 
porch';  because  their  founder  Zeno  (who  was 
bom  from  360  to  350  years  B.  C.)  was  accustomed 
to  teach  in  a  certain  porch  at  Athens. 

Zeno  was  followed  by  Cleanth'es  (about  B.  C. 
260),  Cleanthes  by  Chrysippus  (about  B.  C.  240). 
who  was  regarded  as  the  intellectual  founder  of 
the  Stoic  system.  Stoicism  soon  found  an  en- 
trance at  Rome,  and  under  the  empire  Stoicism 
was  not  unnaturally  connected  with  republican 
virtue.  The  ethical  system  of  the  StcHcs  has  been 
commonly  supposed  to  have  a  close  connection 
with  (Christian  morality.  But  the  morality  of 
Stoicism  is  essentially  based  on  pride,  that  of 
Christianity  on  humility;  the  one  upholds  indi- 
vidual independence,  the  other  absolute  faith  in 
another ;  the  one  looks  for  consolation  in  the  issue 
of  fate,  the  other  in  Providence;  the  one  is  lim- 
ited by  periods  of  cosmical  ruin,  the  other  is  con- 
summated in  a  personal  resurrection  (Acts  xvii: 
18).  But  in  spite  of  the  fundamental  error  of 
Stoicism,  which  lies  in  a  supreme  egotism,  the 
teaching  of  this  school  gave  a  wide  currency  to 
the  noble  doctrines  of  the  Fatherhood  of  God,  the 
common  bonds  of  mankind,  the  sovereignty  of  the 
soul  (Smith,  Diet.) 

The  Epicureans  were  named  after  their  founder, 
Epicurus,  who  is  said  to  have  been  bom  at  Athens 
B.  C.  344,  and  to  have  opened  a  school  (or  rather 
a  garden)  where  he  propagated  his  tenets,  at  a 
time  when  the  doctrines  of  Zeno  had  already  ob- 
tained credit  and  currency.  ,  F.  W.  N. 

STOMACHEB  (stiim'ak'er),  (Heb.  'TJ?f,/^/A. 

eeg-eeF),  an  article  of  female  dress,  worn  as  an  or* 
nament  over  the  breast  (Is.  iii:24). 

STONE  (stsn),  (usually  Heb.  1??,  eh'bm ;  ^% 

sehlah,  lofty;  y^,  tsoor,  a  cliff;  Gr.  Xi^,  Ue'thos; 
xirpoifpefrost  large  stone;  \^0of,  psay'/os^  a  peb- 
ble). 

Palestine  is  a  stony  country,  and  it  was  often 
necessary  to  clear  a  field  of  stones  preparatory 
to  its  cultivation  (Is.  y:2).  An  enemy's  fields 
were  marred  by  throwing  stones  on  them,  and 
his  wells  were  choked  with  stones  (2  King^  iii: 

la  25).     ^ 

(1)  Kinds.  The  ordinary  stones  mentioned  as 
found  in  Palestine  (which  see)  are  chiefly  lime- 
stone (Is.  xxvii:9),  especially  marble  and  sand- 
stone; basalt  (Josephus,  Ant.,  viii.  7,  4)  ;  flint  and 
firestone  (2  Mace.  x:3). 


STONE 


1616 


STONE 


(2)  tTsea.  Stones  were  applied  in  ancient  Fries- 
tine  to  many  uses:  (i)  For  the  foundations, 
walls,  pillars,  and  pavements  of  the  statelier  class 
of  buildings  (see  Corner  Stone;  Palace).  For 
these  purposes  the  stone  was  hewn  and  sawn. 
The  Phoenicians  were  famed  for  their  skill  in  this 
work  (2  Sam.  v:ii).  Stones  of  very  large  size 
were  often  employed  (Mark  xiii:i).  (See  Jeru- 
salem.) The  walls  of  cities  were  often  built  of 
stone  (i  Kings  xv:22),  and  in  Herodian  times  at 
least  streets  were  paved  with  stone  (see  Towns). 
Aqueducts,  reservoirs,  bridges,  and  piers  were 
constructed  of  stone.  (2)  For  altars,  unhewn 
stones  being  employed  l^  the  Hebrews  (Exod. 
XX 125;  Josh.  viii:3i)  ;  for  walls  or  dikes  around 
fields  and  vineyards  (Prov.  xxiv:30,  31)  ;  bound- 
ary marks  (Deut.  xix:i4)  ;  pillars  commemorative 
of  persons  and  events  (see  Pillar;  comp.  Herod, 
ii,  106)  ;  and  probably  as  >yay  marks  ( Jer.  xxxi : 
21).  In  Roman  times  milestones  were  erected 
along  the  chief  public  highways.  They  are  still  to 
be  seen  on  the  road  between  Tyre  and  Sidon,  and 
between  Pella  and  Gerasa.  Stones,  both  in  their 
natural  state  and  graven,  served  as  idols  (Deut. 
xxix:i7;  2  Kings  xix:i8;  comp.  Is.  lvii:6);  and 
certain  stones,  called  in  Greek  baituloi  and  haitu- 
lia,  which  often  were,  if  not  always,  meteorites 
and  held  sacred  because  they  fell  from  heaven, 
have  been  worshiped  in  various  places  throughout 
Western  Asia.  An  etymological  connection  be- 
tween these  Greeks  words  and  beth'el  has  not  been 
established,  and  is  very  questionable.  (3)  For 
closing  the  mouth  of  cisterns  and  wells,  and  the 
entrance  of  tombs  (Cjen.  xxix:2;  Matt.  xxvii:6o), 
as  tablets  for  written  documents  (Exod.  xxiv:i2; 
Deut.  xxvii:4,  8),  in  mills  for  grinding  grain 
(xxiv:6).  (4)  In  slings  and  catapults  (i  Sam. 
xvii:40;  2  Chron.  xxvi:i5;  Wisd,  v:22;  i  Mace. 
vi:5i),  and  for  the  execution  of  criminals,  being 
hurled  by  the  witnesses  and  bystanders.  (5) 
Flints  were  used  for  striking  fire  (2  Mace.  x:3), 
and  were  shaped  into  rude  form  to  serve  as  knives 
(Josh.  v:2).  Weights  for  scales  were  often  cut 
out  of  stone  (Deut.  xxv:i3;  see  Weights  and 
Measures).  Heaps  of  stones  were  made  to  com- 
memorate an  event  (Gen.  xxxi  146) ,  or  to  mark 
the  grave  of  a  notorious  offender  (Josh.  vii:26; 
viii:29;  2  Sam.  xviii:i7) ;  a  custom  still  in  vogue 
in  Syria  and  Arabia,  but  not  restricted  to  the 
graves  of  evil  doers.  Limestone  was  crushed 
and  burned  to  secure  the  lime  (Is.  xxxiii:i2). 
(Davis,  Bib.  Diet).  (6)  Moses  forbids  the  He- 
brews to  set  up  in  their  country  any  stone  that  is 
exalted,  or  remarkable  (Lev.  xxvin).  The  text 
may  be  translated  by  "a  stone  for  sight;**  a 
landmark  that  stands  on  an  eminence,  or  in  some 
great  road,  to  be  seen  from  a  distance.  Strabo 
(lib.  xvii)  mentions  such  stones  on  the  highways 
in  Egypt;  and  he  says  also,  there  are  several  re- 
markable and  eminent  stones  upon  Libanus.  The 
Syrians  and  Egyptians  had  such  respect  for  them 
that  they  almost  adored  them.  They  anointed 
them  with  oil,  as  may  be  seen  in  Apuleius,  kissed 
and  saluted  them.  (7)  It  is  probable  that  this 
worship  is  what  Moses  intended  to  prohibit;  for 
heaps  of  stones,  raised  in  witness  of  memorable 
events,  and  to  preserve  the  remembrance  of  mat- 
ters of  great  importance,  are  the  most  ancient 
monuments  among  the  Hebrews.  In  early  ages, 
these  were  used  instead  of  inscriptions,  pyramids, 
medals  or  histories.  Jacob  and  Laban  raised  such 
a  monument  on  Mount  Gilead,  in  memory  of  their 
covenant  (Gen.  xxxi  145,  46).  Joshua  erected  one 
at  Gilgal,  of  stones  taken  out  of  the  Jordan,  to 
preserve  the  memorial  of  his  miraculous  passage 
(Josh.  iv:S-7),  and  the  Israelites  beyond  Jordan 
raised  one  on  the  banks  of  that  river,  as  a  testi- 


mony that  they  constituted  but  one  nation  with 
their  brethren  on  the  other  side  (Josh.  xxii:io). 

Figurative,  (i)  Stones  of  darkness^  are  those 
hid  deep  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth  (Job.  xxviii : 
3).  (2)  Daughters  of  a  family  are  likened  to 
polished  corner  stones,  to  mark  their  beauty  and 
their  usefulness  for  connecting  and  building  up 
families  (Ps.  cxliv:i2).  (3)  Hearts  stupid  and 
obstinate,  not  easily  impressed  by  the  word  or 
providence  of  God,  are  compared  to  stones  (Ezek. 
xi:iQ,  and  xxxvi:26;  i  Sam.  xxv:37;  Mark  iv: 
5,  i6j.  (4)  The  stone  crying  out  of  the^  wall,  and 
the  beam  answering  it,  denote  the  horrid  wicked- 
ness of  building  with  what  is  unjustly  procured 
(Hab.  ii:ii).  (5)  One  stone  not  left  upon  an- 
other, and  stones  of  emptiness,  and  scattered 
stones  spread  over  a  place,  denote  utter  desola- 
tion, and  the  turning  of  Idumea  into  a  barren 
rock  (Matt.  xxiv:2;  Is.  xxxiviii;  Ps.  cxli:6).  (6) 
A  gift  is  like  a  precious  stone;  it  is  highly  val- 
ued, and  tends  to  procure  for  us  what  we  wish 
(Prov.  xvii  :8) .  (7)  As  he  that  Undeth  a  stone  in 
a  sling  rendereth  it  unfit  for  being  thrown,  so, 
to  give  honor  to  a  fool  is  quite  unprofitable;  or 
it  is  as  useless  work  as  to  cast  a  precious  stone 
into  a  heap  of  stones;  or  it  is  as  ill-placed  as  a 
coarse  stone,  when  bound  up  in  a  piece  of  fine 
purple  cloth  (Prov.  xxvi:8).  (8)  Stone  denotes 
firmness,  strength  (Gen. xUx  124) ,  where  "the  stone 
of  Israel"  is  equivalent  to  "the  rock  of  Israel"  (2 
Sam.  xxiii:3;  Is.  xxviii  :i6).  (9)  Christ  is  called 
a  stone,  to  show  his  firmness  and  duration;  he 
is  the  foundation  stone  which  supports  the  whole 
church,  and  the  work  of  our  redemption  (Is. 
xxviii  :i6).  He  is  also  the  chief  corner  stone, 
which  connects  and  establishes  the  church  (Matt. 
xxi:42;  Eph.  ii:i5,  20).  He  is  a  precious  stone; 
infinite  in  glory,  excellency,  and  usefulness;  he 
is  a  tried  stone,  proved  by  his  Father,  and  by  his 
people,  and  by  fiery  sufferings,  and  yet  no  fault 
or  deficiency  found  in  him;  he  is  a  chosen  or 
elect  stone  chosen  by  the  Father  to  be  our  Medi- 
ator, valuable  in  himself,  and  chosen  by  the  saints 
in  the  day  of  his  power;  he  is  a  living  stone; 
has  all  life  in  himself,  and  gives  to  his  people 
the  beginning,  continuance,  and  perfection  of  their 
life  (Rev.  xxi:ii;  Is.  xxviii :i6;  i  Pet.  ii:4). 
He  is  to  many  a  stumbling  stone,  and  rock  of 
offense  (Is.  viii:i4,  15;  i  Pet.  ii:8;  Matt,  xxi: 
44).  He  and  his  church  are  a  little  stone  cut 
out  of  the  mountain  without  hands,  and  increas- 
ing into  a  mountain  that  filled  the  whole  earth. 
He  was  born  of  a  virgin,  and  appeared  in  a  low 
condition;  but  his  glory  will  gradually  increase, 
until  it  shall  fill  the  whole  earth;  his  Christian 
church,  small  at  first,  will  gradually  multiply  un- 
til it  shall  extend  over  the  whole  globe  (Dan. 
ii:44).  (10)  The  saints  are  lively  stones;  they 
are  hardy  and  durable,  and  are  united  to  Christ 
as  their  foundation,  quickened  by  his  Spirit,  and 
active  in  his  service  (Eph.  ii:20-22;  i  Pet.  ii:5). 
(11)  The  precious  stones,  foundations  of  the 
New  Jerusalem,  denote  Jesus  Christ  preached  by 
the  twelve  Apostles,  and  as  the  foundation  of  his 
church  and  people,  in  his  various  and  unnumbered 
excellencies  (Rev.  xxi  119,20).  (12)  The  precious 
stones  on  the  shoulder  of  the  high-priest,  and 
those  fixed  in  his  breastplate,  denoted  the  saints 
of  Jews  and  Gentiles,  precious  and  honorable  by 
the  grace  of  God  (Exod.  xxviii  :ii,  17-21).  (13) 
The  white  stone  mentioned  in  Rev.  ii:i7  has  been 
variously  interpreted :  (a)  One  of  the  stone  tab- 
lets, written  with  the  name  of  a  person,  which 
were  used  in  some  methods  of  casting  the  lot.  (b) 
The  stone  or  bean,  bearing  the  name  of  a  candi- 
date, which  was  cast  at  elections  in  Greece,  (c) 
The  pebble  of  acquittal  used  in  Greek  courts. 


STONING 


1616 


STORK 


(d)  The  ticket  presented  to  the  victor  at  the 
Olympic  games,  (e)  The  instructions  which  the 
Roman  emperors  caused  to  be  thrown  to  victori- 
ous contestants  in  the  arena.  And  best  (f),  a 
small  stone,  a  common  writing  material,  white  to 
symbolize  the  heavenly  character  of  the  victorious 
believer,  and  marked  with  the  name  bestowed  as 
sign  and  seal  of  his  future  glory. 

STONING  (Heb.  ^V^,saw'kar,  a  primitive  root; 

properly  to  be  weighty)  was  the  most  general 
punishment  inflicted  on  notorious  criminals,  and 
is  usually  meant  where  no  other  description  of 
capital  punishment  is  expressly  mentioned,  as  in 
Lev.  XX  :2. 

Idolaters,  blasphemers,  Sabbath-breakers,  in- 
cestuous persons,  and  stubborn  or  rebellious  chil- 
dren were  liable  to  it.  The  culprit  was  led  out 
of  the  city,  and,  as  some  have  supposed,  was 
bound.  The  witnesses  against  him  were  required 
to  commence  the  work  of  death,  and  probably  they 
divested  themselves  of  clothing  that  it  might  be 
done  more  effectually  (Acts  vii:58).  At  the 
murder  of  Stephen  they  committed  the  custody 
of  their  clothes  to  Saul,  who  was  not  improbably, 
from  his  talents  and  ardor,  a  ringleader  of  the 
mob  and  one  of  the  most  violent  of  the  perse- 
cutors, and  the  multitude  followed  the  example 
of  the  leaders  until  the  victim  was  beaten  to 
death.  The  Rabbinical  writers  say  that  the  first 
stone  was  cast  by  one  of  the  witnesses  on  the 
chest  of  the  convict;  and  if  this  failed  to  cause 
death  the  bystanders  proceeded  to  complete  the 
sentence. 

Some  think  that  the  frequent  taking  up  of 
stones  by  the  Jews  to  throw  at  our  Savior,  and 
the  stoning  of  Stephen  (Acts  vii:59),  and  of 
Paul  (Acts  xiviip),  were  vestiges  of  a  punish- 
ment called  the  "rebels*  beating,"  inflicted  by  the 
mob,  with  fists,  staves,  or  stones,  on  the  excite- 
ment of  the  moment  (Schaff,  Bib,  Diet.)  (See 
Punishments.) 

STOOL  (stool),  (Heb.  13^,  o'ben,  a  pair  of  stones), 

a  seat  for  women  in  childbirth,  to  promote  their 
delivery  (Exod.  i:i6).  The  same  word  is  translated 
wheels;  or  2l  frame  for  a  potter  (Jer.  xviii:3). 

STOBAX  (st5'raks),  (Gr.  ZriJpa^,  stu'rax). 

This  tree  is  a  native  of  Greece,  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  and  Palestine,  and  is  about  twenty  feet 
high,  with  leaves  like  those  of  the  quince,  and 
flowers  somewhat  resembling  those  of  the  orange. 
Storax  was,  and  is  still,  much  esteemed,  both 
as  an  incense  and  for  its  medical  properties.  It 
consists  chiefly  of  resin,  a  volatile  oil,  and  some 
Benzoic  acid.  It  has  a  grateful  balsamic  odor, 
which  no  doubt  made  it  valued  in  ancient  times 
(Gen.  XXX 137,  marg.). 

STOBE  CITY  (star'  stt'J),  (Heb.  n*:?5P  ^^V. 

eer  mis-ken-dth*,  Exod.  i:ii;  2  Chron.  xxxii:28; 
xvi:4  ;  xvii :  12 ;  viii  -.4-6 ;  i  Kings  ix  :  ig),  a  city 
of  deposit  for  merchandise. 

STOBEHOTTSE  (stdr'hous'),  a  treasury  (i  Chron. 
xxvii:25;  Ps.  xxxiii-.y;  Mai.  iii:io),  or  jDlace  for 
storing  provisions  (Deut.  xxviii:8),and  grain  (Exod. 
i:ii;  2  Chron.  xxxii:28;  Lukexii:24).  Joseph  built 
storehouses  in  Egypt  (Gen.  xli:48,  49),  for  the  se- 
curity and  management  of  which  troops  of  porters, 
storeKeepers,  and  accountants  were  employed.  In 
the  east  the  granary  was  usually  under  ground 
(Jer.  1:26;  comp.  Ex.  1:1 1;  Luke  xii:24). 

STOBK  (8t6rk),  (Heb.  '"^7?^,  khas-ee-daw*, 
affection,  piety,  mercy,  gratitude). 

This  name  results  from  a  belief,  general  through 
all  ancient  Asia,  in  the  attachment  of  these  birds 
to  each  other;  of  the  young  towards  the  old,  and 


of  the  parents  towards  their  young.    But  the  lat 
ter  part  of  this  opinion  is  alone  verified  by  the 
moderns,  in  cases  where  the  mother  bird  has  per- 
ished while  endeavoring  to  save  her  progeny. 


Stork. 

Storks  are  about  a  foot  less  in  height  than 
the  crane,  measuring  only  three  feet  six  inches 
from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the  end  of  the  toes,  and 
nearly  the  same  to  the  end  of  the  tail.  They  have 
a  stout,  pointed,  and  rather  long  bill,  which,  to- 
gether with  their  long  legs,  is  of  a  bright  scarlet 
color;  the  toes  are  partially  webbed,  the  nails 
at  the  extremities  flat,  and  but  little  pointed  be- 
yond the  tips  of  the  joints.  The  orbits  are  black- 
ish, but  the  whole  bird  is  white,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  scapulars,  the  greater  wing  covers, 
and  all  the  quills,  which  are  deep  black;  they 
are  doubly  scalloped  out,  with  those  nearest  the 
body  almost  as  long  as  the  very  foremost  in  the 
wing.  This  is  a  provision  of  nature,  enabling 
the  bird  more  effectually  to  sustain  its  after 
weight  in  the  air,  a  faculty  exceedingly  important 
to  its  mode  of  flight,  with  its  long  neck,  and 
longer  legs  equally  stretched  out,  and  very  neces- 
sary to  a  migrating  species  believed  to  fly  without 
alighting  from  the  lower  Rhine,  or  even  from  the 
vicinity  of  Strasburg,  to  Africa  and  to  the  Delta 
of  the  Nile.  The  passage  is  performed  in  Octo- 
ber, and,  like  that  of  cranes,  in  single  or  in  double 
columns,  uniting  in  a  point  to  cleave  the  air;  but 
their  departure  is  seldom  seen,  because  they  start 
generally  in  the  nrght;  they  rise  always  with 
clapping  wings,  ascending  with  surprising  rapidity 
out  of  human  sight,  and  arriving  at  their  southern 
destination  as  if  by  enchantment.  Here  they  re- 
side until  the  last  days  of  March,  vhen  they 
again  depart  for  the  north,  but  more  leisurely 
and  less  congregated.  A  feeling  of  attachment, 
not  without  superstition,  procures  them  an  un- 
molested life  in  all  Moslem  countries,  and  a  no- 
tion of  their  utility  still  protects  them  in  Switzer- 
land, Western  Germany,  and  particularly  in  Hol- 
land. The  storks  build  their  nests  in  pine,  fir, 
cedar,  and  other  coniferous  trees,  but  seem  to  pre- 
fer lofty  old  buildings,  towers,  and  ruins  (Ps. 
civ:  17).  With  regard  to  the  snake-eating  habits 
of  the  species,  however,  the  chief  resort  of  storks, 
for  above  half  the  year,  is  in  climates  where  ser- 
pents do  not  abound;  and  they  seem  at  all  times 
to  prefer  eels,  frogs,  toads,  newts,  and  lizards; 
which  sufficiently  accounts  for  their  being  regard- 
ed as  unclean  (perhaps  no  bird  sacred  in  Egypt 
was  held  clean  by  the  Hebrew  law).  Storks  feed 
also  on  field  mice ;  but  they  do  not  appear  to  relish 
rats,  though  they  break  their  bones  by  repeated 
blows  of  their  bills.  They  fly  high  (Jer.  viii  7), 
with  a  rushing  noise  (Zech.  vrp).  C.  H.  S. 


STORY 


1617 


SULPHUR 


STOBY  (sto'ry).  (Heb.*7??,  midrawsh,  2  Chron. 

xiii:22),  history.  R.  V., "  commentary."  "As  many 
as  know  story  or  have  any  experience.** — The 
Translators  to  the  reader. 

STRAIGHT  STBEET  (strat  stret),  (Gr.  ^^^la 
eMeuLf  hroo*mah  yoo-thfyah), 

A  street  of  Damascus  on  which  was  the  house 
of  Judas,  where  Ananias  visited  Paul  (Acts  ix: 
II).  It  still  exists  as  Straight  Street,  or  Derb  el- 
Mustakim,  which  is  a  narrow  lane  extending  from 
the  East  gate.  It  was  about  a  mile  long  and  a 
hundred  feet  wide. 

STRAIN  (stran),  (Gr.  divXI^m,  dee-oo-lid*  zo.  Matt. 
xxiii:24,  from  hoo-lid'BO,  to  filter).  The  early  ver- 
sions of  Coverdale,  Tyndale,  and  the  Geneva  had 
it  •* strain  out,**  not " strain  at"  a  gnat. 

STRAITLY  (str§t'lj^),  (Gr.  ^.tttCkh^ap-ulay,  Acts 
iv:i7),  strictly,  severely. 

STRANGER  (stran'jer).  A  stranger  in  the 
Mosaic  law,  and  in  the  Old  Testament  generally, 
means  one  not  of  Israelitish  descent  dwelling  with 
the  Hebrews,  as  distinguished  from  a  foreigner 
temporarily  visiting  the  land  (Exod.  xx:io;  Lev. 
xvi:29;  xvii:8;  2  Sam.  i:i3;  Ezek.  xiv:7).  The 
stranger  was  not  a  full  citizen,  yet  he  had  recog- 
nized rights  and  duties.  He  was  under  the  protec- 
tion of  Grod,  and  the  Israelites  were  charged  to 
treat  him  kindly  (Lev.  xix:33,  34;  Deut.  x:i8, 
19).  His  rights  were  guarded  bv  injunctions  in 
the  law  (Exod.  xxii:2i;  xxiiirp).  When  poor, 
he  enjoyed  the  same  privileges  as  the  Hebrew 
poor  (Deut.  xxivrip,  20).     (See  Foreigner.) 

STRANGLE  (strSLnVl),  (Heb.  P^?,  khawnak', 
to  choke;  Gr.  trHyw^pnee^o,  Actsxv:2o). 
STRAW  (stra),  (Heb.  m,  teh'ben).    Wheat  and 

barley  straw  were  used  as  fodder  for  stock  (Gen. 
xxiv:25;  i  Kings  iv:28;  Is.xi:7;  lxv:25).  Straw  was 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  bricks  by  the  Egyp- 
tians (Exod.  v:7,  16),  being  ch(^ped  and  mixed 
with  clay. 

STRAWED  (strad),  (Gr.  <rr/>wrn$w,  strone-noo*o. 
Matt.  xxi:8,  scatter,  spread). 

STREAM  OF  EGYPT  (strem  6v  e'jjfpt),  (Is. 
:;xvii:i2).    See  River  of  Egypt. 

STREETS  (strets).   See  Towns. 

STRIKE  (strik),  (Heb.  Pj,  navf-than*,  Exod. 
xii:7),  to  smear  or  rub. 

STRIKER  (strik'er),  (Gr.  TXi)icri|f,  plake'tace, 
one  who  is  pugnacious,  i  Tim.  iii:3;  Tit.  i:7). 

STRINGED  INSTRX7MENTS  (stiingd  Yn'stru- 
m^ts).    See  Musical  Instruments. 

STRIPES  (strips).    See  Punishments. 

STRONG  DRINK  (str6ng  drYnk).  See  Drink, 
Strong. 

STOBBLE  (sttib'bl),  (Heb.  *R,  kash,  dry),  the 

dry  grain  left  standing  in  the  field  (Exod.  v:i2). 
This  was  sometimes  burned  over  (Exod.  xv:7;  Is. 
v:24;  Toel  ii:5).  In  threshing  it  was  separated 
from  the  grain  (Job  xiii:25;  xliiaS;  Ps.  Ixxxiii:i3; 
Is.  xl:24),  and  sometimes  used  for  provender  (Job 
xxi:i8).  The  stalks  from  which  grain  had  been 
removed  were  also  called  stubble  (i  Cor.iii:i2). 

STT7MBIJNG-BL0CK  (stiim'blYng-bl5k). 

1.  (Heb.  ^^^?9,  mik'ShoU\  obstacle),  any  object 

over  which  one  might  trip  the  foot,  and  hence  the 
cause  of  ruin  or  disgust  (is.  Ivii:i4;  Jer.  vi:2i;  Ezek. 
vii:i9,  etc.),  or  an  tdol  (Zeph.  1:3),  u  e.  an  incite- 
ment to  apostasy. 

8.  Neh'ghef  (Heb.   T35,  tripping),  a  cause  of 
stumbling  (Is.  viii:i4). 
102 


8.  Pros'kom-mah  (Gr.  irphaKomia),  an  obstacle 
against  which,  if  one  strike  his  foot,  he  necessarily 
falls;  figuratively,  that  over  which  the  soul  stum'' 
bles  into  sin  (i  Cor.  viii:9).  To  put  a  stumbling 
block  in  another's  way  is  figuratively  to  furnish  a 
provocation  to  sin  (i  Cor.  viii:9;  Rom.  xiv:i3;  ix 
32,  33;  I  Pet.  ii:8).    (See  Stone,  Figurative  10.) 

STT7MP  (stiimp).  (Heb.  "^i2A?,  ik-kar'),  is  used  of 

a  tree  cut  down,  but  still  able  to  sprout  again  (Dan. 
iv:i5,  23,  26;  comp.  i  Sam.  V4). 

StTAH  (su'ah),  (Heb.  0'®,  soo'akh),  a  descend- 

ant,  or  son,  of  Zophah,  and  head  of  a  house  of 
Asher  (i  Chron.  vii:36. 

SUBSTANCE  (sfib'stans),  (Gr.  (hra^tr,  hoop'* 
arx-is,  Heb.  x:34,  property). 

SUBXTRBS  (siib'arbs),  (Heb.  ^^?0,mig'rawsA'). 

A  place  where  cattle  were  driven  to  graze,  an^ 
in  the  Levitical  cities  a  place  set  apart  for  this 
purpose  (Lev.  xxv:34;  Num.  xxxv:3;  xxxv:s; 
Josh.  xxi:ii;  i  Chron.  vi:55).  It  also  meant 
an  open  space  about  a  buildring  or  city  (Ezek. 
xxvii:28;  xlv:2;  xlviii:i7). 

StrOOOTH  (siik'koth),  (Heb.  ^^,  sook'kohtk\ 
booths;  Sept.  2ocx<^«  sofc-koth), 

1*  The  first  encampment  of  the  Israelites  on  the 
Ej^ptian  side  of  the  Red  Sea  (Exod.  xii:37; 
xiii:20;  Num.  xxxiii:5).  (See  Exoous.)  It  is 
no  doubt  a  Hebrew  form  of  the  Egyptian  Thuku, 
the  civil  city  surrounding  the  sacred  buildings  of 
Pithom. 

2.  A  town  in  the  tribe  of  Gad  (Josh.  xiii:27), 
on  the  east  of  the  Jordan  ( Judg.  viii  :5 ;  i  Kings 
vii:46).  The  spot  in  which  the  town  stood  is 
called  'the  Valley  of  Succoth,'  and  must  have 
been  part  of  the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  The  place 
derived  its  name  from  Jacob  having  tarried  some 
time  there  on  his  return  from  Padan-aram,  and 
made  booths  for  his  cattle  (Gen.  xxxiii:i7).  The 
brass  foundries  for  making  the  ornaments  for 
the  temple  were  built  here  (i  Kings  vii:46;  2 
CThPon.  iv:i7).  Gideon  was  brought  to  a  stand 
here  when  pursuing  the  Midianites  (Judg.  viii:5, 
8,  14-16).  The  place  is  mentioned  in  Ps.  lx:o; 
cviii:7). 

8X7CCOTH-BENOTH  (siik'koth-bS'noth),  (Heb. 
ni:2  niSD   sook-kohtk*  ben-ohth\  booth  of  daugh- 

ters),  an  idol  set  up  in  Samaria  by  the  men  brought 
from  Assyria  (2  Kmgs  xvii:30). 

STTOHATHITE  (sQ-kath-Ite),  (Heb.  ^'^^,  soo- 

kaW'thee*),  evidently  a  descendant  of  some  man 
by  the  name  of  Suchah,  and  one  of  the  families  of 
scribes  living  at  Jabez  (i  Chron.  ii:55). 

STJKKmC  (siik'ki-Im),  (Heb.  D'*!??,  sook-kee- 
yeem'). 

A  race  mentioned  as  associated  with  the  Cushim 
and  Ltfbim  in  the  army  which  Shishak  brought 
against  Judah  in  the  days  of  Rehoboam  (2  (Thron. 
xii:3).  They  were  probably  an  African  race. 
According  to  the  LXX,  they  were  Troglod3rtes, 
living  on  both  sides  of  the  Red  Sea,  whose  dwell- 
ings have  been  compared  to  the  catacombs  of 
Naples. 

SX7LPHX7R  (siirfiir),   (Heb.  ^^^^,  gof-reetk*, 

from  *^B|,  gaw-far*,  to  cover;  whence  *^^\  go'fer. 

Gen.  vi:i4,  which  Gesenius  renders  "pitch,"  such 
as  the  pine,  etc.)  is  understood!  to  mean  not  only 
pitch,  but  some  other  inflammable  substances, 
specially  sulphur.  Gof-reeth'  is  generally  and 
properly    rendered   sulphur   (brimstone);    while 


SUMMER 


1618 


SUNDAY 


pitch  is  denoted  by  two  Hebrew  words,  "^5^,  ko*' 

/5rr(Gen.  vi:i4)  and  ^X^  zeh'feth)^  £xod.  ii:3;  Is. 

xxxiv:9).  Of  these  the  former  probably  refers 
to  vegetable  pitch  and  resin,  as  above,  and  the 
latter  to  mineral  pitch  and  asphalt,  though  this 
distinction  is  not  assured. 

The  passage  last  cited  shows  clearly  the  use  of 
zeh'feth  for  mineral  pitch  (asphalt),  to  depict  a 
barren  region,  like  tlie  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
associated  also,  as  there,  with  gof-reeth',  sulphur. 

Sulphur  (brimstone)  in  the  Old  Testament  is 
repeatedly  used  to  convey  this  idea  of  barrenness 
and  desolation,  evidently  from  its  Association  with 
the  Dead  Sea;  so,  definitely,  Deut.  xxix:23,  also 
Is.  xxxiv:9,  and  probably  Job  xviii:i5.  Tristram, 
Lynch,  and  others  describe  its  occurrence  around 
the  lake  and  in  the  valleys  leading  into  it.  In 
some  places  it  occurs  with  bitumen,  for  which  the 
Dead  Sea  region  is  noted  from  very  early  times 
((jen.  xiv:io) — ^an  unusual  association,  but  known 
also  near  Bologna,  Italy.  Sulphur  is  also  referred 
to  in  the  Old  Testament  in  the  combination  "fire 
and  brimstone,"  in  connection  with  the  violent 
storms  ((jen.  xix:24;  Ps.  xi:6;  Ezek.  xxxviii: 
22).  The  idea  here  has,  no  doubt,  been  justly 
interpreted  as  referring  to  lightning  (Is.  xxx: 
33).  The  same  combination  of  (iri^p  Kal  ecibp)  recurs 
in  the  New  Testament  (Luke  xviiiap;  Rev.  ix: 
17;  xiv:io;  xix:20;  xx:io;  xxi:8),  the  translation 
of  a  familiar  Hebrew  phrase.  (Barnes*  Bib.  Diet.) 
(See  Cities  of  the  Plain.) 

ST7MMEB  (stim'mer).    See  Palestine. 

SUN  (Heb.  ^?#,  shehnush,  to  be  brilliant), 

the  ^reat  luminary  which  God  created  at  the  be- 
ginnmg  to  govern  the  day. 

Sunrise  and  sunset  are  the  only  defined  points 
of  time  in  the  absence  of  artificial  contrivances  for 
telling  the  hour  of  the  day.  Between  these  two 
points  the  Jews  recognized  three  periods,  viz., 
when  the  sun  became  hot,  about  9  a.  m.  ( i  Sam. 
xiig;  Neh.  vii:3)  ;  the  double  light  or  noon  (Gen. 
xliii:i6;  2  Sam.  ivis),  and  "the  cool  of  the  day,* 
shortly  before  sunset  (Gen.  iii:8).  The  sun  also 
served  to  fix  the  quarters  of  the  hemisphere,  east, 
west,  north,  and  south,  which  were  represented 
respectively  by  the  rising  sun,  the  setting  sun 
(Is.  xlv:6;  Ps.  l:i),  the  dark  quarter  (Gen. 
xiii:i4;  Joel  ii:2o),  and  the  brilliant  quarter 
(Deut.  xxxiii  :23 ;  Job  xxxvii  :i7 ;  Ezek.  xl  124) ; 
or  otherwise  by  their  position  relative  to  a  person 
facing  the  rising  sun — before,  behind,  on  the  left 
hand,  and  on  the  right  hand  (Job  xxiii  :8,  9). 

The  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  is  frequently 
referred  to  in  terms  that  would  imply  its  reality 
(Josh.  x:i3;  2  Kings  xx:ii;  Ps.  xix:6;  Eccles. 
i:S;  Hab.  iiirii). 

It  was  the  sun  (Gen.  i:i4-i6)  which  the  Phoe- 
nicians worshiped  under  the  name  of  Baal,  the 
Moabites  under  that  of  Chemosh,  the  Ammonites 
under  that  of  Moloch,  the  Israelites  under  that  of 
Baal,  and  king  of  the  host  of  heaven.  Moses  cau- 
tioned the  Israelites  against  this  species  of  idola- 
try (Deut.  iv:i9).  In  Deut.  xvii:3,  he  condemns 
to  death  those  perverted  to  worship  strange  gods, 
the  sun,  the  moon,  etc. ;  and  Josiah  took  from  the 
temple  of  the  Lord  the  horses,  and  burned  the 
chariots,  which  the  kings  his  predecessors  had 
consecrated  to  the  sun  (2  Kings  xxiii:ii).  Job 
says  (xxxi  :26-28) ,  he  looked  on  it  as  a  g^r^at 
crime,  and  as  renouncing  the  God  that  is  above,  to 
kiss  his  hand  in  token  of  adoration,  when  he  be- 
held the  sun  in  its  beauty  and  splendor.  Ezekiel 
(viii:i6)  saw  in  the  Spirit,  in  the  temple  of  the 
Lord,  five  and  twenty  men  of  Judah,  who  turned 


their  backs  on  the  sanctuary,  and  had  their  faces 
towards  the  east,  worshiping  the  rising  sun. 

Worship  of  the  Sun.  When  the  Hebrews 
came  into  Canaan  they  encountered  many  forms 
of  idolatry  connected  with  sun  worship,  and 
before  they  left  Egypt  they  must  have  known  of 
this  form  of  idolatry,  which  had  its  chief  seat  at 
On  ((jen.  xli:45).  The  Arabians  appear  to  have 
worshiped  the  sun  without  the  intervention  of  any 
idol  (Job  xxxi:26,  27).  It  is  doubtful  if  it  was 
adopted  by  the  Jews  as  a  form  of  worship  during 
their  early  history,  but  later  it  became  of  some 
importance,  judging  from  the  fact  that  the  horses 
were  kept  in  the  precincts  of  the  Temple  (2  Kings 
xxiii  :ii). 

Figurative*  The  sun  furnishes  the  greater 
part  of  the  noble  similitudes  used  by  the  sacred 
authors,  who,  to  represent  great  public  calamity, 
speak  of  the  sun  as  being  obscured,  etc.  (see  Is. 
xiii:io;  xxiv:23;  Jer.  xv:9;  Ezek.  xxxii:7;  Joel 
ii:3i;  Amos  vih:9).  To  express  a  long  continu- 
ance of  an3rthing  glorious  and  illustrious,  it  is 
said,  it  shall  eontinue  as  long  as  the  sun.  So  the 
reign  of  the  Messiah  (Ps.  Ixxiiii/;  lxxxix:36), 
under  whose  happy  dominion  the  light  of  the 
moon  shall  equal  that  of  the  sun,  and  that  of  the 
sun  be  seven  times  more  than  ordinary  (Is.  xxx: 
26).  Christ  is  called  the  Sun  of  righteousness 
(Mai.  iv:2).  It  is  also  used  figuratively  of  Christ's 
glory  (Matt.  xvii:2;  Rev.  i:i6;  x:i)  ;  of  supreme 
rulers  (Gen.  xxxvii  19). 

SUNDAY  or  LOBD'S  DAY. 

(1)  Name  and  Change  of  the  Day.  Sunday 
is  the  first  day  of  the  week,  adopted  by  the  first 
Christians  from  the  Roman  calenaar  (Lat.  Dies  Salts, 
Day  of  the  Sun) ,  because  it  was  dedicated  to  the 
worship  of  the  sun.  The  Christians  reinterpreted 
the  heathen  name  as  implying  the  Sun  of  Right- 
eousness, with  reference  to  this  "rising"  (Mai. 
iv:2).  It  was  also  called  Dies  Panis  (Day  of 
Bread),  because  it  was  an  early  custom  to  break 
bread  on  that  day.  In  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve 
it  is  called  the  "  Lord's  Day  of  the  Lord"  {KvpiaKiiv 
d€  Kvplov), 

(2)  Sanctity  and  Ground  of  Observance.   It 

seems  impossible  to  doubt  that  from  the  earliest 
existence  of  the  church  the  Lord's  day  was  ob- 
served as  the  characteristic  Christian  festival,  hal- 
lowed as  a  commemoration  of  that  Resurrection 
of  the  Lord,  which  was  the  leading  subject  in  the 
earliest  forms  of  Christian  preaching.  To  this 
primary  consecration  of  the  day  was  added  a  sec- 
ond, in  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost,  which  in  that  year  fell  on  the  first 
day  of  the  week. 

"  'Jesus  and  the  resurrection'  was  the  burden 
of  the  apostolic  preaching.  Hence  the  recollec- 
tion of  the  day  of  the  resurrection  was  so  indelibly 
impressed  upon  the  hearts  of  the  first  disciples 
that  on  its  return  they  came  together  to  pray  and 
to  recall  the  memory  of  the  Lord  by  breaking  of 
bread  and  the  celebration  of  the  eucharist.  It 
was  the  dictate  of  the  glowing  love  for  (Thrist, 
whose  followers  they  delighted  to  be  Reckoned. 

.  .  .  We  fail  to  find  the  slightest  trace  of  a 
law  or  apostolic  edict  instituting  the  observance 
of  the  'day  of  the  Lord  ;*  nor  is  there  in  the  Scrip- 
tures an  intimation  of  a  substitution  of  this  for  the 
Jewish  Sabbath.  The  primal  idea  of  the  Jewish 
Sabbath  was  cessation  of  labor,  rest;  the  trans- 
ference of  this  idea  to  the  first  day  of  the  week 
does  not  appear  in  the  teachings  of  Christ  nor 
of  his  apostles;  nor  in  the  Council  of  Jerusalem, 
when  the  most  important  decisions  are  reached 
relative  to  the  ground  of  union  of  Tewish  and 
Gentile  Christians,  is  one  word  found  respecting 


SUNDAY 


1619 


SUPERSTITIOUS 


the  observance  of  the  Sabbath.  Contrariwise, 
Paul  distinctly  warns  against  the  imposition  of 
burdens  upon  the  Church  respecting  days,  but 
declares  for  a  conscientious  freedom  in  these  ob- 
servances. 'Let  every  man  be  fully  persuaded  in 
his  own  mind'  (Rom.  xiv:5,  6).  Still  more 
strongly  does  he  upbraid  the  Galatian  church  for 
putting  itself  again  in  bondage  to  the  weak  and 
beggarly  elements,  as  days,  months,  times,  and 
years;  while  in  his  letter  to  the  Colossians  (ii:i6, 
i?)  he  speaks  of  the  entire  abolition  of  the  Jewish 
Sabbath.^' 

It  is  likelv  that  in  this  case,  as  in  so  many 
others,  the  close  of  the  apostolic  age  was  a  period 
of  rapid  development  of  formal  church  ordinance. 
The  existence  in  A.  D.  170  of  a  regular  treatise 
on  the  subject  by  Melito,  bishop  of  Sardis  (see 
Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl,  iv,  26) ,  connected  apparently 
with  the  Paschal  controversy,  seems  plainly  indi- 
cative of  such  a  development.  The  well-known 
passage  of  Justin  Martyr  in  his  Apology,  de- 
scribes how  "on  the  day  called  Sunday"  there  was 
a  religious  assembly  of  those  who  dwelt  either  in 
the  cities  or  in  the  country.  It  notes  the  chief 
points  of  an  established  service — viz.  the  reading 
of  the  Apostles  or  the  Prophets,  the  sermon,  the 
prayers,  the  partaking  of  the  bread  and  wine  con- 
secrated by  thanksgiving  and  prayers,  and  the  giv- 
ing of  alms,  containing  the  germ  of  the  clearly  an- 
cient liturgfies.  Nor  is  it  possible  to  doubt  that 
this  celebration  had  become  so  marked  as  to.  im- 
press the  mind  of  the  heathen  with  the  distinctive 
character  of  the  status  dies  of  Pliny's  famous  let- 
ter to  Trajan.    (Smith,  Diet.  Chrn.  Antiq.) 

Justin  Martyr,  in  his  dialogue  with  the  Jew 
Tryphon,  who  taunts  the  Christians  with  having 
no  festivals  nor  Sabbaths,  clearly  claims  that  Sun- 
day is  to  them  a  new  Sabbath,  and  that  the  entire 
Mosaic  law  has  been  abrogated  (Cum.  Try  ph., 
chapters  10,  11).  The  new  law  binding  upon 
Christians  regards  every  day  as  a  Sabbath,  instead 
of  passing  one  day  in  rest  or  absolute  idleness. 

"With  respect  to  the  strictness  with  which  the 
first  day  of  the  week  was  observed  during  the  first 
three  centuries,  the  following  facts  are  important 
to  notice :  Between  the  death  of  the  apostles  and 
the  edict  of  Milan,  the  Lord's  Day  was  sanctified 
by  a  Church  unrecognized  by  the  State  and  ex- 
posed to  opposition  and  sometimes  to  bitter  perse- 
cution. The  motive  for  its  observance  was,  there- 
fore, purely  moral  and  religious.  The  social  posi- 
tion of  the  early  Church,  drawing  its  members  for 
the  most  part  from  the  poorer  artisans,  traders, 
and  slaves,  forbade  the  strict  and  general  keeping 
of  the  Lord's  Day,  much  more  of  both  the  Sabbath 
and  Sunday.  Thus  the  universal  hallowing  of  the 
day  of  resurrection  was  impossible"  (Bennett, 
Christ.  Areh.,  p.  444,  sq.). 

(3)  Legal  Observance.  In  the  midst  of  the 
corrupt  influence  of  heathenism  and  the  growing 
indifference  of  the  Church,  it  was  thought  neces- 
sary to  bring  some  stress  of  authority  upon  the 
Christian  conscience  to  hold  it  to  the  faithful  ob- 
servance of  the  first  day,  as  the  Jews  had  known 
the  power  of  a  positive  enactment  in  keeping  them 
steadfast  in  the  hallowing  of  their  Sabbath.  "The 
constant  temptation  of  the  Christians  to  attend 
upon  the  heathen  spectacles  and  festivities  could, 
-in  the  case  of  such  whose  piety  was  low,  no 
longer,  as  at  first,  be  broken  by  considerations  of 
the  high  privileges  of  Christian  worship  and  of 
the  commemoration  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ, 
but  the  restraints  coming  from  a  quasi  legal  enact- 
ment were  found  to  be  more  and  more  necessary" 
(ibid.,  p.  450). 

(4)  ConcluBions  Regarding  the  Observano 
of  Sunday,     (i)  The  Lord's  day  must  be  re- 


garded as  a  festival,  coeval  with  the  existence  of 
Christianity  itself — growing  up  naturally  from  the 
apostles'  time,  gradually  assuming  the  character 
of  the  one  distinctively  Christian  festival,  and 
drawing  to  itself,  as  by  an  irresistible  gravitation, 
the  periodical  rest,  which  is  enjoined  in  the  fourth 
commandment  on  grounds  applicable  to  man  as 
man,  and  which  was  provided  for  under  the 
Mosaic  law  by  the  special  observance  of  the  Sab- 
bath. (2)  The  idea  of  the  Lord's  day  is  wholly 
distinct  from  that  of  the  Sabbath,  never  for  a 
moment  confused  with  it  in  the  early  church,  in 
which,  indeed,  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath  long 
survived,  sometimes  as  a  festival,  sometimes  as  a 
fast.  Wherever  rest  is  associated  with  it,  such 
rest  is  invariably  regarded  as  entirely  secondary, 
as  simply  a  mfeans  to  a  higher  end.  Accordingly 
the  original  regulation  of  observances  connected 
with  the  Lord's  day  is  positive  and  not  negative, 
and  directed  by  principle  rather  than  by  formal 
rule.  (3)  The  tendency  to  sabbatize  the  Lord's 
day  is  due  chiefly  to  the  necessities  of  legal  en- 
forcement— first,  as  exemplified  in  the  series  of 
imperial  laws,  then  in  the  decrees  of  councils, 
generallv  backed  by  the  secular  power — dealing 
inevitably  in  prohibition  more  than  in  injunction, 
and  so  tending  to  emphasize  negative  instead  of 
positive  observance.  For  such  enactments  the 
law  of  the  Old  Testament  "mutatis  mutandis** 
became  naturally  a  model,  and  the  step  was  an 
easy  one,  from  regarding  it  as  a  model  to  taking 
it  as  an  authority.  (4)  The  direct  connection 
however,  of  such  observance  with  the  obligation  of 
the  fourth  commandment  can  claim  no  scriptural 
and  no  high  ecclesiastical  authority.  Either  the 
observation  of  that  commandment  is  expressly  de- 
clared to  be  figurative  (consisting  of  rest  from 
sin,  rest  enjoyed  in  Christ,  and  rest  foreseen  in 
heaven),  or  careful  distinction  is  made  between 
the  moral  obligation  of  religious  observance  in 
general,  and  the  positive  obligation,  now  passed 
away,  to  keep  the  Sabbath  in  particular,  The 
notion  of  connecting  it  with  the  keeping  of  the 
Lord's  day  grows  up  in  the  first  instance  through 
the  natural  supersession  of  the  Sabbath  by  the 
Lord's  day  in  the  Christian  church,  and  the  temp- 
tation to  transfer  to  the  latter  the  positive  divine 
sanction  of  the  former;  and.  once  introduced, 
maintains  itself  by  the  very  fact  of  presenting  a 
strong  and  intelligible  plea  against  any  degrada- 
tion of  the  high  Christian  festival  (Smith,  Diet. 
Chrn,  Antiq.).     (See  Sabbath.) 

STTP  (sfip).  (Heb.  •''?^V,  meg-am-maw^  a  gather- 
ing host,  Hab.  i:9). 

In  the  Greek  form  the  word  is  applied  to  a  meal 
(Luke  xvii:8;  i  Cor.  xi:25;  R«v.  iii:2o). 

SUPEBFLTJITY  (sn'per-flQ'r-ty),  (Gr.  x€pt<r<re/o, 
per-iS'Si'ah),  occurs  in  James  1:21. 

STTPEBFLTTOTTS    (sti-per'flft-iis),    (Heb.    3?D^. 

saw-rah\  to  prolong),  the  having  any  member  too 
long  or  large,  and  so  deformed. 

Any  person  so  afflicted  was  not  allowed  to 
officiate  in  the  service  (Lev.  xxi:i8),  nor  was  any 
such  animal  permitted  as  a  sacrifice  (xxii:23). 

SXTFEItSOBIFTIOK  (sa'per-skrTp'shiin),  (Gr. 
hriypa^rfi,  epi-graf-ay\  written  upon),  an  inscrip- 
tion, title,  such  as  that  placed  on  the  cross  (Luke 
xxiii:38;  John  xixiig),  or  on  a  coin  (Matt.  xxii:2o; 
Mark  xii:i6;  Luke  xx:24). 

STTPEBSTinOX  (su-per-stlsh'un),  (Gr.  ffeuri* 
Satfwpla,  dice-ee'dahee-mon-ee' ah,  reverence  for  the 
gods,  or  terror  of  the  gods). 

SUPEBSTinOTTS  (su-per-stlsh'iis),  (Gr.  dccirr 
laxikQiv,  dice-ee'dahee-mohn' ,  reverencing  the  gods) 


SUPH 


1620 


SUPPER  OF  THE  LORD 


These  are  words  which  occur  only  in  the  New 
Testament.  Festus,  governor  of  Judea,  informed 
Agrippa,  that  Paul  had  disputed  with  the  other 
Jews  concerning  matters  of  their  own  superstition 
(Acts  XXV :  19),  in  which  he  spoke  like  a  true 
pagan,  equally  ignorant  of  the  Christian  religion, 
and  of  the  Jewish.  Paul,  writing  to  the  Colos- 
sians  (ch.  ii:23),  recommends  to  them,  not  to  re- 
gard false  teachers,  >yho  would  persuade  them  to 
a  compliance  with  human  wisdom,  in  an  affected 
humility  and  superstition;  and  speaking  to  tfie 
Athenians,  he  says,  "I  perceive  that  in  all  things 
ye  are  too  superstitious,    etc.  (Acts  xvii:22). 

The  Greeks  call  superstition  as  above,  aeisdai- 
monia,  demon-terror.  A  superstitious  man  looks 
on  God  as  a  severe  and  rigid  master,  and  obeys 
with  fear  and  trembling. 

Paul  at  Athens  tells  the  Areopagites  that  they 
are  too  superstitious;  he  uses  a  word  no  doubt 
susceptible  of  a  good  as  well  as  of  a  bad  sense; 
as  it  would  have  been  highly  indecorous,  nor  less 
unnecessary,  to  calumniate  the  religious  disposi- 
tion of  his  judges,  whom  he  was  addressing. 

SUPH  (sQph),  (Heb.  «]1D,  soof,  translated  *^^s" 
in  the  A.  V.)i  means  some  aquatic  plant. 

It  is  mentioned  in  Exod.  ii:3,  5;  Is.  xix:6; 
Jonah  ii  :5 ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  say  whether  it  may 
not  have  been  used  in  a  comprehensive  sense, 
as  seaweed  is  with  us,  rather  than  have  been 
confined  to  one  of  the  plants  g^rowing  in  the  sea. 
The  word  suph  occurs  in  several  other  passages; 
these,  however,  have  reference  to  the  Red  oea, 
which  by  the  Hebrews  was  called  Suph  Sea, 

In  Jonah  ii:5,  'seaweed  was  wrapped  around 
my  head,'  one  of  the  fuci  would  seem  to  be  indi- 
cated. Lady  Calcott  selects  zostera  marina,  or 
sea  wrack,  which  resembles  them  in  habit.  It  is 
quite  probably  a  contracted  form  of  Yam-suph, 
Red  Sea. 

8X7PHAH  (sQ'phah),  probably  a  proper  name. 

The  region  in  which  Vaheb  was  situated  (Num. 
xxi:i4,  Marg.).  Tristram  attaches  it  to  the  de- 
pression of  the  Jordan  and  Dead  Sea. 

ST7PPEB  OF  THE  LOBD  (sfip'per  6v  thS 
16rd),  (Gr.  Kvpuixdw  detxMy,  ku-ree-a-kon'  deip'non), 
so  called  by  St.  Paul  in  his  historical  reference  to 
the  Passover  Supper  as  observed  by  Jesus  on  the 
night  in  which  he  was  betrayed  (i  Cor.xi:2o;  Matt. 
xxvi:2a-3i). 

(1)  T?ne  Passover.  As  regards  the  day  on 
which  our  Lord  observed  the  Passover,  it  seems 
more  proper  to  say,  that  the  Pharisees,  the  domi- 
nant party  among  the  Jews,  deferred  its  observ- 
ance a  day  in  accordance  with  their  traditions, 
than  that  Jesus  anticipated  it.  What  one  party 
considered  the  fourteenth  Nisan,  would  to  the 
other  be  the  thirteenth.  This  supposition  seems 
best  to  harmonize  any  apparent  discrepancy  in 
the  accounts  of  the  evangelists. 

Several  controverted  points  may  perhaps  be 
best  adjusted  by  a  connected  harmony  of  the  last 
Passover  of  the  Lord,  constructed  from  the  evan- 
gelic narratives  alluding  to  it,  but  filling  up  the 
various  omitted  circumstances  from  the  known 
Passever  rites.    (See  Passover.) 

08)  Blessing  the  First  Cup.  'Now,  when  it 
was  evening,  Jesus  sat  down  with  the  twelve 
(Matt.)  Apostles*  (Mark).  The  first  customary 
washing  and  purifications  being  performed,  the 
blessing  over  the  iirst  cup  of  wine,  which  began 
the  feast,  would  be  pronounced,  probably  in  the 
usual  form:  *We  thank  thee,  O  (jod^  our  Heav- 
enly Father,  who  hast  created  the  fruit  of  the 
vine.' 

(3)  Second  Cup.  Then  probably  the  second 
cup  of  wine  was  mingled,  and  with  the  flesh  of 


the  paschal  lamb,  feast-offerings,  and  other  viands, 
placed  before  the  Lord.  'And  he  said  unto  them. 
With  desire  have  I  desired  to  eat  this  Pascha 
with  you  before  I  suffer;  for  I  say  unto  you  I 
shall  no  more  eat  thereof  until  it  be  fulfilled  in 
the  kingdom  of  God.  And  he  took  the  (second) 
cup,  and  gave  thanks,  and  said.  Take  this,  and 
divide  among  you,  for  I  say  unto  you,  I  will  not 
henceforth  drink  of  the  fruit  of  the  vine  until  the 
kingdom  of  (xod  shall  come'  (Luke). 

(4)  The  Bread.  When  the  wine  distributed  to 
each  would  be  drunk  off,  one  of  the  unleavened 
cakes  would  next  be  broken,  the  blessing  said 
over  it,  and  a  piece  distributed  to  each  disciple, 
probably  with  the  usual  formula:  *This  is  the 
bread  of  affliction  which  your  fathers  did  eat  in 
the  land  of  Egypt* — t.  e.,  not  the  identical  bread, 
transubstantiated,  but  a  memorial  or  sign  of  it. 
The  company  would  then  proceed  with  the  proper 
supper,  eating  of  the  feast-offering,  and,  after 
a  benediction,  of  the  paschal  lamb. 

(5)  Prophecy  of  Betrayal.  'And  as  they  were 
at  supper,  the  Devil  having  put  it  into  the  heart 
of  Judas  to  betray  him,  Jesus,  knowing  that  the 
Father  had  given  all  thitijg^s  into  his  hands,  and 
that  he  was  come  from  God,  and  was  going  to 
God,  riseth  from  supper;  and,*  after  due  prepara- 
tions, 'began  to  wash  the  disciples'  feet*  (John). 
After  this  striking  symbolic  exhortation  to  humil- 
ity and  mutual  service  (John  xiii:6-2o),  'Jesus 
was  troubled  in  spirit,  and  bare  witness,  and  said, 
Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you,  that  one  of  you  will 
betray  me.  Then  the  disciples  looked  on  one  an- 
other, doubting  of  whom  he  spake*  (John).  'And 
they  were  very  sorry,  and  began  each  of  them  to 
say  unto  him.  Lord,  is  it  I?*  (Matt.)  'One  of 
the  disciples,  leaning  back  on  Jesus's  breast,  saith 
unto  him.  Lord,  is  it  I  ?  Jesus  answered.  He  it  is 
to  whom  I  shall  give  a  sop,  when  I  have  dipped 
it.  And  after  dipping  the  sop  he  giveth  it  to 
Judas  Iscariot.  Then  Satan  entered  into  him. 
Jesus  saith  unto  him.  What  thou  doest,  do  quickly. 
He  then,  on  taking  the  sop,  went  immediately  out ; 
and  it  was  night*  (John). 

The  supper  would  then  proceed,  until  each  had 
eaten  sufficient  of  the  paschal  lamb  and  feast- 
offering. 

'And  as  they  were  eating,  Jesus  took  the  bread,' 
the  other  unleavened  cake  left  unbroken,  'and 
blessed*  God  'and  brake  it,  and  gave  it  to  the* 
eleven  'disciples,  and  said.  Take,  eat ;  this  is  my 
body  (Matt.,  Mark),  which  is  broken  for  you; 
this  do  in  remembrance  of  me*  (Luke,  Paul,  1 
Cor.  xi:24). 

([6)  Cup  of  Blessing.  The  supper  being  con- 
eluded,  the  hands  were  usually  washed  the  second 
time,  and  the  third  cup,  or  'cup  of  blessing*  (i 
Cor.  x:i6),  prepared,  over  which  the  master  usu- 
ally gave  thanks  for  the  Covenant  of  Circumcision, 
and  for  the  law  given  to  Moses.  Jesus,  therefore, 
at  this  juncture,  announced,  with  peculiar  appro- 
priateness, his  New  Covenant. 

(7)  The  New  Covenant.  'After  the  same  man- 
ner, also,  Jesus  took  the  cup  after  supper,  and, 
having  given  thanks,  gave  it  to  them,  saying. 
Drink  all  of  you  out  of  it ;  for  this  is  my  blood 
of  the  new  covenant,  which  is  shed  for  many  for 
forgiveness  of  sins  (Matt.)  ;  this  do,  as  oft  as 
ye  drink,  in  remembrance  of  me'  (i  (Tor.  xi:24). 
But  I  say  unto  you,  I  shall  not  drink  henceforth 
of  this  fruit  of  the  vine,  until  that  day  when  I 
drink  it  new  (kairion)  with  you  in  my  Father's 
kingdom*  (Matt.). 

'And  when  they  had  sung  a  hymn'  (Matt), 
probably  the  HaJlel,  our  Lord  discoursed  long 
with  his  disciples  about  his  approaching  death 
and  departure  (John  xiii:3i;  xiv:3i),  aiui  when 


SUR  18 

he  had  finished  he  said.  'Arise,  let  us  go  hence.' 
'And  they  went  out  to  the  Mount  of  Olives' 
(Matt). 

A  multitude  of  disputes  and  controversies  have 
existed  in  the  church,  from  the  earliest  ages  of 
O'islianity,  regarding  the  nature,  observance, 
and  elements  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  (See  Lord's 
SuppEB,  The.)  F.  R.  L. 

Sina  (sflr),  (Heb.  IW,  soor,  removed),  one  of  the 
gates  of  (he  Temple  at  Jerusalem  {2  Kings  xi:6); 
called  "gate  of  the  foundation"  (2  Chron.  xKiii;5). 

aUBBTT  (Bhur' tj),  (Heb.  3^?,  aw-rab',  to  braid), 
a  deposit  of  money  or  goods  to  secure  a  bargain 
(Gen.  xliii:9;  Ps.  Qr.\x:i22;  Prov.  xx:i6;  xxit:26; 
Heb.  vii:32).  Christ,  as  mediator,  is  called  a 
"surety"  (Heb.  vii:22). 

SmtFEITIirO  (sarf'Bt-tng),  (Gr.  ■pairdXif, 
krakee-par ay),  the  giddiness,  nausea  and  head- 
ache caused  by  drinking  wine  to  excess  (Luke 
xxi:34  only). 

SXTBNAaai  (sflr 'nam). 

1.  Kaw-navi'  (Heb.  '^t?).  to  mention  with  honor 
(Is.xliv:5). 

S.  Ep-te-kal-ek'om-akee  (Gr.  /iruaX/sfuu,  to  m- 
voke,  to  put  a  name  upon),  to  surname  (Matt,  f.y, 
Luke  »xii:3;  Acts  i:23,  etc.) 

BTTSA  (su's4).    See  Shushan. 

aUBAHCHITKa  (su'san-kftes),  (Heb.  "ftf>*. 
sAoo-shart'kee'),  a  nation  planted  in  Samaria  by 
the  Assyrians.  They  were  probably  inhabitants 
of  Susiana,  or  Susa,  its  capital  (Ezra  iv^). 

SVSAmrA  (su-ian'ui),  (Gr.  -S.iniai.rr<L,  soo-san'- 
nak,  a  lily). 

1.  A  holy  woman  who  attended  on  our  Savior, 
and  with  others  ministered  to  his  wants  (Luke 
viii:2,  3),  A.  D.  38. 

2-  The  heroine  of  the  Apocryphal  story  of 
the  judgment  of  Daniel.    (See  Daniel,  Book  of.) 

SUBI  (sfl'd).  (Heb.  "^ID,  soo-see',  horseman), 
father  of  Gaddi,  who  represented  the  tribe  of 
Manasseh  among  the  spies  sent  to  investigate 
the  land  of  Canaan  (Num.  xliiiii),  B.  C.  before 
1657. 

SWADDLE  (swOd'd'l),  (Heb.  '^9,  tawfakh',  to 
bearupon  the  palm),  in  English,  to  carry  in  the 
arms  (Lam.  h:22),  elsewhere  (Ezek.  xvi:4)  the 
translation  of  '^,  kkaai-that,  to  wrap  in 
bandages,  to  sviaddle  (comp,  Luke  ii:i7). 

Figurative.  Darkness  is  represented  as  a 
swaddling  band  to  the  ocean,  as  it  dwells  on  the 
south  and  north  parts  of  it  for  a  considerable 
time  (Job  xxxviii:?). 

SWADDLING  BAND  (sn6d'dl1big  band),  (Heb. 
~?ra,  kkaik-ool-iaw'.  Job  xxxviii:9),  swathing 
cloth. 

SWALLOW  (swfit'lS).  (Heb.  DV,  Jtxu,  Is 
xxxviii:i4;  Jtr.  viii:?;  and  "'''''!,  der-ore',  Ps. 
ixxxiv:3;  Prov.  xxvi:2). 

The  species  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  so  far  as 
they  are  known,  appear  all  to  be  the  same  as  those 
of  Europe.    They  are: 

1.  Hirundo  nutica,  or  domestiea,  the  chhnney 
swallow,  with  a  forked  tail,  marked  with  a  row 
of  white  spots,  whereof  Hirundo  S^riaca,  if  at  all 
different,  is  most  likely  only  a  variety. 

2.  Hirundo  Urbiea,  the  martin  or  common 
window  swallow.  These  two  are  most  likely  the 
species  comprehended  under  the  name  of  Sis. 

3.  Hirundo  Riparia,  sand-martin  or  shore 
bird,  not  uncomnion  in  northern  Egypt,  near  the 
joPi«Ju  of  the  Delta,  and  in  southern  Palestine, 


1  SWINE 

about  (laza,  where  it  nestles  in  fmlet,  ercs  on 

the  seashore. 

4.  Hirundo  Assus,  the  swift  or  black  martin, 
distinguished  by  its  larger  size,  short  legs,  very 
long  wings,  forked  tail,  and  by  all  the  toes  of  the 
feet  turning  forward ;  these,  armed  with  small. 
crooked,  and  very  sharp  claws,  enable  the  bird 
to  hang  against  the  sides  of  walls,  but  it  cannot 
rise  from  the  ground  on  account  of  the  length 
of  its  wings.  C.  H.  S. 


SWAir.  Probably  the  Heb.  "5?S?.  Hm-jA^A'. 
meth  (Lev.  xi:i8;  Deut.  xiv:i6:  A.  V."Bwan."  R.  V. 
"  homed  owl,"  marg,  "swan"),  refers  to  the  purple 
gallinule.  Porphyria  c<rrukui,  Vandelli,  or  one  of 
the  ibises.  Ibis  rtli^sa,  L..  or  I.fakinella  L.,  and 
not  the  swan,  which  is  hardly  found  in  the  Holy 
Land,  and  would  not  have  been  regarded  as 
unclean.  The  same  name  belonged  to  a  reptile 
classed  with  the  liiards  (Lev.  xi:30,  m  R.  V. 
chameleon,  in  A.  V.  mole). 

S'WEABINO  (Bwftrlng).     See  Oath. 

BWKAX  (sw«t),  (Heb.  3?lv,>'<A'«A),the  clothmg 
of  the  priests  was  designated  to  be  linen,  as 
woolen  induced  perspiration,  which  was  a  cause 
of  uncleanness  (Ezek.  xliv:i8). 

It  is  a  common  occurrence  for  perspiration  to 
break  out  suddenly  over  the  body  when  the  in- 
dividual is  under  the  influence  of  strong  mental 
excitement.  Well-authenticated  cases  have  been 
recorded  in  which  this  perspiration  has  been  col- 
ored with  blood.  The  phenomenon  is  recognized 
in  medical  science,  and  is  called  diapedesis,  or 
the  oozing  of  blood  corpuscles  through  the  walls 
of  the  blood  vessels  without  rupture.  During 
Christ's  agony  in  Gethsemane  his  sweat  became 
as  it  were  great  drops  of  blood  falling  down 
upon  the  ground  (Luke  xxii:44),     (See  Bloodt 

SWELLOra  (sw«'tog).  (Heb.  XH  gavhofm', 
pride). 

1.  "  The  swelling  of  Jordan"  (ler.  xij;;;  xlfx:ig: 
1:44;  Zech.  xi'.3),  the  better  translation  is  "  pride  of 

B.  Hoop-er-okk-ay"  (Gr.  brtpaxi,  to  be  above), 
superior  in  position  or  rank  ("authority,"  i  Tim. 
ii  -z)  ;  R.  V.  "those  who  are  in  high  place." 

8.  Hoop-er'ong-kos  (Or.  bwipayxM,  a  swelling), 
immoderate,  extravagant;  expressive  of  pride, 
haughtiness,  arrogance,  as  "  great  swelling  words 
(2  Peter  ii:i8;]uae  16). 

4.  Foo-see' o-sis  (Gr.  •^vciaaii),  a  puffing  up  of 
soul,  loftiness,  conceit,  pride,  etc  (z  Cor.  xiiao). 

SWnra(swIn),  (Heb.Tin.*Aia-*?r';Gr.xw>>«). 

Egyptian  pictures,  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal 
Son,  and  Christ's  miraculous  cure  of  the  doni)- 


SWORD  16 

niac,  when  he  permitted  swine  to  be  possessed 
and  destroyed  by  rushing  over  a  precipice  into 
the  sea  of  Galilee,  furnish  ample  proofs  that  dur- 
ing the  dominion  of  the  Romans  they  were  kept 
around  the  kingdom  of  judah ;  and  the  restrictive 
laws  of  Hyrcanus  on  this  subject  indicate  that  the 
Jews  themselves  were  not  altogether  strangers  to 
this  unlawful  practice  (Matt  viii:3o),  nor  were 
their  ancestors  {Is,  Ixviii?).  Commentators  as- 
cribe this  abundance  of  swine  to  the  numerous 
Pagan  sacrifices  of  these  animals  in  the  temples : 
but  we  do  not  deem  this  to  be  a  sufficiently  cor- 
rect view  of  the  case,  since  hogs  of  every  denomi- 
nation were  less  used  for  that  purpose  than  oxen, 
goats,  and  sheep.  May  it  not  be  conjectured  that 
in  those  days  of  a  greatly  condensed  population 
the  poor  found  in  swine's  flesh,  and  stilj  more  in 
the  fat  and  lard,  melted  for  culinary  purposes,  as 
it  still  is  in  every  part  of  Pagan  Africa,  a  most 
desirable  aliment,  still  more  acceptable  than  the 
salt  fish  imported  from  Sldon,  to  season  their  usual 
vegetable  diet  ?  C.  H.  S. 

Figurative.  The  term  is  used  to  denote  a 
"fair  woman  without  discretion"  (Prov,  xi:22). 

To  cast  "pearls  before  swine"  (Matt.  vii:6),  is 
not  more  vain  and  wasteful  than  to  offer  the 
words  of  truth  and  wisdom  to  those  who  are 
known  to  despise  them,  and  who  would  only  re- 
turn the  offer  with  insult  and  abuse. 

"As  if  he  offered  swine's  blood"  (Is.  lxvi:3)  is 
used  of  those  who,  in  a  thoughtless  manner,  and 
merely  as  an  external  act,  offer  sacrifices  to  God. 
Even  though  they  otier  sacrifices  which  are  com- 
manded, their  worship  is  no  more  acceptable  than 
if  they  offered  that  which  was  unclean. 

8W0KD  (sSrd).    See  Arms,  Armor. 

SYCAMINE  TBEE  (slk'a-min  tre),  (Or.  <rMd- 
iutm,soo-ia>n'ee-ttos,  sycamore  and  black  mulberry), 
is  mentioned  only  once  in  the  New  Testament,  in 
Luke  xvii:6:  'And  the  Lord  said,  If  ye  had  faith  as 
a  grain  of  mustard  seed,  ye  might  say  unto  this 
sycamine-Uee,'  etc. 

From  a  slight  similarity  in  name,  this  tree  has 
often  been  confounded  with  the  sycamore,  both 


2  SYCAMORE 

little  doubt  of  the  mulberry  tree  being  intended; 
and  it  is  frequently  so  rendered. 
The   mulberry,   moreover,   is   a  tree   which   we 

might  expect  to  find  mentioned  in  Scripture,  since 


BTCAJCORE  {slk'A-mSr),  (Heb.  ^H?,  sAaw- 
kawM-,  and  ^WP.shtk-maw'). 

This  was  not  what  is  called  sycamore  in  this 
country,  which  is  a  kind  of  maple,  and  in  some 
of  its  characters  the  reverse  of  what  is  required. 
The  Septuagint  everywhere  renders  it  mitiiurot, 
which  signifies  the  mulberry.  In  the  Arabic  trans- 
lation the  word  JMmees  is  used  as  synonymous. 
Now  jttmeez  is  applied  by  the  Arabs  in  the  present 
day,  and  has  been  so  from  ancient  times,  to  A 
great  tree  of  Egyp'- 


MiilbErry  [Kimu  nigra). 

by  ancient  and  modern  writers.  Both  trees  are, 
however,  mentioned  by  the  apostle,  who  must  have 
had  the  technical  kncnvledge  necessair  for  distin- 
guishing such  things.  Though  the  English  ver- 
sion avoids  translating  the  word,  there  can  be 


The  ancients  v 


,g  {Fic^,  S,coH„>r, 


'.  well  acquainted  with  it;  and 
I  Egypt  as  well  as  in  Syria  and 
the  Holy  Land  (i  Kings  x:27;  Ps.  Ixxviii:47). 
In  Egypt,  being  one  of  the  few  trees  indigenous 
in  that  country,  its  wood  was  proportionally  much 
employed,  as  in  making  mummy  cases,  though  it 
is  coarse  grained,  and  would  not  be  valued  where 
other  trees  are  more  common.  Though  the  wood 
of  this  sycamore  is  coarse  grained,  it  is  yet  very 
durable  in  a  dry  climate  like  that  of  Egypt;  hence 
the  mummy-cases  even  in  the  present  day  seem 
as  if  made  with  fresh  wood.  This  may  no  doubt 
be  partly  ascribed  to  the  preservative  effects  of  the 
resmous  coals,  paints,  etc..  with  which  they  are 
impregnated.  That  the  ^eamore  was  cultivated 
and  esteemed  in  Palestine  we  learn  from  I  CThron. 
xxvii  :28;  i  Kings  x  127.  This  was  on  account  of 
its  fruit,  which  it  bears  on  its  stem  and  branches, 
like  the  common  fig,  and  continues  to  produce  in 
succession  for  months.  The  fruit  is  palatable, 
sweetish  in  taste,  and  still  used  as  food  in  the 
East.  The  sycamore  is  a  large  and  noble  tree, 
affording  a  dense  shade,  while  the  branches  are 
remarkably    spreading    and    are    easily    reached. 


SYCHAR 


1623 


SYNAGOGUE 


This  was  the  reason  why  Zacchaeus  climbed  it  in 
order  to  get  a  glimpse  of  Jesus  as  he  passed  (Luke 
xix:4).  It  was  once  exceedingly  abundant  in  the 
valley  of  the  Jordan  (i  Kings  x:27;  2  Chron. 
i:i5;  ix:27),  but  all  are  now  gone  save  a  few 
aged  survivors  near  Jericho. 

SYOHAB  (sy'kar),  (Gr.  'Ivx^p^soo-khar'^  perhaps 
liar  or  drunkard),  a  name  of  reproach  applied  by 
the  Jews  to  Shechem.    (See  Shechem). 

SYCHBM  (sv'kem),  (Gr.  2i/x^M,  soo-khem',  such- 
em),  the  name  for  Shechem  in  Acts  vii:i6,  beine 
that  also  used  in  the  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old 
Testament.    (See  Shechem). 

SYENE  (sy-e'ne),  (Heb.  •"'^.IP,  sev-ay-nay',  Sept. 

^vijviif  syene\  a  city  of  Egypt,  situated  in  the  The- 
bais,  on  the  southern  extremity  of  the  land  towards 
Ethiopia  (Ptol.  iv,  5;  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  v,  10;  xii, 
^j\  Strabo,  pp.  787,  815). 

Ezekiel,  describing  the  desolation  to  be  brought 
upon  Egypt  through  its  whole  extent,  says  (xxix: 
10 ;  XXX  :6)  :  Thus  saith  the  Lord,  I  will  make 
the  Land  of  Egypt  utterly  desolate,  from  the  tower 
of  Syene  even  to  the  border  of  Cush  (Arabia),* 
or,  as  some  read,  is  'from  Migdol  to  Syene,'  im- 
plying, according  to  either  version  of  the  passage, 
the  whole  length  of  the  country  from  north  to 
.  south.  Syene  is  represented  by  the  present  As- 
souan, which  exhibits  few  remains  of  the  ancient 
city,  except  some  granite  columns  of  a  compara- 
tively late  date,  and  the  sekos  of  a  small  temple. 

SYNAaOGUE  (sin'a.gog),(Heb.^95?L!  ^^'^.bayth 

hak-ken-ay' seth,  a  Jewish  place  of  worship). 

(1)  Name.  The  Greek  from  which  the  word 
is  immediately  derived  (ffvvayiay'fi)^  denotes  *an 
assembly;'  being  similar  in  meaning  to  iKKXtfiria, 
whence  our  'church*  is  taken.  Both  terms  ori- 
ginally signified  an  assembly  or  congregation ;  but 
afterwards,  by  a  natural  deflection  of  meaning, 
they  both  came  to  designate  the  building  in  which 
such  church  or  assembly  met.  The  Hebrew  phrase 
('house  of  assembly*)  is  more  strictly  descriptive 
of  the  place  than  were  originally  'synagogiie*  and 
'church.'  The  latter  word  retains  its  ambiguity; 
the  former  has  lost  it,  signifying  now  and  in  the 
time  of  our  Lord  exclusively  a  building. 

(2)  Origin.  The  precise  age  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  synagogues  among  the  Israelites  it  does 
not  appear  easy  to  determme.  In  all  probability, 
however,  they  had  their  origin  about  the  period  of 
the  exile;  and  there  were  then  peculiar  circum- 
stances which  called  for  their  establishment.  De- 
prived of  the  solemnities  of  their  national  worship, 
yet  still  retaining  their  religious  convictions,  and 
keenly  feeling  the  loss  they  had  endured,  earnestly, 
too,  longing  and  praying  for  a  restoration  of  their 
forJFeited  privileges,  the  captive  Israelites  could 
not  help  meeting  together  for  the  purposes  of 
mutual  sympathy,  counsel,  and  aid,  or  of  prayer 
and  other  devout  exercises.  But  prayer  makes 
every  spot  holy  ground.  Some  deg^ree  of  secrecy, 
too,  may  have  been  needful  in  the  midst  of  scoffing 
and  scornful  enemies.  Thus  houses  of  prayer 
would  arise;  and  the  peculiar  form  of  the  syna- 
gogue worship— namely,  devotion  apart  from  ex- 
ternal oblations— would  come  into  being.  The 
authority  of  the  Talmudists  (such  as  it  is)  would 
go  to  show  that  a  synagogue  existed  wherever 
there  were  ten  families.  What,  however,  is  cer- 
tain is,  that  in  the  times  of  Jesus  Christ  syna- 
gogues were  found  in  all  the  chief  cities  and  lesser 
towns  of  Palestine.  From  Acts  vi:9,  it  appears 
that  every  separate  tribe  and  colony  had  a  syna- 
gogue in  Jerusalem. 

(3)  Location.  Synagogues  were  built  some- 
times on  the  outside  of  cities,  but  more  frequently 


within,  and  preferably  on  elevated  spots.  At  a 
later  period  tJiey  were  fixed  near  burial  places.  A 
peculiar  sanctity  was  attached  to  these  spots,  even 
after  the  building  had  fallen  to  ruin  (Mishna, 
Megill.3,  3). 

(4)  worship.  In  the  Synagogue  pious  Israel- 
ites assembled  every  Sabbath  and  festival  day,  the 
women  sitting  apart  from  the  men  (Philo,  0pp. 
ii,  458,  630)  ;  and  at  a  later  period,  on  every  sec- 
ond and  fifth  day  of  each  week  (T.  Hieros.  Megill. 
7Sf  1;  T.  Babyl.  Babd.  Kama,  82,  i),  for  the 
purposes  of  common  prayer,  and  to  hear  portions 
of  the  sacred  boc4cs  read;  which  was  performed 
sometimes  by  any  one  of  the  company  (Luke  ii: 
16),  or,  according  to  Philo  (0pp.  ii,  630,  ed. 
Mang.),  by  any  one  of  the  priests  or  elders  who 
expounded  each  particular  passage  as  he  pro- 
ceeded. The  writings  thu§  read  aloud  and  ex- 
pounded were  the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  other 
Old  Testament  books  (Acts  xiii:i5;  xv:2i; 
Mishna,  Megill.  3,  4;  Eichhorn,  Einleit.  ins  A.  T. 
ii,  458,  sq.). 

(5)  Minister.  The  expositor  was  not  always 
the  same  person  as  the  reader  (Philo,  0pp.  ii, 
458,  476).  A  memorable  instance  in  which  the 
reader  and  the  expositor  was  the  same  person, 
and  yet  one  distinct  from  the  stated  functionary, 
may  be  found  in  Luke  iv:i6,  sq.,  in  which  our 
Lord  read  and  applied  to  himself  the  beautiful 
passage  found  in  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah  (Ixi  14). 

After  the  reading  and  exposition  were  con- 
cluded, a  blessing  was  pronounced,  commonly 
by  a  priest.  The  people  gave  a  response  by  utter- 
ing the  word  Amen;  when  the  assembly  broke  up 
(i  Cor.  xiv:6). 

At  the  head  of  the  officers  stood  the  'ruler  of 
the  synagogue'  who  had  the  chief  direction  of  all 
the  affairs  connected  with  the  purposes  for  which 
the  synagogue  existed  (Luke  viii:49;  xiii:i4; 
Mark  v:35,  sq.;  Acts  xviii:8;  Vitringa,  Archisy- 
nag,  Observat.  novis  Illustrat.).  Next  in  rank 
were  the  elders  (Luke  vii:3),  called  also  'heads  of 
the  synagogue'  (Mark  v:22;  Acts  xiiiiis),  as 
well  as  'shepherds'  and  'presidents,'  who  formed 
a  sort  of  college  or  governing  body  under  the 
presidency  of  the  chief  ruler.  There  was  in  the 
third  place  the  legatus  ecclesia,  'the  angel  of  the 
church,'  who  in  the  synagogue  meetings  acted 
commonly  as  the  speaker,  or  as  the  Protestant 
minister,  conducting  the  worship  of  the  congre- 
gation (Mishna,  Rosh  Hasshana,  4,  9),  as  well 
as  performing  on  other  occasions  the  duties  of 
secretary  and  messenger  (Schottgen,  Hor.  Heb. 
i,  1089,  sq.).  Then  came,  fourthly,  'the  minister' 
(Luke  iv:20),  the  attendant  who  handed  the  books 
to  the  reader,  was  responsible  for  the  cleanli- 
ness of  the  room,  and  for  its  order  and  decency, 
and  opened  and  closed  the  synagogue,  of  which  he 
had  the  general  care.  In  addition,  there  prob- 
ably were  almoners  or  deacons  (Matt.  vi:2),  who 
collected,  held,  and  distributed  the  alms  of  the 
charitable. 

(6)  Furniture.  In  regard  to  the  furniture  of 
the  synagogue,  seats  merely  are  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament  (Matt,  xxiii  :6;  James  ii  13).  The 
'chief  seats,'  or  rather  'front  seats'  drpwroKaMplaC), 
were  occupied  bv  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees,  The 
outfit  may  have  Deen  more  simple  in  the  days  of 
Christ;  still  there  was  probably  then,  as  well  as 
at  a  later  period,  a  sort  of  'pulpit*  (/3^m«*),  and  a 
'desk'  or  'shelf,*  for  holding  the  sacred  books 
(Mishna,  Berach.  v,  ^;  Rosh  Hasshana,  4,  7; 
Megilla,  r  i;  Sabb.  16,  i).  Some  sort  of  sum- 
mary judicature  seems  to  liave  been  held  in 
the  synagogues,  and  punishments  of  flogging 
and  beatmg  inflicted  on  the  spot  (Matt,  x: 
17 ;   xxiii  134 ;    Mark  xiii  :g ;    Luke  xii  :ii ;  xxi : 


SYNAGOGUE,  GREAT 


laai 


SYRIA 


12;  Acts  xxii:i9;  xxvi:ii;  i  Cor.  xi:22).  The 
causes  of  which  cognizance  was  here  taken  were 
perhaps  exclusively  of  a  religious  kind.  Some 
expressions  in  the  Talmud  seem  to  imply  that  a 
sort  of  judicial  triumvirate  presided  in  this  court 
(Mishna,  Sanhed,  i;  Maccoth,  3,  12).  It  cer- 
tainly appears  from  the  New  Testament  that 
heresy  and  apostasy  were  punished  before  these 
tribunals  by  the  application  of  stripes.  (See  San- 
hedrim.) J.  R.  B. 

SYNAOOGX7E,  GREAT  (sTn'a-gdg,  grat),  the 
name  applied  in  the  Talmud  to  an  assembly  or 
synod  presided  over  by  Ezra,  and  consisting  of 
one  hundred  and  twenty  men,  alleged  therein  to 
have  been  engaged  in  restoring  or  reforming  the 
worship  of  the  Temple  after  the  return  of  the 
Jews  from  Babylon. 

Genebrard  asserts  that  there  were  no  less  than 
three  Great  Synagogues,  one  in  A.  M.  3610,  or 
B.  C.  394,  when  the  Hebrew  canon,  consisting  of 
twenty-two  books,  was  fixed;  another  in  3860 
(B.  C.  144),  when  Tobit  and  Ecclesiasticus  were 
added;  and  a  third  in  3950  (B.  C.  54),  when  the 
whole  was  completed  by  the  addition  of  the  books 
of  Maccabees.  But  this  statement,  being  unsup- 
ported by  any  historical  proof,  has  met  with  no 
reception.  W.  W. 

SYNTYCHE  (sjn'  tt-ke),  (Gr.  l^vwr^xn*  soan-ioo'- 
khay,  accident),  a  female  Christian  of  Philippi, 
named  in  Phil.  iv:2.    (A.  D.  57.) 

She  seems  to  have  been  at  enmity  with  another 
woman  named  Euodia.  They  were  perhaps  dea- 
conesses. 

BYBACTTSE  (s^r'a-kGse),  (Gr.  Dvpdicoufrai,  soo- 
rak'oo-sahee),  a  celebrated  city  on  the  southeast 
coast  of  the  island  of  Sicily. 

It  was  a  strong,  wealthy,  and  populous  place,  to 
which  Strabo  gives  a  circumference  of  not  less 
than  one  hundred  and  eighty  stades.  The  great 
wealth  and  power  of  Syracuse  arose  from  its 
trade,  which  was  carried  on  extensively  while  it 
remained  an  independent  state  under  its  own 
kings;  but  about  200  B.  C.  it  was  taken  by  the 
Romans,  after  a  siege  rendered  famous  by  the 
mechanical  contrivances  whereby  Archimedes  pro- 
tracted the  defense.  Syracuse  still  exists  as  a 
considerable  town  under  its  original  name,  and 
some  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  yet  remain.  St. 
Paul  spent  three  days  at  Syracuse,  after  leaving 
Melita,  when  being  conveyed  as  a  prisoner  to 
Rome  (Acts  xxviii:i2). 


(sjr'i-i),  (Heb.  ^IS,  ar-awm\  highland; 
Gr.  2v/>fa,  soo-ree'ah,  Syria). 

(1)  Territory.  It  is  difficult  to  define  the  limits 
of  ancient  Syria,  as  the  name  seems  to  have  been 
very  loosely  applied  by  the  old  geographers.  In 
general,  however,  we  may  perceive  that  they  made 
it  include  the  tract  of  country  lying  between  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Mediterranean,  from  the  moun- 
tains of  Taurus  and  Amanus  in  the  north,  to 
the  desert  of  Suez  and  the  borders  of  Egypt  on 
the  south;  which  coincides  pretty  well  with  the 
modern  application  of  the  name. 

(2)  Physical  Character.  It  may  be  described 
as  composed  of  three  tracts  of  land,  of  very  differ- 
ent descriptions.  That  which  adjoins  the  Mediter- 
ranean is  a  hot.  damp,  and  rather  unwholesome, 
but  very  fruitful  valley.  The  part  next  to  this 
consists  of  a  double  chain  of  mountains,  running 
parallel  from  southwest  to  northeast,  with  craggy, 
precipitous  rocks,  devious  valleys,  and  hollow 
defiles.  The  air  is  here  dry  and  healthy;  and  on 
the  western  declivities  of  the  mountains  are  seen 
beautiful  and  highly  cultivated  terraces,  alter- 
nating with  well- watered  valleys,  which  have  a 


rich  and  fertile  soil,  and  are  densely  peopled. 
The  eastern  declivities,  on  the  contrary,  are 
dreary  mountain  deserts,  connected  with  the  third 
region,  which  may  be  described  as  a  spacious 
plain  of  sand  and  rock,  presenting  an  extensive 
and  almost  unbroken  level. 

(3)  Climate.  Spring  and  autumn  are  very 
agreeable  in  Syria,  and  the  heat  of  summer  in 
the  mountain  districts  is  supportable.  But  in  the 
plains,  as  soon  as  the  sun  reaches  the  Equator,  it 
becomes  of  a  sudden  oppressively  hot,  and  this 
heat  continues  till  the  end  of  October.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  winter  is  so  mild,  that  oranee 
treei,  fig  trees,  palms  and  many  tender  shrubs 
and  plants  flourish  in  the  open  air,  while  the 
heights  of  Lebanon  are  glittering  with  snow  and 
hoarfrost.  In  the  districts,  however,  which  lie 
north  and  east  of  the  mountains,  the  severity  of 
winter  is  greater,  though  the  heat  of  the  summer 
is  not  less.  At  Antioch,  Aleppo,  and  Damascus, 
there  are  ice  and  snow  for  several  weeks  every 
winter.  Yet,  upon  the  whole,  the  climate  and 
soil  combine  to  render  this  country  one  of  the 
most  agreeable  residences  throughout  the  East. 

(4)  Cities.  The  principal  Syrian  towns  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  are  the  following,  all  of  which 
are  noticed  under  their  respective  names  in  the 
present  work: — Antioch,  Seleucia,  Helbon,  Rez- 
eph,  Tiphsah,  Rehoboth,  Hamath,  Riblah,  Tad- 
mor.  Baal-Gad,  Damascus,  Hobah,  Beth-Eden. 

(5)  History.  Syria,  when  we  first  become  ac- 
quainted with  its  history,  was  divided  into  a 
number  of  small  kingdoms,  of  which  the  most 
important  of  those  mentioned  in  Scripture  was 
that  of  which  Damascus  was  the  metropolis.  A 
sketch  of  its  history  is  given  under  Damascus 
(which  see).  These  kingdoms  were  broken  up, 
or  rather  consolidated  by  conquerors,  of  whom 
the  first  appears  to  have  been  Tiglath'-pileser,  King 
of  Assyria,  about  750  B.  C.  After  the  fall  of 
the  Assyrian  monarchy,  Syria  came  under  the 
Chaldean  yoke.  It  shared  the  fate  of  Babylonia 
when  that  country  was  conquered  by  the  Persians ; 
and  was  again  subdued  by  Alexander  the  Great. 
At  his  death  in  B.  C.  323,  it  was  erected  into  a 
separate  monarchy  under  the  Seleucidae,  and  con- 
tinued to  be  governed  by  its  own  sovereigns  until, 
weakened  and  devastated  by  civil  wars  between 
competitors  for  the  throne,  it  was  finally,  about 
B.  C.  65,  reduced  by  Pompey  to  the  condition  of 
a  Roman  province,  after  the  monarchy  had  sub- 
sisted two  hundred  and  fifty-seven  years.  On  the 
decline  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  Saracens  became 
the  next  possessors  of  Syria,  about  A.  D.  622; 
and  when  the  crusading  armies  poured  into  Asia, 
this  country  became  the  chief  theater  of  the  g^eat 
contest  between  the  armies  of  the  Crescent  and 
the  Cross,  and  its  plains  were  deluged  with  Chris- 
tian and  Moslem  blood.  For  nearly  a  century  the 
Crusaders  remained  masters  of  the  chief  places 
in  S)rria;  but  at  length  the  power  of  the  Mos- 
lems predominated,  and  in  1186  A.  D.  Saladin, 
Sultan  of  Egypt,  found  himself  in  possession  of 
Syria.  It  remained  subject  to  the  sultans  of 
Egypt  till,  in  A.  D.  1517,  the  Turkish  sultan,  Se- 
lim  1,  overcame  the  Memlook  dynasty,  and  Syria 
and  Esypt  became  absorbed  in  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire. In  1832,  a  series  ^  of  successes  over  the 
Turkish  arms  gave  Syria  to  Mehemet  All,  the 
Pasha  of  Egypt ;  from  whom,  however,  after  nine 
years,  it  agam  passed  to  the  Turks,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  operations  undertaken  for  that  pur- 
pose by  the  fieet  under  the  command  of  Admiral 
Stopford,  the  chief  of  which  was  the  bombard- 
ment of  Acre  in  November,  1840.  The  treaty  re- 
storing Syria  to  the  Turks  was  ratified  early  in 
iKa  ^nsuinc  year. 


SYRrA-MAACHAH 


id25 


SYRTIS 


(jS)  Present  Condition.  Syria  is  now  one  of 
the  divisions  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  contains 
about  sixty  thousand  square  miles.  The  popu- 
lation is  estimated  at  about  2,000,000,  and  consists 
of  a  very  mixed  race,  including  many  wander- 
ing tribes  of  Bedouins,  poorly  governed.  In  re- 
ligion the  people  are  Mohammedans,  Jews,  and 
Christians  of  various  churches.  The  American 
missionaries  have  been  very  successful  in  estab- 
lishing missions  and  churches,  and  Protestant 
missionary  societies  in  Europe  also  have  pros- 
perous missions  in  the  country.  The  language 
usually  spoken  is  the  Arabic.  Syria  has  g^eat 
natural  resources,  and,  under  a  good  government, 
it  would  have  a  promising  future. 

(7)  Inhabitants,  etc.  Under  Syrians  prefer 
are  usually  classed  all  the  descendants  of  the 
people  who  spoke  Aramaic  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era,  except  the  Jews.  The  Aramaic 
language  has  been  displaced  by  the  Arabic,  the 
former  being  spoken  in  only  a  few  (perhaps 
three)  villages  of  Antilibanus.  Some  Greeks 
have  recently  settled  in  the  country,  but  there 
are  few,  if  any,  descendants  of  those  Greeks  who 
settled  in  Syria  during  the  supremacy  of  the  Eu- 
ropeans, which  extended  over  nearly  one  thousand 
years.  The  Arabians  are  of  two  classes — ^the  set- 
tlers in  towns,  and  the  Bedouins,  or  nomadic 
tribes.  The  latter  are  professed  Muslims,  living 
a  half  savage  life,  dwelling  in  tents  and  preying 
upon  the  traveler,  the  settled  inhabitants,  and  not 
infreqjuently  upon  one  ^mother.  The  Bedouin 
regards  with  great  scrupulosity  the  law  of  hos- 
pitality, and  protects  a  guest  for  three  days  after 
his  departure  from  his  camp,  if  he  has  been 
hospitably  received.  There  are  many  small  tribes 
of  these  nomadic  Arabs,  and  they  are  generally 
at  war  with  each  other  or  have  deadly  blood- 
feuds  existing  among  them,  rendering  it  unsafe 
to  travel  within  any  regnon  over  which  they  roam. 
About  four-fifths  of  the  whole  population  of 
•Syria  are  believed  to  be  Muslims  and  followers 
of  Mohammed. 

The  Roman  Catholic  or  Latin  Church  in- 
cludes several  sects.  Among  them  are  the  Ma- 
ronites  and  the  European  monks.  The  Maronite 
population  of  Lebanon  alone  is  upward  of  200,- 
000.  They  live  by  agriculture,  silk  cultjire,  and 
raising  cattle.  The  Jews  in  S)rria,  and  espe- 
cially Palestine,  are  rapidly  increasing,  though 
they  still  form  only  a  small  fraction  of  the 
entire  population  in  any  section  of  the  country. 
Syria  has  not  been  very  thoroughly  or  scientific- 
ally explored,  and  the  ruins  and  inscrip- 
tions, as  those  at  Hamath,  when  investigated 
thoroughly,  may  hereafter  throw  much  clearer 
light  upon  its  early  history.  (Schaff,  Bib.  Diet,) 

SYBIA-MAACHAH  (sj^M-a-ma'a-kah), 
(I  Chron.  xix:6).    See  Aram;  Maachah. 

SYBIAC  (Dan.  ii:4)  or  SYBIAK  T0XGX7E 

(Ezra  iv:7)  or  I^ANGTTAOE  (2  Kings  xviii:26;  Is. 
xxxvi:ii),  is  the  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  the 

Heb.  ^^^7K  ar-aw-m^eth'. 

Syriac  is  the  ancient  language  of  Syria,  a  dia- 
lect of  the  Aramxan.  The  word  occurs  in  Dan. 
ii:4,  where  it  should  be  "Aramaic,"  as  it  is  in 
the  Hebrew.  The  Chaldaeans  spoke  in  Aramaic 
in  order  to  conform  to  the  custom  of  the  court, 
but  this  was  not  their  proper  or  scientific  lan- 
guage. Daniel  at  this  point  begins  to  employ 
Chaldee  in  his  book,  and  continues  its  use  to  the 
end  of  the  seventh  chapter.    "The  tongue  of  the 


Chaldseans'*  (Dan.  1:4}  was  the  old  Chaldee,  the 
language  of  Akkad,  used  by  the  original  inhabi- 
tants of  Babylonia,  and  in  the  time  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, a  dead  language. 

The  language  now  called  Syriac  first  comes 
to  notice  in  the  second  century  A.  D.,  but  ceased 
to  be  a  vernacular  before  the  twelfth  century. 
It  contains  the  most  extensive  literature  of  any 
Aramaean  dialect,  chiefly  theological,  and,  of 
greatest  importance,  a  translation  of  the  Bible — 
commonly  called  Peshito  ("simple"),  because  it 
was  literal  and  not  paraphrastic — which  was 
made  in  the  second  century.  It  is  the  earliest  of 
the  direct  versions.    (See  Syriac  Versions.) 

8YBIA0  VEBSIOXS  (sj^r'i-^  ver'shiins). 

The  old  Syriac  version  of  the  Scriptures  is 
often  called  the  Peshito;  a  term  in  Syriac  which 
signifies  simple  or  single,  and  which  is  applied  to 
this  version  to  mark  its  freedom  from  glosses 
and  allegorical  modes  of  interpretation  (Haver- 
nick,  Einleit.  Erst.  Theil.  zweite  Abtheil.  S.  90). 
The  time  when  the  Peshito  was  made  cannot 
now  be  certainly  known.  Various  traditions  re 
specting  its  origin  have  been  current  among  the 
Syrians,  which  partake  of  the  fabulous.  Jacob 
of  Edessa,  in  a  passage  communicated  by  Greg- 
ory Bar  Hebraeus,  speaks  of  'those  translators  who 
were  sent  to  Palestine  by  the  apostle  Thaddeus, 
and  by  Abgarus  king  of  Edessa'  (Wiseman,  Hora 
SyriaccP,  p.  T03).  This  statement  is  not  improba- 
ble. There  is  no  good  g^und  for  absolutely  re- 
jecting it.  It  is  true  that  other  accounts  are  re- 
peated by  Bar  Hebraeus,  which  must  be  pronounced 
fabulous ;  but  the  present  does  not  wear  the  same 
aspect.  Ephrem  the  Syrian,  who  lived  in  the  fourth 
century,  refers  to  the  translation  before  us  in  such 
a  manner  as  implies  its  high  antiquity.  It  was 
universally  circulated  among  the  Syrians  in  his 
time;  and,  accordingly,  he  speaks  of  it  as  our 
version,  which  he  would  scarcely  have  done  had 
it  not  then  obtained  general  authority.  Besides, 
it  has  been  shown  by  Wiseman,  that  many  ex- 
pressions in  it  were  either  unintelligible  to  Eph- 
rem, or  at  least  obscure.  Hence  this  father 
deemed  it  necessary  to  give  an  explanation  of 
many  terms  and  phrases  for  the  benefit  of  his 
countrymen.  Such  circumstances  are  favorable 
to  the  idea  of  an  early  origin.  Perhaps  it  was 
made  in  the  first  century,  agreeably  to  the  tradi- 
tion in  Jacob  of  Edessa. 

SYBIAN  (syr'i-an),  (Heb.  "^^IK,  ar-am-mee'l  an 

inhabitant  of  western  Svria  on  the  Mediterranean, 
or  eastern  Syria,  i.e,,  Mesopotamia  (2  Kings  v:20* 
Deut.  xxvi:5;  Gen.  xxv:2o;  xxviii:v;  xxxi:20,24). 

SYBO-PH(ENICIA  (sy'ro-phe-nTsh'^),  Gr. 
2vpo^rl«i|,  500'rof-oy-nik*ay^  Syria  of  Phcenicia),  or 
Phoenicia  Proper,  called  Syro  or  Syrian  Phce- 
nicia, from  being  included  m  the  Roman  province 
of  Syria. 

It  includes  that  part  of  the  coast  of  Canaan, 
on  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  which 
the  cities  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  were  situated;  and 
the  same  country,  which  is  called  Syro- Phoenicia 
in  the  Acts,  is  in  the  (jospels  called  the  coasts 
of  Tyre  and  Sidon.  The  woman  also  described 
as  Syro-Phoenician  (Zvpo0oiW<r<ra)  in  Mark  vii:62, 
is  in  Matt.  xv:22  called  a  Canaanitish  woman, 
because  that  country  was  still  occupied  by  the 
descendants  of  Canaan,  of  whom  Sidon  was  the 
eldest  son. 

8YBTIS  (ser'tYs),  quicksands  (Acts   xxvii:i7) 
See  Smith,  Diet  of  Class.  Geog. 


1 


TAANACH 


im 


TABERNACLE 


T 


TAANACH  (ta'2t-n^),  (Heb.  "^i^,  tah-an-awk'. 

Randy). 

A  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites  (Josh.  xii:2i), 
in  the  territory  of  Issachar,  but  assigned  to  Ma- 
nasseh  (Judg.  i:27;  vng;  Josh.  xvii:ii-i8;  i 
Kings  iv:i2).  Schubert,  followed  by  Robinson, 
finds  it  in  the  modern  Taannuk,  now  a  mean  ham- 
let on  the  south  side  of  a  small  hill,  with  a  summit 
of  table-land.  It  lies  on  the  southwestern  border 
of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  four  miles  south  of 
Megiddo,  in  connection  with  which  it  is  men- 
tioned in  the  triumphal  song  of  Deborah  and 
Barak  (Judg.  vrig).  Schubert,  Morgenland,  iii, 
164;  Robinson,  Bib,  Res.  iii,  156;  Bib.  Sacra,  1,76. 
The  place  is  mentioned  in  an  Egjrptian  inscription 
found  at  Karnak,  in  connection  with  the  conquests 
of  Thothmes  III  (B.  C.  about  1600),  in  Canaan. 

TAAKATH-SHILOH  (ta'a-nath^.bnoh),  (Heb. 
rot  n:Kj!l,  tah-an^th^-shee'lo*), 

A  boundary  of  Ephraim  on  the  north  (Josh. 
xvi:6),  between  the  Jordan  and  Janohah.  It  is 
now  the  Ain  Tana,  a  ruin  seven  miles  southeast 
of  Shechem. 

TABBAOTH  (t2tb'ba-6th).  (Heb.  f^'3^?^,  tab-baw- 
oihe\  rings  or  spots). 

A  family  of  Nethinim^  whose  descendants  re- 
turned with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii:43;  Neh.  vii:46). 
(B.  C.  before  536.) 

TABBATH   (t2tb'bath).   (Heb.   ^2^,   tab'bath\ 

famous),  a  place  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
flight  of  the  Midianites  from  Gideon  (Judg.  vii:22). 
Site  unknown ;  but  it  must  have  been  near  Abel- 
meholah.  However,  Grove  suggests  its  identity 
with  Tubukhat'Fahil,  a  remarkable  mound  or 
bank  about  600  feet  high,  east  of  the  Jordan,  op- 
posite Beisan  (Beth-shean). 

TABEAL  (ta'be-al),  (Heb.  ^S?¥,  taw-beh-aU*, 
God  is  good). 

1.  The  father  of  the  unnamed  person  on  whom 
Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekah,  king  of  Israel, 
proposed  to  bestow  the  crown  of  Judah  in  case 
they  succeeded  in  dethroning  Ahaz  (Is.  vii:6). 
Who  Tabeal's  son*  was,  is  unknown,  but  it  is 
conjectured  that  he  was  some  factious  and  pow- 
erful Ephraimite  (perhaps  Zichri,  2  Chron.  xxviii : 
7),  who  promoted  the  war  in  the  hope  of  this 
result.  The  name  is  Syriac,  and  it  has  been  con- 
jectured that  he  was  a  descendant  of  Naaman. 
(B.  C.  before  738.) 

2.  A  Persian  petty  governor  in  Samaria  in  the 
time  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  who  complained 
that  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  was  being  rebuilt  (Ezra 
iv:7).    (B.  C.  519.) 

TABEEL  (ta'be-el),  (Ezra  iv:7).  See  Tabeal,  i. 

TABEBAH  (tib'e-rah),  (Heb.   •"'1??0,   tab-ay- 

raw',  burning),  one  of  the  stations  of  the  Israelites 
in  the  desert,  where  the  discontented  were  con- 
sumed by  fire  (Num.  xi:3;  Deut.  ix:22).  (  See 
Wandering,  The.) 

TABEBIKO  (ta'DSr-tng),  (Heb.  IB?,  taw-faf, 

to  drum),  the  striking  of  a  taber,  tabret,  tambour- 
ine, or  timbrel  (Nah.  ii:7;  Ps.  lxviii:25;  comp.  Luke 
xviii:i3;  xxiii:27) 


The  picture  is  of  a  company  of  Ninevite  women 
beating  upon  their  breasts  as  players  upon  a  taber. 
A  taber  is  a  small  drum  beaten  by  one  stick,  to 
accompany  a  pipe.    (Schaff,  Bib.  Diet,) 

TABERNACLE  (tab'er-na-kn),  (Heb.  "'^  •'^  ^^ 

o' hel  mo-ade't  tent  of  assembly,  from  a  root,  to  fix 
or  appoint  time  and  place  of  meeting). 

i.  Names.  Kimchi  explains  the  name  thus: 
'And  thus  was  called  the  o*-hel-mo-ade,  because 
the  Israelites  were  assembled  and  congregated 
there,  and  also  because  he  (Jehovah)  met  there 
with  Moses,'  etc.  It  is  from  the  Hebrew  word 
meaning  tent  of  testimony,  or  to  witness.  The 
Septuagint  almost  constantly  uses  the  phrase,  tent 
of  testimony.  The  Vulgate  has  tabernaculum 
faderis,  tent  of  the  covenant.  With  this  render- 
ing agrees  Luther's  Stiftshntte,  The  Chaldee  and 
Syrian  translators  have,  tent  of  festival. 

Other  Hebrew  terms  are: 

1.  Soke  (Heb.  ?JD),  and  sook-kaw*  C"'??),  both 

from  "n??,  saw'kak',  to  entwine,  are  used  to  denote 

a  booth,  a  hut  (Lev.  xxiii:34;  Ps.  lxxvi:2;  Job 
xxxvi:29;  Is.  iv:6;  Amosix:ii;  Zech.  xiv:i6). 

2.  Sik'kooth'  (Heb.  f^''^?),  employed  to  denote 

an  idolatrous  booth  which  the  worshipers  of  idols 
constructed  in  their  honor,  as  was  the  tabernacle 
of  the  covenant  in  honor  of  Jehovah  (Amos  v:26). 
The  Greek  terms  for  tabernacle  are:  (i)  SkaY- 
nay'  (aKtiiHi),  any  structure  made  of  skin,  cloth, 
green  boughs,  etc.  (Matt.  xvii:4;  Mark  ix:5;  Luke, 
IX. ^3;  John  vii:2;  Heb.  xiig,  etc.).  The  "tabernacle 
of  Moloch"  (Acts  vii:43;  comp.  Amos  v:26),  was  a 
portable  shnne,  in  which  was  carried  the  imaee  of 
the  god.  (2)  Skay'no-mah  (<rin^iw/ui),  used  of  the 
tabernacle,  etc. 

2.  Three  Tabernacles*  We  may  distinguish 
in  the  Old  Testament  three  sacred  tabernacles: 

(1)  The  Ante-Sinaitic,  which  was  probably  the 
dwelling  of  Moses,  and  was  placed  by  the  camp 
of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert,  for  the  transaction  of 
public  business  (Exod.  xxxiii:7). 

(2)  The  Sinaitic  Tabernacle.  The  Ante- 
Sinaitic  tabernack,  which  had  served  for  the 
transaction  of  public  business  probably  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Exodus,  was  superseded  by  the 
Sinaitic:  this  was  constructed  by  Bezaleel  and 
Aholiab  as  a  portable  mansion  house,  guildhall, 
and  cathedral,  and  set  up  on  the  first  day  of  the 
first  month  in  the  second  year  after  leaving  Egypt. 
Of  this  alone  we  have  accurate  descriptions.  Philo 
{Opera,  ii,  p.  146)  calls  it  transported  temple,  and 
Josephus  (Anttq,  iii,  6,  i),  a  portable  traveling 
temple.  It  is  also  sometimes  called  'temple'  (i 
Sam.  i:9,  iii:3). 

(3)  The  Davidic  Tabernacle  was  erected  by 
David  in  Jerusalem  for  the  reception  of  the  ark 
(2  Sam.  vi:i7),  while  the  old  tabernacle  remained 
to  the  days  of  Solomon  at  Gibeon,  together  with 
the  brazen  altar,  as  the  place  where  sacrifices  were 
offered  (i  Chron.  xvi:39,  and  2  Chron.  i:3). 

3.  Of  the  Principal  Tabernacle.  The  second 
of  these  sacred  tents  is,  as  the  most  important, 
called  the  tabernacle  Par  excellence,  Moses  was 
commanded  by  Jehovah  to  have  it  erected  in  the 
Arabian  desert,  by  voluntary  contributions  of  the 
Israelites,  who  carried  it  about  with  them  in  theif 


TABERNACLE  I 

migrations  until  after  the  conquest  of  Canaan, 
when  it  remained  stationary  for  longer  periods 
in  various  towns  of  Palestine. 

(1)  Ilaterlals.  The  materials  of  which  this  tent 
was  composed  were  so  costly,  that  skeptics  have 
questioned  whether  they  could  be  furnished  by  a 
nomadic  race.  The  tabernacle  exceeded  in  cost- 
liness and  splendor,  in  proportion  to  the  slender 
means  of  a  nomadic  people,  the  magnificence  oE 
any  cathedral  of  the  present  day,  compared  with 
the  wealth  of  the  surrounding  population.  It  is, 
however,  remarkable  that  Moses  was  directed  by 
Jehovah  to  collect  the  means  for  erecting  the 
tabernacle,  not  by  church-rates,  but  by  the  vol- 
untary principle.  The  mode  of  collecting  these 
means,  and  tiie  design  of  the  structure,  are  fully 


27  TABERNACLE 

said  that  the  east  end  of  the  Tabernacle  had  no 
boards,  but  only  five  pillars  of  acacia  wood;  it 
was,  therefore,  enclosed  with  a  richly  embroidered 
curtain,  suspended  from  these  pillars  (Exod. 
xxvii:i6). 

(4>  The  Vail.  Such  was  the  external  appear- 
ance of  the  sacred  tent,  which  was  divided  into 
two  apartments,  by  means  of  four  pillars  of  shit- 
lim  wood,  overlaid  with  gold,  like  the  pillars  be- 
fore described,  two  cubits  and  a  halt  distant  from 
each  other ;  only  they  stood  on  sockets  of  silver, 
instead  of  sockets  of  brass  (Exod.  xxvi:32; 
xxxvi:36}  ;  and  on  these  pillars  was  hung  a  veil, 
formed  of  the  same  materials  as  the  one  placed 
at  the  east  end  (Exod.  xxvi  131-33;  xxxvi:35). 

(5)  The  Court.    The  tabernacle  thus  described 


described  in  Exod.  xxv.  to  xxvii.,  and  in  xxxv. 
to  xxxvii. 

(8)  Form.  The  tabernacle  was  of  an  oblong 
rectangular  form,  thirty  cubits  long,  ten  broad, 
and  ten  in  height  (Exod.  xxvi:t8-2g;  xxxvi:23- 
■  34)- 

(3)  Structure  and  Curtaina.  The  two  sides, 
and  the  western  end,  were  formed  of  boards  of 
acacia  wood,  overlaid  with  thin  plates  of  gold,  and 
fixed  in  solid  sockets,  or  vases  of  silver.  Above, 
they  were  secured  by  bars  of  the  same  wood,over- 
laid  with  gold,  passing  through  rings  of  gold, 
which  were  fixed  (o  the  boards.  On  the  east  end, 
which  was  the  entrance,  there  were  no  boards,  but 
only  five  pillars  of  shittim  wood,  whose  chapiters 
and  fillets  were  overlaid  with  gold,and  their  hooks 
of  gold,  standing  on  five  sockets  of  brass.  The  tab- 
ernacle thus  erected  was  covered  with  four  differ- 
ent kinds  of  curtains.  The  first  and  inner  curtain 
was  composed  of  fine  linen,  magnificently  em- 
broidered with  figures  of  cherubim,  in  shades  of 
blue,  purple  and  scarlet ;  this  formed  the  beautiful 
ceiling.  The  next  covering  was  made  of  goats* 
hair;  the  third  of  rams'  skins,  dyed  red;  and  the 
fourth  and  outward  covering  was  made  of  badg- 
ers' skins,  as  our  translators  have  it,  but  which  19 
not  quite  certain,  as  it  is  generally  thought  that 
the  original  intends  only  skins  of  some  descrip- 
tion, dyed  of  a  particular  color.    We  have  already 


stood  in  an  open  space,  of  an  oblong  form,  one 
hundred  cubits  in  length,  and  fifty  in  breadth,  sit- 
uated due  east  and  west  (Exod.  xxvii:i8).  This 
court  was  surrounded  with  pillars  of  brass,  filleted 
with  silver,  and  placed  at  the  distance  of  five 
cubits  from  each  other.  Their  sockets  were  of 
brass  and  were  fastened  to  the  earth  with  pins  of 
the  same  metat  (Exod,  xxxviiiiio,  17,  20).  Their 
height  is  not  stated,  but  it  was  probably  fivecubits, 
that  being  the  length  of  the  curtains  that  were  sus- 
pended on  them  (Exod.  xxxviii;i8).  These  cur- 
tains, which  formed  an  enclosure  round  the  court, 
were  of  fine  twined  white  linen  yarn  (Exod. 
xxvii  :9;  xxxviii:9,  16),  except  that  at  the  en- 
trance on  the  east  end,  which  was  of  blue,  and 
purple,  and  scarlet,  and  fine  white  twined  linen, 
with  cords  to  draw  it  either  up,  or  aside,  when 
the  priests  entered  the  court  (Exod.  xxxviii;l8; 
xxxix:4o).  Within  this  area  stood  the  altar  of 
burnt-offerings,  and  the  laver  and  its  foot.  The 
former  was  placed  in  a  line  between  the  door  of 
the  court  and  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  but 
nearer  the  former  (Exod.  xl;6,  29),  the  latter 
stood  between  the  altar  of  burnt-offering  and 
the  door  of  the  tabernacle  (Exod.  xxxviii:8). 
But  although  the  tabernacle  was  surrounded  by 


.   there 

stood  in  the  center  of  it 

casion  for  so  large  an  ar< 


I  to  think  that  It 
ir  there  was  no  oc- 
t  the  west  end  as  at 


TABERNACLE  1628  TABERNACLE 

(7>  DAdication.  Th«  remarkable  and  costir 
structure  thus  described  was  erected  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Sinai,  on  tbe  first  day  of  the  first  month 
of  the  second  year,  after  the  Israelites  left  Egypt 
(Exod.  xl:i7};  and  when  erected  was  anointed, 
together  with  its  furniture,  with  holy  oil  (verses 
9-11),  and  sanctified  by  blood  (Exod.  xxiv:6-8; 
Heb.  ix:ai).  The  aliar  of  burnt  oflerinB,  es- 
pecially, was  sanctified  by  sacrifices  during  seven 
days  (Exod.  xxix:37),  while  rich  donations  were 
given  by  the  princes  of  the  tribes,  for  the  service 
of  the  sanctuary  (Num.  vii.)- 

(8)  Location.  We  should  not  omit  to  observe, 
that  the  tabernacle  was  so  constructed  as  to  he 
taken  to  pieces  and  put  together  again,  as  oc- 
casion required.  This  was  indispensable;  it  being 
designed  to  accompany  the  Israelites  during  their 
travels  in  the  wilderness.  As  often  as  they  re- 
moved, the  tabernacle  was  taken  to  pieces,  and 

The  Laier  ot  B(U>  BeloDginit  to  ihe  TibirQBclB.  bo^ne    in    regular    order    by    the    Levites     (Num. 

iv).  Wherever  they  encamped  k  was  pitched  in 
the  east,  where  the  altar  and  other  utensils  of  the  midst  of  their  tents,  which  were  set  up  in  a 
the  sacred  service  were  placed.  It  is  more  prob-  quadrangular  form,  under  their  respective  stand- 
able  that  the  area  at  this  end  was  fifty  cubits      ards,  at  a  distance  from  the  tabernacle  of  %aoo 


<A.  T 

square;  and  indeed  a  less  space  than  that  could      cnbtts;  while  Moses  and  Aaron,  with  the  priests 
hardly  suffice  for  the  work  that  was  10  be  done      and  Levites  occupied  a  place  between  them, 
there,  and  for  the  persons  who  were  immedi-  C.  H.  F.  B. 

ately  to  attend  the  service.  We  now  proceed  to 
notice  the  furniture  which  the  tabernacle  con- 
Uined, 

(8)  Pnmltnro.  In  the  holy  place  were  three 
(Ejects  worthy  of  notice,  viz..  the  altar  of  incense, 
t4ie  table  for  the  shewhread,  and  the  candlestick 
for  the  lights,  each  of  which  have  been  described 
in  their  respective  places.  The  altar  of  inceme 
was  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  sanctuary,  before 
the  veil  (Exod.  xxx:6-lo;  xl:z6.  27)  and  on  it 
the  incense  was  burnt  morning  andevening  (Exod. 
XXX  -.7,  8.  34-^)-  On  the  north  side  of  the  altar  of 
incense,  that  is,  on  the  right  hand  of  the  priest  as 
he  entered,  stood  the  table  for  the  shetabread 
(Exod.  xxvi  :3s ;  xl  :22,  23),  and  on  the  south  side 
of  the  holy  place,  ihe  golden  candlestick  (Exod. 
xx¥:3i-39).  /"  Ihe  most  holy  place  were  the  Akk 
OF  THE  Covenant,  the  Mercy  Seat,  and  the  Cher- 
tiDiK,  for  a  description  of  which  their  articles  may 
be  consulted.  Alut  ot  fiarot  OBsrtDSi. 


TABERNACLE  OF  WITNESS 


1629 


TABLE 


Figurative,  (i)  'The  light  shall  be  dark  in 
his  tabernacle*  (Job  xviii:6),  is  a  symbol  of  mis- 
fortune. When  Job  says,  'The  secret  of  God  was 
ufon  my  tabernacle*  (xxix:4),  he  means  that  the 
blessing  of  God  was  upon  his  tent.  (2)  *lVho 
shall  adide  in  thy  tabernacle f*  (Ps.  xv:i)  means 
'who  shall  be  in  the  communion  of  the  church  of 
God?'  (3)  Did  not  this  tabernacle  represent  the 
Redeemer,  early  in  his  manhood?  (Heb.  viii: 
2;  ix:2i.)  Did  it  not  represent  the  gospel 
church,  the  "tabernacle  of  our  mystical  David?" 
Nay,  did  not  this  sacred  tent  rather  prefigure 
heaven,  where  "Jehovah,"  Jesus,  and  the  whole  of 
the  chief  substance  of  the  church  are  to  be  found  ? 
(Heb.  ix:ii;  Rev.  xiii:6.) 

TA3EB13rACLE  OF  WITNESS  (Num.  xvii  7, 
8),  TABEBNACLE  OF  TESTIMONY  (Exod. 
xxxviii:2i).  These  terms  may  refer  to  the  Law, 
which  was  deposited  in  the  tabernacle,  and  which 
testified  to  God's  authority  and  holiness,  (Exod. 
XXV  :2i).  or  they  may  refer  to  the  revelations 
which  God  made  of  himself  in  the  tabernacle  and 
by  which  he  made  known  his  presence  in  the  most 
glorious  and  mysterious  manner. 

TABEBNACLES,  FEAST  OF  (t&b'er-ni-k'ls. 
fest6v),(Heb.f^*?95  ^,  khag  has-soo-fohth',  feast 

of  tents),  one  of  the  three  great  festivals  of  the 
Jews,  being  that  of  the  closing  year,  as  the  Pass- 
over was  o!  the  spring.  In  Lev.  xxiii:34-43,  direc- 
tions for  observmg  the  feast  are  given  in  very 
clear  terms. 

(1)  Occasion.  It  was  held  in  commemoration 
of  the  divine  goodness  as  exercised  towards  the 
Jews  when  they  were  wandering  in  the  desert, 
as  well  as  expressive  of  gratkude  for  the  supply 
of  the  rich  fruits  of  the  earth;  and  so  was  fitted 
to  awaken  the  most  lively  feelings  of  piety  in 
the  minds  of  the  Hebrews  in  each  successive 
generation. 

(2)  Ceremony.  From  the  writings  of  the  Rab- 
bins we  learn:  (i)  That  those  who  took  part  in 
the  festival  bore  in  their  left  hand  a  branch  of 
citron,  and  in  their  right  a  palm  branch,  entwined 
with  willows  and  myrtle.  (2)  A  libation  of  water 
took  place  on  each  of  the  seven  days  (Is.  xii: 
3 ;  John  yii  137)  ;  at  the  time  of  the  morning  obla- 
tion a  priest  drew  from  the  fount  of  Siloam  water 
in  a  jar  holding  three  logs,  and  poured  it  out,  to- 
gether with  wine,  into  two  channels  or  conduits, 
made  on  the  west  side  of  the  altar,  the  water 
into  the  one,  the  wine  into  the  other.  (3)  In  the 
outer  court  of  the  women  there  began,  on  the 
evening  of  the  first  day,  an  illumination  on  great 
golden  candlesticks,  which  threw  its  light  over 
the  whole  of  Jerusalem;  and  a  dance  by  torch- 
light (the  torches  being  made  from  the  priest's 
cast-oflF  linen),  attended  by  song  and  music,  was 
performed  before  the  candelabra. 

(8)  A  Season  of  Joy.  From  these  details  it 
appears  that  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  was  a 
season  of  universal  joy.  Jerusalem  bore  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  camp.  The  entire  population  agam 
dwelt  in  tents,  but  not  with  the  accompaniments 
of  travel,  fatigue,  and  solicitude ;  all  was  hilarity, 
all  wore  a  holiday  appearance;  the  varied  green 
of  the  ten  thousand  branches  of  different  trees; 
the  picturesque  ceremony  of  the  water  libation, 
the  genera]  illumination,  the  sacred  solemnities  in 
and  before  the  Temple;  the  feast,  the  dance,  the 
sacred  song;  the  full  harmony  of  the  choral 
music;  the  bright  joy  that  lighted  up  every  face, 
and  the  gratitude  at  'harvest  home'  which 
swelled  every  bosom, — all  conspired  to  make 
these     days    a     season     of    pure,     deep,     and 


lively  joy,  which,  in  all  its  elements,  finds  no 
parallel  among  the  observances  of  men. 

TABITHA  (tUb'i-tbi),  (Gr.  Ta/3(M,  tab-ee-thah', 
antelope),  the  Aramaean  name  of  a  Christian  fe- 
male, called  in  Greek  Dorcas,  a  resident  at  Joppa, 
whose  benevolent  and  liberal  conduct,  especially 
in  providing  the  poor  with  clothing,  so  endeared 
her  to  the  Church  in  that  place  that  on  her  death 
they  sent  for  Peter,  then  six  miles  off  at  Lydda, 
imploring  him  to  come  to  them. 

The  Apostle,  after  fervent  prayer  to  God  in  the 
chamber  of  death,  bade  the  corpse  arise ;  on  which 
Tabitha  'opened  her  eyes,  and  when  she  saw  Pe- 
ter, she  sat  up.'  This  great  miracle  was  not  only 
an  act  of  benevolence,  but  tended  to  give  authority 
to  the  teaching  of  the  Apostles,  and  to  secure  at- 
tention for  the  doctrines  which  they  promulgated 
(see  Acts  ix:36-42).     (A.  D.  32.) 

TABLE  (ta'b'l),  (Heb.  >??^,  usually,  shool- 
khawn\  extended). 

1.  The  Hebrew  table  was  probably  nothing  more 
in  general  than  a  mat,  or  cloth  spread  on  the 
ground,  as  among  the  Arabs  of  to-day  (Judg.  i: 
7 ;  I  Sam.  xx  :29,  34 ;  i  Kings  ii  7 ;  Ps.  Ixix  \22) . 

2.  Loo'akh  (Heb.  ^^  or  0^,  glistening),  a  tablet 

whether  of  polished  stone  or  wood  (Exod.  xxvii:8, 
etc.,  A.  V.  "board"),  or  for  writing  on  (Is.  xxx:8; 
Hab.  ii:2;  Prov.  iii:3). 

8.  May-sab*  (Heb.  ^55)^  ^  divan,  i.  e.,  a  com- 
pany of  persons  seated  round  about  a  room  (Cant. 
1:12,  A.  V.  "at  table"). 

4.  An-ak-fmahee  (Gr.  dwnccZ/iai),  to  lie  at  table 
(John  xiii:28)  on  the  divan. 

5.  Kiee'nay  (Gr.  icXfmy,  a  bed),  a  couch  to  re- 
cline on  at  meals  (Mark  vii:4). 

6.  Pin-ak'id ee-on  (Gr.  irtvaWdtor,  Luke  i:63)  and 
plax  (Gr.  irXd|,  flat),  the  former  a  small  writing 
tablet,  the  latter  meaning  the  same  as  1  (2  Cor. 
iii:3). 

7.  Trap*ed'zak  (Gr.  rpdireiu),  a  table  on  which 
food  is  placed  (Matt.  xv:27;  Markvii:28;  Luke  xvi: 
21;  xxii:2i,  30);  the  table  of  shewbread  (Heb.  ix:2); 
the  table  or  stand  of  a  money  changer,  where  he 
sits,  exchanging  different  kinds  of  money  for  a  fee, 
and  paying  Dack  with  interest  loans  or  deposits 
(Matt.  xxi:i2;  Mark  xi:i5;  John  ii:i5).  (Barnes, 
Bib.  Diet.) 

Figurative,  (i)  Man's  heart  is  represented  as 
"a  writing-table/*  and  a  "fleshly  table,'*  ready 
to  receive,  and  be  affected  with  divine  truths 
(Prov.  iii:3;  vii:3;  2  Cor.  iii:3).  (2)  The  altar 
of  burnt-offering  is  called  God's  "table,**  because 
the  sacrifices  thereon  offered  were  acceptable  to 
him  and  were  food  to  the  hungry  (Mai.  1:7,  12). 
(3)  The  ordinances  of  the  church  are  likened  to  a 
table,  as  they  exhibit  to  us  the  fullness  of  (}od 
for  the  nourishment  of  our  soul  (Ps.  lxix:22; 
Luke  xxii:3o).  (4)  God  "furnishes  one*s  table,*' 
when  he  gives  them  prosperity,  spiritual  or  tem- 
poral (Ps.  xxiii:5).  (5)  "The  table  of  the  Lord 
is  contemptible**  (Mai.  1:7;  comp.  v:i2),  is  what 
the  prophets  charge  the  priests  with  representing. 
The  table  of  Jehovah  is  the  altar,  and  they  made 
it  contemptible  by  offering  upon  it  bad,  blemished 
animals,  which  were  unfit  for  sacrifices.  (6) 
"They  shall  speak  lies  at  one  table*'  (Dan.  xi: 
27),  IS  a  figure  of  feigned  friendship.  (7)  Eating 
at  the  table,  especially  in  the  presence  of  enemies 
(Ps.  xxiii:5;  comp.  Is.  xxi:5),  denotes  a  sense 
of  security.  In  i  Cor.  x:2i,  (8)  "Ye  cannot 
be  partakers  of  the  Lord's  table,  and  of  the  table 
of  devils,"  brings  into  sharp  contrast  the  holy 
communion  and  the  sacrifices  offered  to  heathen 
deities.    St.  Paul  seems  to  make  the  real  exist- 


TABLE  OF  SHEWBREAD  I 

ences  anBwering  to  the  beatben  conception  of 
these  gods  to  be  dejnons. 

TAXLS  OF  BHEWBREAS  (ta'b'I  JW  aha'- 
brSd).    SeeSHEWBREAD;  Tabernacle. 

TABIiS  or  THE  LOBS.  Tbe  table  of  the 
Christian  Church  (i  Cor.  x:z[). 

TABLES  OF  THE  Z^W  (ta'bis  «v  the  ta). 
(Heb.  15?  ^^\.  loo-kotk-  eh'ben).  or  "tables  of  the 


__  "testimony"  (Exod. 
,15),  were  the  tables  of 
Ten    Commandments 


by  the 
given  to  Mosea  on 


the  incorrect  translation  in  the  A.  V. 
of: 

1.  Koa-mawz'  (Heb.  'J''^,  jewel),  probably  gold 
drops  like  beads  worn  around  the  neck  or  arm  by 
Uie  Israelites  in  the  desert  (Exod.  xxxv:Z2;  Num. 
xxxi:50). 

3.  Bot-lay-  kan-nekjesh  (Heb.  Wt^  "!??.  houses 
oj the  breath,  i.  e.,  perfume  bottles.  Is.  iii:3o). 


30  TABRET 

summit,  where  is  a  small  oblong  nlain,  with  the 
foundations  of  ancient  buildings.  The  view  of  the 
country  from  this  place  is  very  beautiful  and 
extensive.  The  mountain  is  of  limestone,  which  is 
the  general  rock  of  Palestine.  The  sides  of  the 
mountain  are  mostly  covered  with  bushes,  and 
woods  of  oak  trees  (ilex  and  xgilops),  with  oc- 
casionally pistachio  trees,  presenting  a  beautiful 
appearance,  and  affording  a  fine  shade. 

This  mountain  is  several  limes  mentioned  in 
the  Old  Testament,  but  not  in  the  New.  Its 
summit  has,  however,  been  regarded  as  the  'high 
mountain  apart,'  where  our  Lord  was  transfigured 
before  Peter,  James,  and  John.  But  the  proba- 
bility of  [his  is  opposed  by  circumstances  which 
cannot  be  gainsaid.  It  is  manifest  that  the  Trans- 
figuration took  place  in  a  solitary  place,  not  only 
from  the  word  apart,'  but  from  the  circumstance 
that  Peter  in  his  bewilderment  proposed  to  build 
'three  tabernacles'  on  the  spot  (Malt.  xvii:i-8; 
Luke  ix  128-36).  But  we  know  that  a  fortified 
town  occupied  the  top  of  Tabor  for  at  least  two 
hundred  and  twenty  years  before  and  sixty  years 
after  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  probably  much  be 


MooBt  Tal»r. 


TABOB  (ta'bfir),  (Heb.  1^,  tOw-hore'). 
1,  A  mountain  on  the  confines  of  Zcbulun  and 
Naphtali,  standing  out  in  the  northeast  border 
of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  the  name  of  which  ap- 
pears among  Greek  and  Roman  writers  in  the 
forms  of  Itabyrion  and  Atabyrion,  and  which  is 
now  known  by  the  name  of  Jebel  Tut.  It  is  men- 
tioned in  Josh.  xix:z2;  Judg.  ivi6;  viii:i8;  Ps. 
Ixxxix:i2;  Jer.  xlvi.iS;  Hos.  v;i.  Mount  Tabor 
stands  out  alone  and  eminent  above  the  plain, 
with  all  its  fine  proportions  from  base  to  summit 
displayed  at  one  view.  It  lies  at  the  distance  of 
two  hours  and  a  quarter  south  of  Nazareth.  Ac- 
cording to  the  barometrical  measurements  of 
Schubert,  the  height  of  Tabor  above  the  level  of 
the  sea  is  seventeen  hundred  and  forty-eight  Paris 
feet,  and  thirteen  hundred  and  ten  Paris  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  plain  at  its  base.  Seen  from 
the  southwest,  it  presents  a  semi-globular  ap- 
pearance; but  from  the  northwest,  it  more  re- 
sembles a  truncated  cone.  By  an  ancient  path, 
which  winds  considerably,  one  may  ridt  to  the 


fore  and  long  after  (Polybius,  v,  7ft  6;  Joseph, 

.411/15.  xiv,  6.  3;  De  Bell.  /ud.  i.  8.  7;  ii,  20,  i; 
iv.  I,  8;  Vila,  sec.  37);  and  the  tradition  itself 
cannot  he  traced  back  earlier  than  towards  the 
end  of  the  fourth  century.  (Robinson,  Bibl.  Re- 
searches, iji,  210-227 ;  Lord  Nugent,  Lands,  Clas- 
sical and  Sacred,  ii,  198-204 :  Schubert,  Morgen- 
land,  iii,  174-180;  Burckhardt,  Syria,  pp.  332-336; 
Stephens,  ii.  3i7-'9;  Elliot,  ii,  364) 

2.  Tabor  is  also  the  name  of  a  grove  of  oaks 
in  the  vicinity  of  Benjamin,  in  I  Sam.  x:3.  the 
topography  of  which  chapter  is  usually  much  em- 
barrassed by  the  groundless  notion  that  Mount 
Tabor  is  meant. 


TABBET  (tSb'rSt),  (Heb.  ejn,  to/e.  Gen.  xxxh27; 
Job  xvii  :6),  a  tambourine,  consisting  of  a  'hoop  or 
ring'  covered  with  membrane  and  hung  round  with 
br.iss  bells  or  rattles.  It  was  used  uu  lestal  oc- 
casions,  bulb  sacred  and  secular. 


TABRIMON 


1631 


TAHATH 


TABBIMON  (t&b'ri-m6n),    (Heb.   T'^1?^.  tab- 

rim-mone\  pleasing  to  Rimmon),  father  of  Ben- 
hadad  1,  the  king  of  Syria  in  the  time  of  Asa  (i 
Kings  XV  :i8).    (B.  C.  before  928.) 

TACHE  (tach),  (Heb.  ^?R-,  keh'res,  Exod.  xxvi:6)» 

a  fastening  or  clasp,  as  a  buckle,  a  knob  on  which 
the  curtains  of  the  tabernacle  were  hung  (Exod. 
xxvi:ii,33;  xxxv:ii;  xxxvi:i3;  xxxix:33). 

TACHMAS  (tak'mas),  (Heb.  ^Vi^*  takh-mawce', 

night  hawk,  Lev.  xi:i6;  Deut.  xiviu),  is  mentioned 
as  one  of  the  unclean  birds  in  the  Pentateuch,  but 
so  little  characterized  that  no  decided  opinion  can 
be  expressed  as  to  what  species  is  really  intended. 
Commentators  incline  to  the  belief  that  the 
name  imports  voracity,  and  therefore  indicates  a 
species  of  owl,  which,  however,  we  take  to  be 
not  this  bird,  but  the  lilith;  and  as  the  night- 
hawk  of  Europe  (Caprimulgus  Europ<pus)y  or  a 
species  very  nearly  allied  to  it,  is  an  inhabitant 
of  Syria,  there  is  no  reason  for  absolutely  reject- 
ing it  in  this  place.  The  night-hawk  is  a  migratory 
bird,  inferior  in  size  to  a  thrush,  and  has  very 
weak  talons  and  bill;  but  the  gape  or  mouth  is 
wide;  it  makes  now  and  then  a  plaintive  cry,  and 
preys  on  the  wing;  it  flies  with  the  velocity  and 
action  of  a  swallow,  the  two  genera  being  nearly 
allied.  Like  those  of  most  night  birds,  the  eyes 
are  large  and  remarkable,  and  the  plumage  a 
mixture  of  colors  and  dots,  with  a  prevailing' 
gray  effect.     (See  Owl.)  C.  H.  S. 

TACHMONITE,    THE     ( t^'mo-nite ),    (Heb. 

••Jttpnri^  takh'kem-o'neetTdosX  wise  or   sagacious). 

The  Tachmonite  chief  among  David's  captains 
(2  Sam.  xxiiiiS),  io  in  1  Chron.  xi:ii  called  'Jasho- 
beam  an  Hachmonite,'  or  as  in  R.  V.  son  of  a 
Hachmonite,  which  latter  is  no  doubt  the  correct 
reading. 

TACKUNG    (tak'lTng),    (Heb.    '3"    kheh'bel; 

Gr.  aKctrfi,  skyoo-ay'),  (Acts  xxviiiip;  Is.  xxxiii:23), 
the  ropes  and  cordage  of  a  ship,  chains,  spars. 

TADMOB  (tad'mor),  (Heb.  "J'^l??,  tad-more\ 

A  town  built  by  King  Solomon  (i  Kings  ix:i8; 
2  Chron.  viii:4).  The  name  Tamar  signifies  a 
palm  tree,  and  hence  the  Greek  and  Roman  desig- 
nation of  Palmyra,  'city  of  palms ;'  but  this  name 
never  superseded  the  other  among  the  natives,  who 
even  to  this  day  give  it  the  name  of  Thadmor. 

(1)  Location.  Palm  trees  are  still  found  in 
the  gardens  around  the  town,  but  not  in  such  num- 
bers as  would  warrant,  as  they  once  did,  the  im- 
position of  the  name.  Tadmor  was  situated  be- 
tween the  Euphrates  and  Hamath,  to  the  southeast 
of  that  city,  in  a  fertile  tract  or  oasis  of  the  des- 
ert. It  was  built  by  Solomon,  probably  with  the 
view  of  securing  an  interest  in  and  command  over 
the  great  caravan  traffic  from  the  east,  similar  to 
tliat  which  he  had  established  in  respect  of  the 
trade  between  Syria  and  Egypt. 

(2)  History.  Tadmor  was  for  a  long  period 
under  the  sway  of  the  Romans.  But  in  the  third 
century  it  attained  independence  under  Odenathus 
and  his  celebrated  consort  Zenobia.  It  returned 
again,  however,  under  the  dominion  of  the  Ro- 
mans, and  after  various  vicissitudes  of  fortunes, 
it  ultimately  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  successors 
of  Mohammed.  From  about  the  middle  of  the 
eighth  century  it  seemed  gradually  to  have  fallen 
into  decay,  but  its  magnificent  ruins  were  scarcely 
known  in  Europe  till  towards  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century. 

(3)  Present  Condition.  The  ruins  cover  a 
sandy  plain  stretching  along  the  bases  of  a  range 


of  mountains  called  Jebel  Belaes,  running  nearly 
north  and  south,  dividing  the  great  desert  from 
the  desert  plains  extending  westward  towards 
Damascus,  and  the  north  of  Syria.  Volney  well 
describes  the  general  aspect  which  these  ruins 
present:  *In  the  space  covered  by  these  ruins  we 
sometimes  find  a  palace  of  which  nothing  remains 
but  the  court  and  walls;  sometimes  a  temple 
whose  peristyle  is  half  thrown  down;  and  now 
a  portico,  a  gallery,  or  triumphal  arch.  Here 
stand  groups  of  columns,  whose  symmetry  is  de- 
stroyed by  the  fall  of  many  of  them;  there,  we 
see  them  ranged  in  rows  of  such  length  that, 
similar  to  rows  of  trees,  they  deceive  the  sight 
and  assume  the  appearance  of  continued  walls. 
H  from  this  striking  scene  we  cast  our  eyes  upon 
the  ground,  another,  almost  as  varied,  presents 
itself:  on  all  sides  we  behold  nothing  but  sub- 
verted shafts,  som^  whole,  others  shattered  to 
pieces,  or  dislocated  in  their  joints;  and  on  which 
side  soever  we  looked,  the  earth  is  strewed  with 
vast  stones,  half  buried;  with  broken  entablatures, 
mutilated  friezes,  disfigured  reliefs,  effaced  sculp- 
tures, violated  tombs,  and  altars  defiled  by  dust.' 

The  present  Tadmor  consists  of  numbers  of 
peasants'  mud  huts,  clustered  together  around  the 
great  temple  of  the  sun.  This  temple  is  the  most 
remarkable  and  magnificent  ruin  of  Palmyra.  The 
court  by  which  it  was  enclosed  was  one  hundred 
and  seventy-nine  feet  square,  within  which  a 
double  row  of  columns  was  continued  all  round. 
They  were  three  hundred  and  ninety  in  number, 
of  which  about  sixty  still  remain  standing.  In  the 
middle  of  the  court  stood  the  temple,  an  oblong 
quadrangular  building,  surrounded  with  columns, 
of  which  about  twenty  still  exist,  though  without 
capitals,  of  which  they  have  been  plundered,  prob- 
ably because  they  were  composed  of  metal.  In 
the  interior,  at  the  south  end,  is  now  the  humble 
mosque  of  the  village. 

The  remains  of  Palmyra,  not  being  of  any  di- 
rect Scriptural  interest,  cannot  here  he  more  par- 
ticularly described.  Very  good  accounts  of  them 
may  be  seen  in  Wood  and  Dawkins,  Ruins  of 
Palmyra,  otherwise  Tadmor  in  the  Desert;  Irby 
and  Mangles,  Travels;  Richter,  Wallfahrten;  Ad- 
dison, Damascus  and  Palmyra.  The  last  work 
contains  a  good  history  of  the  place;  for  which 
see  also  RosenmUller's  Bib,  Geog,,  translated  by 
the  Rev.  N.  Morren ;  Porter,  Handbook  for  Syria 
and  Palestine,  p.  543,  sq.;  Beaufort,  Egyptian 
Sepulchers,  vol.  i. 

TAHAN  (ta'han),  (Heb.  IHS,  takh'an,  tent-place, 
encampment). 

1.  A  descendant  of  Ephraim,  and  head  of  a 
family  (Num.  xxvi;35).     (B.  C.  before  1171.) 

2.  The  son  of  Telah,  and  father  of  Laadan  in 
the  line  of  Ephraim  (i  Chron.  yii:25).  (B.  C. 
after  1171.) 

TAHAKITES,  THE   (ta'han-ftes,    the),  (Heb. 
^HOT^  hat-takh-an-ee*),  descendants  of  Tahan  i 
(Num.  xxvi:35). 

TAHAPANES  (ta-h&p'a-tiez),  (Jer.  11:16).  See 
Tahpanhes. 

TAHATH  (ta'hith),  (Heb.  f^CIO,  takk*ath,  sta- 
tion). 

1.  A  desert  station  between  Tarah  and  Makhe- 
loth  (Num.  xxxiii:26).    Site  not  known. 

2.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  son  of  Assir,  among  the 
ancestors  of  Samuel  (i  Chron.  Vi:24,  37).  (B. 
C.  about  1585.) 

3.  Son  of  Bered  and  g^eat-grandson  of  Ephraim 
(i  Chron.  yii:2o).    (B.  C.  alter  1618.) 


%• 


TAHASH-SKINS 


1632 


TAMAR 


4.  Grandson  of  the  foregoing,  as  the  text  now 
stands  (i  Chron.  vii:20),  and  son  of  Eladah. 
(B.  C  after  i6ia) 

TAHASH-SKINS  (ta'hash>skins).  See  Rams' 
Skins,  Red. 

TAHPANHES    (t^'pan-hSz),  (Heb.   DnfEnn, 

t€Lkh'pan'khace\   or   TEHAPHNEHES    Heb. 

^'?;^?^,  tekh-af-nekh-ace'),  a  city  of  Egypt. 

The  former  name  is  used  by  Jeremiah  (ii:i6; 
xliii:7-9;  xliv:i;  xlvi:i4),  and  the  latter  by 
Ezekiel  (xxx:i8).  The  Sept.  renders  it  by  the 
name  of  a  goddess,  Taphna  (Champollion,  pp. 
121,  123).  This  was  doubtless  Daphne,  a  strong 
boundary  city  on  the  Pelusiac  arm  of  the  Nile 
(Herodot.  ii,  30,  107).  A  mound  called  Tel  De- 
fenneh,  nearly  in  a  direct  line  between  the  mod- 
ern Zan  and  Pelusium,  is  supposed  from  its  name 
and  position  to  mark  the  site  of  Daphne  (Wilkin- 
son, Mod.  Egypt.,  i,  447).  Isaiah  (xxx:4)  names 
it  in  the  abbreviated  form  Hanes.  It  was  to  this 
place  that  Johanan  and  his  party  repaired,  taking 
Jeremiah  with  them,  after  the  murder  of  Gedaliah. 
(See  Mariette  Bey,  Monuments  of  Upper  Egypt, 
pp.  309,  sq.) 

TAHPSKES  (tah'pe-nez),  (Heb.  ^^l}^^,  iakh- 

pen-ace',  head  of  the  age),  a  queen  of  Egypt,  con- 
sort of  the  Pharaoh  contemporary  with  David.  (B. 
C.  about  1000.) 

Her  sister  was  given  in  marriage  to  Hadad,  the 
fugitive  prince  of  Edom  (i  Kings  xi:i9).  (See 
Hadad.) 

TAHBEA  (tah're-i),  (Heb.  3?OT,  takh-rayah, 

craft,  cunning),  son  of  Micah  and  great-grandson 
of  Jonathan  (1  Chron.  ix:4i).  Called  Tarea  in 
I  Chron.  viii:35,  after  B.  C.  1037. 

TAHTIM  HODSHI,  THE  LATVD  OF  (t^b'- 
tim    hdd'shf,    the   Iftnd   6w),    (Hd.    ^t^  D^Pinp, 

takk-teem!  khod-shee\  possibly  tu^  land  of  the 
inhabited). 

A  place  between  Gilead  and  Dan-jaan  (2  Sam. 
xxiv:6),  visited  by  Joab  when  he  made  a  census 
of  the  land  of  Israel.  The  name  has  perplexed 
all  the  interpreters,  but  is  thought  by  some  to 
mean  "the  Hittites  of  Kadesh."  Mr.  Porter  says, 
"It  was  manifestly  a  section  of  the  upper  valley 
of  the  Jordan,  probably  that  now  called  Ard  el- 
Huleh,  lying  deep  down  at  the  western  base  of 
Hermon."    (Barnes*  Bib.  Diet.) 

TALE  (tal),  (Heb.  15^,  to' ken,  Exod.  v:i8),  a 

carefully  counted  number. 

TALENT  (tai'«it),  (Heb.  "'J?,  kik-kawt',  a  cir- 

cle;  Gr.  TdXaKror,  tal*  an -ton,  a  balance).  See 
Money;  Weights  and  Measures. 

TALITHA  CXJMI  (tsa'i-thi  kQ'ml),  (Gr.  roXt^d 
loviu,  'tal-ee-thah'  koo'mee),  these  words  are  from 
ihe  Syriac  and  mean,  "damsel,  arise"  (Mark  v:4i). 

TALMAI  (t&l'mai),  (Heb.  ""^^O,  tai'fnah'ee,  full 
of  furrows). 

1.  The  king  of  Geshur,  and  father  of  David's 
wife  Maacah,  the  mother  of  Absalom  (2  Sam. 
iii:3;  xiii:37;  i  Chron.  iii:i,  2).  (B.  C.  1045.) 
(See  Geshur.) 

2.  The  last  ot  the  three  giants,  sons  of  Anak, 
of  Hebron  (Num.  xiii:22).  They  were  driven 
out  by  Caleb  (Josh.  xv:i4),  and  killed  by  men  of 
Judah  (Judg.  i:io).  (B.  C.  1618.)  They  are 
perhaps  of  the  same  race  as  the  Tanmahu  of 
£)gyptian  monuments. 

TALMON   (tai'raon),  (Heb.   X^'^)^,   tal- mom', 

oppressor),  head  of  one  of  the  families  of  door- 


keepers in  the  Temple  (i  Chron.  ix:i7;  Neh.xiiig), 
some  of  whose  descendants  returned  from  Baby- 
jon  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii:42;  Neh.  vii:45),  and 
in  the  days  of  Nehemiah  and  Ezra  about  B.C. 
1013  were  employed  in  the  Temple. 

TALMUD.     See  article  on  page  1695. 
TAMAH  (ta'mah),  (Heb.  "5?,  Uh-makh),  the 

descendants  of  the  inhabitants  of  Tamah  were 
among  those  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  f  roai 
Babylon  (Neh.  vii:55).  Called  Thamah  in  Ezra 
ii:53. 

TAMAB  (ta'mar),  (Heb. ")??,  taw-mawr'). 

1*  This  has  been  universally  acknowledged  to 
denote  the  'paim  tree,*  sometimes  called  the  'date 
tree.'  Good  says  the  radical  meaning  of  the  word 
is  straight  or  upright.  The  date  tree  is  remark- 
able for  its  erect  and  cylindrical  stem,  crowned 
with  a  cluster  of  long  and  feather-like  leaves,  and 
is  as  much  esteemed  for  its  fruit,  the  'date,'  as 
for  its  juice,  whether  fermented  or  not,  known 
as  'palm  wine,'  and  for  the  numerous  uses  to 
which  every  part  of  the  plant  is  applied.  The 
Arabic  name  of  the  date  is  tamr;  thus  the 
tamarind  is  called  the  Indian  date»  tamr  hindee. 
The  name  Tamar  seemis  to  have  been  applied  to 
the  city  which  Solomon  built  in  the  desert  (i 
Kings  ix:i8;  Ezek.  xlviiiip;  xlviii:2^),  probably 
on  account  of  the  palm-trees  growing  about  it; 
and  the  name  Palmyra,  from  palma,  a  palm,  was 
no  doubt  applied  to  it  by  the  Romans  on  the  same 
account. 

The  pahn  tree  is  first  mentioned  in  Exod.  xv: 
27,  when  the  Israelites  encamped  at  Elim,  where 
there  were  twelve  wells  and  threescore  and  ten 
palm  trees.  The  palm  tree  was  considered  char- 
acteristic of  Judaea,  not  so  much  probably  because 
it  was  more  abundant  there  than  in  other  coun- 
tries, but  because  that  was  the  first  country  where 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  would  meet  with  it  in 
proceeding  southward.  Hence  the  coins  of  the 
Roman  conquerors  of  Judaea  have  inscribed  on 
them  a  weeping  female  sitting  under  a  palm  tree, 
with  the  inscription  *Jud(ea  capta*  (see  Kempfer, 
Amanitates  Exotica,  and  Celsius,  Hierobot,  i, 
444-579).    (See  Palm  Tree.) 

2.  A  Canaanitish  woman,  espoused  successively 
to  the  two  sons  of  Judah,  £r  and  Onan;  but  as 
they  both  died  childless,  Jfudah  hesitated  to  give 
her  his  third  son  Shelah,  as  patriarchal  usagjs  re- 
quired. This  set  her  upon  the  contrivance  de- 
scribed in  Gen.  xxxviii  16-30  ("Thamar"  Matt,  i : 
3),  and  two  sons,  Pharez  and  Zarah,  thus  became 
the  fruit  of  her  criminal  intercourse  with  Judah 
himself.    (B.  C.  1885.)     (See  Judah.) 

8.  Daughter  of  David  by  Maacah,  who  was  also 
the  mother  of  Absalom.  (B.  C.  1033.)  The  un- 
happy consequences  of  the  criminal  passion  en- 
tertained for  this  beautiful  damsel  by  her  half 
brother  Amnon,  brutally  gratified  by  him,  and 
terribly  avenged  by  Absalom,  formed  the  ground- 
work of  the  family  distractions  which  embittered 
the  latter  years  of  David's  reign  (2  Sam.  xiii). 
(See  Absalom;  Amnon;  David.) 

4.  Daughter  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xiv:27).  She, 
by  her  marriage  with  Uriel  of  Gibeah,  became 
ultimately  the  mother  of  Maachah,  the  future 
queen  of  Judah,  or  wife  of  Abijah  (i  Kings  xv: 
2).    (B.  C.  1023.) 

5.  A  locality  of  Judea  (Ezek.  xlviiriQ;  xlviii: 
28),  somewhere  about  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  Dead  sea.  It  is  perhaps  identical  with  the 
village  Tamara  which  Eusebius  located  on  the 
road  between  Hebron  and  Elath. 


TAMMUZ 


1633 


TAPHATH 


TAHMXrZ  /tam'muz),    (Heb.  ^'^^^,  tam-mooz'), 

a  Syrian  deity,  for  whom  the  Hebrew  idolatresses 
were  accustomed  to  hold  an  annual  lamentation 
(Ezek.  viii:i4). 

This  idol  was  the  same  with  the  Phoenician 
Adon  or  Adonis,  and  the  feast  itself  such  as  they 
celebrated.  The  feast  held  in  honor  of  Tammuz 
was  solstitial,  and  commenced  with  the  new  moon 
of  July,  ill  the  month  also  called  Tammuz;  it 
consisted  of  two  parts,  the  one  consecrated  to 
lamentation,  and  the  other  to  joy;  in  the  days 
of  grief,  they  mourned  the  disappearance  of  the 
god,  and  in  the  days  of  gladness,  celebrated  his 
discovery  and  return.  Tammuz  appears  to  have 
been  a  sort  of  incarnation  of  the  sun,  regarded 
principally  as  in  a  state  of  passion  and  sufferandl 
in  connection  with  the  apparent  vicissitudes  in 
its  celestial  position,  and  with  respect  to  the 
terrestrial  metamorphoses  produced,  under  its  in- 
fluence, upon  vegetation  in  advancing  to  maturity. 
(Kitto.) 

TAJCMirZ     AND     THE     INSCRIPTIONS. 

"Then  he  brought  me  to  the  door  of  the  gate  of 
the  Lord's  house  which  was  toward  the  north; 
and  behold  there  sat  women  weeping  for  Tam- 
muz" (Ezek.  viii:i4). 

This  "weeping  for  Tammuz"  which  the  prophet 
declares  to  be  a  greater  abomination  than  the 
burning  of  incense  to  idols  (verse  13)  pertained 
to  the  worship  of  the  Babylonian  sun  god.  Baal 
was  "the  King  of  Constellations"  (see  Baal), 
but  both  Chemosh  (who  is  mentioned  eight  times 
in  the  Old  Testament)  and  Tammuz  were  sun 
gods. 

(1)  The  Sacred  Tree.  A  tablet  in  the  British 
Museum  states  that  the  sacred  dark  fir  tree,  which 
grew  in  the  city  of  Eridu,  was  the  couch 
of  the  mother  goddess.  {Western  Asia  Inscrip- 
tions, vol.  iv,  p.  32). 

The  sacred  tree  having  been  cut  at  the  annual 
festival  and  carried  into  the  idol  temple,  there 
came  the  search  for  Tammuz,  when  the  devotees 
ran  wildly  about  weeping  and  wailing  for  the 
lost  one,  and  cutting  themselves  with  knives.  His 
wife  was  Ishtar  (see  Ashtoreth)  who  is  often 
represented  a^  the  wife  of  Baal,  and  indeed  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Oppert  all  the  Phoenician  god- 
desses were  included  under  this  general  name. 

(2)  Descent  of  Ishtar.  Ishtar  descended  to 
the  lower  world  to  search  for  Tammuz  the  sun 
god  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,  who  had  been 
slain  by  the  boar's  tusk  of  winter,  even  as  Adonis 
the  sun  god  of  the  Greeks  was  afterward  killed 
by  the  tusk  of  a  wild  boar.  Among  the  Greeks, 
Venus  the  queen  of  love  and  beauty  obtained 
permission  from  Proserpina,  the  Queen  of  Hades, 
for  Adonis  to  spend  every  alternate  six  months 
with  her  upon  the  earth.  This  appears  to  be 
merely  a  later  form  of  the  legend  concerning 
Ishtar  and  Tammuz  which  has  been  found  upon 
the  old  Babylonian  tablets. 

(3)  Another  Poem.  The  tablets  also  furnish 
another  poem  which  seems  to  celebrate  a  temple 
similar  to  that  recorded  by  Maimonides  in  which 
the  Babylonian  gods  gathered  around  the  image 
of  the  sun  god  to  lament  his  death.  The  statue 
of  Tammuz  was  placed  on  a  bier,  and  carried 
through  the  streets,  followed  by  bands  of  mourn- 
ers, crying  and  singing  a  funeral  dirge.  He  is 
also  called  Duzi,  'the  sun.'  Tammuz  is  the  proper 
Syriac  word  for  Adonis  of  the  Greeks. 

(4)  Festivals  of  the  Month.  Among  the  in- 
scriptions taken  from  Babylon  is  a  large  tablet, 
containing  when  complete,  the  calendar  of  the 
year,  with  notes  appended  to  each  day,  specifying 

108 


whether  it  was  lucky  or  unlucky,  whether  it  was 
a  feast  or  a  fast  day.  The  calendar  of  the 
month  Duza  or  Tammuz  is  fortunately  complete, 
and  contains  a  record  of  the  festivals  which  weri 
celebrated  therein. 

The  month  opens  with  the  festival  of  Tammuz 
as  the  summer  sun,  restored  in  all  his  beauty 
(after  his  death  in  winter)  to  his  bride,  who  is 
Ishtar,  the  moon. 

The  festival  of  Tammuz  and  Ishtar  extended 
over  all  the  first  half  of  the  month,  the  second 
day  being  the  period  of  lamentation,  and  the 
sixth,  the  day  of  the  procession. 

On  the  fifteenth  of  the  month  they  celebrated 
the  great  marriage  feast  of  Tammuz  and  his 
bride,  and  it  consisted  of  wild  orgies,  such  as 
can  only  be  found  in  the  lascivious  East. 

(6)  Fall  of  Babylon.  It  was  this  festival 
which  Belshazzar  (see  Belshazzar)  was  cele- 
brating on  the  night  in  which  Babylon  was  taken, 
and  it  was  probably  the  only  one  in  which  not 
only  the  king  and  his  lords,  but  also  his  "wives 
and  concubines"  would  be  present.  There  may 
have  been  an  air  of  desperation  imparted  to  the 
conduct  of  Belshazzar  by  the  knowledge  that  by 
the  flight  of  his  father  and  the  defeat  of  his  army, 
the  kingdom  was  virtually  lost,  and  this  was 
probably  his  last  festival  as  a  Babylonian  ruler, 
and  he  the  last  of  the  line  of  Nimrod. 

It  is  evident  from  the  tablets  and  other  authori- 
ties fhat  the  army  of  Cyrus  commanded  by  (joby- 
ras  entered  the  city  "without  fighting"  on  the 
night  of  the  fifteenth  of  the  month  Tammuz,  and 
the  outposts  were  captured  while  the  revelers 
were  unconscious  of  the  near  approach  of  the  foe. 

Another  tablet  by  a  contemporary  scribe  gives 
a  brief  account  of  the  fall  of  Babylon,  which 
throws  a  most  important  light  upon  this  great 
event,  enabling  historians  to  fix  upon  the  year, 
the  month,  and  day  of  the  capture  of  the  city, 
and  proving  its  agreement  with  the  statements  of 
classical  writers  and  the  author  of  the  Book  of 
Daniel.  (See  Western  Asia  Inscriptions,  vol.  i, 
pi.  68,  col.  lines  19.) 

Herodotus  says:  "The  outer  part  of  the  city 
had  already  been  taken,  while  those  in  the  center 
(who  as  the  Babylonians  say,  knew  nothing  of 
the  matter,  owing  to  the  extent  of  the  city)  were 
dancing  and  making  merry,  for  it  so  happened 
that  a  festival  was  being  celebrated." 

Xenophon  claims  that  the  attack  was  made 
"when  Cyrus  perceived  that  the  Babylonians  cele- 
brated a  festival  at  a  fixed  time,  at  which  they 
feasted  for  a  whole  night."  The  Hebrew  proph- 
ets, also,  were  not  unaware  of  this  surprise  upon 
the  "Lady  of  Kingdoms."  (See  Jer.  li:39-57; 
also  Dan.  v:i.) 

TANACH  (ta'nik),  a  Variation  of  Taanach 
(Josh.  xxi:25). 

TAKHUMETH    (tan'hu-mgth).    (Heb.   ^^njn. 

tan'khoo'meth,  comfort),  father  of  Seraiah  (2  Kings 
XXV  :23).  The  probable  clerical  omission  of  an- 
other name  makes  him  a  Netophathite,  which  is 
incorrect  according  to  Jer.  xl:8.    (B. C.  before  582.) 

TANNEB  (tan'ner),  (Heb.  nlT,  ore;  Gr.  /Sv^ciJj, 
boors-yooce'\  the  trade  of  Simon  of  Joppa  (Acts 
ix:43;  x:6,  32). 

It  is  probable  the  Jews  learned  this  art  from 
the  Egyptians,  who  understood  how  to  dye  leather 
(Exod.  XXV  :5).  Leather  girdles  are  referred  to 
(2  Kings  i:8;  Matt.  iii:4).  (See  Wilkinson, 
Ancient  Egypt,  ii,  p.  92,  sq,) 

TAPHATH  (ta'filth),  (Heb.  ^^,  taw-fath\ 
drop,  ornament). 


TAPPUACH 


1634 


TARSUS 


The  daughter  of  Solomon,  who  married  Ben- 
Abinadab,  one  of  the  king's  twelve  commissariat 
officers  (i  Kings  iv:ii).     (B.  C.  about  looo.) 

TAPPUACH     (tap'-pu-ak).      (Heb.   '^'^S*?,  tap- 

poo*akk\  translated  'apple'  in  the  A.  V.,  has  been 
the  subject  of  considerable  difiference  of  opinion 
among  authors  on  Biblical  botany. 

Most  admit  that  apple  is  not  the  correct  trans- 
lation, for  that  fruit  is  indifferent  in  Palestine, 
being  produced  of  good  quality  only  on  Mount 
Lebanon,  and  in  Damascus.  Many  contend  that 
'quince'  is  the  correct  translation  of  tappuach. 
Though  somewhat  more  suitable  than  the  apple, 
we  think  that  neither  the  quince  tree  nor  fruit 
is  so  superior  to  others  as  to  be  selected  for  no- 
tice in  Uie  passages  of  Scripture  where  tappuach 
occurs.  The  citron  seems  to  have  the  best  claim 
to  be  considered  the  tappuach  of  Scripture,  as  it 
was  esteemed  by  the  ancients,  and  known  to  the 
Hebrews,  and  conspicuously  different,  both  as  a 
fruit  and  a  tree,  from  the  ordinary  vegetation  of 
Syria,  and  the  only  one  of  the  orange  tribe  which 
was  known  to  the  ancients.  The  orange,  lemon, 
and  lime,  were  introduced  to  the  knowledge  of 
Europeans  at  a  much  later  period,  probably  by 
the  Arabs  from  India  (Royle,  Himal.  Bot.),  The 
tappuach,  or  citron-tree,  is  mentioned  chiefly  in 
the  Canticles,  ch.  ii:3,  *as  the  citron  tree  among 
the  trees  of  the  wood  ;*  ver.  5,  'Comfort  me  with 
citrons,  for  I  am  sick  of  love;*  vii:8.  The  smell 
of  thy  nose  like  citrons;'  so  in  viii:^.  Again, 
in  Prov.  xxviii,  *A  word  fitly  spoken  is  like  ap- 
ples of  gold  (or  rather  gjolden  citrons)  in  baskets 
of  silver.'  In  Joel  i;i2,  it  is  enumerated  with  the 
vine,  the  fig  tree,  the  palm,  and  pomegranate,  as 
among  the  most  valuable  trees  of  Palestine.  The 
rich  color,  fragrant  odor,  and  handsome  appear- 
ance of  the  tree,  whether  in  flower  or  in  fruit, 
are  particularhr  suited  to  all  the  above  passages  of 
Scripture.     (See  Apple.)  J.  F.  R. 

TAPPUAH  or  BETH-TAPPXJAH. 

1.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  not  far  from 
Hebron  (Josh.  xv:53).  Robinson  identifies  it 
with  an  old  village,  called  Teffuh,  which  he  found 
upon  the  hills  northwest  of  Hebron  {Bid.  Re- 
searches ii,  428). 

2.  Another  Tappuah  lay  in  the  plain  of  Judah, 
apparently  in  the  vicinity  of  Zanoah,  Jarmuth, 
Socoh,  etc.  (Josh.  xv:34).  Which  of  these  was  the 
place  conquered  by  Joshua  is  not  very  clear  ( Josh. 
xii:i7;  comp.  x:6). 

3.  Another  place  of  the  same  name  occurs  on 
the  confines  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  (Josh. 
xvi:8),  in  which  latter  territory  probably  lay 
the  "land  of  Tappuah"  (xvii:8).  It  probably  con- 
tained  a  fine  spnng,  and  hence  called  Entap- 
PUAH  (which  see).  Van  de  Velde  (Memoir^  p. 
351)  locates  it  at  the  present  village  of  *Atilf^ 
which  is  disputed  by  Keil  {Com^, 

4.  Son  of  Hebron  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (i 
Chron.  ii:43).    (B.  C.  before  1618.) 

TABAH  (ta'rah),  (Heb.  ^^,  teh'rakh,  station), 

a  desert  station  of  the  Israelites,  between  Tahath 
and  Mithcah  (Num.  xxxiii:27).    Site  unknown. 

TABALAH  (tir'a-lah),  (Heb.  '"^^Sl??,  tar-al-aiv', 

a  reeling),  a  town  of  Benjamin  on  the  western 
border  (Josh.  xviii:27).    Site  unknown. 

TABEA  (ta're-4),  (i  Chron.  viii:35).     See  Tah- 

REA. 

TABES  (tdrs),  (Gr.  ft^iyior,  dsids-att'ee  on).  See 

ZlZANION. 

TABGET  (tftr'gSt),  (Heb.  X^^^^^^^kee-dohn',  i  Sam. 
xvii*6,  usually  rendered  spear;  tsin-naw^  i  Kings 


x:i6;  2  Chron.  ix:i5;  xiv:8,  a  large  shield).    See 
Arms,  Armor. 

TABPELITES,  THE  (tar'pel-ites.  the),  (Heb. 

«r.^?l^,  tar-pel-aw-yay'). 

A  race  of  colonists  planted  by  Asnapper  in  the 
cities  of  Samaria  after  the  captivity  of  the  north- 
ern kingdom  of  Israel  and  remaining  there  in 
the  days  of  Artaxerxes  (Ezra  ivip). 

TABSHISH  (tar'shish),  (Heb.  ^^,  tar-sheesh', 
subdued). 

1.  A  celebrated  part  of  the  ancient  world,  about 
the  exact  position  of  which  opinions  are  much  di- 
yided*.  (Jonah  i  :3 ;  iv  :2 ;  2  C^hron.  ix  :2i ;  xx  :36, 
Jtt;  Is.  ii:i6;  xxiii:i,  6,  10,  14;  Ixip;  lxvi:i9; 
Jes.  x:9;  Ezek.  xxvii:i2;  xxxviii:i3;  I  Kings  x: 
22;  xxii:48;  Ps.  xlviii:7;  lxxii:io).  From  a 
careful  examination  of  the  Scriptural  accounts 
and  allusions  it  appears  that  Tarshish  was  an  old, 
celebrated,  opulent,  cultivated,  commercial  city, 
which  carried  on  trade  in  the  Mediterranean  and 
with  the  sea-ports  of  Syria,  especially  Tyre  and 
Joppa,andthatin  all  probability  it  is  to  be  identified 
with  Tartessus  in  Spain,  which  appears  to  have 
lain  not  far  from  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalquivir,  consequently 
at  no  great  distance  from  the  famous  Granada  of 
later  days.  It  is  not  improbable,  however,  that 
the  name  may  have  been  employed  in  a  wider 
sense,  and  may  have  denoted  the  (Ustrict  of  south- 
western Spain,  comprising  the  several  colonies 
which  Tyre  planted  in  that  country.  (Ss^ce, 
Higher  Crit,  p.  130.)  J.  R.  B. 

2.  The -second  son  of  Javan  ((Jen.  x:4).  He 
is  supposed  to  have  been  the  founder  of  Tarsus 
in  Cilicia.     (B.  C.  after  2514.) 

3.  The  sixth  of  the  seven  sons  of  Bilhan,  grand- 
son of  Benjamin  (i  Chron.  vii:io).  (B.  C.  after 
1875.) 

4.  A  prince  of  Persia  in  the  time  of  Artaxerxes 
(Esth.  i:i4).     (B.  C.  483) 

5.  A  precious  stone,  so  called,  as  brought  from 
Tarshish,  as  Ophir  is  also  put  for  the  gold  brought 
from  thence  (Exod.  xxviii  :2o;  xxxix:i3;  Ezek. 
i:i6;  xig;  xxviii  :i3;  Cant.  v:i4;  Dan.  x:6). 

The  Septuagint,  followed  by  Josephus,  makes 
it  the  'chrysolite,'  t.  e.  the  topaz  of  the  moderns, 
vvhich  is  still  found  in  Spain :  so  Braun,  De  Ves- 
titu  Sacerd.  ii,  17.  Others  suppose  it  to  be  'am- 
ber;' but  this  does  not  agree  with  the  passages 
in  Exodus,  which  make  the  Tarshish  to  have  been 
one  of  the  engraved  stones  of  the  high  priest's 
breast-plate.  The  word  is  translated  'beryl  in  the 
Authorized  Version.     (See   Beryl.) 

TABSTTS  (tar'sus),  (Gr.  To/xr6f,  tar-sos\  was 
a  celebrated  city,  the  metropolis  of  Cilicia,  in  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Cydnus,  which 
flowed  through  it  and  divided  it  into  two  parts. 

Tarsus  was  a  distinguished  seat  of  Greek  phi- 
losophy and  literature,  and  from  the  number  of 
its  schools  and  learned  men,  was  ranked  by  the 
side  of  Athens  and  Alexandria  (Strabo,  xiv,  pp. 
^73*  674).  Augustus  made  Tarsus  free  (Appian, 
Bell.  Civ.  V,  7).  This  seems  to  have  implied  the 
privilege  of  being  governed  by  its  own  laws  and 
magistrates,  with  freedom  from  tribute;  but  did 
not  confer  the  jus  coloniarum,  nor  the  jus  civi- 
tatis:  and  it  was  not  therefore,  as  usually  sup- 
posed, on  this  account,  that  Paul  enjoyed  the  priv- 
ilege of  Roman  citizenship.  Tarsus,  indeed, 
eventually  did  become  a  Roman  colony,  which 
gave  to  the  inhabitants  this  privilege;  but  this 
was  not  till  long  after  the  time  of  Paul  (Deyling, 
Observat,  Sacr.  iii,  391,  sq.;  comp.  Citizenship; 
Colony).    We  thus  find  that  the  Roman  tribune 


TARTAR 


1636 


TAXES 


at  Jerusalem  ordered  Paul  to  be  scourged,  though 
he  knew  that  he  was  a  native  of  Tarsus,  but  de- 
sisted on  learning  that  he  was  a  Roman  citizen 
(Acts  ix:ii;  xxi:39;  xxii:3).  Probably  Paul 
was  there  also  at  the  beginning  of  his  second  and 
third  missionary  tours  (Acts  xv:4i;  xviii:23). 
In  the  time  of  Abulfeda,  that  is^  towards  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  and  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  Tarsus  was  still  large,  and  surrounded 
by  a  double  wall,  and  in  the  occupation  of  Ar- 
menian Christians  (Tab.  SyruB,  p.  133).  It  is  now 
a  poor  and  decayed  town,  inhabited  by  Turks; 
but  it  is  not  so  much  fallen  as  many  other  an- 
ciently great  towns  of  the  same  quarter,  the  pop- 
ulation being  estimated  at  30,000.  There  are  sot^e^ 
considerable  remains  of  the  ancient  city  (Hefll 
mann,  De  Claris  Tarsenensib.,  Gott.  1748;  Alt- 
mann,  Exerc.  de  Tarso.  Bern.  1731 ;  Mannert,  ii, 
97,  sq.;  Rosenmuller,  Bib,  Geog.  iii,  38;  Beaufort, 
Karamania;  Irby  and  Mangles,  Travels,  pp.  502- 
506;  Ramsay,  Paul  the  Traveler,  p.  32). 

TABTAK   (tar'tftk),  ( Heb.   TPl^D,   tar-tawk\ 

prince  of  darkness),  one  of  the  gods  of  the  Arvites, 
colonists  whom  Shalmaneser  pHiced  in  Samaria  to 
occupy  the  land  after  the  original  inhabitants  had 
been  removed  (2  Kings  xvii:3i).  It  has  been  iden- 
tified with  the  Accadian  god  Turtak,  who  specially 
watched  over  the  Tigris.  (Robertson,  Early  Re^ 
ligion  of  Israel;  Ewald,  Hist,  of  Israel^ 

TARTAJSf  (tar'tan),  (Heb.  T^IO,  tar-tawn^  for- 

eign  derivation),  the  title  of  an  Assyrian  general 
whom  Sennacherib  sent,  accompanied  by  Rabsaris 
and  Rabshakeh,  to  Jerusalem  (2  Kings  xvili:i7). 

It  is  not  known  whether  this  is  the  same  officer 
who  in  a  preceding  reigni  besieged  and  took 
Ashdod  for  his  master  (Is.  xx:i).  Like  Rab- 
saris and  Rabshakeh  Tartan  is  a  title  and  not  a 
proper  name. 

TASEMASTEBS  ( t^k'mis'ters ),   (Heb.   ^H^ 

^^^'9,miS'Seem'  Mw-roy',  masters  of  burdens),  men 

appointed  by  Pharaoh  to  see  that  the  Hebrews 
were  appointed  such  hard  labor  as  to  break  down 
their  physical  strength  and  thus  weaken  their  power 

(Exod.  i:ii);  ^^,  naw-^^as,  to  drive  (Exod.  iii:7; 
v:6-i4). 

TATNAI  (tat'na-l),  (Heb.  ^i^,  tat-Un-ak' ee. 
Persian,  perhaps  gift). 

A  Persian  governor,  who  succeeded  Renum  in  the 
rule  of  Samaria,  and  probably  of  other  provinces 
north  of  Judea.  He  appears  to  have  been  a  more 
just  person,  and  more  friendly  to  the  Jews,  than 
his  predecessor.  An  adverse  report  of  their  pro- 
ceedings at  Jerusalem  reached  him;  but  he  re- 
solved to  suspend  his  judgment  till  he  had  exam- 
ined into  the  matter  on  the  spot.  He  accord- 
ingly repaired  thither,  accompanied  by  another 
great  officer,  named  Shethar-boznai,  and  their  col- 
leagues, and  finding  that  the  Jews  alleged  the  au- 
thority of  a  royal  decree  for  their  proceedings, 
he  sent  to  the  supreme  government  a  temperate 
and  fair  report,  founded  on  the  information  he 
had  obtained,  suggesting  that  the  statement  made 
by  the  Jews  as  to  the  decree  of  Cyrus  and  other 
matters  should  be  verified  by  reference  to  the 
archives  at  Babylon  (Ezra  v:3,  6).  Then,  with- 
out one  word  to  influence  the  decision  or  to  preju- 
dice the  claim  advanced,  Tatnai  concludes  with 
intimating  that  he  awaits  the  royal  orders.  This 
official  letter  of  the  Persian  governor  is  quite  a 
model  of  exactness,  moderation,  and  truth,  and 
gives  a  very  favorable  idea  of  the  administrative 
part  of  the  Persian  government.  This  took  place 
m  the  second  year  of  Darius,  B.  C.  519.    The  re- 


script being  favorable  to  the  claim  of  the  Jews, 
whose  statement  had  been  verified  by  the  discov- 
ery of  the  original  decree  of  Cyrus,  Tatnai  and 
his  colleagues  applied  themselves  with  vigor  to 
the  execution  of  the  royal  commands  (Ezra  vi: 

6,  13). 

TATTIiEB  (t&t'tler),  (Gr.  <liMapot,  floo'ar-os, 
from  0Xi^,  to  throw  up  bubbles,  one  who  throws  up 
bubbles),  a  garrulous  person  (i  Tim.  v:i3). 

TAVEBNS,  THE  THREE  (t^v'ems,  the  thre), 
(Gr.  Tpeft  To/W/)wu,  treis  ta-ber'nai). 

The  name  of  a  small  place  on  the  Appian  way, 
mentioned  Acts  xxviii:is.  It  probably  therefore 
derived  its  name  from  three  large  inns,  or  eat- 
ing-houses, for  the  refreshment  of  travelers  pass- 
ing to  and  from  Rome.  The  place  still  remains, 
and  is  called  Tre  Taverne.  It  is  about  thirty- 
three  miles  from  Rome.  J.  F.  D. 

TAXES  (tSUcs-^z),  (from  Heb.  T)?,  awrak\  to 
value). 

(1)  Origin.  These  must  have  been  coeval  with 
the  origin  of  civilized  society.  The  idea  of  the 
one  is  involved  in  that  of  the  other;  since  so- 
ciety, as  every  organization,  implies  expense, 
which  must  be  raised  by  the  abstraction  of  prop- 
erty from  the  individuals  of  which  it  consists, 
either  by  occasional  or  periodical,  by  self-imposed, 
or  compulsory  exactions. 

(8)  Under  the  Mosaic  Law.  Accordingly  we 
find  a  provision  of  income  made  at  the  very  com- 
mencement of  the  Mosaic  polity.  Taxes,  like  all 
other  things  in  that  polity,  had  a  religious  origin 
and  import.  As  a  ransom  for  his  soul  unto  the 
Lord,  every  Israelite  was  to  pay  half  a  shekel 
yearly,  from  twenty  years  old  and  upward,  the 
rich  not  giving  more,  the  poor  not  giving  less,  for 
the  service  of  the  Tabernacle  (Exod.  xxx:i2,  sq.; 
2  Chron.  xxiv:6).  From  the  latter  passage  it 
appears  that  the  law  appointing  this  payment  was 
in  force  in  the  days  of  Joash  (B.  C.  878).  This 
half  shekel  was  the  tribute  which  our  Lord  was 
asked  if  he  paid  (Matt.  xvii:24). 

(3)  The  Temple  Tax.  A  special  provision 
seems  to  have  been  made  under  peculiar  circum- 
stances, of  one-third  of  a  shekel  yearly,  *for  the 
service  of  the  house  of  our  (jod  (Neh.  x:32). 
The  Jews  at  times  found  the  taxes  they  had  to 
pay  very  oppressive.  The  ten  tribes  complained 
that  they  had  found  David's  yoke  heavy,  and  en- 
treated Kehoboam  that  he  would  lighten  it.  And 
the  stoning  to  death  of  Adoram,  who  'was  over 
the  tribute,'  shows  to  what  an  extent  the  ques- 
tion of  taxes  entered  into  the  causes  of  the  re- 
volt of  the  ten  tribes  (i  Kings  xii:4,  18). 

(4)  Under  the  Bomans.  When  the  Romans 
became  masters  of  Palestine  the  unhappy  Jews 
had  a  double  yoke  to  bear ;  while  it  appears  from 
Josephus  that  the  yoke  of  the  native  princes  was 
anything  but  light. 

(5)  Miscellaneous  Taxes.  Besides  the  regu- 
lar half  shekel  there  was  a  considerable  income 
derived  to  the  temple  from  tithes,  firstlings,  etc 
(2  Kings  xii:4).  (Considering  the  fertility  of  the 
land  we  cannot  account  these  religious  imposts 
as  heavy.  If  we  turn  to  the  civil  constitution, 
we  find  taxes  first  instituted  at  the  time  of  the 
introduction  of  regal  power,  whose  exactions  are 
forcibly  described  by  Samuel  (i  Sam.  viii:io, 
sq.).  They  consisted  partly  in  personal  service, 
partly  in  tithe  in  kind.  Occasionalljr  a  heavy  poll- 
tax  was  imposed — ^'on  all  the  mighty  men  of 
wealth,  of  each  man  fifty  shekels  of  silver'  (2 
Kings  xv:2o).  On  other  occasions  an  assessment 
was  made,  and  a  tax  raised  from  the  people  of  the 


TEACH 


1636 


TEKOA 


land  generally  (2  Kings  xxiii  :3s).  Both  these 
last  cases,  however,  were  provisions  for  a  special 
need.  Presents  constituted  a  source  of  abundant 
income,  and  can  hardly  be  regarded  in  any  other 
light  than  as  a  sort  of  self-imposed  tax  (i  Sam. 
x:27;  xvi:20;  i  Kings  x:25;  2  Chron.  xviirj). 
Royal  demesnes  supplied  resources  (i  Kings  iv: 
22,  sq.).  There  was  also  a  transit-tax  *of  the 
merchantmen,  and  of  the  traffic  of  the  spice-mer- 
chants, and  of  all  the  kings  of  Arabia,  and  of 
the  governors  of  the  country'  (i  Kings  x:i5). 
Ships  and  other  public  property  belonged  to  the 
king  ( I  Kings  x  :28 ;  ix  :26 ;  xxii  :49)  :  the  weight 
of  gold  that  came  to  Solomon  in  one  vear  (inde- 
pendently of  several  sources)  was  676  talents  (i 
Kings  x:i4).  J.  R.  B. 

TEACH  (tech),  among  many  other  words  in  the 
original  Scriptures  are:  "^8?,  law'inact\  Gr.  M- 
do-jcw,  did-as'kot  with  other  terms: 

1.  To  make  to  know  (Ps.  cxix:26). 

2.  To  admonish;  to  direct  (Mark  viii:3i). 
God  "teaches"  men,  by  his  word  informing  their 

judgment:  by  his  Spirit  opening  their  under- 
standing to  discern  divine  things;  and  by  his 
providence  pointing  out  what  we  have  done  or 
ought  to  do,  and  what  we  may  expect  at  his  hand 
(Rom.  ii:i8;  Neh.  ix:2o;  Jer.  vi:8;  Prov.  xxiv: 
32;  Ps.  XXV  :8,  9).  Christ's  right  hand  "teaches 
him  terrible  things,"  when  he  performs  marvelous 
works  for  the  salvation  of  his  people  and  the  de- 
struction of  their  enemies  (Ps.  xlv:4).  To  "teach 
by  the  hand  of  (Jod,"  is  to  do  it  by  assistance  (Job 
xxvii:ii).  To  "teach  with  the  fingers,"  is  by 
gestures  to  excite  others  to  what  is  shameful  to 
be  expressed  in  words  (Prov.  vii:i3). 


(tech'er). 

1.  A  master;  an  instructor  (i  diron.  xxv:8). 

2.  A  minister  of  the  (Jospel,  who,  by  his  doc- 
trine and  practice,  makes  men  to  understand  the 
truths  of  God  (Eph.  iv:ii). 

3.  One  who  by  private  instruction,  or  example, 
makes  others  to  know  spiritual  things  (Tit.  ii:3). 
(Brown,  Btfr.  Did.) 

TSABS.    See  Mourning. 

TSASHITB   (te'shdr),   (Heb.  "''»^«^.  teh^h- 

shoof'\  occurs  in  three  places  in  Scripture,  but  great 
uncertainty  has  always  existed  respecting  its  true 
meaning  (Cels.  Hierobot,  ii,  153);  though  it  is  now 
generally  acknowledged  to  denote  the  box  tree. 

There  is  no  philological  proof  of  this  conclu- 
sion, but  yet  there  is  nothing  in  the  tree  indicated 
unsuitable  to  the  several  contexts.  Thus,  with 
reference  to  the  future  temple,  it  is  said  (Is.  Ix: 
13),  'The  glory  of  Lebanon  shall  come  unto  thee, 
the  fir  tree,  the  pine  tree,  and  the  box  together,'' 
and  at  xli:i9,  'I  will  set  in  the  desert  the  fir  tree, 
and  the  pine,  and  the  box  together.'  Further  in 
Ezek.  xxvii  :6,  in  the  account  of  the  arts  and  com- 
merce of  Tyre,  we  read,  *0f  the  oaks  of  Bashan 
have  they  made  thine  oars,  and  the  benches  of  the 
rowers  are  made  of  fl,9/if4r-zt;<?<?(/,  inlaid  with  ivory,' 
as  it  is  now  usually  interpreted.  The  ashur-wood, 
moreover,  is  said  to  have  been  brought  from  the 
isles  of  Chittim,  that  is,  of  Greece. 

The  box  tree,  being  a  native  of  mountainous 
regions,  was  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  calcareous 
formations  of  Mount  Lebanon,  and  therefore 
likely  to  be  brought  from  thence  with  the  conif- 
erous woods  for  the  building  of  the  temple,  and 
was  as  well  suited  as  the  fir  and  the  pine  trees  for 
changing  the  face  of  the  desert.    (See  Box  Tree.) 

J.  F.  R. 


(te'bah),  (Heb.  "2W,  teh'bakh,  slaughter), 

a  son  of  Nahor  by  his  concubine  Reumah  (Gen. 
xxii:24),  B.  C.  about  2050. 

TEBALIAH  (tSb'a-U'ah),  (Heh   '^•"^t^^P,  teb-al 

yaw'hoo,  Jehovah  immerses  or  ourifies),  third 
named  of  the  sons  of  Hosah  of  tne  children  of 
Merari  (i  Chron.  xxvi:ii),  B.  C.  1014. 

TEBETH   (te'beth),   (Heb.   f^??,  taybeth),  the 

tenth  month  (Esth.  ii:i6)  of  the  sacred  year  of  the 
Hebrews,  commenced  with  the  new  moon  in 
December,  and  terminated  at  the  new  moon  in 
January.  The  Egyptians  called  it  Tubi  or  Tobi, 
and  it  was  their  fifth  month. 

^  TEHAPHNEHES  (te-h&f'ne-hez),  (Ezek.  xxx: 
18).    See  Tahpanhes. 

TEHINNAH  (te-htn'nah),  (Heb.    ^i^'^,  Ukh- 

in-naw',  cry  for  mercy,  mercy,  eraciousness),  a  son 
of  Eshton,  of  the  tribe  of  Judan,  and  the  founder 
of  the  city  of  Nahash  (i  Cnron.  iv:i2),  B.  C.  about 
1083. 

TEIL  TREE  (tel  tre),  is  the  linden  tree,  or  Tilia 
Europaus  of  botanists  as  rendered  in  Is.  vi:i3. 

It  is  translated  "elm"  in  Hos.  iv:i3  and  "oak" 
in  many  passages,  which  are  mentioned  under 
Oak.  In  most,  perhaps  all,  of  these  places  the 
terebinth  (Pistacia  of  several  species)  is  doubt- 
less meant. 

This  tree  has  pinnate  leaves,  small  red  berries, 
and  belongs  to  the  order  of  the  sumac.  Accord- 
ing to  the  writer's  observation,  the  terebinth  was 
most  abundant  in  the  north  of  Palestine,  and  es- 
pecially above  Lake  Merom,  where  some  of  these 
trees  were  very  symmetrical,  dense,  and  spread- 
ing, with  luxuriant  foliage  of  a  blue-green,  af- 
fording a  delightful  shelter,  if  not  appropriated 
as  Arab  burying-places.  Such  specimens  show 
that  the  terebinth,  if  suffered  to  reach  age,  is  a 
noble  tree,  and  that  Absalom  might  easily  have 
been  caught  in  riding  under  one  of  them.  It  is 
an  Eastern  idea  that  this  tree  lives  a  thousand 
years,  and  when  it  dies  the  race  is  renewed  by 
young  shoots  from  the  root ;  so  that  the  tree  may, 
in  a  sense,  be  called  perpetual.  Hence  the  al- 
lusion in  Is.  vi:i3. 

"In  Smyrna,  Constantinople,  and  other  Eastern 
cities  the  cypress  overshadows  the  Muslim's 
grave,  but  the  terebinth  the  Armenian's.  They 
say  that  this  homeless  people  brought  this  tree 
with  them  from  the  shores  of  Lake  Van,  and 
love  to  see  those  who  are  dear  to  them  sheltered 
in  their  last  sleep  by  its  ancestral  shade." — War- 
burton.  (Schaff,  Bib.  Diet.)  (See  Oak;  Nuts; 
Allon.) 

TEKEL  (tg'kel),  (Heb.  ^p.^?,  /ek-a/e',  weighed), 

the  second  word  in  the  handwriting  against  Bel- 
shazzar  (Dan.  v  125,  27).  The  interpretation  contaii£ 
the  twofold  meaning,  "Thou  art  weighed  in  the 
balances,  and  found  wanting,  or  too  light,"  /.  e, 
lacking  in  moral  worth. 

TEKOA  (te-k5'4).  (Heb.  ^'^^),  tek-o'ah,  Sept. 
Oeicw^,  thekoe), 

A  city  south  of  Bethlehem,  on  the  borders  of 
the  desert  to  which  it  gave  name,  and  noted  as  the 
residence  of  *the  wise  woman'  who  interceded  for 
Absalom;  as  one  of  the  towns  fortified  by  Reho- 
boam  (2  Chron.  xi  :6)  ;  and  as  the  birthplace  cf 
the  prophet  Amos  (2  Sam.  xiv:2;  i  Chron.  ii. 
24;  2  Cnron.  xx:20;  Amos  i:i).  People  of  Tekoa 
assisted  in  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  iii:5,  2y).  From  its  elevated  position  it 
must  have  been  used  as  a  place  of  lookout  to  give 


TEKOAH 


1637 


TELL  AMARNA.  TABLETS  OF 


warning  of  the  approach  of  an  enemy  (Jer. 
vi:i).  The  site  has  long  been  known;  it  lies  six 
miles  south  of  Bethlehem,  on  an  elevated  hill,  not 
steep,  but  broad  at  the  top,  and  covered  with 
ruins  to  the  extent  of  four  or  five  acres.  There 
is  also  a  castle  of  more  modern  date. 

The  site  commands  extensive  prospects,  and  to- 
wards the  east  is  bounded  only  by  the  level  moun- 
tains of  Moab.  Before  and  durmg  the  Crusades 
Tekoa  was  well  inhabited  by  Christians;  but  in 
A.  D.  1 138  it  was  sacked  by  a  party  of  Turks  from 
beyond  the  Jordan,  and  nothing  further  is  known 
of  it  till  the  seventeenth  century,  when  it  lay  des- 
olate, as  it  has  ever  since  done  (Robinson,  Bib. 
Researches,  ii,  182-184). 

TEKOAH  (te-k5'ah),  (2  Sam.  xiv:2«  sg.).  See 
Tekoa. 

TBKOITB  (te-ko'ite),  (Heb.  with  the  article, 
-ylpOT    hat-tek-0'ee\   an    inhabitant    of   Tekoa, 

and  used  as  an  epithet  of  Ira,  one  of  David's  war* 
riors  (2  Sam.  xxin:26;  i  Chron.  xi:28;  xxvii:o).  The 
name  is  found  even  after  the  Captivity  (Neh.  iii: 
5.  27). 

TBLABIB  (t«l-a'bib),  (Heb.  3^3«-7n  taU-aw 
beeb\  corn-hill). 

A  city  of  Babylonia  or  Chaldea,  and  the  resi- 
dence of  Ezekiel  on  the  river  Chebar  (Ezek.  iii: 
15).    Site  unknown. 

TELAH  (te'lah),  (Heb.  "^C",  tek'lakh,  breach). 

the  son  of  Rephah,  a  descendant  of  Ephraim,  and 
ancestor  of  Joshua  (i  Chron.  vii:25),  B,  C.  before 
1658. 

TELAIM  (tgl'a-Im),  (Heb.  O''^^??,  Ui-aw-eem\ 
young  lambs). 

The  place  where  Saul  collected  his  forces  to  at- 
tack the  Amalekites  (i  Sam.  xv:4).  It  is  doubt- 
fully identified  with  Telem  (Josh.  xv:24). 

TELASSAB  (te-lis'sar),  (Heb.  "»^«^n  ^/.^^. 
sar*),  hill  of  Asshur  or  Assyrian  hill. 

A  city  inhabited  by  **the  children  of  Eden"  (2 
Kings  xix:i2;  Is.  xxxvii:i2).  It  lay  in  the  hill 
country  of  Mesopotamia,  near  Haran.  Exact  site 
not  known. 

TELEM  (te'lem).  (Heb.  0^??,  teh'iem,  oppres- 
sion). 

1.  A  doorkeeper  of  the  temple,  who  divorced 
his  (jentile  wife  (Ezra  x:24).     (B.  C.  458.) 

2.  A  city  in  Judah  (Josh.  xv:24),  on  the  south- 
ern border.  It  is  probably  the  same  as  Telaim. 
Site  not  known. 

TEIi-HABSA  or  TEL-HABESHA  (tSl-h^r'sa 

or  tgl'har'e-sha),  (Heb.  ^^IG"^?.  tale-khar-shaw*, 

mound  of  workmanship). 

A  Babylonian  town  from  which  some  of  the 
Jewish  captives  who  had  lost  the  record  of  their 
lineage  returned  to  Jerusalem  with  Zerubbabel 
(Ezra  ii:59;  Neh.  vii:6i).  It  was  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Tel-Melah;  but  the  exact  site  is  not 
known. 

TELL  (tgl),  (Heb.  "^S?,  saw-far',  Ps.  xlviii:i2,  to 
count,  reckon). 

TELL  AMABNA,  TABLETS  OF. 

(1)  Kame  and  Discovery.  This  name  is  va- 
riously written,  some  preferring  to  write  Tell- 
el-Amarna  or  Tel-el  Amarna;  but  Major  Conder, 
who  has  given  us  one  of  the  best  translations  of 
these  tablets,  says  that  "Tel  is  an  impossible  spell- 
ing for  a  word  coming  from  the  root  Talal,  and 
that  Aisarna  is  not  a  word  of  Arabic  form,  so 


that  it  appears  very  doubtful  whether  the  Arabic 
article  el  should  be  prefixed." 

From  the  same  authority  we  learn  that  these 
documents  were  discovered  in  1887  by  a  peasant 
woman  in  Egypt  amid  the  ruins  of  the  palace  of 
Amenophis  IV,  midway  between  Thebes  and 
Memphis,  at  the  site  of  the  ancient  Antinoe,  about 
one  hundred  and  eighty  miles  by  river  south  of 
Cairo.  The  tablets  date  about  1480  B.  C,  and  are 
written  to  the  king  of  Egypt,  and  to  his  officials 
by  Amorites,  Phoenicians,  Philistines  and  others. 
We  have  thus  become  possessed  of  a  mass  of  po- 
litical correspondence  dating  about  the  time  when 
the  Hebrew  invasion  under  Joshua  took  place,  and 
which  in  bulk  represents  a  literature  equal  to 
about  half  the  length  of  the  entire  Pentateuch. 

Some  of  these  letters  on  clay  were  sent  to  the 
great  Egyptian  museum  at  Boulak,but  the  most  of 
them  went  to  the  museums  of  London  and  Ber- 
lin, while  a  few  passed  into  the  hands  of  private 
individuals.  They  are  much  like  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  tablets,  but  vary  greatly  in  size,  in 
shape,  and  the  composition  of  the  substance  on 
which  they  are  written,  some  letters  from  the 
same  author  being  readily  distinguished  bv  the 
peculiar  appearance  of  the  clay.  It  is  greatly  re- 
gretted that  many  of  them  are  broken,  so  that 
out  of  the  whole  mass  of  this  valuable  corre- 
spondence, only  about  two  hundred  and  twenty 
letters  are  decipherable,  the  rest  being  in  frag- 
ments which  render  consecutive  readings  impos- 
sible.  . 

According  to  Conder  the  language  is  Aramaic, 
resembling  Assyrian,  and  the  events  recorded  in- 
clude the  conquest  of  Damascus  by  the  Hittites, 
that  of  Phoenicia  by  the  Amorites,  and  that  of 
Judea  by  the  Hebrews.  The  names  of  Japhia, 
king  of  Gezer ;  of  Jabin,  king  of  Hazor ;  and  prob- 
ably Adonizedek,  king  of  Jerusalem— contempo- 
raries of  Joshua— occur  among  those  of  the 
writers. 

The  two  kings  to  whom  these  letters  were  ad- 
dressed are  Amenophis  III  and  Amenophis  IV, 
hence  the  period  which  the  correspondence  cov- 
ers is  well  located,  Amenophis  IV  bein^  a  king  of 
the  eighteenth  dynasty,  and  the  approximate  date 
of  his  predecessor  being  about  1500  B.  C. 

(2)  International  Correspondence.  We  have 
in  the  first  place  letters  between  Egypt,  and  Baby- 
lon, Assyria,  Mitani,  and  Alasia,  countries  main- 
taining relations  of  friendship  with  Egypt,  pos- 
sibly as  a  result  of  a  wholesome  fear  of  the  great 
conquerors,  who  had  gone  before. 

Tney  sought  by  the  exchange  of  presents,  and 
by  intermarriage  to  preserve  hospitable  relations. 
They  invariably  address  each  other  as  "Brother** 
and  all  the  letters  begin  with  long  and  profuse 
greetings  in  stereotyped  form  very  much  like  th< 
following: 

"To  Nimupiria,  king  of  Egypt,  my  brother:—. 
from  Kallima-Sin,  king  of  I^rdunius  (the  Kas< 
shite  name  for  Babylon ) .  It  is  very  well  with  mt 
and  my  land.  May  it  be  well  with  you,  youi 
wives,  your  sons,  your  daughters,  your  horses, 
your  chariots  and  your  whole  land.*' 

At  this  time  Babylon  was  under  the  rule  of  th# 
Kasshite  dynasty,  and  very  little  is  known  ol 
these  rulers.  These  letters  have  made  possible  ; 
partial  reconstruction  of  the  kings  of  that  period 
but  absolute  certainty  has  not  always  been  ob- 
tained. 

Intermarriages  occupy  much  of  the  correspond- 
ence. Kallima-Sin's  father  married  his  daughter 
to  Amenophis  III,  and  Kallima-Sin  married  hi\ 
own  daughter  to  the  same  Pharaoh,  while  he  him» 
self  negotiated  for  an  Egyptian  wife.    In  one  in- 


TELL  AMARNA,  TABLETS  OF 


1638 


TELL  AMARNA,  TABLETS  OF 


stance  the  king  asks  for  a  princess  and  is  refused, 
he  writes,  however,  that  he  would  be  well  enough 
pleased  with  an^  beautiful  woman  whom  he  could 
pass  off  for  a  king's  daughter. 

Friendly  relations  had  obtained  during  the 
reign  of  six  Babylonian  princes,  but  Amenophis 

III  had  been  contemporaneous  with  four  of  them, 
and  therefore  their  dominion  must  have  been 
brief. 

There  was  a  Burnaburias  I  and  also  a  Burna- 
burias  IL  It  was  the  latter  who  wrote  six  let- 
ters to  Amenophis  IV.  It  appears  that  one  of  his 
caravans  had  been  waylaid  m  Hinaton,  the  city 
mentioned  in  Joshua  xix:i4.  In  such  cases,  in- 
ternational 1*aw  required  of  Egypt,  as  holding 
suzerainty  over  Palestine,  indemnification  and 
punishment  of  the  guilty  parties,  and  therefore  a 
formal  complaint  is  made.  There  was  much 
complaint  concerning  ambassadors,  and  Burna- 
burias tells  Amenophis  III  that  there  is  no  con- 
fidence to  be  placed  in  officers. 

Amenophis,  on  his  part,  says  that  the  ambassa- 
dors of  Kallima-Sin  are  liars  who  misrepresent 
and  falsify  his  messages. 

(3)  Assyria  and  Egypt.  There  is  a  letter 
from  Assur-urballit  of  Assyria  to  Amenophis  IV. 
He  says  that  his  father  Assur-nadin-ahi  had  been 
on  good  terms  with  Egypt.  Assur-urballit  is  al- 
ready known  from  the  monuments;  bis  father, 
however,  is  not  mentioned  there. 

These  letters  indicate  also  an  exchange  of  pres- 
ents, a  demand  for  gold,  and  a  readiness  to  sup- 
ply whatever  may  be  desired. 

(4)  Mitani  and  Egypt  From  this  point  there 
are  five  letters  from  Dusratta,  king  of  Mitani 
to  Amenophis  III,  and  also  three  to  Amenophis 

IV  and  one  to  Ti,  the  mother  of  Amenophis  IV. 
The  location  of  this  country  is  still  in  doubt. 

The  king  of  Mitani  wrote  in  finer  cuneiform  char- 
acters than  did  the  natives  of  Palestine  although 
his  language  belonged  to  a  different  family. 
Among  the  Tell  Amarna  letters  there  is  one 
which  is  written  in  the  language  of  Mitani  which 
although  nearly  unknown  is  an  agglutinative 
Mongolian  dialect.  This  long  inscription  has  been 
translated  by  Major  Conder.  (See  Journal  Royal 
(Asiatic  Sac,  Oct.  1892.) 

There  are  also  two  letters  which  are  in  the 
Hittite  language,  one  of  them  being  from  Tar- 
hundarus  of  Arsapi  which  is  thought  to  be  the 
Rezeph  of  2  Kings  xix:i2.  This  has  also  been 
translated  by  Conder. 

Friendly  relations  had  obtained  between  Egypt 
and  Mitani,  since  the  time  of  Aratma,  the  grand- 
father of  Dusratta,  and  these  were  confirmed  by 
intermarriages.  There  was  much  diplomacy  over 
these  unions,  and  a  great  deal  of  discussion  con- 
cerning doweries  and  prices  for  wives.  There 
was  also  a  great  interchange  of  presents,  includ- 
ing chariots,  horses,  slaves,  oil  and  precious 
stones;  also  personal  ornaments  for  the  ladies  of 
the  court,  especially  for  Ti,  the  mother  of  Amen- 
ophis IV,  who  is  prominent  in  the  letters,  and 
was  probably  prominent  also  in  Egyptian  history. 
During  the  excavations  at  Lachisn  Mr.  Bliss 
found  a  bead  and  also  an  alabaster  vase  inscribed 
with  her  name. 

In  one  of  the  Mitani  letters  she  is  besought  to 
use  her  influence  with  her  son,  to  induce  him  to 
fulfill  a  promise  which  had  been  made  by  his 
father. 

Among  these  letters  there  are  at  least  four  from 
women.  One  of  them  seems  to  be  from  an  Egyp- 
tian princess  in  Babylon  to  her  father  in  Egypt; 
another  is  from  the  governor  of  a  city  and  she 
$igns  herself  "the  king's  bondmaid."    There  are 


also  two  others,  each  of  them  being  written  by, 
and  addressed  to  a  woman. 

Dusratta  tells  Amenophis  III  that  he  had  com- 
pletely defeated  the  Hatti-Hittites,  who  had  made 
an  inroad  into  Mitani.  Again  we  are  told  that 
Istar  (Ashtoreth)  of  Nineveh  had  in  Sutarna's 
day  gone  down  into  Egypt,  and  had  there  been 
revered  by  the  Egyptians,  and  afterwards  re- 
turned. Now  in  Dusratta's  reign  this  visit  is  re- 
peated ;  the  king  is  sending  her  with  the  hope  that 
she  would  be  honored  as  before,  and  in  due  time 
returned.  This  item  is  important  as  it  seems  to 
indicate  that  at  one  time  Dusratta's  dynasty  had 
extended  its  sway  over  Nineveh,  and  therefore 
speaks  much  for  the  power  of  Mitani. 

(6)  Egypt  and  Alasia.  There  are  a  number 
of  letters  from  this  point,  but  some  of  them  hav- 
ing no  headings,  they  are  assignied  here  only  with 
probability.  As  to  the  identification  of  Alasia 
there  is  a  difference  of  opinion.  Professors  Sayce, 
Tompkins  and  Maspero  identify  it  with  Alosha 
or  Arosha  of  the  Egyptologists.  Hommel  takes 
apparently  the  same  position  in  making  it  a  coun- 
try stretching  along  the  coast  to  north  of  Phoe- 
nicia. Winckler  identifies  it  with  Cyprus.  In  any 
event  there  is  a  mention  of  ships  as  bearers  of 
Alasian  messengers,  and  large  quantities  of  cop- 
per were  shipped  to  Egypt.  The  Alasians  seefi 
to  regard  the  Hittites  as  threatening,  and  they 
urge  Pharaoh  to  have  no  dealings  with  them. 

(6)  Letters  from  Southern  Palestine.  These 
indicate  the  presence  of  active  disturbers  and  we 
give  the  following  version  of  102B,  Conder*s  trans- 
lation : 

"To  the  King  my  Lord  is  mourning  thus,  this 
Adonizedek  thy  servant.  At  the  feet  of  my  Lord 
the  King,  seven  times  seven  I  bow.  What  shall 
I  ask  of  the  King,  my  Lord?  They  have  pre- 
vailed, they  have  (taken  the  fortress  of  Jericho), 
they  who  have  gathered  against  the  King  of 
Kings,  which  Adonizedek  has  explained  to  the 
King  his  Lord.  Behold,  as  to  me,  my  father  is 
not  and  my  army  is  not. 

"The  tribe  that  has  ground  me  in  this  place  is 
very  rebellious  to  the  King,  the  same  is  strug- 
gling with  me  for  the  house  of  thy  father.  Why 
has  the  tribe  sinned  against  the  King^  my  Lord? 
Behold  O  King,  my  Lord  arise!  I  say  to  the 
Paka  (resident)  of  the  King  my  Lord,  *Why 
should  you  tremble  before  the  chief  of  the  'Abiri 
(Hebrews)  and  the  rulers  fear  the  end?  So  now 
they  must  send  from  the  presence  of  the  king  my 
Lord.' 

"Behold  I  say  that  the  land  of  the  King,  my 
Lord,  is  ruined.  So  now,  they  must  send  to  the 
King,  my  Lord,  and  let  the  King,  my  Lord  know 
this ;  behold  the  King,  my  Lord  has  placed  a  gar- 
rison to  stop  the  way  .  .  .  Ilimelec  cuts  of! 
all  the  King's  land.  I  myself  speak,  pleading  with 
the  King,  my  Lord,  and  (for  once)  let  the  King, 
my  Lord  behold  n\y  entreaties. 

"This  tribe,  behold  O  King,  my  Lord,  has  risen 
up.  Lo  the  paka  they  have  expelled.  I  say  the 
lands  of  the  King,  my  Lord  are  ruined.  Dost 
thou  hear  this  same  of  me?  They  have  destroyed 
all  the  rulers.  There  is  no  ruler  now  O  King, 
my  Lord. 

"Let  the  King  give  his  countenance  to  the 
chiefs ;  and  whether  shall  the  chiefs  of  the  Egyp- 
tian soldiers  remain  at  rest?  They  have  lingered 
O  King,  my  Lord.  The  lands  are  failing  to  the 
King,  my  Lord. 

"The  Hebrew  chiefs  plunder  all  the  King's 
lands.  Since  the  chiefs  of  the  Egyptian  soldiers 
have  gone  away  quitting  the  lands  this  year  O 
King,  my  Lord,  and  since  there  is  no  chief  of 


TELL   AMARNA,  TABLETS  OF 


1639 


TEMAN 


the  Egyptian  soldiers,  there  is  ruin  to  the  lands 
of  the  King,  my  Lord.  They  have  .  .  .  O 
King,  my  Lord,  and  Adonizedek  is  dust  .... 
Messages  (are  asked?)  of  the  King, my  Lord, there 
is  destruction  by  the  foe  of  the  lands  of  the 
King,  my  Lord." 

This  letter  which  was  written  from  Jerusalem 
clearly  indicates  as  do  others,  that  the  Egyptian 
troops  had  been  withdrawn  shortly  before  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  Hebrews. 

Adonizedek  was  the  name  of  the  King  of  Je- 
rusalem, who  was  killed  by  Joshua  (x:3)  and  Con- 
der  supposes  that  we  have  here  the  name  of  the 
contemporary  of  Joshua,  although  there  is  al- 
ways liable  to  be  more  or  less  uncertainty  in  the 
rendering  of  proper  names. 

Ilimelec  is  a  biblical  name,  being  found  as  the 
name  of  Ruth's  father-in-law  (Ruth  1:2;  ii:i). 
It  is  therefore  a  Hebrew  appellation.  The  word 
'Abiri,  which  Conder  renders  Hebrew,  has  been 
variously  translated,  some  claiming  that  it  may 
allude  to  the  Bedouin  tribes  and  others  supposing 
it  may  mean  "allies."  Major  Conder  shows,  how- 
ever, that  this  people  is  never  mentioned  except 
in  the  south,  near  Jerusalem.  They  are  called 
people  of  the  "blood"  or  "tribe"  of  the  'Abiri,  and 
of  the  "land"  of  the  'Abiri,  showing  that  the  term 
is  derived  from  'Abarim,  or  the  mountains  east 
of  Jordan. 

In  one  letter  it  is  distinctly  said  that  they  have 
come  from  Seir  (Edom)  ;  in  another,  they  are  said 
to  have  left  their  pastures,  and  they  are  probably 
the  "desert  people    of  the  (jezer  letter. 

Their  actions  are  those  of  Joshua's  first  cam- 
paign, and  the  date  agrees  with  this  as  does  also 
the  notice  in  the  letters  of  Jabin,  Japhia,  and 
Adonizedek,  the  contemporaries  of  Joshua. 

In  another  letter  (105  B.)  Adonizedek  appears 
to  be  meditating  flight.  He  speaks  of  a  raid  on 
Gezer,  Ascalon  and  as  far  as  Lachish,  after  the 
taking  of  Ajalon  by  the  Hebrews.  From  the  book 
of  Joshua  we  learn  that  after  the  battle  of  Ajalon, 
the  Hebrews  pursued  to  Azekah  (perhaps  the 
ruin  of  Zak  east  of  Gaza),  and  to  Makkedah 
(x:io,  11),  and  then  returned  to  Gilgal   (verse 

An  interval  of  unstated  duration  occurred  whUe 
the  five  kings,  Japhia,  Adonizedek,  Hoham,  Piram, 
and  Debir  (verse  3)  fled  to  Makkedah,  where  they 
were  found  in  a  cave.  It  was  during  this  interval 
apparently,  that  these  Jerusalem  letters  were 
written. 

(7)  The  Philistines.  At  the  time  of  these  let- 
ters the  Philistines  had  not  as  yet  come  into  Pal- 
estine, but  the  towns  which  were  afterward  oc- 
cupied by  them  were  already  there;  so  that  they, 
on  immigrating  must  have  taken  possession  of  the 
cities  without  changing  the  names. 

The  well  known  Philistine  towns  of  Lachish, 
Ashkclon,  Gaza  and  Gezer  are  found  here.  They 
must  have  been  Canaanitish  places.  The  Philis- 
tines seem  also  to  have  adopted  the  religion  of 
the  Canaanites.  Dagon  is  shown  by  these  letters 
to  have  been  a  Canaanitish  deity. 

(8)  Extensive  Commerce.  There  was  evi- 
dently an  active  trade,  not  only  between  Egypt 
and  Palestine  but  between  Egypt  and  the  whole 
Euphratean  valley.  We  read  of  merchants  and 
caravans  that  furnish  an  interchange  of  commodi- 
ties from  one  country  to  another.  The  allied  rul- 
ers of  Babylon,  Assyria,  Mitani,  and  Alasia,  and 
Egypt  are  ever  professing  a  willingness  to  send 
from  one  land  to  the  other  anything  that  may  be 
desired,  and  Egypt's  products  found  their  way 
to  the  far  East  while  those  of  the  Euphratean  val- 
Iqr  were  sent  to  Egypt. 


The  student  of  civilization  and  of  international 
relations  will  read  with  great  interest  the  accounts 
of  chariots  and  horses,  of  male  and  female  slaves, 
all  sorts  of  manufactured  articles,  such  as  couches 
and  footstools,  which  were  transferred  from  one 
country  to  another.  This  vast  chain  of  commerce 
also  included  articles  of  ivory,  and  of  gold  and 
silver,  costly  woods  and  precious  stones. 

There  was  also  a  very  extensive  interchange  of 
gold  and  silver  between  Egypt  and  the  far  East, 
while  in  Palestine  there  was  evidently  large  trans- 
actions in  grain  and  provisions. 

(9)  The  Art  of  Writing.  It  is  now  evident 
that  before  the  Exodus,  the  Babylonian  language 
and  writing  were  known,  not  only  in  the  valley 
of  the  Euphrates,  but  also  in  all  Palestine.  There 
were  here  and  there  men  all  through  Syria  who 
could  write  in  this  way.  It  is  a  strange  discov- 
ery that  the  people  of  Palestine  wrote  to  the 
empires  of  the  East  in  the  cuneiform  characters. 
But  it  is  still  more  wonderful  that  they  wrote 
thus  to  the  king  of  Egypt,  and  received  replies 
in  the  same  wedge-shaped  characters  which  were 
used  by  the  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  scribes,  these 
peculiar  letters  being  used  in  writing  Aramaic 
and  also  a  language  very  much  like  our  own  He- 
brew. 

This  art  of  writing  was  not  only  well  known  in 
Palestine,  it  was  the  universal  international  me- 
dium of  communication — it  was  employed  not 
only  in  high  diplomatic  circles,  but  also  in  the 
correspondence  between  petty  governors  and 
princes  as  well.     (See  Writing.) 

Kirjath-Sepher,  the  "city  of  books,"  which  has 
been  much  discussed  and  sometimes  ridiculed, 
may  well  be  entitled  to  consideration  and  the 
spade  of  the  explorer  may  at  any  time  bring  forth 
untold  treasures  from  this  site. 

The  Tell-Amarna  Tablets,  translated  by  C.  R. 
Conder,  Major  R.  E.,  D.  C.  L.,  LL.  D.,  M.  R.  A.  S. 
Also  The  T ell-el- Amama  Letters^  Professor 
John  M.  Metcalf,  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  April-July, 
1897.  E.  A.  R. 

TBL-MELAH  (t«l'-m8'lah),  (Heb."iP'^Ci,  taU 
meh'lakh,  hill  of  salt). 

A  place  in  Babylon,  probably  near  the  Persian 
Gulf,  from  which  some  of  the  Jews  who  had  lost 
the  record  of  their  lineage  returned  to  Jerusa- 
lem with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii:S9;  Neh.  vii:6i). 
Site  not  known. 

TEMA  (te-m4),  (Heb.  ^V^,  iay-maw',  desert, 
or  south). 

1.  A  tract  and  a  people  in  the  northern  part  ol 
the  Arabian  desert,  adjacent  to  the  Syrian  desert, 
so  called  from  Tema,  the  son  of  Ishmael  ((Jen. 
XXV :is;  Job  vi:i9;  Is.  xxi:i4;  Jer.  xxv;23).  This 
tract  is  still  called  Tema,  by  the  Arabs,  and  a 
town,  Teyma,  on  the  confines  of  Syria  also  pre* 
serves  the  ancient  name. 

2.  Ninth  son  of  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv:i5;  i 
Chron.  i:3o).  B.  C.  after  2020.  (See  Tema,  i, 
abuve. ) 

TEMAN  (te'man),  (Heb.  W^,  taymawn\  the 
right,  or  south.) 

1.  A  city,  region,  and  people  on  the  east  of 
Idumaea  sprung  from  Teman,  son  of  Eliphaz 
(Gen.  xxxvi:42;  Ezek.  xxv:i3;  Amos  i:ii,  12). 
Like  other  Arabs  (i  Kings  v:i2),  the  Temanites 
were  celebrated  for  wisdom  (Obad.  9;  Jer.  xlix: 
7;  Baruch  iii:22,  23;  comp.  Job  ii:ii;  xxiiri), 
Teman  is  used  for  Idumaea  in  general  (Hab.  iii  13). 

2.  The  son  of  Eliphaz  and  grandson  of  Esau 
(Gen.  xxxvi  :ii ;  i  Chron. i  '.36).  He  seems  to  have 
been  the  first  "duke"  of    the    Edomites   (Gen. 


TEMANI 


1640 


TEMPLE 


xxxvi:i5,  42;  I  Chron.  1:36,  53),  and  gave  his 
name  to  a  region  of  country  (Gen.  xxxvi:34). 
(B.  C.  about  2000.) 

TSMANI  (tSm'a-nl),  (Gen.  xxxvi:34).    See  Te- 

MANITE 

TEMANITE  (tS'man-Ite),  (Heb.  ^i^^^,  tay-maw 

nee')t  one  belonging  to  the  tribe  or  country  of 
Tema  (Job  ii:ii;  xxn:i;  i  Chron.  i:45). 

TEMENI  (tgm'e-ni),  (Heb.  V^^?.     tay-men-ee', 

fortunate),  a  son  of  Ashur,  the  founder  of  Tekoa, 
by  his  wife  Naarah  (i  Chron.  iv:6),  B.C.  between 
161 8  and  1170. 
TEMPER  (tgm'per),  (Heb.  •^22.  baw-lat,  Exod. 

xxix  :2),  to  mix  or  compound.  "To  temper  poisons 
for  her." — Shakespeare. 

TEMPERANCE  (tSm'per-ans). 

1.  Eng-krafiah  (Gr.  iyKpdreta,  Acts  xxiv:25; 
Gal.  v:23;  2  Pet.  i:6)  self-control;  not  used  exclu- 
sively, as  now,  in  reference  to  abstinence  from 
intoxicating  drink,  but  it  meant  moderation  in  all 
things. 

2.  So' from  (Gr.  (Tiixpptav,  Tit.  ii:2)  has  the  mean- 
ing of  sound  mind  (K.  V.  "sober-minded**). 

TEXBISE  (tSm'p'l),  (Heb.  T??,  hay-kawP,  or 

^p,  ko'desh,  sanctuary,  or  ^J^^  ^"3,  bayth-yeh-k^ 
vaw\  house  of  Jehovah).  The  Septuagint  trans- 
lation usually  renders  ^5^i?,  hay-kawP^  'temple,*  by 

oi-kos^oUoSfhouse^  or  nah-os,  wi6f,  temple;  but  in 
the  Apocrypha  and  the  New  Testament  it  is  gen- 
erally called  toh  hee-er-on^  rb  Up6y,  tfie  sacred 
house.  Rabbinical  appellations  are  the  house  of 
sanctuary^  the  chosen  house^  the  house  of  ages,  be- 
cause the  ark  was  not  transferred  from  it,  as  it  was 
from  Gilgal  after  24,  from  Shiloh  after  369,  from 
Nob  after  13  and  from  Gibeon  after  50  years. 

i.  Solomon's  Temple.  (1)  Conception. 
After  the  Israelites  had  exchanged  their  nomadic 
life  for  a  life  in  permanent  habitations,  it  was  be- 
coming that  they  should  exchange  also  their 
movable  sanctuary  or  tabernacle  for  a  temple. 
There  elapsed,  however,  after  the  conquest  of 
Palestine,  several  centuries  during  which  the 
sanctuary  continued  movable,  although  the  na- 
tion became  more  and  more  stationary.  It  ap- 
pears that  the  first  who  planned  the  erection  of 
a  stone-built  sanctuary  was  David  (i  Chron. 
xxviii:i2,  19),  who,  when  he  was  inhabiting  his 
house  ©f  cedar,  and  God  had  given  him  rest  from 
all  his  enemies  (2  Sam.  vii:i-i2;  i  Chron.  xyii: 
1-14;  xxviii:i  sq.),  meditated  the  design  of  build- 
ing a  temple  in  which  the  ark  of  God  might  be 
placed,  instead  of  being  deposited  'within  cur- 
tains,* or  in  a  tent,  as  hitherto.  This  design  was 
At  first  encouraged  by  the  prophet  Nathan;  but 
he  was  afterwards  instructed  to  tell  David  that 
such  a  work  was  less  appropriate  for  him,  who 
had  been  a  warrior  from  his  youth,  and  had  shed 
much  blood,  than  for  his  son,  who  should  enjoy 
in  prosperity  and  peace  the  rewards  of  his  fa- 
ther's victories  (i  Chron.  xxii:8).  Nevertheless, 
the  design  itself  was  highly  approved  as  a  token 
of  proper  feelings  towards  the  Divine  King  (2 
Sam.  vii:i-i2;  i  Chron.  xvii:i-i4;  xxviii). 

(2)  Preparation.  We  learn,  moreover,  from  i 
Kings  V  and  i  Chron.  xxii,  that  David  had  col- 
lected materials  which  were  afterwards  employed 
in  the  erection  of  the  Temple,  which  was  com- 
menced four  years  after  his  death,  about  B.  C. 
1012,  in  the  second  month,  that  is,  the  month  of 
Siv  (compare  i  Kings  vi:i;  2  Chron.  iii:2),  four 
hundred  and  eighty  years  after  the  Exodus  from 


Egypt,  and  was  about  seven  years  in  building.  We 
thus  learn  that  the  Israelitish  sanctuary  had  re- 
mained movable  more  than  four  centuries  subse- 
quent to  the  conquest  of  Canaan. 

(3)  Location.  The  site  of  the  Temple  was  on 
Mount  Moriah,  which  was  at  first  insufficient  for 
the  Temple  and  altar,  and  therefore  walls  and 
buttresses  were  built  in  order  to  gain  more 
ground  by  filling  up  the  interval  with  earth.  The 
hill  was  also  fortified  by  a  threefold  wall,  the  low- 
est tier  of  which  was  in  some  places  more  than 
three  hundred  cubits  hi^h;  and  the  depth  of  the 
foundation  was  not  visible,  because  it  had  been 
necessary  in  some  parts  to  dig  deep  into  the 
ground  in  order  to  obtain  sufficient  support  The 
dimensions  of  the  stones  of  which  the  walls  were 
composed  were  enormous;  Josephus  mentions  a 
length  of  forty  cubits.    (See  Moriah.) 

(4)  The  Temple  Structure.  When  Solomon 
had  firmly  established  his  kingdom,  he  began  the 
work  of  the  Temple  ( i  Chron.  chaps,  xxii,  xxviii, 
xxix;  I  Kings  v:i5  sq.;  2  Chron.  chap.  ii).  The 
workmen  and  the  materials  employed  in  the  erec- 
tion of  the  Temple  were  chiefly  procured  by  Solo- 
mon from  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  who  was  re- 
warded by  a  liberal  importation  of  wheat.  Re- 
cent investigation  shows  that  the  foundation  was 
»«nk  to  an  astonishing  depth,  and  composed  of 
stones  of  singular  magnitude,  and  very  durable. 
Being  closely  mortised  into  the  rock  with  great 
ingenuity,  they  formed  a  basis  adequate  to  the 
support  of  the  intended  structure.  The  Temple 
itself  and  its  utensils  are  described  in  i  Kings  vi 
and  vii  and  2  Chron.  iii  and  iv. 

Divines  and  architects  have  repeatedly  endeav- 
ored to  represent  the  architectural  proportions  of 
the  Temple,  whic?h  was  sixty  cubits  long,  twenty 
wide,  and  thirty  high.  The  internal  dimensions 
of  the  *holy,'  was  forty  cubits  long,  twenty  cubits 
wide,  and  thirty  cubits  high.  The  holy  was  sep- 
arated from  the  *holy  of  holies'  by  a  partition,  a 
large  opening  in  which  was  closed  by  a  suspended 
curtain.  The  holy  of  holies'  was  on  the  western 
extremity  of  the  entire  building,  and  its  internal 
dimensions  formed  a  cube  of  twenty  cubits  (2 
Chron.  iii:8).  On  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
building  stood  the  porch  vp6wcLos,proh'nah'^s,  iront 
temple.  At  the  entrance  of  this  pronaos  stood  the 
two  columns  called  Jachin  and  Boaz,  which  were 
twenty-three  cubits  high. 

The  Temple  was  also  surrounded  by  three  sto- 
ries of  chambers^  each  of  which  stones  was  five 
cubits  high,  so  that  there  remained  above  ample 
space  for  introducing  the  windows,  which  served 
chiefly  for  ventilation,  as  the  light  within  the 
Temple  was  obtained  from  the  sacred  candlesticks. 
The  windows  which  are  mentioned  in  i  Kings  vi : 
4,  consisted  probably  of  lattice  work.  It  seems 
from  the  descriptions  of  the  Temple  to  be  certain 
that  the  oracle,  or  *holy  of  holies,'  was  an  adytum 
without  windows.  To  this  fact  Solomon  seems 
to  refer  when  he  spake,  The  Lord  said  that  he 
would  dwell  in  the  thick  darkness'  (i  Kings 
viii:i2). 

(5)  Material  and  Ornamentation.  From  i 
Kings  vii:  10,  we  learn  that  the  private  dwellings 
of  Solomon  were  built  of  massive  stone.  We 
hence  infer  that  the  framework  of  the  Temple  also 
consisted  of  the  same  material.  The  Temple  was, 
however,  wainscoted  with  cedar  wood,  which  was 
covered  with  gold.  The  boards  within  the  Temple 
were  ornamented  by  beautiful  carvings  represent- 
ing cherubim,  palms,  and  flowers.  The  ceiling 
of  the  Temple  was  supported  by  beams  of  oedar 
wood  (comp.  Eres;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xvi.  69). 
The  wall  which  separated  the  holy  from  the  'holy 


TEMPLE  1« 

of  holies,*  probably  consisted  not  of  slone,  but  of 
beams  of  cedar.  It  seems,  further,  that  the  parti- 
tions partly  consisted  of  an  opus  rcticulatum ;  so 
that  tlie  incense  could  spread  from  the  holy  to  the 
most  holy. 

Tiie  floor  of  the  Temple  was  throughout  of 
cedar,  but  boarded  over  with  planks  of  fir   (i 


The  Golden  Candlestlcli. 

Kings  vi:is).  The  doors  of  the  oracle  were 
composed  of  olive  tree;  but  the  doors  of  the 
ou:cr  temple  had  posts  of  olive  tree,  and  leaves  of 
fir  (i  Kings  vi;3i.  so.).  Both  doors,  as  well 
that  which  led  into  the  Temple  as  that  which 
led  from  the  'holy'  to  the  'holy  of  holies,'  had  fold- 
ing leaves,  which,  however,  seem  to  have  been 


a  TEMPLE 

(6)  Th«  Courts.  The  Temple  was  snrroandfcd 
by  an  inner  court,  which  in  Chronicles  is  called 
the  Court  of  the  Priests,  and  in  Jeremiah  the 
Upper  Court.  This  again  was  surrounded  by  a 
wall  consisting  of  cedar  beams  placed  on  a  stone 
foundation  <i  Kin^s  vi:36).  Besides  this  inner 
court,  there  is  mentioned  a  Great  Court  (a  Chron. 
iv:9).  This  court  was  also  more  especially  called 
the  court  of  the  Lord's  house  (Jer.  xix:i4;  xxvi: 
a).  These  courts  were  surrounded  by  spacious 
buildings,  which,  however,  according  to  Josephus 
De  Bell.  Jud.  v.  5.  1),  seem  to  have  been  partly 
added  at  a  period  later  than  that  of  Solomon. 
From  these  descriptions  we  learn  that  the  Temple 
of  Solomon  was  not  distinguished  by  magnitude, 
but  by  good  architectural  proportions,  beauty  of 
workmanship,  and  costliness  of  materials.  Many 
EngUsh  churches  have  an  external  form  not  tia- 
like  Chat  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon. 

<7>  Treasury.  There  was  a  treasury  in  the 
Temple,  in  which  much  precious  metal  was  col- 
lected for  the  maintenance  of  public  worship.  The 
gold  and  silver  of  the  Temple  was,  however,  fre- 
quently applied  to  poHtical  purposes  ( i  Kings  xv ; 
18,  sq.;  2  Kings  xii:i8;  xvi;8;  xviii:i5).  The 
treasury  of  the  Temple  was  repeatedly  plundered 
by  foreign  invaders.  For  -nslance,  by  Shishak 
(i  Kings  xiv:26);  by  Jehoash.  king  of  Israel 
(a  Kings  xiv:i4):  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (a  Kings 
xxiv;i3):  and  lastly,  again  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
who.  having  removed  the  valuable  contents 
caused  Ihe  Temple  to  be  burned  down  (a  Kings 
XXV :9,  sq.).  (B.  C.  588).  The  building  had  Stood 
since  its  completion  four  hundred  and  seventeen 
or  tour  hundred  and  eighteen  years.  (Josephus  has 
four  hundred  an.1  seventy.and  Ruffinus  three  hun- 
dred and  seventy  years).  Thus  terminated  what 
the  later  Jews  called  the  first  house. 


Weltern  Wall  at  U 


Tenpla.  »ltb  Iba  WalUaf  Flic 


>l  lb.  )M, 


asually  kept  open,  the  aperture  being  closed  by 
a  suspended  curtain. 

Within  the  'holy  of  holies,'  stood  only  the  ark 
of  the  covenant;  but  within  the  'holy'  were  ten 
1,0 1  den  candlesticks,  and  the  altar  of  incense 
(comp.  the  separate  articles). 


2.  Ghe  Second  Twmptt.  In  the  year  B.  C 
536  the  Jews  obtained  permission  from  Cyrus 
to  colonize  their  native  land.  Cyrus  commanded 
also  that  the  sacred  utensils  which  had  been 
pillaged  from  the  first  Temple  should  be  restored, 
and  that  for  the  restoration  of  the  Temple  assist* 


TEMPLE 


1642 


TEMPLE 


ance  should  be  granted  (Ezra  i.  and  vi.;  2  Chron. 
xxxvi:22,  sq.).  The  first  colony  which  returned 
under  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua  having  collected  the 
necessary  means,  and  having  also  obtained  the 
assistance  of  Phoenician  workmen,  commenced  in 
the  second  year  after  their  return  (B.  C.  534) 
the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple.  The  Sidonians 
brought  rafts  of  cedar  trees  from  Lebanon  to 
Joppa.  The  Jews  refused  the  co-operation  of  the 
Samaritans,  who  being  thereby  offended,  induced 
the  king  Artasashta  (probably  Smerdis)  to  pro- 
hibit the  building.  And  it  was  only  in  the  second 
year  of  Dariuf  Hystaspis  (B.  C.  520)  that  the 
building  was  resumed.  It  was  completed  in  the 
sixth  year  of  this  king  (B.  C.  516),  (comp.  Ezra 
V.  and  vi. ;  and  Haggai  1:15).  According  to  Jo- 
sephus  (Antiq.  xi.  4.  7)  the  Temple  was  com- 
pleted in  the  ninth  year  of  the  reign  of  Darius. 

This  second  Temple  was  erected  on  the  site  of 
the  former,  and  probably  after  the  same  plan. 
According  to  the  plan  of  Cyrus,  the  new  Temple 
was  sixty  cubits  high  and  sixty  cubits  vfidt.  It 
appears  from  Josephus  that  the  height  is  to  be 
understood  of  the  porch,  for  we  learn  from  the 
speech  of  Herod  which  he  records  that  the  sec- 
ond Temple  was  sixty  cubits  lower  than  the  first, 
whose  porch  was  120  cubits  high  (comp.  Joseph. 
Antiq,  xv.  11.  i). 

J.  Tempie  of  Herod.  The  Jewish  exiles  on 
their  return  from  Babylon  had  mourned  over  the 
comparative  insignificance  of  the  temple  of  Zerub- 
babel, which  stood  on  Moriah  for  about  five  cen« 
turies  (Ezra  iii:i2;  Haggai  ii:3,  sq.).  But  when 
Herod  the  Great  became  king  of  Judaea  the  ma- 
sonry was  falling  into  decay. 

(1)  Cause  of  Its  Erection.  Herod  had  treated 
the  Jews  with  severity  and  had  become  unpopular 
amongst  his  own  subjects.  In  his  old  age  he 
sought  to  reinstate  himself  in  the  good  graces  of 
the  people.  He  was  a  man  of  taste  in  the  art  of 
masonry,  and  knowing  the  deep  love  of  the  Jew 
for  their  national  sanctuary  he  sought  to  make 
himself  popular  by  an  offer  to  rebuild  the  Tem- 
ple on  Moriah.  The  result  of  his  work  was  a 
proud  edifice,  which  in  many  respects  surpassed 
in  the  extent  of  its  courts  and  the  splendor  of 
its  decorations  the  ancient  sanctuary  of  Solo- 
mon, diid  rejoiced  the  heart  of  the  nation. 

(8)  The  Sanctum.  Josephus  tells  us  this  was 
built  by  the  priests  in  a  year  and  a  half.  The 
Royal  Qoisters  were  about  six  hundred  feet  in 
length,  and  were  more  spacious  than  York  Min- 
ster or  Westminster  Abbey.  The  Capitol  at  Rome 
and  the  Parthenon  on  Mars  Hill  could  both  have 
stood  under  the  roof  of  the  Stoa  Basilica  of 
Herod's  Temple. 

(8)  The  Temple  Proper.  The  main  part  of 
the  building  was  finished  in  about  ten  years,  but 
the  work  of  embellishment  and  the  erection  of 
the  outer  courts  was  continued  throughout  the 
whole  period  of  Christ's  life.  In  this  edifice,  as 
the  scene  of  Christ's  labors,  was  fulfilled  the 
prophecy  of  Malachi  (iii:i).  A  pinnacle  of  this 
temple  was  the  scene  of  the  Temptation,  and  the 
great  polished  blocks  of  stone  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  the  disciples  (Mark  xiii:i,  2). 

(4)  Courts  and  Halls.  The  whole  of  the 
structures  belonging  to  the  Temple  were  a  stadium 
square,  and  consequently  four  stadia  (or  half  a 
Roman  mile)  in  circumference.  The  Temple  was 
situated  on  the  highest  point,  not  quite  in  the 
center,  but  rather  to  the  northwestern  comer  of 
this  square,  and  was  surrounded  by  various  courts, 
the  innermost  of  which  was  higher  than  the 
next  outward,  which  descended  in  terraces.    The 


Temple,  consequently,  was  visible  from  tire  town, 
notwithstanding  its  various  high  enclosures.  The 
outer  court  was  called  the  mountain  of  the  houst' 
(i  Mace.  xiii:52).  According  to  Middoth  (i:3) 
this  mountain  of  the  house  had  five  gates,  two  to^ 
wards  the  south,  and  one  towards  each  of  the 
other  quarters.  The  principal  gate  was  that  to- 
wards the  east.  (See  Moriah.)  Annexed  to  th<^ 
outer  wall  were  halls  which  surrounded  the  Tem- 
ple, and  were  thirty  cubits  wide,  except  on  the 
south  side,  where  the  royal  hall  seems  to  have 
been  threefold,  or  three  times  wider  than  the 
other  halls.  The  roofs  of  these  halls  were  of 
cedar  wood,  and  were  supported  by  marble  col- 
umns twenty-five  cubits  high.  The  Levites  re- 
sided in  these  halls.  There  was  also  a  synagogue 
where  the  Talmudic  doctors  might  be  asked  ques- 
tions, and  where  their  decisions  might  be  heard 
(Luke  ii:46).  These  halls  seem  likewise  to  have 
formed  a  kind  of  lounge  for  religionists;  they 
appear  to  have  been  spacious  enough  to  afford 
opportunities  for  religious  teachers  to  kddress 
knots  of  hearers.  Thus  we  find  that  Jesus  had 
there  various  opportunities  for  addressing  the 
people  and  refutmg  cavillers. 

Here  also  the  first  Christians  could  daily  assem- 
ble with  one  accord  (Acts  ii:46).  Within  this 
outer  court  money  changers  and  cattle  dealers 
transacted  a  profitable  business,  especially  dur- 
ing the  time  of  Passover.  The  priests  took  only 
shekels  of  full  weight;  that  is,  shekels  of  the 
sanctuary,  even  after  the  general  currency  had 
been  dctei^iorated :  hence  the  frequent  opportunity 
of  money  changers  to  accommodate  for  agio  the 
worshipers,  most  of  whom  arrived  from  abroad 
unprovided  with  the  right  coin.  The  profaneness 
to  wliich  this  money  changing  and  cattle  dealing 
gave  rise  caused  the  indignation  of  our  Lord, 
who  suddenly  expelled  all  these  sharks  from  their 
stronghold  of  business  (Matt.  xxi:i2,  sq.;  Mark 
xi  115-17;  Luke  xix:45,  Af>j  John  ii:i3-i7). 

(6)  The  Outer  Court.  The  surface  of  this 
outer  court  was  paved  with  stones  of  various  col- 
ors. A  stone  balustrade,  which  according  to  some 
statements  was  three  cubits  high,  and  according 
to  Middoth  ten  hands  high,  was  several  steps 
higher  up  the  mountain  than  this  outer  court, 
and  prevented  the  too  near  approach  of  the 
heathens  to  the  next  court.  For  this  purpose  there 
were  also  erected  columns  at  certain  distances 
within  this  balustrade,  on  which  there  were  Greek 
and  Latin  inscriptions,  interdicting  all  heathens 
under  penalty  of  death,  to  advance  farther  (Jo- 
seph. De  Bell.  Jud.  vi.  2,  4;  Philo,  Opera,  ii.  577). 
Compare  Acts  xxi  128,  where.  Paul  is  accused  of 
having  brought  Greeks  into  the  Temple  and  thus 
having  polkited  the  holy  place. 

(6)  Discovery  of  an  Ancient  Tablet.  A  re- 
cent and  important  discovery  is  a  tablet  with  the 
following  inscription:  "No  foreigner  to  proceed 
within  the  partition  wall  and  enclosure  around 
the  sanctuary;  whoever  is  caught  in  the  same, 
will  on  that  account  be  liable  to  incur  death." 

The  reason  for  this  notice  was  that  Herod  was 
conscious  that  many  of  his  subjects,  resident  in 
Jerusalem,  were  Egyptians,  Greeks,  or  Romans. 
In  the  time  of  Solomon's  Temple  only  Jews  were 
allowed  within  the  walls,  but  Herod  felt  that 
he  must  let  all  nationalities  into  some  part  of 
the  sanctuary,  for  the  sake  of  policy.  There- 
fore he  constructed  a  large  outer  court,  open  to  all 
who  wished  to  walk  or  talk  in  this  cloister.  This 
was  the  Court  of  the  Gentiles.  * 

Next  to  this  was  The  Court  of  the  Israelites, 
into  which  no  Gentile  was  allowed  to  enter  on  any 
pretext   under  penalty   of  death.     It   has   been 


TEMPLE  H 

doubted  whether  a  tolerant  people  like  the  Ro- 
mans would  empower  the  Jews  to  put  men  to 
death  for  trespassing  in  the  inner  courts  of  the 
Temple;  but  the  discovery  of  this  tablet  and  in- 
scriplion  dispels  all  doubts.  This  tablet  throws 
light  on  three  important  passages.  The  Greek 
words  used  for  the  Sanctuary  are  contained  in  it, 
TiUpir,  toh  hee-er-on' ,  the  same  as  used  in  the 
sentence,  'He  drove  them  all  out  of  the  Temple' ; 
that  is,  the  inner  court,  the  Court  of  the  Israel- 
ites. Again  (Acts  xxi  :2S,  29),  when  the  Jews 
cried  out  against  Paul  for  bringing  a  man,  as 
they  thought,  into  T4  \tpb»,  it  is  not  the  Court  of 
the  GentUes  they  mcanl,  but  the  Court  of  the 
Jews.  Again,  T4  ittaluaixoii  ToD  ^pay/wO,  toh-mes- 
ofoy-koK,  frag-moo' ,  the  middle  wall  of_  Partition, 
between  the  lews  and  Gentiles  (£pb.  11:14)  was  a 
5gure  which  Paul  drew  from  the  Temple.  He  had 
noticed  Ihe  dividing  wall  and  the  inscribed  tablets, 
threatening  death  10  strangers,  that  separated  the 
Court  of  the  Gentiles  from  that  of  the  Jews,  and 
looked  upoD  it  as  a  standing  moaument  of  the  ex- 


»  TEMPLE 

,  le  was  in  ancient  warfare  almost  impreKiiable, 
trom  the  ravines  at  the  precipitous  edge  of  which 
it  stood;  but  il  required  more  artificial  fortifica- 
tions on  its  western  and  northern  sides,  which 
were  surrounded  by  the  city  of  Jerusalem;  for 
this  reason  there  was  erected  at  its  northwest- 
ern corner  the  tower  of  Antonia,  which  although 
standing  on  a  lower  level  tiian  the  Temple  itself, 
was  so  high  as  to  overlook  ihe  sacred  buildings 
with  which  it  was  connected,  partly  by  a  large 
staircase,  partly  by  a  subterraneous  communica- 
tion. This  tower  protected  the  Temple  from  sud- 
den incursions  from  thecityof  J  eiw  sal  em,  and  from 
dangerous  commotions  among  the  thousands  who 
were  frequently  assembled  within  the  precincts  of 
the  courts ;  which  also  were  sometimes  used  for 

Popular  meetings.  Under  the  sons  of  Herod,  the 
emple  remained  apparently  in  good  order,  and 
Herod  Agrippa,  who  was  appointed  t^  the  Em- 
peror Claudius  its  guardian,  even  planned  the  re- 
pair of  the  eastern  part,  which  had  probably  1  een 
destroyed  during  one  of  the  conflicts  between  iliC 


The  Win 


■lOd'l  TsmpU    (Ditci 


ered  \pf  ClBimoQI  Cuniieiii 


D  1871.) 


Clusiveness  of  Judaism  as  opposed  to  Ihe  univer- 
sality of  Christianity,  and  as  such  used  it  in  his 
latter  to  the  Ephesians. 

(7)  Holy  0*  HollsB.  The  'holy  of  holies'  was 
entirety  empty  (Joseph.  De  Sell.  ftid.  v.  5.  5) ; 
however,  there  was  a  stone  in  the  place  of  the  ark 
of  Ihe  covenant  on  which  the  high-priest  placed 
the  censer.  Before  the  entrance  of  the  'holy  of 
holies'  was  suspended  a  curtain,  which  was  torn  by 
the  earthquake  that  followed  after  the  crucifixion. 

(8)  Site  at  Herod's  Temple.  The  Temple  was 
situated  upon  the  southeastern  corner  of  Mount 
Moriah,  which  is  separated  to  the  east  by  a  pre- 
cipitous ravine  and  the  Kidron  from  the  Mount  of 
Olives:  the  Mount  of  Olives  is  much  higher  than 
Moriah.  On  the  south,  the  Temple  was  bounded  by 
Ihe  ravine  which  separates  Moriah  from  Zion,  or 
the  lower  city  from  the  upper  city.  Opposite  to  the 
Temple,  at  the  fool  of  Zion.  were  formerly  the 
king's  gardens,  and  higher  up  in  a  southwesterly  di- 
rection, the  stronghold  of  Zion  or  the  city  of  Da- 
vid, on  a  higher  level  than  the  Temple.    The  Tem- 


Jews  and  Romans  of  which  the  Temple  was  re- 
peatedly the  scene  (Antiq.  xvii.  10) ,  Many 
savants  have  adopted  a  style  as  if  they  possessed 
much  information  about  the  archives  of  the  Tem- 
ple; there  are  a  few  indications  from  which  we 
learn  that  important  documents  were  deposited  in 
the  Tabernacle  and  Temple.  Even  in  Deut.  xxxi : 
26,  we  find  that  the  book  of  the  law  was  deposited 
in  the  ark  of  the  covenant  (z  Kings  xxiiiS), 
Hilkiah  rediscovered  the  book  of  the  law  in  the 
house  of  Jehovah.  In  2  Mace,  ii:i3,  we  find  a 
Bibliotbaka  mentioned,  apparently  consisting 
chiefly  of  the  canonical  books,  and  probably  de- 
posited in  the  Temple.  In  Joscphus  (De  Bell.Jud. 
V.  5)  it  is  mentioned  that  a  book  of  the  law  was 
found  in  the  Temple.  It  appears  that  the  sacred 
writings  were  kept  in  the  Temple  (Anliq.  v.  i.  7). 
Copies  of  political  documents  seem  to  have  been 
deposited  in  the  treasury  of  the  Temple  (i  Mace 


TEMPLE  Ift 

freat  sums  which  were  annually  paid  in  by  t1  : 
sraelites,  each  of  whom  paid  a  half  shekel,  and 
many  of  whom  sent  donations  in  money,  and 
precious  vessels.  Such  costly  presents  were  es- 
pecially transmitted  by  rich  proselytes,  and  even 
somclimcs  by  pagan  princes  {2  Mace.  iii:3;  Jo- 
seph. Antiq.  \\v.  16.  4;  xviii.  3.  5;  xix.  6.  i;  De 
Bell.  Jud.  ii.  I?.  3;  V.  13.  6;  c.  Apion.  ii.  5;  Philo, 
0pp.  ii.  S9>  'q-:  569).  Il  is  said  especially  that 
Ptol.  Philadelphus  was  very  liberal  to  the  Temple, 
in  order  to  prove  his  gratitude  for  having  been 
permitted  to  procure  the  Septuagint  translation 
(Aristeas,  De  Translat.  LXX,  109,  jg.).  The 
gifts  exhibited  in  the  Temple  are  mentioned  id 
Luke  xxiis;  we  find  even  that  the  rents  of  the 
whole  town  of  Plolemais  were  given  to  the  Tem- 

Cle  (i  Mace.  x:3g).  There  were  also  preserved 
istorical  curiosities  (2  Kings  xi:io),  especially 
the  arms  of  celebrated  heroes  (Joseph.  Antiq.  xix. 
6.  i)  :  See  Plan  of  Herod's  Templb. 

(10)  The  Quards.  The  Temple  was  of  so  much 
political  importance  that  it  had  its  own  guards 
Iguardt  of  the  Temple),  which  were  commanded 
by  a  slrat-ay-go/ ,  or  general. 

Twenty  men  were  required  for  opening  and 
shutting  the  eastern  gate  (Joseph.  De  Bell.  Jud. 
vi.  s.  3:  c.  Apion.  ii.  9;  Antiq.  vi.  5.  3;  xvii.  2. 
2).  The  general  had  his  own  secretary  (Aniiq. 
XX.  6.  2;  9.  3),  and  had  to  maintain  the  police  in 
the  courts  (comp.  Acts  iv:i  and  v:24).    He  ap* 


pears  to  have  been  of  sufficient  dignity  to  be  men- 
tioned together  with  the  chief  priests.  It  seems 
that  his  Hebrew  title  was  the  man  of  the  moun- 
tain of  the  house. 

The  priests  themselves  kept  watch  on  three  dif- 
ferent posts,  and  the  Leviles  on  twenty-one  posts. 

(11)  Sacred  VesselB,  The  sacred  utensils,  the 
golden  table  of  the  shewbread,  the  book  of  the 
law,  and  the  golden  candlestick,  were  displayed  in 
the  triumph  at  Rome.  Representations  of  them 
are  still  to  be  seen  sculptured  in  relief  on  the 
triumphal  arch  of  Tilus  (comp.  Fleck's  IVissen- 
ichaftliche  Reise,  i.  1,  plate  i.-iv.;  and  Reland,  De 
spoliis  Templi  Hierosolymitaiti  in  arcu  Titiano, 
edit.  E.  A.  Schulze.  Traject.  ad  Rh.  1775).  The 
place  witere  the  Temple  had  stood  seemed  to  be  a 
dangerous  center  for  the  rebellious  population, 
until,  in  A.  D.  136,  the  Emperor  Hadrian  founded 
a  Roman  colony,  under  the  name  jElia  Capitolina, 
on  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem,  and  dedicated  a  tem- 
ple to  Jupiter  Capitotinus  on  the  ruins  of  the 
temple  of  Jehovah.  Henceforth  no  Jew  was  per- 
mitted to  approach  the  site  of  the  ancient  lemple. 


I  TEMPLE 

(IB)  Ovarthrow  of  the  Temple.  The  destruc- 
tion of  this  beautiful  temple  and  the  doom  of 
Jerusalem  were  foretold  on  the  first  Palm  Sun- 
day (that  is  the  day  of  the  triumphal  entry)  from 
Mt,  Olivet  (Luke  xix  :4i-44).  Within  forty  years 
after  this  prediction  of  Christ,  its  destruction  was 


ot  Ifas  Teo  Bn 


ID  Livers  In  Solomi 


terribly  fulfilled.  lis  glory  was  brief;  for  scarcely 
had  the  gales  been  set  up  when  the  Roman  gen- 
eral, Tilus,  entered  the  city  and  the  flames  from 
his  torches  left  scarcely  a  fragment  of  its  glory 
and  beauty. 

(13)  Excavations.  Recent  researches  have 
brought  to  light  the  massive  substructures  of  a 
part  of  the  south  and  west  wall  where  he  ex- 
tended the  courts  of  the  Temple.  Beneath  the 
platform  of  the  Temple  proper  is  another  frag- 
ment of  Jewish  art  under  Roman  influence.  It 
is  the  Gate  of  Huldah,  a  passage  forty-one  feet 
wide.  Four  arches  divide  the  vestibule  into  four 
flat -domed  compartments.  A  vine  and  foliage 
ornamentation  binds  together  an  otherwise  wholly 
incongruous  combination  of  Roman  and  Jewish 
architecture. 

The  Emperor  Julian,  it  is  stated,  undertook 
(A.  D.  363)  to  rebuild  the  Temple;  but  after  con- 
siderable preparations  and  much  expense,  he  was 
compelled  to  desist  by  flames  which  burst  forth 
from  the  foundations. 

(14)  FroBent  Structure.  A  splendid  mosque 
now  stands  on  the  site  of  the  Temple.  This  mosque 
was  erected  by  the  caliph  Omar  after  the  conquest 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  Saracens  (A.  D.  636).  It 
seems  that  Omar  changed  a  Christian  church, 
that  stood  on  the  ground  of  the  Temple,  into  this 
mosque,  which  is  called  El  Aksa,  the  outer,  or 
northern,  because  it  is  the  third  of  the  most  cele- 
brated mosques,  two  of  which,  namely  those  of 
Mecca  and  Medina,  are  in  a  more  southern  lati- 
tude. The  best  works  on  the  antiquities  and  his- 
tory of  the  Jews  contain  also  chapters  illustrative 
of  the  Temple.  Among  the  Biblical  dictionaries, 
see  especially  Hastings'  Bible  Dictionary,  1900, 
under  the  subject  Temple ;  see  also  Edersheim, 
The  Temple;  Keil,  Bib.  Arch.;  Payne,  Solomon's 
Temple.  C.  H.  F.  B. 

Figurative,  (t)  Did  not  this  temple  typify 
Christ's  manhood,  as  the  wonderfully  preparei^ 
the  curious,  pure,  and  ^orious  residence  of  his 
(lodhead,  and  through  which  we  have  access  to 


TEMPT,  TEMPTATION 


1645 


TEMPTATION  OF  CHRIST 


worship  God?  ( Tohn  iiiiq,)  (2)  Did  it  not  repre- 
sent his  person,  freely  set  up  to  be  our  Mediator, 
as  the  glorious,  fixed,  and  lasting  means  of  our 
fellowship  with  God,  and  of  receiving  all  blessings 
from  him?  (Col.  iiig;  iiig)  (3)  Did  it  not  typify 
the  gospel  church,  Ifirge,  glorious,  and  firmly 
founded,  reared  up  with  lively  stones,  and  cedars 
of  God,  with  chosen  men,  and  connected  to- 
gether with  the  oracles,  ordinances,  blood.  Spirit, 
and  grace  of  Christ,  and  fitted  to  be  the  residence 
of  God,  Father, Son,  and  Holy  Ghost?  (Eph.  ii:20- 
22.)  (4)  Did  it  not  also  prefigure  heaven,  as  the 
glorious  and  fixed  residence  of  the  Most  High, 
where  he  is  served  by  multitudes  of  angels  and 
men,  and  honored  with  endless  anthems  of  praise? 
(Ps.  xi:4;  Rev.  viiiis.)  (s)  The  saints  are 
"temples;"  their  souls,  and  even  their  bodies,  are 
by  the  blood.  Spirit,  and  grace  of  Christ,  fitted 
and  set  apart  to  the  service,  and  to  be  the  resi- 
dence of  God  (i  Cor.  iii:i6;  viiig;  2  Cor.  vi:i6). 
(6)  John  saw  *'no  temple  in  heaven,"  for  the  Lord 
God  and  the  Lamb  are  the  temple  thereof.  In 
the  millennial  period,  outward  pomp  and  cere- 
mony shall  be  undervalued,  and  real  fellowship 
with  God  alone  prized:  and  in  heaven,  instituted 
ordinances  shall  cease,  and  the  full  enjoyment  of 
God  be  "all,  and  in  all"  (Rev.  xxi:22). 

TEMPT,  TEMPTATION  (tSmpt,  tgmp-ta'shiin). 
Heb.  •^99,  mas-saw' ;  Gr.  wtipa^/Us,  Py-ras-mos\ 
testing,  to  try,  to  prove). 

(1)  Divine.  God  tempted  Abraham,  by  com- 
manding him  to  offer  up  his  son  Isaac  (Gren. 
xxii:i);  intending  to  prove  his  obedience  and 
faith,  to  confirm  and  strengthen  him  by  this  trial, 
and  to  furnish  in  his  person  an  example  and 
pattern  of  perfect  obedience  to  all  succeeding 
ages.  When  we  read  in  Scripture  that  (jod  proved 
his  people,  whether  they  would  walk  in  his  law, 
or  no  (Exod.  xvi:4)  and  that  he  permitted  false 
prophets  to  arise  among  them,  who  prophesied 
vain  things  to  try  them,  whether  they  would 
seek  the  Lord  with  their  whole  hearts,  we  should 
interpret  these  expressions  by  that  of  James  (i: 
13).  The  prayer,  "Lead  us  not  into  temptation" 
(Matt.  vi:i3),  does  not  imply  that  God  leads  us 
into  sin  (James  i:i3,  14),  but  it  is  a  prayer  that 
he  may  guard  and  protect  us  from  temptation. 

(2)  The  Devil.  The  devil  tempts  us  to  evil, 
of  every  kind,  and  lays  snares  for  us,  even  in  our 
best  actions.  He  tempted  our  Savior  in  the  wilder- 
ness, and  endeavored  to  infuse  into  him  senti- 
ments of  pride,  ambition  and  distrust  (Matt,  iv: 
i;  Mark  i:i3;  Luke  iv:2).  He  tempted  Ananias 
and  Sapphira  to  lie  to  the  Holy  Ghost  (Acts 
v:3).  In  the  prayer  that  Christ  himself  has  taught 
us,  we  pray  God  "not  to  lead  us  into  temptation" 
(Matt.  vi:i3);  and  a  little  before  his  death,  our 
Savior  exhorted  his  disciples  to  "watch  and  pray, 
that  thev  might  not  enter  into  temptation"  (Matt. 
xxvi:4i;.  Paul  says,  "(jod  will  not  suffer  us  to 
be  tempted  above  that  we  are  able  to  bear"  (i 
Cor.  x:i3). 

(3)  Human.  Men  are  said  to  tempt  the  Lord, 
when  they  unseasonably  require  proofs  of  the 
divine  presence,  power  or  goodness.  The  Israel- 
ites in  the  desert  repeatedly  tempted  the  Lord, 
as  if  they  had  reason  to  doubt  of  his  presence 
among  them,  or  of  his  goodness,  or  of  his  power, 
after  all  his  appearances  in  their  favor  (Exod. 
xvii:2,  7,  17;  Num.  xx:i2;  Ps.  Ixxviii:i8,  41). 
Men  tempt  or  try  one  another,  when  they  would 
know  whether  things  are  really  what  they  seem  to 
be;  whether  men  are  such  as  they  are  thought  or 
desired  to  be.  The  queen  of  Sheba  came  to  prove 
the  wisdom  of  Solomon,  by  proposing  riddles 


for  him  to  explain  (i  Kings  x:i ;  2  Chron.  ix:i). 
Daniel  desired  of  him  who  had  the  care  of  feed- 
ing him  and  his  companions,  to  prove  them  for 
some  days,  whether  abstinence  from  food  of  cer- 
tain kinds  would  make  them  leaner  (Dan.  i:i2, 
14).  The  Scribes  and  Pharisees  often  tempted  our 
Savior,  and  endeavored  to  decoy  him  into  their 
snares  (Matt.  xvi:i;  xix:3;  xxii:i8,  35;  Luke 
xx:25).  Calmet. 

TEMPTATIOK  OF  OSRIST  (Matt.  iv:i-ii; 
Mark  i:i2,  13;  Luke  iv:i-i2). 

The  popular  view  of  this  undoubted  portion  of 
our  Savior's  history,  is,  that  it  is  a  narrative  of 
outward  transactions;  that  our  Savior  immedi- 
ately after  his  baptism  was  conducted  by  the  Spirit 
into  the  wilderness— either  the  desolate  and  moun- 
tainous region  now  called  Quarantania  by  the  peo- 
ple of  Palestine  (Kitto's  Physical  History,  pp. 
39f  40),  or  the  great  desert  of  Arabia,  mentioned 
in  Deut.  xxxii:iO{  viiiiis;  Hos.  xiii:S;  Jer.  ii: 
6,  etc. — where  the  devil  tempted  him  in  person, 
appeared  to  him  in  a  visible  form,  spoke  to  him  in 
an  audible  voice,  removed  him  to  the  summit 
'of  an  exceeding  high  mountain,'  and  to  the  top 
of  *a  pinnacle  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem;' 
whereas  the  view  taken  by  many  learned  com- 
mentators, ancient  and  modern,  is,  that  it  is  the 
narrative  of  a  vision,  which  was  designed  to  'sup- 
ply that  ideal  experience  of  temptation  or  trial, 
which  it  was  provided  in  the  divine  counsels  for 
our  Lord  to  receive,  previously  to  entering  upon 
the  actual  trials  and  difficulties  of  his  ministry.' 
Farmer,  also,  considers  it  a  'divine  vision,*  and 
endeavors  with  much  learning  and  ingenuity,  to 
'illustrate  the  wise  and  benevolent  intention  of 
its  various  scenes,  as  symbolical  predictions  and 
representations  of  the  principal  trials  attending 
Christ's  public  ministry'  (Inquiry  into  the  Nature 
and  Design  of  Christ's  Temptation,  8vo.,  London. 
Preface). 

I.  Arguments  for  the  Popular  View.    On 

behalf  of  the  popular  interpretation  it  is  urged, 
that  the  accounts  given  by  the  evangelists  convey 
no  intimation  that  they  refer  to  a  vision ;  that  the 
feeling  of  hunger  could  not  have  been  merely 
ideal ;  that  a  vision  of  forty  days'  continuance  is 
incredible ;  that  Moses,  who  was  a  type  of  Christ, 
saw  no  'visions,'  and  that  hence  it  may  be  con- 
cluded Christ  did  not;  that  it  is  highly  probable 
there  would  be  a  personal  conflict  between  Christ 
and  Satan,  when  the  former  entered  on  his  min- 
istry. Satan  had  ruined  the  first  Adam,  and  might 
hope  to  prevail  with  the  second.  Why,  too,  say 
some,  was  our  Lord  taken  up  into  a  mountain  to 
see  a  vision?  As  reasonably  might  St.  Paul  have 
taken  the  Corinthians  into  a  mountain  to  'show 
them  the  more  excellent  way  of  charity'  (i  Cor. 
xii:3i). 

2»  Arguments  for  Vision,  On  the  contrary 
side,  it  is  rejoined,  that  the  evangelists  do  really 
describe  the  temptation  as  a  vision.  Do  the  state- 
ments of  the  evangelists  mean  no  more  than  that 
Jesus  went  by  the  guidance  or  impulse  of  the 
Spirit  to  a  particular  locality  ?  Do  they  not  rather 
import,  that  Christ  was  brought  into  the  wilder- 
ness under  the  full  influence  of  the  prophetic 
spirit,  making  suitable  revelations  to  his  mind? 
With  regard  to  the  hunger,  the  prophets  are  rep- 
resented as  experiencing  bodily  sensations  in  their 
visions  (Ezek.  iii:3;  Rev.  x:io).  Further  argu- 
ments, derived  from  an  unauthorized  application 
of  types,  are  precarious — that  the  first  Adam 
really  had  no  personal  encounter  with  Satan; 
that  all  the  purposes  of  our  Lord's  temptation 
might  be  answered  l^  a  vision,  for  whatever 


TEN 


1646 


TENT 


might  be  the  mode,  the  effect  was  intended  to  be 
produced  upon  his  mind  and  moral  feelings,  like 
St  Peter's  vision  concerning  Cornelius,  etc.  (Acts 
x:ii-i7)  ;  that  commentators  least  given  to  specu- 
late allow  that  the  temptation  during  the  first 
forty  days  was  carried  on  by  mental  suggestion 
only,  and  that  the  visible  part  of  the  temptation 
began  'when  the  tempter  came  to  him'  (Matt,  iv: 
3;  Luke  iv:3;  Scott,  in  loc) ;  that,  with  regard  to 
Christ's  being  'taken  up  into  an  exceeding  high 
mountain,'  Ezekiel  says  (xl:2),  'in  the  visions  of 
God,  brought  he  me  into  the  land  of  Israel,  and 
set  me  upon  a  very  high  mountain,'  etc.;  and 
that  St.  John  says,  'he  carried  me  away  in  the 
spirit  to  a  great  and  high  mountain,  and  showed 
me  that  great  city  the  holy  Jerusalem*  (Rev.  xxi: 
10). 

J.  Farmer's  Theory.  Farmer's  theory  re- 
specting the  intention  of  this  prophetic  vision  may 
be  thus  summarily  stated.  The  spirit  of  God  was 
its  sole  author,  making  suitable  revelations  to  the 
mind  of  Jesus,  with  a  view  to  his  future  trials. 
It  is  called  a  temptation  of  the  devil,  because 
couched  under  the  figure  of  Satan  coming  to 
him  and  offering  him  temptations. 

(1)  First  Scene.  The  first  scene  was  proba- 
tionary, serving  to  try  the  present  turn  and  temper 
of  the  Savior's  mind ;  and  also  prophetical,  having 
reference  to  his  future  ministry,  through  the 
whole  course  of  which  he  was  pressed  with  the 
same  kind  of  temptations,  and  resisted  them  upon 
the  same  principles.  This  part  of  the  vision  con- 
veyed this  general  instruction,  that  Christ,  though 
the  Son  of  (jod,  was  to  struggle  with  hunger 
and  thirst,  and  all  other  evils  incidental  to  the 
lowest  of  the  sons  of  men,  and  that  he  was 
never  to  exert  his  miraculous  power  for  his  own 
personal  relief,  but  with  resignation  and  faith 
wait  for  the  interposition  of  God  in  his  favor. 

(2)  Secoxid  Scene.  The  second  scene,  in  which 
he  was  tempted  to  cast  himself  from  the  Temple, 
though  dazzling  as  a  proposal  to  demonstrate  his 
Messiahship  by  a  mode  corresponding  to  the  no- 
tions of  the  Jewish  people,  was  intended  to  teach 
him  not  to  prescribe  to  God  in  what  instances  he 
shall  exert  his  power,  nor  rush  into  danger  un- 
called in  dependence  upon  divine  aid,  nor  to  dic- 
tate to  divine  wisdom  what  miracles  shall  be 
wrought  for  men's  conviction.  Upon  these  prin- 
ciples he  resisted  this  suggestion,  and  accordingly 
we  find  him  ever  after  exemplifying  the  same 
principles.  He  never  needlessly  exposed  himself 
to  danger  in  reliance  upon  miraculous  interposi- 
tion, he  cautiously  declined  hazards,  avoided 
whatever  might  exasperate  his  enemies,  enjoined 
silence  with  regard  to  his  miracles,  when  the  pub- 
lication of  them  would  have  excited  envy  or  com- 
motion. 

(3)  Third  Scene.  The  third  scene  presignified 
the  temptation  to  which  he  would  be  subject  dur- 
ing the  whole  course  of  his  ministry  to  prostitute 
all  his  miraculous  endowments  to  the  service  of 
Satan,  for  the  sake  of  worldly  ambition  or  honor, 
or  for  the  gratification  of  a  holy  ambition,  but 
on  the  ground  of  doing  evil  that  good  might 
come. 

4.  Literature.  Monod,  Temptation  of  Our 
Lord;  Krummacher,  Christ  in  the  Wilderness; 
Hall,  Our  Lord's  Temptation  (sermon)  ;  Lives  of 
Christ,  by  Farrar,  Geikie,  and  Edersheim. 

J.  F.  D. 

TEN.    See  Number. 

Figurative.  ( i )  "  Ten  iime^  means  often  ((^n. 
xxxi:7;  Jobxix:3).  (2)  **Ten pounds;*  or  ** talents,"* 
denotes  many  gifts  and  opportunities  (Luke  xix: 


99 


13 ;  Matt.  XXV 128) ;  but  '*ten  days  of  tribulation; 
denote  a  short  space ;  or  perhaps  is  an  allusion  to 
the  "ten  years'  persecution  of  Diocletian  (Rev. 
ii:io).  (See  Horn;  Oown;  Tithe,  Tithes.) 
(3)  A  "tenth  part/*  may  signify  one  kingdom, 
or  a  considerable  part  of  the  Roman  territory 
(Rev.  xi:i3)  ;  but  in  Is.  vi:i3,  a  "tenth"  or  "tenth 
part,"  may  denote  a  few  persons  consecrated  to 
the  service  of  God. 

TEN  COMMANDMENTS  (Exod.  xxxiv.28). 
They  arc  found  in  Exod.  xx  :3-i7 : 

l«Thou  shalt  have  no  other  gods  before  me. 

2.  Thou  shalt  not  make  unto  thee  any  graven 
image,  or  any  likeness  of  anything  that  is  in 
heaven  above,  or  that  is  in  the  earth  beneath,  or 
that  is  in  the  water  under  the  earth.  Thou  shalt 
not  bow  down  thyself  to  them,  nor  serve  them: 
for  I  the  Lord  thy  God  am  a  jealous  God,  visiting 
the  iniquity  of  the  fathers  upon  the  children  unto 
the  third  and  fourth  generation  of  them  that 
hate  me;  and  shewing  mercy  unto  thousands  of 
them  that  love  me,  and  keep  my  commandments. 

3.  Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  the  Lord 
thy  God  in  vain:  for  the  Lord  will  not  hold 
him  guiltless  that  taketh  his  name  in  vain. 

4.  Remember  the  sabbath  day,  to  keep  it  holy. 
Six  days  shalt  thou  labor,  and  do  all  thy  work: 
But  the  seventh  day  is  the  sabbath  of  the  Lord 
thy  God;  in  it  thou  shalt  not  do  any  woric,  thou, 
nor  thy  son,  nor  thy  daughter,  thy -manservant, 
nor  thy  maidservant,  nor  thy  cattle,  nor  thy 
stranger  that  is  within  t?hy  gates :  For  in  six  days 
the  Lord  made  heaven  and  earth,  the  sea,  and  all 
that  in  them  is,  and  rested  the  seventh  day; 
wherefore  the  Lord  blessed  the  sabbath  day,  and 
hallowed  it. 

5.  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother:  that  thy 
days  may  be  long  upon  the  land  which  the  Lord 
thy  God  giveth  thee. 

6.  Thou  shalt  not  kill. 

7.  Thou  shalt  not  commit  adultery. 

8.  Thou  shalt  not  steal. 

9.  Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness  against 
thy  neighbor. 

10.  Thou  shalt  not  covet  thy  neighbor's  house, 
thou  shalt  not  covet  thy  neighbor's  wife,  nor 
his  manservant,  nor  his  maidservant,  nor  his  ox, 
nor  his  ass,  nor  anything  that  is  thy  neighbor's. 

This  subject  is  fully  treated  under  Decalogue 
(which  see). 

TENDER-HE ABTED  (tgn'der-h&rt'Sd). 

1.  J^ak  lay-dawd' (Heh. '^t^  ^\  liteTaWy  tender 

of  heart,  /.^.,  weak,  faint,  spoken  of  Solomon's  son 
Rehoboam  in  his  youth  (2  Chron.  xiii:7), 

2.  Eoo* spiangkh-os  (Gr.  eif<rirXa7xof ),  having 
strong  bowels,  possessing  a  kind  and  forgiving 
temper  (Eph.  iv:32).  God's  me  rev  is  said  to  be 
tender,  to  import  that  it  is  infinitely  Kind  and  affec- 
tionate (Ps.  XXV :6).  A  tender  heart  is  one  which  is 
easily  affected  with  God's  law  or  providence,  and 
cannot  endure  what  is  sinful  (2  Chron.  xxxiv:27). 

TENON  (tSn'iin),  the  dowel  pin  holding  the  end 
of  a  plank  of  the  Tabernacle  (Exod.  xxvi:i7, 19; 
xxxvr.22, 24).    See  Tabernacle. 

TENT  (t«nt),  (Heb.  ^?^,  usually  ^'^// Gr.  fl-niw}, 
skay'nay% 

The  patriarchal  fathers  of  the  Israelites  were 
dwellers  in  tents,  and  their  descendants  pro- 
ceeded at  once  from  tents  to  houses.  We  there- 
fore read  but  little  of  huts  among  them;  and 
never  as  the  fixed  habitations  of  any  people  with 
whom  they  were  conversant.  The  Scriptures 
make  us  more  familiar  with  tents  than  with  huta. 


TENTH  DEAL  18 

They  were  invented  before  the  Deluge,  and  appear 
from  tjic  first  to  have  been  associated  with  the 
pastoral  life,  to  which  a  movable  habitation  was 
necessary  (Gen.  iv;2o).  The  practice  of  the  pas- 
toral fathers  was  to  pitch  their  tents  near  wells 
of  water,  and,  if  possible,  under  some  shady  tree 


(Gen.  xviii:2;  Judg.  iv:S)-  The  first  tents  were 
undoubtedly  covered  wilh  skins,  of  which  there 
are  traces  in  the  Pentateuch  (Exod.  xxvi:i4)i 
but  nearly  all  the  tents  mentioned  in  Scripture 
were,  doubtless,  of  goats'  hair,  spun  and  woven 
t^  the  women  (Exod.  xxxv:26;  xxxvi:i4)  ;  such 
as  are  now,  in  Western  Asia,  used  by  all  who 
dwell  in  tents—hence  their  black  color  (Cant.  1:5). 
Tents  of  linen  were,  and  still  are.  used  only  oc- 
casionally, for  holiday  or  traveling  purposes,  by 
those  who  do  not  habitually  live  in  them. 

The  patriarchal  tents  were  probably  such  as  we 
now  see  in  Arabia,  of  an  oblong  shape,  and  eight 
or  ten  feet  high  in  the  middle.  They  vary  in 
size,  and  have,  accordingly,  a  greater  or  less  num- 
ber of  poles  10  support  them — from  three  10  nine. 
An  encampment  is  generally  arranged  circularly, 
forming  an  enclosure,  within  which  the  cattle  are 
driven  at  night,  and  the  center  of  which  is  oc- 
cupied by  ti\e  tent  or  tents  of  the  Emir  or  Sheikh. 
If  he  is  a  person  of  much  consequence,  he  may 
have  three  or  four  tents,  for  himself,  his  wives, 
his  servants,  and  strangers,  respectively.  The 
first  two  are  of  the  most  importance,  and  we 
know  that  Abraham's  wife  had  a  separate  tent 
(Gen.  xxiv:67).  It  is  more  usual,  however,  for 
one  very  large  tent  to  be  divided  into  two  or 
more  apartments  by  curtains.  The  Holy  Taber- 
nacle was  on  this  model  (Exod.  xxviiai-s^). 
The  making  of  tents  formed  a  trade  at  which 
Paul  once  worked  (Acts  xviii:3). 

Figurative.  (i)  Thus  it  was  natural  to 
compare  the  canopy  of  heaven  to  a  tent  (Is.  xl: 
23)  ;  or  the  growth  of  a  church  to  an  enlargement 
ofatent  (Is.  livia;  xxxiii;2o).  (2)  A  man  bereft 
of  friends  was  like  one  erecting  his  tent  alone 
(Jer.  x:2o).  (3)  A  lent  was  the  symbol  of  the 
briefness  of  life  (Is.  xxxviiiilz;  2  Cor.  v:i). 

TENTH  DKAl.  (tenlh  del}.  (Heb.  I'l^P,  is- 
saw-rone'  tenth),  more  fully  the  tenth  of  an  ephah, 
used  for  the  measure  of  grain  and  meal  (Exod. 
xxix:4o;  Lev.  xiv:lo,2i;  Num.xv:4,6,Q). 


I  (le'rah).  (Heb.  "?,  lek'rakh,  .tation). 
son  of  Nahor  and  father  of  Abraham,  who,  wilh  his 
family,  quitted  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  to  go  to  the 
land  which  God  should  show  him,  but  tarried  at 


47  .     TERRIBLENESS,  TERROR 

Haran  in  Mesopotamia,  and  there  died  at  the  age 
of  205  years  (Gen.  xi:t4'32;  Acts  vii:Z~4). 

From  the  latter  text,  it  appears  that  the  first 
call  which  prompted  thera  to  leave  Ur  was  ad- 
dressed to  Abraham,  not  to  Terah,  as  well  as  the 
second,  which,  after  the  death  of  his  father,  in- 
duced him  to  proceed  from  Haran  to  Canaan. 
(B.  C.  2293-2088.)  (See  Abraham.)  The  order 
to  Abraham  to  proceed  to  Canaan  immediately 
after  Terah's  death  seems  to  indicate  that  the 

eause  at  Haran  was  on  his  account.  Whether 
e  declined  to  proceed  any  further,  or  his  ad* 
vanced  age  rendered  him  unequal  to  the  fatigues 
of  the  journey,  can  only  be  conjectured. 

TERAPHIU  (ter'a-phlm),  Heb.  °'9?r,  ter-ann 
feme').  The  word  teraphim  siRnJIied  an  object  o» 
objects  of  idolatiy,  as  we  may  learn  from  the  ren- 
derings of  the  Septuagint.  It  seems  therefore 
that  teraphim  were  tutelar  household  gods,  by 
whom  families  expected,  for  worship  bestowed,  Co 
be  rewarded  with  domestic  prosperity,  such  as 
plenty  of  food,  health,  and  various  necessaries  of 
(kmiesttc  life. 

We  have  most  remarkable  proofs  that  the  wor- 
ship of  teraphim  coexisted  with  the  worship  of 
Jrtiovah,  even  in  pious  families ;  and  we  have  more 
than  one  instance  of  the  wives  of  worshipers  of 
Jehovah  not  finding  full  contentment  and  satis 
faction  in  the  stern  moral  truth  of  spiritual  wor- 
ship, and  therefore  carrying  on  some  private 
symbolism  by  fondling  the  teraphim. 

We  find  in  Gen.  xxxi:i9,  30.  32-3S,  that  Rachel 
stole  the  images  (teraphim)  belonging  to  her 
fatlier  without  the  knowledge  of  her  husband, 
who,  being  accused  by  his  father-in-law  of  having 
stolen  his  gods,  answered.  'With  whomsoever 
thou  findest  thy  gods,  let  him  not  live.'  Laban 
searched,  but  found  not  the  images  (teraphim). 

It  appears  from  Judg.  xvii  :2-7,  that  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Lord  was  blended  with  that  of  a  graven 
image  or  teraphim,  but  on  every  revival  of  the 
knowledge  of  ihe  written,  revelation  of  God  the 
teraphim  were  swept  away  together  wilh  the 
worse  forms  of  idolatry  (a  Kings  xxiii:24). 

The  teraphim  were  consulted  by  persons  upon 
whom  true  religion  had  no  firm  hold,  in  order 
to  elicit  some  supernatural  otnina,  similar  to  the 
angaria  of  the  Romans  (Zech.  x:2;  Ezek.  xxi: 
21,  26). 

The  prophet  Hosea  (iii:4,  5),  threatening  Israel, 
says,  "The  children  of  Israel  shall  abide  many 
days  without  a  king,  and  without  a  prince,  and 
without  a  sacrifice,  and  without  an  image,  and 
without  an  ephod,  and  without  teraphim:"  that 
is,  during  their  captivity  Ihey  shall  be  deprived 
of  the  public  exercise  of  iheir  religion,  and  even 
weaned  from  their  private  superstition. 

[  (ter-e-Mnth).    SeeALLON.' 
[  (tB'resh),  (Heb.  "S?^,  uA'resh.  severe), 
a  eunuch  in  the  time  of  Mordecai  who  plotted  to 
kill  Ahasuerus  (Egth.  ii:2i;  vi:2).  B.  C.  479. 

LOE  (Ifir'rls),  (Heb.  "^?.  mes-  ii-law'. 


TBKBZBLENZ8B,  TEBBOB  ( tSr'if-b'l-nSs, 
ter'rer),{Heb.^^'»,  mo-raw',  dread,  terror,  Deut. 
xxvi:8),  the  terms  denote  whatever  by  horrible 
aspect,  or  by  cruelty,  power,  or  greatness,  affrights 
men  (Deut.  i:i9). 

God  is  called  terrible,  to  point  out  his  awful 
greatness,  his  infinite  strength,  strict  justice,  and 
fearful  judgments  (Jer.  xx:ii;  Zeph.  ii:ii).  The 


TERTIUS 


1648 


THANKSGIVING 


invasion  and  devastation  of  Judsea  were  a  terror 
to  the  Egyptians  (Is.  xix:i7).  The  terror  of 
God,  is  either  his  awful  appearances,  judgments, 
and  views  of  him  (Job  vi:4),  or  the  fearful  and 
majestic  appearance  of  Christ  to  judge  the  world 
(2  Cor.  v:ii).  The  terror  of  the  wicked  is  their 
threatenings,  by  which  they  attempt  to  terrify  the 
saints  from  their  duty  (i  Pet.  iii:i4). 

TEBTIXrS  (ter'sW-us),  (Gr.  T^^tos,  ter'tee-os, 
from  Lat.  tertius,  third). 

We  learn  from  Rom.  xvi:22  (*I  Tertius,  who 
wrote  this  epistle,  salute  you  in  the  Lord'),  that 
the  Apostle  Paul  dictated  that  epistle  to  Tertius. 
(A.  D.  55.)  Some  writers  say  that  Tertius  was 
bishop  of  Iconium.  (See  Fabricii  Lux  Evangelii, 
p.  117.)  C.  H.  F.  B. 

TEBTTTLLUS  (ter-tGl'lus),  (Gr.  T^prvWos,  ter"- 
tool-los,  diminutive  of  Tertius),  the  Roman  ora- 
tor or  advocate  employed  by  the  Sanhedrim  to 
sustain  th^ir  accusation  against  Paul  before  the 
Roman  governor  (Acts  xxiv:i,  8),  A.  D.  55. 

The  Jews,  as  well  as  the  other  peoples  subject 
to  the  Romans,  in  their  accusations  and  processes 
before  the  Roman  magistrates,  were  obliged  to 
follow  the  forms  of  the  Roman  law,  of  which 
they  knew  little.  The  different  provinces,  and 
particularly  the  principal  cities,  consequently 
abounded  with  persons  who,  at  the  same  time  ad- 
vocates and  orators,  were  equally  ready  to  plead 
in  civil  actions  or  to  harangue  on  public  affairs. 
This  they  did,  either  in  Greek  or  Latin,  as  the 
place  or  occasion  required. 

TESTAMENT  (t^s'ta-m^t),  the  frequent  trans- 
lation  of  Gr.  SiaO-fjicrj,  dee-ath-aykay^  a  disposal.  It 
means  will,  a  covenant.  A  third  meaning  has  no 
bearing  on  the  present  subject.  In  Heb.  ix:i6,  17 
dee-ath-ay' kay  is  clearly  a  will. 

But  in  viii:6-io,  13  and  ix:i,  4  the  meaning  is 
evidently  covenant,  and  the  term  is  so  translated 
in  the  text.  The  Old  Covenant  and  the  New 
Covenant  would  be  more  accurate  designations  of 
the  two  parts  of  the  Bible  than  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  the  New  Testament.  (See  Heir; 
Bible;  Scripture.) 

TESTIMONY  (tSs'tl-md-nJ),  (Heb.  ^1^.,  ay- 
daw*^  or  ^^^?,  ay-dooih' ;  Gr.  /xaprvpiu),  mar-too- 

reh'o,  witness),  anything  which  testifies  (See  Exod. 
xx:i6;  xxiii:i;  Gen.  xxxi:47,  48,  52;  Josh.  xxii:27; 
John  i:8;  v:3i). 

The  law  is  called  a  testimony  ( Ps.  cxix ;  Exod. 
xvi:34;  xxv:i6,  21;  xxxi:i8),  because  when  the 
Lord  gave  it  to  the  Israelites,  he  gave  testimony 
of  his  presence  by  prodigies  performed  before 
them,  and  he  required  an  oath  of  them,  that  they 
should  continue  faithful  to  him.  The  ark  is  called 
the  ark  of  testimony,  because  it  contained  the  ta- 
bles of  the  law  (Exod.  xxv:22;  xxvi:33,  34)  ;  so 
the  tabernacle  of  testimony,  because  in  that  tent 
the  tables  of  the  law  were  kept  (Num.  i:50,  53; 
x:ii). 

TETH  (teth),  the  form  of  the  letter  is  tO,  the 
ninth  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 

Greek  theta  comes  from  the  same  source;  but 
the  Greek  versions  represent  it  in  Hebrew  names 
by  tau,  reserving  theta  for  the  aspirated  Hebrew 
tau.  In  the  English  versions  teth  is  represented 
by  /.  It  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  sec- 
tion of  Ps.  cxix  in  several  versions,  in  which  sec- 
tion each  verse  begins  with  that  letter. 

TETBABGH  (te'trark),  (Gr.  Ter/xipx'yJ,  tet-rar*' 
khace)t  a  prince  or  sovereign  who  holds  or  governs 
a  fourth  part  of  a  kingdom,  without  wearing  the 
diadem,  or  bearing  the  title  of  king. 

Such  was  the  original  import  of  the  word,  but 
it  was  afterwards  applied  to  any  petty  king  or 


sovereign,  and  became  synonymous  with  ethnarch. 
In  the  reign  of  Tiberius  C:aesar  Herod's  king- 
dom of  Judxa  was  divided  into  three  parts,  which 
were  called  tetrarchies,  and  the  sovereigns  te- 
trarchs.  His  sons  were  made  the  heirs  to  his 
kingdom.  Archelaus  became  tetrarch  of  Judjea, 
Samaria,  and  Idumea ;  Philip  of  Trachonitis  and 
Iturea;  and  Herod  Antipas  of  Galilee  and  Perea 
(Luke  iii.i).  Herod  Agrippa,  the  nephew  of 
Herod  Antipas,  who  afterwards  obtained  the  titfe 
of  king  (Acts  xxv:i3),  was  in  the  reign  of  Calig- 
ula invested  with  royalty,  and  appointed  tetrarch 
of  Abilene;  to  which  was  afterwards* added  Gali- 
lee and  Perea,  Judaea  and  Samaria;  until  at 
length  his  dominion  extended  over  the  whole  land 
of  Palestine.  (See  Herodian  Family).  The  title 
of  tetrarch  was  frequently  conferred  upon  the 
descendants  of  Herod  the  Great  by  the  Roman 
emperors  (Joseph.  De  Bell  Jud.  i.  33). 

G.  M.  B. 

THADD2US  (thad-de'us),  (Gr.  Qah^atos,  thad- 
dah'yos\  a  surname  of  the  Apostle  Jude,  who  was 
also  called  Lebbeus  (Matt.x:3;  Mark  iii:i8;  comp. 
Luke  vi:i6).    See  Judas  or  Jude. 

THAHASH  (tha'hash).  (Heb.  ^OD,  takh'ash, 
badger),  the  son  of  Nahor  by  his  concubine  Reu- 
mah  (Gen.  xxii:24),  B.  C.  about  2050. 

THAMAH  (tha'mah).  (Ezra  {1:53).    See  Tamah. 

THAMAB  (tha'mar),  (Matti:3).  See  Tamar,2, 

THAMMXJZ  (tham'muz).    See  Tammuz. 

THANK  (thank),  (Gr.  x^/mi,  khar'ece,  reward), 
to  acknowledge  a  benefit  as  freely  received  (Phil. 
iv:i4-i6).  What  thank  have  yet  What  grateful 
acknowledgment  or  reward  can  you  expect  Ckxi 
will  give  you  for  your  selfish  conduct?  (Luke  vi: 
32-34). 

THANK  OFFEBlNa  or  PEACE  OFFER- 
ING (think  6f'fer-Ing  or  pSs  Sffer-Ing).   (Heb.  "3.1 

0"?^?^,  zeh'bakh  shel-aw-meem\  or  simply  O"?^?, 

shei-aw-meem'),  the  properly  eucharistic  offering 
among  the  Jews,  in  its  theory  resembling  the  meat 
offering. 

It  was  entirely  voluntary  and  regarded  as  a  priv- 
ilege rather  than  a  duty  (Lev.xix:5).  Its  ceremon- 
ial is  described  in  Lev.iii.  The  peace  offerings  were 
not  ordained  to  be  offered  in  fixed  and  regrular 
course.  The  only  constantly  recurring  peace  offer- 
ing appears  to  have  been  that  of  the  two  firstling 
lambs  at  Pentecost  ( Lev.  xxiii :  19) .  Peace  offerings 
were  offered  for  the  people  on  a  great  scale  at  pe- 
riods of  unusual  solemnity  or  rejoicing.  In  two 
cases  only  (Judg.  xx:26;  2  Sam.  xxiv:25)  peace 
offerings  are  mentioned  as  offered  with  burnt 
offerings  at  a  time  of  national  sorrow  and  fasting. 
(See  Festivals.) 

THANKSGIVING  (th&nks'gfv'Ing),  (Heb.  •'^ 

yaw-daw' ;  ^T^.to-daw'  ;Gt,  eifxapifrrUi.yoo-khar' 
is-tee'ah). 

Giving  of  thanks  is  a  hearty  and  cheerful  ac- 
knowledgment of  favors,  spiritual,  temporal,  or 
eternal,  bestowed  on  ourselves,  or  on  others  (Phil. 
iv:6;  i  Tim.  ii:i).  Thank  offerings  and  psalms 
of  praise,  are  called  thanksgiving  (Lev.  vii:i2. 
15  and  xxii:29;  Neh.  xi:i7).  All  thanksgiving 
is  to  be  offered  in  Christ's  name,  and  is  to  be  al- 
ways continued  in,  as  in  every  condition  there  is 
a  great  mixture  of  God's  mercy  (Eph.  v:2o;  2 
Cor.  ii:i4).  Asking  a  blessing  on  food  is  called 
thanksgiving,  as  in  it  we  acknowledge  God's  kind- 
ness in  providing  such  provision  (Luke  xxiv:30 
and  xxii:i7,  19;  Matt.  xv:36  and  xiv.-ig). 


THANKWORTHY 


1649 


THEOCRACY 


THANKWOBTHY  (think' wfir'thj),  (Gr.  x<ip«J. 
kkar'is,  grace),  worthy  of  thanks  and  praise  (i 
Pet.  ii:i9). 


(tha'r^).  (Luke  111:34).    See  Terah. 

nSH  (thar'shish),  less  correct  form  of 
Tarshish,  used  of  the  place  (i  Kings  x:22;  xxii: 
48),  and  the  man  (i  Chron.  vii:io). 

THEATEB  (the'4-ter),  (Gr.  Biarpow,  theh' at-ron), 
k  place  where  games  and  dramatic  productions 
were  displayed,  and  among  the  Greeks  where  as- 
semblies were  held  (Acts  xix:29,  31).  (See  Ephe- 
sus). 

THEBES  (thebz),  is  a  name  borne  by  two  of  the 
most  celebrated  cities  in  the  ancient  world,  Thebes 
in  Bceotia,  and  Thebes  in  Egypt. 

Of  the  latter  it  is  that  we  have  here  to  speak 
in  brief,  referring  those  who  wish  for  detailed  in- 
formation to  the  works  of  Wilkinson,  especially 
his  Modern  Egypt  and  Thebes;  also  the  works  of 
Dr.  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie. 

The  name  Thebes  is  corrupted  from  the  Tape 
of  the  ancient  Egyptian  language,  the  meaning  of 
which  appears  to  be  *the  head/  Thebes  being  the 
capital  of  the  Thebais  in  Upper  Egypt. 

(1)  Scriptural  Beferences  and  Location. 
Termed  in  Scripture  No  and  No-Ammon  (Jer. 
xlvi:25;  Ezek.  xxx:i4;  Nah.  iii:8).  Thebes  was 
situated  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Nile,  and  had 
canals  cutting  the  land  in  all  directions.  It  was 
probably  the  most  ancient  city  of  Egypt,  and  the 
residence  in  very  early  ages  of  Egyptian  kings 
who  ruled  the  land  during  several  dynasties.  The 
plain  was  adorned  not  only  by  large  and  hand- 
some dwellings  for  man,  but  by  temples  and  pal- 
aces, of  whose  grandeur  words  can  give  but  a 
faint  conception. 

(2)  Buins.  Of  these  edifices  there  are  still  in 
existence  ruins  that  astound  and  delight  the  trav- 
eler. The  most  ancient  remains  now  existing  are 
in  the  immense  temple,  or  rather  cluster  of  tem- 
ples, of  Karnak,  the  largest  and  most  splendid 
ruin  of  which  either  ancient  or  modern  times  can 
boast,  being  the  work  of  a  number  of  successive 
monarchs,  each  anxious  to  surpass  his  predecessor 
by  increasing  the  dimensions  of  the  part  he  added. 
Osirtasen  I,  the  contemporary  of  Joseph,  is  the 
earliest  monarch  whose  name  appears  on  the 
monuments  of  Thebes.  On  the  western  shore  the 
chief  points  of  interest  are  the  palace  and  temple 
of  Rameses  II,  erroneously  called  the  Memnon- 
ium;  the  temples  of  Medinet  Habu,  the  statue  of 
Memnon,  and  the  tombs  of  the  kings.  On  the 
eastern  shore  are  the  temple  of  Luksor,  and  the 
temple  of  Karnak,  already  mentioned.  Tt  is  im- 
possible,' says  Robinson  (Bib.  Researches,  i.  29), 
'to  wander  among  these  scenes  and  behold  these 
hoary  yet  magnificent  ruins  without  emotions  of 
astonishment  and  deep  solemnity.  Everything 
around  testifies  of  vastness  and  of  utter  desola- 
tion. Here  lay  once  that  mighty  city  whose  power 
and  splendor  were  proverbial  throughout  the  an- 
cient world.'  Yet,  like  all  earthly  things,  Thebes 
had  her  period  of  death.  She  sprang  up,  flour- 
ished, declined  and  sank.  Memphis  rose  to  be  her 
rival  when  Thebes  began  to  part  with  her  glory. 
She  was  plundered  by  Cambyses,  and  destroyed 
by  Ptolemy  Lathyrus.  In  Strabo's  time  the  city 
was  already  fallen;  yet  its  remains  then  covered 
eighty  stadia,  and  the  inhabited  part  was  divided 
into  many  separate  villages,  as  the  ruins  now  are 
portioned  out  between  nine  hamlets. 

(3)  Period  of  its  Glory.    The  period  in  which 
Thebes  enjoyed  the  highest  prosperity  Robinson 
considers  to  have  been  coeval  with  the  reigns  of 
104 


David  and  Solomon.  This,  however,  appears  too 
late  a  date.  From  the  passage  in  Nahum  (iii: 
8,  sq,),  it  would  seem  that  in  his  day  (according 
to  Josephus,  about  750  B.  C),  the  city  had  suf- 
fered a  terrible  overthrow — how  long  previously 
is  not  recorded,  for  we  do  not  know  what  con- 
quest or  what  conqueror  was  here  intended  by  the 
prophet.  The  walls  of  all  the  temples  at  Thebes 
are  covered  with  sculptures  and  hieroglyphics 
representing  in  general  the  deeds  of  the  kings  who 
founded  or  enlarged  these  structures.  Many  of 
these  aflford  happy  illustrations  of  Egyptian  his- 
tory. J.  R.  B. 

THEBEZ  (thfi'bez),  (Heb.  V5??.  tay-baUs',  con^ 

spicuous),  a  place  near  Shechem,  where  Abimelech 
met  his  death  (Judg.  ix:jo;  2  Sam.  xi:2i).  It  is  the 
same  place  now  called  Tubas,  nine  miles  from 
Shechem  on  the  road  to  Beth-shean. 

THEFT  (thSft),  among  the  Hebrews,  was  not 
punished  with  death  (Prov.  vi:30,  31). 

The  Mosaic  law  condemned  a  common  thief  to 
make  double  restitution  (Exod.  xxii:4).  If  ht 
stole  an  ox,  he  was  to  restore  fivefold;  if  a  sheep, 
only  fourfold  (Exod.  xxiiii).  But  if  the  ani 
mal  stolen  were  found  alive  in  his  house,  he  only 
rendered  the  double  of  it.  If  he  did  not  make 
restitution,  they  seized  and  sold  his  property,  his 
house,  and  even  himself,  if  he  had  not  where- 
with to  make  satisfaction  (Exod.  xxii  123). 

If  a  thief  were  taken,  and  carried  before  a  mag- 
istrate, he  was  interrogated  judicially,  and  ad- 
jured in  the  name  of  the  Lord  to  confess  the  fact. 
If  he  persisted  in  denying  it,  and  was  afterwards 
convicted  of  perjury,  he  was  condemned  to  death; 
not  for  the  theft,  but  for  the  perjury.  An  ac- 
complice, or  receiver  of  stolen  goods,  was  subject 
to  the  same  penalty,  if  he  did  not  discover  the 
truth  to  the  judges,  when  he  was  examined,  and 
adjured  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  (Lev.  v:i ;  Prov. 
xxix:24).  To  steal  a  freeman,  or  a  Hebrew,  and 
to  reduce  him  to  servitude,  was  punished  with 
death  (Exod.  xxi:i6).  If  a  stranger  were  stolen, 
the  thief  was  only  condemned  to  restitution. 

The  night  robber  might  be  killed  with  impunity 
in  the  act ;  but  not  a  thief  taken  stealing  in  the 
daytime  (Exod.  xxii:2).    (See  Law.) 

THELASAB  (the-U'sar),  (2  Kings  xix:i2).  See 
Telassar. 

THEOGBAGT  ( thi  6k'r4  sy ),  (Gr.  BeoKparla. 
theh'Ok-rat'ee'ah,  rule  of  God). 

Josephus  coined  the  word  theocracy  to  describe 
the  government  instituted  at  Sinai.  He  says: 
"Our  legislator  .  .  .  ordered  our  government 
to  be  what  I  may  call  by  a  strained  expression  a 
theocracy,  attributing  the  power  and  the  authority 
to  God"  (con.  Apion.  ii.  17).  Jehovah  was  the 
head  of  the  nation,  dwelling  in  its  midst  between 
the  cherubim  (Exod.  xxv:22).  In  him  all  the 
powers  of  the  state,  legislative,  executive,  judicial, 
were  united.  As  legislator,  he  announced  the 
fundamental  law  of  the  state  in  the  hearing  of  the 
congregation.  After  that  immediate  presentation 
of  himself  to  the  nation,  he  exercised  his  govern- 
mental offices  for  the  most  part  through  men 
whom  he  raised  up.  Like  all  potentates,  he  dele- 
gated the  judicial  function  for  the  most  part  to 
judges;  only  the  most  difficult  matters  were  re- 
ferred to  Jehovah  (Exod.  xviiirig).  (See  Urim 
and  Thummim).  His  legislative  function  he  ex- 
ercised through  Moses  and  through  prophets 
(Deut.  xviii:is-i9).  Legislation  was  intermit- 
tent ;  the  given  body  of  laws  was  a  sufficient  rule, 
and  seldom  required  modification  or  enlargement. 
The  executive  function  was  likewise  exercised  for 


THEOPHILUS 


1650     THESSALONIANS,  EPISTLES  TO  THE 


many  years  intermittently  through  leaders,  called 
judges,  who  were  raised  up  from  time  to  time, 
and  who,  accredited  hy  the  great  deeds  which 
were  wrought  by  their  hands,  secured  public  con- 
fidence and  became  the  acknowledged  head  in 
state  affairs. 

The  theocratic  government  was  proposed  by 
God  at  Sinai  on  condition  of  obedience  (Exod. 
xix:4-9).  The  terms  were  accepted  by  the  elders 
of  the  people  (7,  8).     (Davis'  Bib.  Diet.) 

In  keeping  this  allegiance  to  Jehovah,  as  their 
immediate  and  supreme  Lord,  they  were  to  ex- 
pect the  blessings  of  God's  immediate  and  partic- 
ular protection  in  the  security  of  their  liberty, 
peace,  and  prosperity,  against  all  attempts  of  their 
idolatrous  neighbors;  but  if  they  should  break 
their  allegiance  to  Jehovah,  or  forsake  the  cove- 
nant of  Jehovah,  by  going  and  serving  other  gods, 
and  worshiping  them,  then  they  should  forfeit 
these  blessings  of  God's  protection,  and  the  anger 
of  Jehovah  should  be  kindled  against  the  land, 
to  bring  upon  it  all  the  curses  that  are  written 
in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  (xxix:2j-27).  The 
substance  then  of  this  solemn  transaction  between 
God  and  the  Israelites  (which  may  be  called  the 
original  contract  of  the  Hebrew  government) 
was  this: — If  the  Hebrews  would  voluntarily  con- 
sent to  receive  Jehovah  their  lord  and  king,  to 
keep  his  covenant  and  laws,  to  honor  and  worship 
him  as  the  one  true  (jod,  in  opposition  to  all  idol- 
atry; then,  though  God  as  sovereign  of  the  world 
rules  over  all  the  nations  of  the  earth,  and  all 
nations  are  under  the  general  care  of  his  provi- 
dence, he  would  govern  the  Hebrew  nation  by  pe- 
culiar laws  of  his  particular  appointment,  and 
bless  it  with  a  more  immediate  and  particular 
protection;  he  would  secure  to  them  the  invalu- 
able privileges  of  the  true  religion,  together  with 
liberty,  peace,  and  prosperity,  as  a  favored  people 
above  all  other  nations.  This  constitution,  it  will 
be  observed,  is  enforced  chiefly  by  temporal  sanc- 
tions, and  with  singular  wisdom,  for  temporal 
blessings  and  evils  were  at  that  time  the  common 
and  prevailing  incitements  |o  idolatry;  but  by 
thus  taking  them  into  the  Hebrew  constitution, 
as  rewards  to  obedience  and  punishments  for  dis- 
obedience, they  became  motives  to  continuance 
in  the  true  religion,  instead  of  encouragements  to 
idolatry.    (See  Judges;    Hebrews^   Religion  of 

THE.) 

THE0PHILTJ8  (the-6ph'i-liis).  (Gr.  Oe^^cXot, 
theh-ofU-os^  friend  of  God),  a  person  of  distinction, 
to  whom  St.  Luke  inscribed  nis  Gospel  and  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  (Luke  i:3;  Acts  1:1),  A.  D. 
about  56. 

The  title  'most  excellent,'  is  the  same  which  is 
given  to  governors  of  provinces,  as  Felix  and 
Festus  (Acts  xxiii:26;  xxvi:2S);  whence  he  is 
conceived  by  some  to  have  been  a  civil  magis- 
trate in  some  high  office. 

THESSALONIAN  (thSs'sa-lO'ni-an).  (Gr.6e<r. 
tf-aXorcirei^,  thes-sai-on-ik-voos' ,  the  designation,  a 
Thessa Ionian),  an  inhabitant  of  Thessalonica 
(Acts  XX :4;  i  Thess.  i:i;  2  Thess.  1:1;  Acts  xxvii:2). 

THESSALONLAKS,  EPISTLES  TO  THE. 

I.  First  Epistle*  The  authenticity  and  ca- 
nonical authority  of  this  epistle  have  been  from 
the  earliest  ages  admitted;  nor  have  these  points 
ever  been  called  in  question,  either  in  ancient  or 
modern  times,  by  those  who  have  received  any 
of  Paul's  epistles. 

This  epistle  has  generally  been  regarded  as  the 
first  written  by  Paul  of  those  now  extant.  In  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  (xvii:5,  sq.)  we  are  told  that 
Paul,  after  preaching  the  Gospel  with  success  at 


Thessalonica,  had  to  flee  from  that  city  in  conse- 
quence of  the  malice  of  the  Jews;  that  he  thence 
betook  himself  to  Berea,  in  company  with  Silas; 
that,  driven  by  the  same  influence  from  Berea,  he 
journeyed  to  Athens,  leaving  Silas  and  Timothy 
(the  latter  of  whom  had  probably  preceded  him 
to  Berea)  behind  him;  and  that  after  renmining 
in  that  city  for  some  time,  he  went  to  Corinth, 
where  he  was  joined  by  Timothy  and  Silas.  It 
appears  also  from  this  epistle  (iii:i,  2,  5),  that 
while  at  Athens  he  had  commissioned  Timothy 
to  visit  the  infant  church  at  Thessalonica;  and 
from  Acts  xvii:is,  16,  we  learn  that  he  expected 
to  be  joined  by  Timothy  and  Silas  in  that  city. 
Whether  this  expected  meeting  ever  took  place 
there,  is  a  matter  involved  in  much  uncertainty. 

(1)  Time  and  Place  of  Writing.  But  what- 
ever view  we  adopt  on  this  point,  it  seems  indis- 
putable that  this  epistle  was  not  written  until 
Paul  met  Timothy  and  Silas  at  Corinth.  The  an- 
cient subscription,  indeed,  testifies  that  it  was 
written  at  Athens;  but  that  this  could  not  be 
the  case  is  clear  from  the  epistle  itself.  It  must, 
however,  have  been  written  very  soon  after  his 
arrival  at  Corinth ;  for  at  the  time  of  his  writings 
Timothy  had  just  arrived  from  Thessalonica 
(i  Thess.  iii:6),  and  Paul  had  not  been  long  i« 
Corinth  before  Timothy  and  Silas  joined  hiif 
there  (Acts  xvii;i-5). 

(2)  Design.  The  design  of  this  epistle  is  to 
comfort  the  Thessalonians  under  trial,  and  to  en- 
courage them  to  the  patient  and  consistent  profes- 
sion of  Christianity.  The  epistle  may  be  conveni- 
ently divided  into  two  parts.  The  former  of 
these,  which  comprises  the  first  three  chapters,  is 
occupied  with  statements  chiefly  of  a  retrospective 
character :  it  details  the  Apostle's  experience  among 
the  Thessalonians,  his  confidence  in  them,  his 
deep  regard  for  them,  and  his  efforts  and  prayers 
on  their  behalf.  The  latter  part  of  the  epistle 
(iv:5)  is,  for  the  most  part,  of  a  hortatory  char- 
acter :  it  contains  the  Apostle's  admonitions  to  the 
Thessalonians  to  walk  according  to  their  profes- 
sion; to  avoid  sensuality,  dishonesty,  and  pride; 
to  cultivate  brotherly  love,  to  attend  diligently  to 
the  duties  of  life,  to  take  the  comfort  which  the 

{)rospect  of  Christ's  second  coming  was  calcu- 
ated  to  convey,  but  not  to  allow  that  to  seduce 
them  into  indolence  or  idle  speculations;  to  ren- 
der due  respect  to  their  spiritual  superiors;  and, 
by  attention  to  a  number  of  duties  which  the  Apos- 
tle specifies,  to  prove  themselves  worthy  of  the 
good  opinion  he  entertained  of  them.  He  con- 
cludes the  epistle  by  offering  fervent  supplication 
on  their  behalf,  and  the  usual  Apostolic  benedic- 
tion. 

2m  Second  Epistle*  The  Apostle's  allusion  in 
his  former  epistle  to  the  second  coming  of  Christ, 
and  especially  his  statement  in  chap,  iv:  15-18,  ap- 
pear to  have  been  misunderstood  by  the  Thessa- 
lonians, or  wilfully  perverted  by  some  among 
them,  so  as  to  favor  the  notion  that  that  event 
was  near  at  hand.  This  notion  some  inculcated 
as  a  truth  specially  confirmed  to  them  by  the 
Spirit ;  others  advocated  it  as  part  of  the  apostolic 
doctrine;  and  some  claimed  for  it  the  specific 
support  of  Paul  in  a  letter  (ii:2).  Whether  the 
letter  here  referred  to  is  the  Apostle's  former 
epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  or  one  forged  in  his 
name  by  some  keen  and  unscrupulous  advocates 
of  the  notion  above  referred  to,  is  uncertain. 

(1)  Desigrn.  On  receiving  intelligence  of  the 
trouble  into  which  the  Thessalonians  had  been 
plunged,  in  consequence  of  the  prevalence  among 
them  of  the  notion   (from  whatever  source  de- 


THESSALONIANS.  EPISTLES  TO  THE     1651 


THESSALONICA 


rived)  that  the  second  coming  of  Christ  was  nigh 
at  hand,  Paul  wrote  to  them  this  second  epistle,  in 
which  he  beseechingly  adjures  them  by  the  very 
fact  that  Christ  is  to  come  a  second  time,  not  to 
be  shaken  in  mind  or  troubled,  as  if  that  event 
were  near  at  hand.  He  informs  them  that  much 
was  to  happen  before  that  should  take  place,  and 
especially  predicts  a  great  apostasy  from  the 
purity  and  simplicity  of  the  Christian  faith  (ii: 
5-12).  He  then  exhorts  them  to  hold  fast  by  the 
traditions  they  had  received,  whether  by  word  or 
epistle,  and  commends  them  to  the  consoling  and 
sustaining  grace  of  God  (ver.  15-17).  The  rest 
of  the  epistle  consists  of  expressions  of  affection 
to  the  Thessalonians,  and  of  confidence  in  them; 
of  prayers  on  their  behalf,  and  of  exhortations 
and  directions  suited  to  the  circumstances  in  which 
they  were  placed. 

(2)  Arrangement.  As  regards  the  disposition 
and  arrangement  of  these  materials,  the  epistle 
naturally  divides  itself  into  three  parts.  In  the 
first  (i:i-i2),  the  Apostle  mingles  commendations 
of  the  faith  and  piety  of  the  Thessalonians,  with 
prayers  on  their  behalf.  In  the  second  (ii:i-i7), 
he  dilates  upon  the  subject  of  the  trouble  which 
had  been  occasioned  to  the  Thessalonians  by  the 
anticipation  of  the  near  approach  of  the  day  of 
the  Lord.  And  in  the  third  (iii:i-i6),  he  accu- 
mulates exhortations,  encouragements,  and  direc- 
tions, to  the  Thessalonians,  respecting  chiefly  the 
peaceable,  auiet,  and  orderly  conduct  of  their  lives, 
which  he  follows  up  with  a  prayer  on  their  be- 
half to  the  God  of  peace.  The  epistle  concludes 
with  a  salutation  from  the  Apostle's  own  hand, 
and  the  usual  benediction  (ver.  17,  18). 

(3)  Where  Written.  There  is  the  strongest 
reason  for  believing  that  this  second  epistle  was 
written  very  soon  after  the  first,  and  at  the  same 
place,  viz.  Corinth.  The  circumstances  of  the 
Apostle,  while  writing  the  one,  seem  very  much 
the  same  as  they  were  while  writing  the  other; 
nor  do  those  of  the  Thessalonians  present  any 
greater  difference  than  such  as  the  influences  re- 
ferred to  in  the  second  epistle  may  be  supposd  in 
a  very  short  time  to  have  produced.  What  seems 
almost  to  decide  the  question  is,  that  while  writ- 
ing the  second  epistle,  the  apostle  had  Timothy 
and  Silas  still  with  him.  Now,  after  he  left  Cor- 
inth, it  was  not  for  a  long  time  that  either  of 
these  individuals  was  found  again  in  his  com- 
pany (Acts  xviii:i8,  compared  with  xix:22)  ;  and 
with  regard  to  one  of  them,  Silas,  there  is  no 
evidence  that  he  and  Paul  were  ever  together  at 
any  subsequent  period.  At  what  period,  how- 
ever, of  the  Apostle's  abode  at  Corinth  this  epistle 
was  written,  we  are  not  in  circumstances  ac- 
curately to  determine. 

(4)  Qenoineness.  The  genuineness  of  the 
epistle,'  remarks  Eichhorn,  'follows  from  its  con- 
tents. Its  design  is  to  correct  the  erroneous  use 
which  had  been  made  of  some  things  in  the  first 
epistle ;  and  who  but  the  writer  of  that  first  epistle 
would  have  set  himself  thus  to  such  a  task?  It 
however  appears  that  the  author  of  the  first  must 
also  be  the  author  of  the  second ;  and  as  the  for- 
mer is  the  production  of  Paul,  we  must  ascribe 
the  latter  also  to  him.  It  was  essential  to  the 
Apostle's  reputation,  that  the  erroneous  conclu- 
sions which  had  been  deduced  from  his  words 
should  be  refuted.  Had  he  refrained  from  notic- 
ing the  expectation  built  upon  his  words,  of  the 
speedy  return  of  Christ,  his  silence  would  have 
confirmed  the  conclusion,  that  this  was  one  of  his 
peculiar  doctrines;  as  such  it  would  have  passed 
to  the  succeeding  generation ;  and  when  they  per- 
cesved  that  in  this  Paul  had  been  mistaken,  what 


confidence  could  they  have  had  in  other  parts  of 
his  teachings?  The  weight  of  this,  as  an  evi- 
dence of  the  genuineness  of  this  second  epistle 
to  the  Thessalonians,  acquires  new  strength  from 
the  fact,  that  of  all  the  other  expressions  in  the 
epistle,  not  one  is  opposed  to  any  point  either  in 
the  history  or  the  doctrine  of  the  Apostle*  (JEinleit, 
ins  N.  r.  iii.  69). 

The  internal  evidence  in  favor  of  the  genuine- 
ness of  this  epistle  is  equally  strong  with  that 
which  attests  the  first.  Polycarp  (Ep,  ad  Philif, 
sec.  11)  appears  to  allude  to  chap.  in.  15.  Justin 
Martyr,  in  his  Dialogue  with  Trypho  (p.  193,  32, 
ed.  Sylburg.  1593),  speaks  of  the  reigning  of  the 
man  of  sin  (ton  tas  anomias  anthropon),  which 
seems  to  be  an  evident  allusion  to  chap.  ii.  3 ;  and 
in  a  passage,  quoted  by  Lardner  (vol.  ii.  p.  125), 
he  uses  the  phrase  ho  tas  apostasias  anthropos, 
The  eighth  verse  of  this  second  chapter  is  for- 
mally cited  by  Irenaeus  (iii.  c.  7  sec.  2),  as  from 
the  pen  of  an  apostle ;  Clement  of  Alexandria  spe- 
cially adduces  chap.  iii.  2  as  the  words  of  Paul 
(Strom,  lib.  v.  p.  554,  ed.  Sylb.),  and  Tertullian 
also  quotes  this  epistle  as  one  of  Paul's  (De  Res- 
urrec,  Carnis,  c.  24). 

Notwithstanding  these  evidences  in  its  favor, 
the  genuineness  of  this  epistle  has  been  called  into 
doubt  by  the  restless  skepticism  of  some  of  the 
German  critics.  The  way  here  was  led  by  John 
Ernest  Chr.  Schmidt,  who,  in  1801,  published  in 
his  Bibliothek  fur  Kritik  und  Exegese,  a  tract 
entitled  Vermuthungen  uberdie  Beiden  Brief e  an 
die  Thessalonicher,  in  which  he  impugned  the 
genuineness  of  the  first  twelve  verses  of  the  sec- 
ond chapter.  He  afterwards,  in  his  Einleitung, 
p.  256,  enlarged  his  objections,  and  applied  them 
to  the  whole  epistle.  De  Wette  took  the  same 
side,  and,  in  his  Einleitung,  has  adduced  a  num- 
ber of  reasons  in  support  of  his  opinion,  drawn 
from  the  epistle  itself.  His  cavils  are  more  than 
usually  frivolous,  and  have  been  most  fully  re- 
plied to  by  Guericke  (Beitrage  zur  Hist,  Krit, 
Einl.  ins  N,  7.  s.  92-99>  Halle,  1828),  by  Reiche 
(Authentic  Post,  ad  Thess,  Epist,  Vtndicup,  Gott. 
1829),  and  by  Pelt  in  the  Prolegomena  to  his 
Commentary  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians 
(p.  xxvii.). 

Jewell,  Bp.,  An  Exposition  upon  the  two  Epis^ 
ties  of  the  Apostle  Saint  Paul  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians, Lond.  1583,  i2mo.,  181 1,  8vo  ;  W.  Sclater, 
Exposition  and  Notes  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Thess,, 
Lond.  16 19,  1629,  4to  ;  J.  Alph.  Turretin,  Com- 
mentaries in  Epp.  Pauli  ad  Thess,,  Basil,  1739, 
8vo  ;  Lud.  Pelt,  Epist,  Pauli  Apost,  ad  Thess. 
perpetu.0  illust,  Commentario,  etc.,  Gryphiswald, 
1830,  8vo  ;  Lange,  Com.;  Alford,  Com,;  Barnes' 
Notes,  W.  L.  A. 

THESSALONICA  (th&'sa-lo-nl'ki),  (Or.  Qtffva- 
\oplKft,  theS'Sai'On-ee*kay\  now  called  Saloniki,  is 
still  a  city  of  about  a  hundred  thousand  inhab- 
itants, situated  on  the  present  gulf  of  Saloniki, 
which  was  formerly  called  Sinus  Thermaicus,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Echedorus. 

It  was  the  residence  of  a  prceses,  the  principal 
city  of  the  second  part  of  Macedonia,  and  was  by 
later  writers  even  styled  metropolis  (Liv.  xlv: 
29,  sq,;  Cic.  Pro  Plane.  41).  Under  the  Romans  it 
became  great,  populous,  and  wealthy  (Strabo,  vii. 
p.  323;  Lucian,  Osir,,  c.  46;  Appian,  Bell.  Civ,, 
iv.  118;  Mannert,  Geographie,  vii.  471,  sq.).  It 
had  its  name  from  Thessalonice,  wife  of  Cas- 
sander,  who  built  the  city  on  the  site  of  the  an- 
cient Thermae  after  which  town  the  Sinus  Thet" 
maicus  was  called  (Strabo.  vii.  p.  330;  Herad.  vii. 
121;  Plin.  Hist,  Nat.  iv.  17.)  Thessalonica  was 
two  hundred  and  sixty-seven  Roman  miles  east 


THEUDAS  1( 

of  ApoUonia  and  Dyrrachium,  sixty-six  miles 
from  Amphipolis,  eignty-nine  from  Philippi,  fouf 
hundrecl  and  thirty-three  west  from  Byzantium, 
and  one  hundred  and  fifty  south  of  Sophia.  A 
p-eat  number  of  Jews  were  hving  at  Thessalonica 
m  the  time  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  and  also  many 
Christian  converts,  most  of  whom  seem  to  have 
been  either  Jews  by  birth  or  proselytes  before  they 
embraced  Christianity  by  the  preaching  of  Paul, 
who,  with  Silas,  organized  a  church  there  (Acts 
xvii  :i-4 ;  i  Thess.  i  \g) .  Paul's  visit  is  noted  in  Acts 
xx:i-3;  Phil,  iv:i6;  2  Tim.  iv:io.  Jews  are  still 
very  numerous  in  this  town,  and  possess  much  in- 
fluence there.  They  are  unusually  exclusive,  keep- 
ing aloof  from  strangers.  The  apostolical  history 
of  the  place  is  given  in  the  preceding  article.  The 
present  town  stands  on  the  acclivity  of  a  steep 


52  THIEF 

recommended  by  the  virgin  zeal  of  Peter  and  the 
Apostles  (Actsv:36).  Josephus  (_Anliq.  xx.  5.  i) 
tells  us  of  a  Theudas  who,  under  the  procurator 
Phadus  (A.  D.  44),  set  up  for  a  prophet  and 
brought  ruin  on  himself  and  many  whom  he  de- 
luded, and  attempts  have  been  made,  though  not 
very  successfully,  to  identify  the  Theudas  of 
Gamaliel  with  ihe  insurgent  spoken  of  by  Jo- 
sephus, who  appeared  eleven  years  later. 

These  remarks  have  been  made  to  meet  the  or- 
dinary view  of  the  case.  But  the  name  Theudas 
is  an  Aramaic  form  of  the  Greek  BMeret,  tkeh- 
odot-os.  Matthias  or  Matthew.  It  is,  then,  of 
a  Matthew  that  Luke  speaks;  and  in  Josephus 
(Antiq.  :(vii.  6,  2-4)  we  find  a  detailed  account  of 
one  Matthew,  a  distinguished  teacher  among  the 
Jews,  who,  in  the  latter  days  of  Herod  the  Great, 


Wll,  rising  at  the  northeastern  extremity  of  the 
bay.  It  presents  an  imposing  appearance  from 
the  sea,  with  which  the  interior  by  no  means  cor- 
responds. The  principal  antiquities  are  the 
propyliea  of  the  hippodrome,  the  rotunda,  and  the 
triumphal  arches  of  Augustus  and  Constantine. 
C.  H.  F.  B. 

The  streets  are  narrow  and  irre^lar.  Many 
of  the  mosques  were  formerly  Christian  churches. 
It  is  also  the  seat  of  a  Greek  metropolitan,  and 
contains  numerous  churches  and  schools  of  dif- 
ferent denominations.  Its  commerce  is  extensive; 
some  four  thousand  vessels  visit  its  harbor  every 
jrear,  representing  the  trade  of  France,  Austria, 
Italy,  England,  Greece,  Switzerland,  Belgium,  the 
United  States,  etc.  The  population  is  about  80,- 
000,  of  whom  30,000  are  Jews  and  10,000  Greeks. 
(Schaff.  Bib.  Diet.) 

THETTDAS  (thfl'das),  {Gr,  etui.nt,  thyoo-das', 
perhaps  a  contraction  ot  BeUoipot,  God-given),  a 
Jewish  insurgent,  who  was  slain,  while  a  band  of 
followers  that  he  had  induced  to  join  him  were 
scattered  and  brought  to  nought. 

This  statement  was  made  by  Gamaliel  at  the 
meeting  of  the  Sanhedrim  held  about  A.  D.  33, 
to  consider  what  measures  should  be  taken  for 
tiM  nppmsicui  of  the  Gospel  now  preached  and 


raised  a  band  of  his  scholars  to  effect  a  social  re- 
form in  the  spirit  of  the  old  Hebrew  constitution, 
by  'destroying  the  heathen  works  which  the  king 
had  erected  contrary  lo  the  law  of  their  fathers.'  A 
large  golden  eagle,  which  the  king  had  caused  lo 
be  erected  over  the  great  gate  of  the  Temple,  in 
defiance  of  the  law  that  forbids  images  or  repre- 
sentations of  any  living  creatures,  was  an  object 
of  their  special  dislike.  On  hearing  a  false  report 
that  Herod  was  dead,  Matthias  and  his  compan- 
ions proceeded  to  demolish  the  eagle;  when  the 
kin^s  captain,  supposing  the  undertaking  to  have 
a  higher  aim  than  was  the  fact,  came  upon  the 
riotous  reformers  with  a  band  of  soldiers,  and 
arrested  the  proceedings  of  the  muhitude.  Dis- 
persing the  mob  he  apprehended  forty  of  the 
bolder  spirits,  together  with  Matthias  and  his 
fellow  leader  Judas,    Matthias  was  burnt. 

J.  R.  B. 

'''HTUP'  (thef).  Theft  is  always  severely  pun- 
ished in  rude  societies.  The  Mosaic  law  is  severe- 
Best  it  ution  was  obligatory. 

It  the  thief  did  not  or  could  not  restore,  he 
was  to  be  sold  for  his  theft.  Prov.  vi:3i  men- 
tions a  sevenfold  restitution,  and  Lev.  vi:i-S  also 
apparently  conflicts  with  Exodus,  because  it  lays 
down  a  trespass  offering  and  the  restoration  of 


THIEF,  PENITENT,  ON  THE  CROSS     1663 


THOMAS 


the  principal  and  the  fifth  part  more.  Perhaps 
the  Law  varied.  (Schaff,  Bib.  Diet.)  (See  Law; 
Theft.) 

THIEF,  PENITENT,  ON  THE  GROSS  (thef, 
pSn'I-tent,  dn  the  krds)  (Luke  xxiii:39-43). 

It  has  been  assumed  that  this'  man  had  been 
very  wicked;  that  he  continued  so  till  he  was 
nailed  to  the  cross;  that  he  joined  the  other  male- 
factor in  insulting  the  Savior;  and  that  then,  by 
a  miracle  of  ([race,  he  was  transformed  into  a 
penitent  Christian.  It  added  to  the  ignominy  of 
our  Lord's  position  that  he  was  crucified  between 
thieves,  or,  more  properly,  robbers.  Tradition 
calls  the  penitent  thief  Demas,  or  Dismas;  the  im- 
penitent, Gestas.  It  is  probable  that  at  first  they 
both  reviled  him,  but  his  noble  courage  softened 
the  heart  of  "Dismas"  into  admiration,  love,  and 
belief  (Luke  xxiii:32,  39-43). 

Some  eminent  writers,  however,  are  of  the 
opinion  that  he  was  in  all  probability  not  a  thief 
who  robbed  for  profit,  but  one  of  the  insurgents 
who  had  taken  up  arms  on  a  principle  of  resist- 
ance to  the  Roman  oppression,  and  to  what  they 
thought  an  unlawful  burden,  the  tribute  money. 
They  are  of  opinion,  also,  that  it  is  far  from  cer- 
tain that  either  his  faith  or  repentance  was  the 
fruit  of  this  particular  season.  He  must  have 
known  something  of  the  Savior,  otherwise  he 
could  not  have  said  'he  hath  done  nothing  amiss.' 
He  was  convinced  of  our  Lord's  Messiahship, 
'Lord,  remember  me  when  thou  comest  into  thy 
kingdom.' 

Koecher  (apud  Bloomfield,  Recen.  Synop.)  tells 
us  that  it  is  a  very  ancient  tradition  that  the  thief 
was  not  converted  at  the  cross,  but  was  previously 
imbued  with  a  knowledge  of  the  Gospel.  (See 
Kuinoel,  Macknight,  etc.)  J.  F.  D. 


(thevs),  (Is.  i:23;  Lukexxiij^2;  Mark 
xv:27;  Matt.  xxvii:38,  44).    See  Theft;  Thief. 

THIGH  (thi),  (Heb.  "^X,  yaw-rake' ;  Gr.  tirip6s, 

may-ros'),  the  part  of  the  human  body  between 
the  knee  and  the  trunk. 

It  occurs  in  Gen.  xxxii:25,  31,  32;  Judg.  iii: 
16,  21 ;  Ps.  xlv  :3 ;  Cant,  iii  :8.  Putting  the  hand 
under  the  thigh  appears  to  have  been  a  very  an- 
cient custom,  upon  occasion  of  taking  an  oath  to 
any  one.  Abraham  required  this  of  the  oldest 
servant  of  his  house,  when  he  made  him  swear 
that  he  would  not  take  a  wife  for  Isaac  of  the 
daughters  of  the  Canaanites  (Gen.  xxiv:2-9).  Ja- 
cob required  it  of  his  son  Joseph,  when  he  bound 
him  by  oath  not  to  bury  him  in  Egypt,  but  with 
his  fathers  in  the  land  of  Canaan  (xlvii:29-3i). 
The  origin,  form,  and  import  of  this  ceremony 
in  taking  an  oath,  are  ver^r  doubtful. 

A  curse  pronounced  upon  an  unfaithful  wife 
was  that  her  thigh  should  rot  (Num.  v:2i). 

Figurative,  (i)  To  smite  "Aip  and  thigh*' 
was  expressive  of  cruel  slaughter  (Judg.  xv:8). 
(2)  To  uncover  the  thigh  was  the  svmbol  of 
feminine  immodesty  (Is.  xlvii:2).  (3)  Smiting 
on  the  thigh  denotes  penitence  (Jer.  xxxi:i9), 
fi^ief,  and  mourning  (Ezek.  xxi:i2).  (4)  To 
have  a  name  written  on  the  thigh,  imports  that 
the  person's  fame  and  victory  are  publicly  known, 
and  shall  be  marked  in  his  spiritual  seed  (Rev. 
xix:i6).  (5)  The  rulers  and  great  men  of  Ju- 
dah,  in  which  the  strength  of  the  nation  consisted, 
are  the  thigh  and  shoulder  of  flesh  put  into  Je- 
rusalem, the  boiling  pot  of  God's  judgements,  to 
be  destroyed  (Ezek.  xxiv:4).  (6)  The  two 
brasen  thighs  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  visionary  im- 
age, denote  the  two  powerful  kingdoms  of  Egypt 
and  Syria,  into  which  the  belly-like  empire  of  Alex- 
ander was  divided  after  his  aea.th  (Dan.  ii:32). 


(tMm'na-thah).  (Heb.  '"Vl^W. 

tim-naw'thaw'),  a  town  between  Elon  and  Ekron, 
belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Dan  (Josh.  xix43); 
elsewhere  Timnah  (which  see). 

THINE  WOOD  (thin  wood).  See  Thyine 
Wood. 

THIBST  (therst),  (Heb.  ^?V,  tsaw-maw' ;  Gr. 

blypot,  ^Z/]^ '5(7 j),  intense  desire  for  water  (Ps.  civ.  ii). 

Figurative,  (i)  An  eager  desire  after  any- 
thing satisfying;  as  after  Christ  and  his  right- 
eousness (Matt.  v:6);  or  after  happiness  and 
pleasure  in  general  (Is.  lv:i;  Rev.  xxii:i7);  or, 
to  gratify  some  criminal  desire  or  to  commit  idol- 
atry, etc.  (Deut.  xxixiip;  Jer.  ii:25).  (2)  That 
which  causes  thirst,  as  the  want  of  water,  or  sore 
afflictions,  which  beget  an  eager  desire  of  deliv- 
erance (Deut.  xxviii:48).  (3)  Those  who  ^eatly 
desire  the  influences  of  God's  Spirit  (Is.  xhv:3)  ; 
or  who  are  in  great  misery  (Is.  Ixv:i3).  (4)  A 
thirsty  ground,  or  land,  is  either  a  field  scorched 
and  withered,  and  so  in  g^eat  need  of  dew  and 
rain  (Ps.  lxiii:i):  or  an  unprosperous  and  dis- 
agreeable condition  (Ezek.  xix;i3);  or  the  (En- 
tiles, or  others  in  great  need  of  spiritual  bless- 
ings (Is.  XXXV  .7).  (s)  Bloodthirsty  are  such  as 
deHght  in  murdering  others  (Prov.  xxix:io). 

THISTLE  ( this'  '1 ).  See  Thorns  and  This- 
tles. 

THOMAS  (tdm'as),  (Gr.  BiayJSit,  thoh-mas\iynxi\ 
the  word  is  equivalent  to  did'y-mus,  twin.  This 
name  occurs  also  on  Phcenician  inscriptions. 

(1)  Nationality.  The  Apostle' Thomas  (Matt. 
x:3;  Mark  iii:i8;  Luke  vi:i5;  Acts  i:i3)  has  been 
considered  a  native  of  Galilee  like  most  of  the 
other  Apostles  (John  xxi  :2)  ;  but  according  to 
tradition  he  was  a  native  of  Antiochia,  and  had 
a  twin  sister  called  Lysia. 

(2)  Character.  In  the  character. of  Thomas 
was  combined  g^eat  readiness  to  act  upon  his  con- 
victions, to  be  faithful  to  his  faith  even  unto 
death,  so  that  he  even  exhorted  his  fellow  dis- 
ciples, on  his  last  journey  to  Jerusalem,  'Let  us 
also  go,  that  we  may  die  with  him'  (John  xi:i6), 
together  with  that  careful  examination  of  evi- 
dence which  will  be  found  in  all  persons  who 
are  resolved  really  to  obev  the  dictates  of  their 
faith.  Whosoever  is  minded,  like  most  religion- 
ists who  complain  of  the  skepticism  of  Thomas, 
to  follow  in  the  common  transactions  of  life  the 
dictates  of  vulgar  prudence,  may  easily  abstain 
from  putting  his  hands  into  the  marks  of  the  nails 
and  into  the  side  of  the  Lord  (John  xx:2S); 
but  whosoever  is  ready  to  die  with  the  Lord  will 
be  inclined  to  avail  himself  of  extraordinary  evi- 
dence for  extraordinary  facts,  since  nobody  likes 
to  suffer  martyrdom  by  mistake.  These  remarks 
are  directed  against  Winer  and  others,  who  find 
in  the  character  of  Thomas  what  they  consider 
contradictory  traits,  viz.,  inconsiderate  faith,  and  a 
turn  for  exacting  the  most  rigorous  evidence.  We 
find  that  a  resolute  and  lively  faith  is  always  neces- 
sarily combined  with  a  sense  of  its  importances 
and  with  a  desire  to  keep  its  objects  unalloyed 
and  free  from  error  and  superstition.  Christ 
himself  did  not  blame  Thomas  for  availing  him- 
self of  all  possible  evidence,  but  only  pronounced 
those  blessed  who  would  be  open  to  conviction 
even  if  some  external  form  of  evidence  should 
not  be  within  their  reach. 

(3)  Preaching.  Thomas  preached  the  Gospel 
in  Parthia  (Origen,  apud  Euseb.  Hist.  Ecctes. 
iii.  I ;  Socrat.  i.  19;  (Element,  Recogn.  ix.  29),  and, 
according  to  Jerome,  in  Persia;  and  was  buried 
at  Edessa  (Rufin.  Hist.  Eccles.  ii.  s).  According 
to  a  later  tradition  Thomas  went  to  India,  and 


THORN  IN  THE  FLESH  M 

Gu£Fered  martyrdom  there  (Gresor.  Naz.  Orat. 
XXV.  ad  Arian.  p.  438,  ed.  Par. ;  Ambrose,  in  Fi. 
xlv:  10;  Hieron.  Ep.  148  (59)  ad  Marceli;  Ni- 
ceph,  Hisl.  Eccles.  ii.  40;  Acta  Thoma,  c  i.  sg.; 
Abidse  Hitl.  Apost.  c.  ix. ;  Paulin.  A.  S.  Banhol- 
ODueo,  India  Orient.  Christiana,  Rom.  1794 ; 
Lange,  Cotn.  on  John;  Alford,  Com.  on  the  Gos- 
PeU).  C.  H.  F.  B. 

THOBN  nr  THE  FLESH  (th6ra  la  the  fl«$b). 
See  pAui„ 

THOBNB  and  TSIBTIXB  (thdms  and  this'  Is). 
There  are  a  considerable  number  of  words  in 
Scripture  which  indicate  brambles,  briars,  thorns, 
thistles. 

Rabbinical  writers  state  that  there  are  no  less 
than  twenty-two  words  in  the  Bible  signifying 
thorny  and  prickly  plants:  but  some  of  these  are 

Erobably  to  mterpreted  only  because  they  are  un- 
nown,    and    may    merely    denote    insignificant 

The  Zityphus  Spina  Christi,  Hasselquist  says, 
'is  in  all  probability  (he  tree  which  afforded  the 
crown  of  thorns  put  upon  the  head  of  Christ. 
it  is  very  common  in  the  East.    This  plant  is 


A  THRASHING  FLOOR 

xxvi.-g).  (8)  The  Assyrians  rested  on  all  thorns 
and  hedges,  like  grasshoppers  and  locusts,  when 
they  spread  ruin  and  havoc  everywhere  throogji 
the  cities  and  country  of  Judxa  {Is.  vii:24). 

THOTTOHT  (that),  (Gr.  fi^K/infu,  tiur-mt-nah'o. 
Matt.  V  1:25),  used  in  the  old  sense  of  anxiety,  undue 
care,  concern.  Tyndale  has  it  in  iCor.ix.'9,"Doth 
God  take  thought  for  oxen." 

"  Harris, an  alderman  of  London,  was  put  in  trou- 
ble, and  died  of  thought  and  anxiety  t>efore  hia 
business  came  to  an  end." 

Bacon,  Hist,  of  King  Henry  VU. 

"And  thus  the  native  hue  of  resolution 

Is  sicklied  o'er  with  the  pale  cast  of  thought." 
— Shakespeare. 

THBASHZNO  or  THKBBHIira  (tbrasb'Ing). 
For  a  literal  treatment  of  this  subject,  see  Thrash- 
ing Floor;  Agricultitrb. 

Figurative,  (i)  To  harass,  destroy  (Hab.  iii: 
12;  Amos  i:3).  (2)  Babylon  is  represented  as  0 
threshing,  or  as  the  corn  of  the  Hoor,  to  denote 
the  sudden  and  terrible  nature  of  God's  Judgments 
upon  her  (Is.  xxi:io;  Jer.  li:33).    (3)  The  church 


hing  Floo 


very  lit  for  the  purpose,  for  it  has  many  small  and 
sharp  spines,  which  are  well  adapted  to  give  pain : 
the  crown  might  easily  be  made  of  these  soft, 
round,  and  pliable  branches ;  and  what  in  my  opin- 
ion seems  to  be  the  greater  proof  is.  that  the 
leaves  very  much  resemble  those  of  ivy,  as  they 
are  of  a  very  deep  glossy  green.  Perhaps  the  ene- 
mies  of  Christ  would  have  a  plant  somewhat  re- 
sembling that  with  which  emperors  and  generals 
were  crowned,  that  there  might  be  a  calumny 
even  in  the  punishment.' 

Figurative.  (0  Thorns  and  thislies  are  em- 
blematic of  false  prophets  (Matt.  vii:i6)  ;  thorns 
of  the  wicked  (2  Sam.  xxii;:6:  Nah.  i:io). 
(2)  Desolation  is  expressed  by  an  overgrowth  of 
thorns  (Prov.  xxiv  iji),  also  the  way  of  the  sloth- 
ful (Prov.  xv-.ig).  (3)  The  injuries  of  heathen- 
ism are  like  the  stings  of  thorns  (Ezek.  xxviii: 
34;  compare  Micah  vii:4;  Eccles.  vii:6).  (4)  To 
take  the  harvest  out  of  the  thorns,  is  to  take  the 
fruit  of  the  field  from  one,  notwithstanding  every 
hindrance  (Job  v:5}.  (5)  Troubles  are  called 
thorns,  they  prick,  harass,  and  confine  men ;  so 
God  hedges  up  men's  way  with  thorns,  restrains 
them  by  sore  trials  and  afflictions  (Hos.  ii:6).  (6> 
Paul  had  a  thortt  in  the  Hesh,  3  messenger  of  Sa- 
tan sent  to  butlei  him;  was  distressed  with  some 
sore  trouble  or  temptation  (2  Cor.  xii:?).  (7) 
As  a  thorn  goetk  up  into  the  hand  of  a  drunkard, 
so  is  a  parable  in  the  mouth  of  fools;  it,  however 
good  in  itself,  doth  rather  hurt  than  good  (Prov. 


is  represented  as  threshing  mountains  and  hills, 
and  fanning  them  to  the  wind  (Micah  iv:i3;  Is. 
xliiis). 

THBASHINO  FLOOB  (ihrftahlng  SCr),  (Heb. 
U^,  go'ren,  even),  a  level,  hard,  beaten  spot  in  the 
open  air  (Judg.  vi;37;  2  Sam.  vi;6),  where  the 
grain  was  thrashed  (Is.  xxj.'io;  Jer.  Ii:33;  Matt. 


i:i2). 


wood  to  which  . 

make  the  surface  rough. 
was  of  considerable  vah 
vi:27;    Hos. 
names  (: 


attached  to 

A  good  thrashing  floor 

(Deut.  xv:i4;  3  Kings 

:a;  Joel  ii:24),  and  had  special 

■     18;  I  Chron.  xiit:g; 


en.T:io) 

Tristram  says :  "When  winnowed  and  sifted 
the  wheat  is  stored  in  underground  pits.  These 
'silos,'  or  granaries,  are  hollow  chambers  about 
eight  feet  deep,  carefully  cemented  to  exclude  the 
damp,  and  with  a  circular  opening  about  fifteen 
inches  in  diameter,  which  could  easily  be  con- 
cealed. In  such  receptacles  the  grain  will  keep 
good  for  several  years.  Many  such  may  still  be 
seen  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  I  have 
found  them  on  Mount  Carmel,  often  close  to  an 
ancient  winepress,  and  about  many  of  the  de- 
serted cities  of  southern  Judah.  Such  a  store- 
house as  those  on  Mount  Carmel  is  probably  al- 
luded to  in  Jer.  xli  :S. 


THREE 


"Generally,  owing  to  the  insecure  stale  of  the 
country,  these  storehouses  are  made  under  the 
house,  especially  under  the  most  retired  portion, 
the  apartments  of  the  women"  (a  Sam.  iv:6; 
xvii:i8,  ig).  In  the  latter  passage  the  well  is 
probably  the  storehouse  under  the  women's  cham- 
ber.   {Schzff,  Bib.  Did.) 

IHBEE  (thre),  was  regarded,  both  by  the  Jews 
and  other  nations,  as  a  specially  complete  and 
mystic  number. 

THBESHOXJ)  (thrisb'Qld),  the  translatioti  in 
the  A,  V,  of  three  Hebrew  words: 

1.  Saf  f^),  a  sill  or  bottom  of  a  doorway  (Judg 
xix:37;  I   Kings  xiv:!?;  Eiek.Kl:6,7;  Zeph.ii:I4). 

2.  Mif-ta-wn'  ("l??''),  a  firmness  or  stretching, 
perhaps  the  bottom  beam  or  sill  of  a  door  (i  Sam. 
v:4,  5;  Eiek.  \v.:y,  -^A,  i8;  xlvi:3;  xlvii:i). 

8.  Aw-soof  (Hf?,  collection),  only  in  the  plural, 


&  Str. 

IHBONS  (thrOn),  the  Hebrew  word  ("S?),  kis- 
say',  is  generally  thought  to  have  for  its  root- 
meaniuK  the  idea  of  covering;  hence  it  denotes  a 
covered  seat  or  throne,  occupied  by  a  judge  (Ps. 
cxxii:5),  a  priest  (l  Sam.  iig),  or  a  chief  (Jer.  i:lS). 

Whatever  the  original  import  of  the  term  may 
have  been,  it  denoted  the  ornamented  seat  on 
which  royal  personages  gave  audience  on  stale  oc- 
casions amoi^  the  Hebrews  (i  Kings  ii:i9;  xxii; 
to;  comp.  Esth.  v:i).  It  was  originally  a  deco- 
rated armchair,  higher  than  an  ordinary  seat,  so 
as  to  require  a  footstool  to  support  the  feet.  Some- 


AstJTlBn  Throi 


ir  Chiir  of  SUte. 


times  the  throne  was  placed  on  a  platform  as- 
cended by  steps  (Is.  viii).  Solomon  made  a 
throne  of^ivory  overlaid  with  gold,  which  had  six 
steps  with  six  lions  on  each  side  (i  Kings  x:i8; 
2  Chron.  ix:i8).  Archelaus  addressed  the  multi- 
tudes from  'an  elevated  seat  and  a  throne  of  gold' 
(Joseph,  De  Bell.  Jud.  ii.  i.  i). 

Royal  thrones  were  often  portable,  like  those  of 
Ahab  and  Jehoshaphat  (i  Kings  xxii  ;io),  and  the 
one  used  by  Sennacherib  at  Lachish.  (See  Sen- 
nacherib.) J.  R.  B. 

FIguratiVt.  (i)  A  throne  became  the  em- 
blem of  regal  power  (Gen.  xli;40);  whence  the 
phrases,  'to  sit  on  the  Ihrotie  of  his  kingdom' 
(Deut.  xvii;i8;  i  Kings  xvi:ii),  that  is,  to  rule 


6  THUNDER 

as  a  monarch,  (a)  To  sit  on  the  Ikrone  of  a 
person  (i  Kings  i:i3;  2  Kings  x:3o),  which  sig- 
nifies, to  be  his  successor,  (3)  Angels  are  called 
thrones  and  dominions,  because  of  their  great 
power  and  authority  (Col.  i:i6).  (4)  The  cere- 
monial mercy  seat,  that  covered  the  ark  with 
cherubim  on  each  side,  signified  the  Redeemer's 
atonement,  as  the  rest  and  throne  of  grace  for  a 
reconciled  God,  ready  to  declare  his  love,  and  be- 
stow his  blessings  on  sinful  men  (Heb.  iv:l6), 
(5)  God's  seal  or  throne,  is  also  either  the  Jew- 
ish temple,  where  the  symbols  of  his  presence  re- 
sided (Jer.  xvii:i2),  or  heaven,  where  his  elory 
and  authority  are  chiefly  manifested  (Is.  Ixvi: 
i) ;  or  a  symbol  of  his  glorious  presence  (Rev, 
iv:9)l  or  his  sovereign  power  and  authority  to 
execute  judgment,  or  bestow  favors  (Job  xxiti: 
3;  Ps.  Ixxxix;i4;  Heb.  iv:l6);  or  the  high  de- 
gree of  his  authority  and  happiness  (Ezek,  xxviii : 
2>.  (5)  And  the  Jewish  royalty,  and  the  state  of 
emperor  of  the  Christian  world,  is  called  God's 
throne,  as  he  bestows  it  (2  Sam.  xivip;  Rev.  xii: 
S).  (7)  Christ's  silling  on  his  Father's  throne, 
at  the  right  hand  of  it,  or  in  the  midst  of  it,  im- 
ports his  exaltation  to  the  highest  dignity,  author- 
ity, and  happiness  (Rev.  iii:ai  and  v:6;  Heb.  xii: 
2).  The  saints  sit  on  thrones,  or  teats  before  the 
throne,  and  with  Christ  on  his  throne  (Rev.  iv:6 
and  xi:i6;  Luke  xxii:30;  Rev.  tii:2i).  (Brown, 
Bib.   Did.) 


words  are  translated  thus.  (See  Jer 
vii:s;  Ps.  li:2;  Job  vi:a;  Gen,  xi:3,)  The  mean- 
ing of  all  of  them  is  through  and  through; 
throughout;   thoroughly. 

THUMUIH  (thQm'mim).  See  Uriu  and 
Thuhmim. 

THUiniEB  (thiio'der),  (Heb.  0?^,  rak'am,  a 
peal;  Sept.  Bpom),  bron-tay',  thunder,  also  ?'[),  kak, 
Stni^rii/oA-nay',  a  sound}.  This  subiimest  of  all 
the  extraordinaiT  phenomena  of  nature  is  ioe/i- 
cally  represented  as  the  voice  of  God,  which  the 
waters  obeyed  at  the  creation  (Ps.  civ;?;  comp. 
Gen.  1:9). 

For  other  instances  see  Exod.  ix:28  (Hebrew, 
or  margin);  Job  xxxvii;4,  5;  xl:g;  Ps.  xviii: 
13;  and  especially  Ps.  xxix,  which  contains  a 
magnificent  description  of  a  thunder  storm.  Agree- 
.  ably  to  the  popular  speech  of  ancient  nations,  the 
writer  ascribes  the  effects  of  lightning  to  the 
thunder :  'The  voice  of  the  Lord  breaketh  the  ce- 
dars' (ver.  S;  comp.  i  Sam.  ii:tg).  Thunder  is 
also  introduced  into  the  poetical  allusions  to  the 
passage  of  the  Red  Sea  in  Ps.  Ixxvii;i8.  The 
plague  of  hail  on  the  land  of  Egypt  is  very  nat- 
urally represented  as  accompanied  with  'mighty 
thunderings,'  which  would  be  literally  incidental 
to  the  immense  agency  of  the  electric  fluid  on  that 
occasion  (Exod.  ix;22-2g.  33,  34).  It  accompa- 
nied the  lightnings  at  the  giving  of  the  law  (xix; 
16;  xx:i8).  See  also  Ps.  Ixxxi:?,  which  prob- 
ably refers  to  the  same  occasion:  'I  answered 
thee  in  the  secret  place  of  thunder'  literally,  'in 
the  covering  of  thunder,'  i.  e.  the  thunder  clouds. 
It  was  also  one  of  the  grandeurs  attending  the 
divine  interposition  described  in  3  Sam.  xxii:  14; 
comp.  Ps.  xviii  :i3.  The  enemies  of  Jehovah  are 
threatened  with  destruction  by  thunder;  perhaps, 
however,  lightning  is  included  in  the  mention  of 
the  more  impressive  phenomenon  (i  Sam.  ii:lo). 
Such  means  are  represented  as  used  in  the  de- 
struction of  Sennacherib's  army   (Is.  xxixvSrjtt 


THUNDER  16 

comp.  xxx:30-33).  Bishop.  Lowth  would  under- 
stand the  deseription  as  metaphorical,  and  in- 
tended, under  a  variety  of  expressive  and  sublime 
images,  to-  illustrate  the  greatness,  the  sudden- 
ness, the  horror  of  the  event,  rather  than  the  man- 
ner by  which  il  was  effected  (New  Translation, 
and  notes  m  loc).  Violent  thunder  was  em- 
ployed by  Jehovah  as  a  means  of  intimidating 
the  Philistines,  in  their  attack  upon  the  Israelites, 
while  Samuel  was  offering  the  burnt  offering  (i 
Sam.  vii:lo;  Ecclus.  xlviii?).  Homer  represents 
Jupiter  as  interposing  in  a  battle  with  thunder 
and  lightning  (Itiad,  viii.  75.  etc.;  xvii.  594;  see 
also  Spence's  Potymelis,  Dial.  xiii.  p.  211),  Thun- 
der was  miraculously  sent  at  the  request  of  Sam- 
uel (1  Sam.  xii.  17,  18).  It  is  referred  to  as  a 
natural  phenomenon  subject  to  laws  originally 
appointed  by  the  Creator  (Joh  xxviii:26;  xxxviii: 


«  THYATIRA 

to  tremble,  and  subdues  their  stubbornness  (Mark 
iii;i7;  Rev.  xiv;2).  (3)  Terrible  and  destructive 
calamities  are  likened  to  thunder  (Is.  xxix:6). 
(4)  The  noise  of  an  army  is  called  the  thunder 
of  the  caPlains  (Job  xxxix;25).  The  war  horse's 
neck  is  clothed  with  thunder,  his  neighing  for  the 
battle   and   his   pawing  of  the    ground   1     "       ^" 


appearance,  the  enlightening  and  heart- 
affecting  publication  of  his  will,  and  the  awful 
judgments  which  he,  as  our  great  Sovereign, 
sends  upon  the  earth  (Rev.  iv  :5),  (6)  The  voices, 
Ihunderings,  lightningt,  earihguaket,  and  hail,  fol- 
lowing on  Christ's  casting  the  fire  of  his  ven- 
geance on  the  earth,  during  the  seven  trumpets. 


as;  Ecclus.  xliii:!?);  and  introduced  in  vicionj 
(Rev.  iv:s;  vi:i;  viiiis;  xiiig;  xivL2;  xvi:i8; 
xix:6;  Esther  [Apoc.]  xi:s). 

Thunder  enters  into  the  appellative  or  surname 
given  by  our  Lord  to  James  and  John — Boaner- 
ges; says  St.  Mark,  'sons  of  thunder'  (iii;i7). 
Schleusner  here  understands,  the  thunder  of  elo- 
quence, as  in  Aristoph.  (Achar.  53a).  Virgil  ap- 
plies a  like  figure  to  the  two  Scipios;  'Duo  ful- 
mina  belK  (,j£ntad,  vi.  842).  Others  understand 
the  allusion  to  be  to  the  energy  and  courage, 
etc.,  of  the  two  Apostles  (Lardner's  Hist,  of  the 
Apostles  and  Ermngelists,  chap.  ix.  sec.  i).  The- 
ophylact  says  they  were  so  called  because  they 
were  great  preachers  and  divines.  Others  suppose 
the  allusion  to  be  lo  the  proposal  of  these  Apos- 
tles to  call  fire  from  heaven  on  the  inhospitable 
Samaritans  (Luke  ix:53,  54),  It  is  not  certain 
when  our  Lord  so  surnamed  them.  (Sec  Boan- 
erges.) J.  F.  D. 

Figurative.  (i)  The  unsearchable  majesty 
and  almighty  influence  of  God's  perfections,  are 
called  the  thunder  of  his  power,  or  prevailing  ex- 
cellency (Job  xxvl:i4).  (2)  The  preaching  of 
the  Gospel  is  like  thunder;  it  makes  men's  hearts 


and  that  which  attends  the  sounding  of  the  sev- 
enth trumpet,  are  terrible  calamities  of  many  dif- 
ferent kinds  (Rev.  viii;s,  and  xi:i<)).  (7)  The 
seven  thunders,  that  uttered  their  voice  when 
Christ  spake  under  the  sixth  trumpet,  may  denote 
the  infliction  of  manifold  calamities,  particularly 
of  the  seven  vials  on  Antichrist. 

THUTTDEBBOLT  (thflu'der-bolt'),  {Heb.  1$5- 
reh'skej,  a  live  coal,  an  arrow). 

We  call  the  flash  of  fire  or  lightning,  a  thunder- 
bolt; as  it  often  breaks,  bruises,  and  rends  what- 
ever is  in  its  way.  Great  stones,  or  meteors,  have 
sometimes  fallen  from  heaven  in  the  time  of  thun- 
der  (Exod.  ix:23;  comp.  Ps.  Ixxviii:^). 

THTATiaA  (th J'a-il'ra},  (Or.  Qvirt^a,  thoo-af- 
i-rah,  Thyatira),  a  city  on  the  northern  border  of 
Lydia,  about  twenty-seven  miles  from  Sardis,  the 
seat  of  one  of  the  seven  Apocalyptic  churches 
(Rev.i:ii:ii:i8). 

Its  modern  name  is  Ak-hissar,  or  the  white 
castle.  According  to  Pliny,  it  was  known  in 
earlier  times  by  the  names  Pelopia  and  Euliippa 
{Hist.  Nat.  v.  29).  Strabo  asserts  that  it  was  a 
Macedonian  colony  (xiii.  p.  928).  The  Roman 
road  from  Pergamos  to  Sardis  passed  through  it. 


THYINE  WOOD  16 

It  was  noted  for  the  art  of  dyeing,  as  appears  from 
Acts  xvi:t4.  It  still  maintains  its  reputation  for 
this  manufacture,  and  large  quantities  of  scarlet 
cloth  are  sent  weekly  to  Smyrna.  The  population 
is  estimated  at  from  i7,ocx>  to  20,000.  The  com- 
mon language  of  all  dasses  is  the  Turkish ;  but 
in  writing  it,  the  Greeks  use  the  Greek,  and  the 
Armenians  the  Armenian  characters.  There  are 
nine  mosques  and  one  Greek  church.  The  city  is 
now  called  Ak-Hitsar,  or  "white  castle." 

J.   E.   R. 

THYINE  WOOD  {thl'In  wood).  (Or.  £ao»  Oiiwew. 
xu'ion  thoo' le-noft,  fragrant  wood),  is  mentioned  as 
one  of  the  articles  of  merchandise  which  would 
cease  to  be  purchased  in  consequence  of  the  fall 
of  Babylon  (Rev.  xviii:i3). 

This  wood  was  in  considerable  demand  by  the 
Romans,  being  much  employed  by  them  in  the 
ornamental  woodwork  of  their  villas,  and  also 
for  tables,  bowls,  and  vessels  of  different  kinds. 
It  is  noticed  by  most  ancient  authors,  from  the 
time  of  Theophrastus.  It  was  Ihe  citron  wood  of 
the  Romans,  and  was  produced  only  in  Africa, 
in  the  nei^borbood  of  Mount  Atlas,  and  in  Graa- 


7  TIBERIAS.  SEA  OF 

scph.  Vita,  sec  65).  In  the  last  Jewish  war  the 
fortifications  of  Tiberias  were  an  important  mili- 
tary station  {J3e  Bell.  Jud.  ii.  20,  6 ;  iii.  lo^  i ;  Vita, 
sec  8,  *g.). 

According  to  Josephua  {Vita,  sec  12},  the  lo- 
habitants  of  Tiberias  derived  their  maintenance 
chiefly  from  the  navigation  of  the  lake  of  Gen- 
nesaret,  and  from  its  fisheries.  After  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  Tiberias  was  celebrated 
during  several  centuries  for  its  famous  Rabbinical 
academy  (see  Lighltoot's  Hora  Heb.  p.  140,  sq.) 

Not  far  from  Tiberias,  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood of  the  town  of  Emmaus,  were  warm 
mineral  springs,  whose  celebrated  baths  are  some- 
times spoken  of  as  belonging  to  Tiberias  itself 

(Joseph.  De  Bell.  Jud.  ii.  21.  sei 

2.  3 ;  Vita,  sec.  16 ;  Mishna,  Sabb 
Tal mud ical  passages  in  Lightfoc 

■33i  J?')-    These  springs  contain  __., 

iron;  and  are  still  employed  for  medicinal  pur- 
poses. The  temperature  ranges  from  131°  to  142° 
Fahr. 


;.  6;  Antiq.  x 

.  iii.  4:  and  other 
It's  Hora  Heb.  p. 
sulphur,  salt,  and 


ada.  It  grew  to  a  great  size.  This  cedar  or  citron- 
wood  was  most  likely  produced  by  Callitris  quad- 
rivalvis,  the  Thufa  articulata  of  Linnseus,  which 
is  a  native  of  Mount  Atlas,  and  of  other  un- 
cultivated hills  on  the  coast  of  Africa.     J.  F.  R. 

TISESJAB{a-bS'n-as),{Gi.TiptinAtM-^-ee-as'). 
a  small  town  situated  about  the  middle  of  the 
western  bank  of  the  lake  of  Gennesaret  (John 
vi:23). 

Tiberias  was  chiefly  built  by  the  tetrarch 
Herod  Antipas,  and  called  b};  him  after  the  Em- 
peror Tibenus  (Joseph.  Antiq.  xviii:2,  3)-  Ac- 
cording to  Joliflfe  it  is  nearly  twenty  English  miles 
from  Nazareth  and  ninety  miles  from  Jerusalem. 
Others  find  it  above  two  days'  journey  tram 
Ptolemais.     It  is  mentioned   in  John  vi:i,  33i 

From  the  time  of  Herod  Antipas  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  reign  of  Herod  Agrippa  II, 
Tiberias  was  the  principal  city  of  the  province 
(sec  Joseph.  Vila,  sec.  9).  It  was  one  of  the 
four  cities  which  Nero  added  to  the  kingdom  of 
Agrippa  (De  Bell.  Jud.  xx.  13.  2).  Sepphoris  and 
Tiberias  were  the  largest  cities  of  Galilee  (Jo- 


quake,  but  has  since  in  a  large  measure  beat  re- 
built.   The  Jewish  quarter  is  near  the  Uke. 

On  a  slight  eminence,  one  mile  west  of  the 
town,  lies  the  Jewish  burial  croun^  in  which 
some  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Jewish  Tal- 
mudists  are  interred. 

Although  the  town  is  extremely  picturesque  as 
seen  from  the  distance,  with  its  wall,  minaret, 
and  palm  trees,  it  is  found  on  closer  acquaintance 
to  be  in  a  state  of  filth  which  even  in  the  East 
can  be  scarcely  paralleled.  This  is  aggravated  by 
the  excessive  heat,  the  temperature  otten  attain- 
ing 100*  Fahr.  Tiberias  is  still  one  of  the  four 
holy  cities  of  the  Jews,  and  more  than  one-half 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Jews  of  the  poorer  class, 
who  live,  in  great  measure,  on  the  alms  sent  by 
their  co-religionists  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 
Many  of  the  Jews  are  immigrants  from  Poland. 
There  are  also  Mohammedans  and  Christians.  The 
population  is  some  3,000  or  4/100.  The  modera 
name  of  the  city  is  Titbarteh. 

TIBEBXA8,  8XA  OF  (tl-bi'ri^,  at  Ov),  (John 
xxi:i).    SeeSSA. 


TIBERIUS 


1658 


TIGLATH-PILESER 


TIBEBIUS  (tl-be'ri-iis),  (GT,Ti^4pwt,iilh€r'ee-os, 
pertaining  to  the  Tiber),  the  third  emperor  of 
Rome. 

He  is  mentioned  by  name  only  by  St.  Luke» 
who  fixes  in  the  fifth  year  of  his  reign  the  com- 
mencement of  the  ministry  of  John  the  Baptist, 
and  of  Christ  (Luke  iii:i).  The  other  passages 
in  which  he  is  mentioned  under  the  title  of  Caesar, 
offer  no  points  of  personal  allusion,  and  refer  to 
him  simply  as  the  emperor  (Matt.  xxii:i7,  sq,; 
Mark  xu:i4,  sq.;  Luke  xx:22,  sq.;  xxiii:2,  sq.; 
John  xix:i2,  sq.). 

His  name  in  full  was  "Tiberias  Claudius  Nero, 
the  second  Roman  emperor,  successor  of  Augus- 
tus, who  began  to  reign  A.  D.  14,  and  reigned 
until  A.  D.  Z7'  He  was  the  son  of  Tiberius  Clau- 
dius Nero  and  Livia,  and  hence  a  stepson  of 
Augustus.  He  was  born  at  Rome  on  the  i6th 
of  November,  B.  C.  45.  He  became  emperor  in 
his  fifty-fifth  year,  after  having  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  commander  in  various  wars,  and  having 
evinced  talents  of  a  hi^h  order  as  an  orator,  and 
an  administrator  of  civil  affairs.  His  military  ex- 
ploits and  those  of  Drusus,  his  brother,  were  sung 
by  Horace  {Carm.  iv.  4,  14).  He  even  gained  the 
reputation  of  possessing  the  sterner  virtues  of  the 
Roman  character,  and  was  regarded  as  entirelv 
worthy  of  the  imperial  honors  to  which  his  birth 
and  supposed  personal  merits  at  length  opened  the 
way.  Yet  on  being  raised  to  the  supreme  power, 
he  suddenly  became,  or  showed  himself  to  be,  a 
very  different  man.  His  subsequent  life  was  one 
of  inactivity,  sloth,  and  self-indulgence.  He  was 
despotic  in  his  government,  cruel  and  vindictive 
in  his  disposition.  He  gave  up  the  affairs  of  the 
state  to  the  vilest  favorites,  while  he  himself 
wallowed  in  the  very  kennel  of  all  that  was  low 
and  debasing.  The  only  palliation  of  his  mon- 
strous crimes  and  vices  which  can  be  offered  is, 
that  his  disgust  of  life,  occasioned  by  his  early 
domestic  troubles,  may  have  driven  him  at  last 
to  despair  and  insanity.  Tiberias  died  at  the 
age  of  seventy-eight,  after  a  reign  of  twenty- 
three  years."     (Smith.  Bib.  Diet.)     (See  C-ssar.) 

(tfb'hath),  (Heb.   f^O?^,  tib-khath, 


extensive,  level,  or  perhaps  slaughter),  a  city  of 
Hadadezer,  king  of  Zobah  (i  Chron.  xviii:8),  called 
Betah  (2  Sam.  viii:8).    Site  not  known. 

TIBNI  (tifb'ni).  (Heb.  **???.  tib-nee',  building  of 

God,  or  perhaps  intelligent^^  one  of  those  factious 
men  who  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  troubles 
which  followed  the  violent  death  of  Elah. 

He  disputed  the  throne  of  Israel  with  Omri, 
and  the  civil  war  which  was  thus  kindled  between 
the  two  factions  lasted  for  about  three  years  with 
varying  success,  till  the  death  of  Tibni  left  his 
adversary  master  of  the  crown  (B.  C.  926-922.), 
(i  Kings  xvi;2i-23). 

TIDAL  (ti'dal),  (Heb.  ^?T,  tid-awt,  venera- 
tion), one  of  the  allies  who,  with  Chedor^aomer,  in- 
vaded Palestine  in  the  time  of  Abraham  (Gen. 
xiv:i).  Tidal  bears  the  somewhat  singular  title  of 
*  king  of  nations  *  or  *  Gentiles  *  (Heb.  goyim).  See 
Arioch;  Chedorlaomer;  Amraphel;  etc. 

We  cannot  tell  who  these  Goyim  were  over 
whom  Tidal  ruled;  but  it  seems  probable  that  he 
was  a  chief  of  several  confederated  tribes,  whose 
military  force  he  contributed  to  the  expedition  of 
Chedorlaomer.  Tidal  has  been  identified  as  "Tudg- 
hulla,  son  of  Gazza,"  the  name  found  on  a  broken 
Babylonian  Tablet  by  Mr.  Theo.  G.  Pinches  of 
the  British  Museum. 

Davis*  Bib.  Diet,  says  he  was  Tudbhul,  king  of 
Gutium,    northeast   of    Babylon.    (B.    C.    about 


2070.)      (Sayce,  Patriarehal    Palestine,  London. 
1895,  Preface.) 
TTDHAB  (tW-har'),  (Heb.  "'PT?,  tid-hawr')  is 

twice  mentioned  in  Scripture  (Is.xliiip,  and  ix:i3), 
in  both  of  which  places  it  is  enumerated  along  with 
the  Berosh  and  Teashur,  or  cypress  and  box  tree, 
and  is  translated  pine  tree  in  the  Authorized  Ver- 
sion. 

But  it  has  been  variously  interpreted,  and  even 
by  the  same  translator  in  the  two  passages.  Thus 
it  is  rendei^ed  elm  in  one  passage,  and  box  or 
pine  in  the  other.  Gesenius  is  of  opinion  that 
tid-httwr'  signifies  a  durable  tree,  or  one  that 
yields  durable  wood.  It  is  difficult,  therefore,  to 
select  from  among  the  trees  of  Lebanon  that 
which  is  specially  intended.  (See  Box  Tree; 
Cypress.)  J.  F.  R. 

TiaLATH  -  PILE8EB  (tTg'lath-pMe'zer),  in 
Chronicles  TTLOATH-PILNESEB  (Assyrian 
Tukulti-apU'Eshara,  my  strength  is  the  god  Ni- 
nib). 

A  king  of  Assyria,  who  reigned  from  745  to 
'^7  B.  C.  Tiglath-pileser  is  but  another  name  for 
Pul,  as  appears  from  the  fact  that  where  Ptole- 
my's list  01  Babylonian  kings  gives  Poros,  and  the 
so-called  dynastic  tablets  of  the  Babylonians  give 
Pulu,  the  Babylonian  chronicle  gives  Tiglath- 
pileser.  Probably  Pul  was  his  original  name,  and 
when  he  secured  the  throne  he  assumed  the 
grander  title  of  Tiglath-pileser,  which  had  al- 
ready been  made  famous  by  a  great  king  of  the 
past,  Tiglath-pileser  I  (about  1120  B.  C). 

The  recovery  of  the  tablets  and  monumental 
inscriptions  of  Western  Asia  has  done  much  in 
the  way  of  throwing  additional  light  upon  the  con- 
quests of  "Pul,  or  Tiglath-pileser  HI,  King  of 
Assyria"  (2  Kings  xv:i9).  This  man  was  a  mili- 
tary adventurer  who,  after  the  fall  of  Assur- 
nirari,  seized  the  crown  of  Assyria  and  assumed 
the  name  of  Tiglath-pileser  HI,  or  according 
to  some  authorities  Tiglath-pileser  H. 

(1)  Early  Life.  According  to  Greek  tradition 
he  began  life  as  a  gardener  but  proved  a  formida- 
ble force  in  the  whole  country  and  became  the 
founder  of  the  second  Assyrian  empire.  The 
first  empire  had  been  a  somewhat  loosely  con- 
structed military  organization;  campaigns  were 
made  into  distant  countries  for  the  sake  of  plun- 
der and  tribute,  but  little  effort  had  been  made 
to  retain  the  territory  which  had  been  conquered. 
Almost  as  soon  as  the  Assyrian  armies  were 
gone,  the  conquered  nations  shook  off  their  yoke, 
and  it  was  only  in  the  regions  bordering  on 
Assyria  that  even  garrisons  were  left  by  the 
Assyrian  king.  When  (as  often  happened)  the 
Assyrian  throne  was  occupied  by  a  weak  or  un- 
warlike  prince,  even  these  were  soon  destroyed 
or  driven  homeward.  Tiglath-pileser  HI,  how- 
ever, consolidated  and  organized  the  conquests  he 
made;  turbulent  populations  were  deported  from 
their  old  homes,  and  the  empire  was  divided  into 
satrapies  or  provinces,  each  of  which  paid  an- 
nual tribute  to  the  imperial  exchequer.  For  the 
first  time  in  history  the  principle  of  centralization 
was  carried  out  on  a  large  scale,  and  a  bureau- 
cracy began  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  feudal 
nobility  of  Assyria. 

(2)  The  Second  Empire.  But  the  second  As- 
syrian Empire  was  not  only  an  organized  and 
bureaucratic  one ;  it  was  also  commercial.  In  car- 
rying out  his  schemes  of  conquest  Tiglath-pileser 
III  was  influenced  by  considerations  of  trade. 
His  chief  object  was  to  divert  the  commerce  of 
Western  Asia  into  Assyrian  hands.  For  this  pur- 
pose every  effort  was  made  to  unite  Babylonia 


TIGLATH-PILESER 


1659 


TIGRIS 


with  Assyria,  to  overthrow  the  Hittites  of  Car- 
cheAiish,  who  held  the  trade  of  Asia  Minor,  as 
well  as  the  high  road  to  the  west,  and  to  render 
Syria  and  the  Phoenician  cities  tributary. 

Babylonia  was  the  first  to  feel  the  results  of  the 
change  of  dynasty  at  Nineveh.  The  northern  part 
of  it  was  annexed  to  Assyria,  and  secured  by  a 
chain  of  fortresses.  Tiglath-pileser  now  attacked 
the  Kurdish  tribes,  who  were  constantly  harassing 
the  eastern  frontier  of  the  kingdom,  and  chastised 
them  severely,  the  Assyrian  army  forcing  its  way 
through  the  fastnesses  of  the  Kurdish  mountains 
into  the  very  heart  of  Media. 

But  Ararat  or  Armenia  was  still  a  dangerous 
neighbor,  and  accordingly  Tiglath-pileser's  next 
campaign  was  against  a  confederacy  of  the  na- 
tions of  the  north  headed  by  Sarduris  of  Van. 

The  confederacy  was  utterly  defeated  in  Kom- 
magene,  72,950  prisoners  falling  into  the  hands 
of  the  Assyrians,  and  the  way  was  opened  into 
Syria. 

The  siege  of  Arpad  (now  Tel  Erf  ad)  began 
B.  C.  742  and  lasted  two  years.  Its  fall  brought 
with  it  the  submission  of  Northern  S^ria,  and  it 
was  next  the  turn  of  Hamath  to  be  attacked. 

Hamath  was  in  alliance  with  Uzziah  of  Judah, 
and  its  king  Eniel  may  have  been  of  Jewish  ex- 
traction. But  the  alliance  availed  nothing.  Ha- 
math was  taken  by  storm,  part  of  its  population 
transported  to  Armenia,  and  their  places  taken 
by  colonists  from  distant  provinces  of  the  em- 
pire, while  nineteen  of  the  districts  belonging  to 
it  were  annexed  to  Assyria. 

The  kings  of  Syria  now  flocked  to  render  hom- 
age to  the  Assyrian  conqueror.  Among  them  we 
read  the  names  of  Menahem  of  Samaria,  Rezon 
of  Syria,  Hiram  of  Tyre,,  and  Pisiris  of  Carchem- 
ish.  This  was  the  occasion  upon  which,  as  we 
learn  from  2  Kings  xv:i9,  Menahem  gave  a  thou- 
sand talents  of  silver  to  the  Assyrian  king  Pul, 
the  name  under  which  Tiglath-pileser  continued 
to  be  known  in  Babylonia,  and  in  Palestine  also, 
as  we  learn  from  the  Old  Testament.  (See 
2  Kings  xv:i9,  and  i  Chron.  v:26).  He  is  also 
repeatedly  called  Tiglath-pileser  in  .2  Kings 
xvi  and  other  places.  Three  years  later  Ararat 
was  again  invaded.  Van,  the  capital,  was  besieged, 
and  though  it  successfully  resisted  the  Assyrians, 
the  country  was  devastated  far  and  near,  for  a 
space  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  It  was 
long  before  the  Armenians  recovered  from  the 
blow,  and  for  the  next  century  they  ceased  to  be 
formidable  to  Assyria. 

Tiglath-pileser's  northern  frontier  was  now  se- 
cure, and  he  therefore  gladly  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity of  interfering  in  the  affairs  of  the  west 
which  was  offered  him  by  Ahaz  the  Jewish  king. 
Ahaz,  whom  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  call  Jeho 
Ahaz,  had  been  hard  pressed  by  Rezon  of  Damas- 
cus and  Pekah  of  Israel,  who  had  combined  to 
overthrow  the  Davidic  dynastv  and  place  a  vassal 
prince,  "the  son  of  Tabeal,  on  the  throne  of 
Jerusalem. 

(3)  Servility  of  Ahaz.  In  his  dismay  and 
terror  Ahaz  sent  messengers  to  Tiglath-pileser, 
imploring  his  intervention  and  offering  to  become 
his  vassal  as  the  price  of  his  deliverance  (2 
Kings  xvi  7;  2  Chron.  xxviii:i6).  He  delib- 
erately threw  away  the  independence  of  his  coun- 
try by  his  abject  message  to  the  effect  that,  *T 
am  thy  slave  and  thy  son"  (2  Kings  xvi  7). 

The  term  "slave"  indicated  his  willingness  to 
pay  regular  tribute,  and  the  word  "son"  signified 
the  homage  and  obedience  which  he  was  willing  to 
render  to  his  new  lord  (comp.  Mai.  i:6).  There 
was  a  small  but  energetic  party  in  Jerusalem,  which 


was  maintained  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,  that  held 
this  movement  on  the  part  of  Ahaz  to  be  entirely 
unnecessary.  Before  any  agfreement  could  be  made, 
and  perhaps  even  before  the  message  was  sent, 
Isaiah  went  to  him  and  vainly  tried  to  impress 
him  with  the  folly  of  his  course,  urging  him  to 
leave  the  Assyrians  out  of  his  plans,  and  trust  in 
Jehovah  for  deliverance. 

But  Ahaz  was  an  apostate,  who  "did  not  that 
which  was  right  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  his 
God,  like  David,  his  father,"  and  he  had  even 
"made  his  son  to  pass  through  the  fire  according 
to  the  abominations  of  the  heathen"  (2  Kings 
xvi:2,  3). 

(4)  The  Prophet's  Warning.  Isaiah's  inter- 
view with  Ahaz  occurred  while  the  king  was  in- 
specting the  water  supply  of  the  city,  in  view  of 
the  impending  siege.  (See  Illustrative  Sketches 
in  Stade,  GVI.  I,  590,  sq.) 

The  prophet  foresaw  that  the  alHance  between 
Damascus  and  Ephraim  would  soon  be  dissolved, 
and  that  their  destruction  was  only  a  matter  of 
time,  but  he  announced  that  the  continued  exist- 
ence of  the  "House  of  David"  would  depend  upon 
their  trust  in  Jehovah. 

So  sure  was  the  prophet  of  the  ruinous  results 
of  an  Assyrian  alliance  that  the  temporary  relief 
thus  obtained  seemed  to  him  as  only  a  brief 
episode  in  the  tragic  history  of  Judah's  decline. 

(5)  Invasion  of  BjriA,  But  Ahaz  persisted 
in  his  course,  and  Tiglath-pileser  was  very  willing 
to  avail  himself  of  the  situation.  He  accordingly 
marched  into  Syria.  Rezon  was  defeated  in  battle 
and  besieged  in  Damascus,  the  city  being  closely 
invested  and  the  valuable  trees  around  it  de- 
stroyed. The  districts  which  were  dependent  upon 
it  were  ravaged,  and  forces  were  despatched  to 
punish  the  Israelites,  Ammonites,  Moabites,  and 
Philistines,  who  had  been  the  allies  of  Rezon. 
Gilead  and  Abel-beth-maachah  were  burned,  and 
the  tribes  beyond  the  Jordan  were  carried  into 
captivity. 

The  Philistine  cities  were  compelled  to  open 
their  gates.  The  Kins:  of  Ashkelon  committed 
suicide  to  escape  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  and 
Khanun  of  Gaza  fled  into  Eg3rpt. 

After  a  siege  of  two  years,  Damascus  was  forced 
by  famine  to  surrender.  (B.  C.  732.)  The  king 
was  killed  and  the  inhabitants  transported  to  Kir. 

Syria  became  cm  Assyrian  province,  and  all  its 
princes  were  summoned  to  do  homage  to  the 
conqueror,  while  Tyre  was  fined  one  hundred  and 
fifty  talents  of  gold,  or  about  $2,000,000. 

"And  king  Ahaz  went  to  Damascus  to  meet 
Tiglath-pikser,  king  of  Assyria,  and  saw  an  altar 
that  was  at  Damascus;  and  the  king  sent  to  Uri- 
jah  the  priest,  the  fashion  of  the  altar  and  the  pat- 
tern of  It"  (2  Kings  xvi:  10). 

(6)  Capture  of  Babylon.  Tiglath-pileser  again 
marched  into  Chaldaea.  (B.  C.  73^-)  Babylon  and 
other  great  cities  were  captured,  and  under  his 
original  name  of  Pul,  Tiglath-pileser  assumed 
the  title  of  "King  of  Sumer  (Shinar)  and  Ac- 
cad."  (B.  C.  729.)  He  lived  only  two  years 
after  this,  dying  B.  C.  727,  when  the  crown  was 
seized  by  Elulaeos  of  Tinu,  who  took  the  name 
of  Shalmaneser  IV.  (See  A.  H.  Sayce,  Assyria, 
pp.  33-37;  "The  Times  of  Isaiah,"  pj).  42-46.) 

TIGBIB   (a'gris),    (Heb.   ^7!^^,   kkid-dek'M). 

One  of  the  four  rivers  of  Paradise,  twice  men- 
tioned in  Scripture,  under  the  name  of  Hiddekel 
(Gen.  ii:  14;  Dan.  X 14). 

In  Aramaean  it  is  called  Digla,  in  Arabic 
Diglat,  in  Zend  Teger,  in  Pehlvi  Tegera,  'stream ;' 
whence  have  arisen  both  the  Aramaean  and  Arabic 


TIKVAH 


1660 


TIME.  DIVISIONS  OF 


forms,  to  which  also  we  trace  the  Hebrew  Dekel 
divested  of  the  prefix  Hid.  This  prefix  denotes 
activity,  rapidity,  vehemence,  so  that  Hid-dekel  sig- 
nifies 'the  rapid  Tigris.'  From  the  introduction  of 
th^  prefix,  it  would  appear  that  the  Hebrews  were 
not  entirely  aware  that  Teger,  by  itself  signified 
velocity;  so  in  the  language  of  Media,  Tigris 
meant  an  arrow  (Strabo,  ii.  527;  Plin.  Hist.  Nat. 
vi.  27;  comp.  Pers,  teer,  'arrow;'  Sanskrit  tigra, 
'sharp,'  'swift')  hence  arose  such  pleonasms  as 
'king  Pharaoh*  and  'Al-coran.' 

The  Tigris  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Ar- 
menia about  fifteen  miles  south  of  the  sources  of 
the  Euphrates,  and  pursues  nearly  a  regular  course 
southeast  till  its  junction  with  that  river  at  Korna, 
fifty  miles  above  Basrah  (Bassorah).  The  Tigris 
is  navigable  for  boats  of  twenty  or  thirty  tons' 
burden  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Odorneh,  but 
no  further;  and  the  commerce  of  Mosul  is  con- 
sequently carried  on  by  rafts  supported  on  inflated 
sheep  or  goats'  skins. 

The  Tigris,  between  Bagdad  and  Korna,  is, 
on  an  average,  about  two  hundred  yards  wide; 
at  Mosul  its  breadth  does  not  exceed  three  hun- 
dred feet.  The  banks  are  steep,  and  overgrown 
for  the  most  part  with  brushwood,  the  resort  of 
lions  and  other  wild  animals.  The  middle  part 
of  the  river's  course,  from  Mosul  to  Korna,  once 
the  seat  of  high  culture  and  the  residence  of 
mighty  kings,  is  now  desolate,  covered  with  the 
relics  of  ancient  greatness  in  the  shape  of 
fortresses,  mounds,  and  dams,  which  had  been 
erected  for  the  defense  and  irrijjation  of  the  coun- 
try. At  the  ruins  of  Nimrod,  eight  leagues  below 
Mosul,  is  a  stone  dam  quite  across  the  river, 
which,  when  the  stream  is  low,  stands  consid- 
erably above  the  surface,  and  forms  a  small  cata- 
ract ;  but  when  the  stream  is  swollen,  no  part  of  it 
is  visible,  the  water  rushing  over  it  like  a  rapid, 
and  boiling  up  with  great  impetuosity.  It  is  a 
work  of  gfreat  skill  and  labor,  and  now  vener- 
able for  its  antiquity.  At  some  short  distance  be- 
low there  is  another  Zikr  (dyke),  but  not  so 
high,  and  more  ruined  than  the  former.  The 
river  rises  twice  in  the  year:  the  first  and  great 
rise  is  in  April,  and  is  caused  by  the  melting  of 
the  snows  in  the  mountains  of  Armenia;  the  other, 
is  in  November,  and  is  produced  by  the  periodical 
rains.  (See  Gesenius,  Thesaurus,  p.  448;  Sayce, 
Higher  Crit.,  p.  96;  Price,  The  Monuments  and 
the  Old  Test.,  pp.  87,  225,  229.) 

TIKVAH  (trk'vah),  (Heb.  ^^(??,  Hk'Vaw\  cord, 
expectation,  hope). 

1.  The  father  of  Shallum,  the  husband  of  the 
prophetess  Huldah  (2  Kings  xxii:i4)  ;  also  called 
Tikvath  (2  Chron.  xxxiv:22).     B.  C.  before  632. 

2.  The  father  of  Jahaziah  who  was  one  of  those 
appointed  by  Ezra  to  look  after  the  divorcements 
after  the  return  from  Babylon  (Ezra  x:i5).  B.  C. 
458. 

TIKVATH  (ttk'vath),  (Heb.  ^t^,  to^keh'ath, 

obedience),  (2  Chron.  xxxiv:22).  See  Tikvah,  i 
(2  Kings  xxii:i4). 

THiE  (til),  (Heb.    ^t^,,  leb-ay-naw',    whitish), 

a  slab  of  baked  clay  used  to  write  on,  the  letters 
being  impressed  while  it  was  still  soft  (Ezek.  iv:i). 
Tiles  were  also  used  as  roofing  material  (Luke 
v:i9). 

TILaATH  -  PILNESEB  (tll'^ath  -  pil  -  ne'zer), 
(i  Chron.  v:6,  26;  2  Chron.  xxviii:20),  a  form  of 

"TlGLATH-PILESER. 

TILING  (tirrng),  (Gr.  K^pa/wsy  ker'am-os,  pottery 
ware),  the  translation  of  the  A.  V.,  Luke  viip, 
**through  the  tiling"  (diA  ru>p  xifidfuap),  needs  ex- 


planation. Probably  it  was  through  the  roof  of 
the  covered  gallery  and  not  the  main  roof  of  the 
house  that  the  paralytic  was  let  down. 

The  main  roof  was  generally  paved  with  brick, 
stone,  or  other  hard  material.  The  roof  of  the 
gallery  was  composed  of  tiles  easily  removed. 
(See  Edersheim,  Life  pf  Jesus,  vol.  i.  503.) 

TILLAGE  (tn'ij),  (Heb.  *^''?  or  *^^  neer),  to 
break  up  the  ground  with  a  plow  (Prov.  xiii:23). 

•"^2^:  or  '"^^^jS,   ab-O'daw',   work,   servile'  labor 

(Lev.  XXV 139;  I  Chron.  ix:i9),  work  of  the  field 
(I  Chron.  xxvii:26;  Neh.  x:37). 

TILON  (ti'lon),  (Heb.  ^hT\,  too-lone',  gift,  or 

scorn;  V^**^,  tee-lone' t  suspension),  the  last  of  the 

four  sons  of  Shimon,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (i 
Chron.  iv:2o),  B.  C.  about  1618. 

TI1L2ETTS  (ti-me'us),  (Gr.  Tl/unot,  ttm'aA-yos» 
honored,  Timaeus),  the  father  of  Bar-timaeus  who 
was  restored  to  sight  by  Jesus  (Mark  x:46),  B.  C. 
before  29. 

TIMBRBLS  (tTm'br^s).    See  Tabret. 

TIME.    1.  Id'dawn\  (Heb.  1??,  a  set  time),  is 

used  in  the  book  of  Daniel  in  a  somewhat  obscure 
sense. 

Gesenius  in  his  Lexicon  g^ves  the  meaning  as 
prophetic  lang^uage  for  year.  We  quote  from 
Keil's  Commentary  on  Dan.  iv:i6:  "Following  the 
example  of  the  LXX,  and  of  Josephus,  many 
ancient  and  recent  interpreters  understood  by  this 
term  years,  because  the  "times"  in  vii  125 ;  xii  17 
are  also  years,  and  because  in  iv:29  mention  is 
made  of  twelve  months,  and  thereby  the  time  is 
defined  as  one  year.  But  from  iv  129  the  duration 
of  this  period  cannot  at  all  be  concluded,  and  in 
vii:25  and  xii:/  the  times  are  not  years.  Id- 
dawn  designates  generally  a  definite  period  of 
time,  whose  length  or  duration  may  be  very  dif- 
ferent." 

2.    Zem-a7vn\  (Heb.  19?,  an  appointed  time), 

thus  "to  everything  there  is  a  season"  (Eccles.  ill: 
I).  See  also  Dan.  n:  16.  For  further  treatment  of 
this  subject,  see  Time,  Divisions  of. 

TIME,  DIVISIONS  OF.  The  following  are 
mentioned  in  Scripture: 

(1)  Year.  (Heb.  '"^J?,  shaw-naw\  as  a  revo- 
lution of  time),  so  called  from  the  change  of  the 
seasons. 

The  year  of  the  Hebrews  consisted  of  twelve 
months  ( i  Kings  iv  :7 ;  i  Chron. xxvii :  1-15) .  These 
appear  to  have  been  lunar  (see  Month )^  and  the 
year  would  accordingly  contain  354  days,  8  hours, 
48  minutes,  32.4  seconds.  There  were  two  seasons, 
summer  and  winter  (Ps.  Ixxiv:i7;  Zech.  xiv:8; 
Jer.  xxxvi:22;  Amos  iii:i5). 

The  annual  festivals  were  inseparably  con- 
nected with  the  agricultural  seasons.  A  strictly 
lunar  year  would  cause  these  festivals,  as  fixed  l^ 
the  calendar,  to  constantly  recede  from  their  ap- 
propriate season.  It  was  necessary  to  bring  the 
lunar  year  into  correspondence  with  the  solar 
year  of  365  days.  This  was  doubtless  accom- 
plished by  the  intercalation  of  an  additional  month 
every  three  or  four  years,  although  the  custom 
is  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 

The  festivals,  holy  days,  and  fasts  of  the  year 
were  as  follows: 

(i)  The  Feast  of  the  Passover  the  14th  day  of 
the  first  month. 

(2)  The  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread,  in  the 
same  month,  from  the  15th  to  21st,  inclusive. 

(3)  The  Feast  of  Pentecost,  called  also  feast  of 


TIME.  DIVISIONS  OF 


1661 


TIME,  DIVISIONS  OF 


harvest  and  "day  of  first  fruits/'  on  the  day  which 
ended  seven  weeks,  counted  from  the  i6th  of  the 
first  month,  that  day  being  excluded. 

(4)  The  Feast  of  Trumpets,  on  the  first  day  of 
the  seventh  month. 

(5)  The  Day  of  Atonement,  a  fast,  on  the  loth 
day  of  the  seventh  month. 

(6)  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  or  of  gathering, 
from  the  15th  to  the  22d  day,  inclusive,  of  the 
seventh  month. 

The'  post-Mosaic  festivals  are  Purim,  in  the 
twelfth  month  of  Adar,  13th  to  15th  day,  and  dedi- 
cation, on  the  25th  day  of  the  ninth  month.  (See 
Ybar.) 

(3)  Month  (Heb.  ^'^,  kh&desh,  the  new 
moon). 

The  ancient  Hebrews  called  the  months  by  their 
numbers — first  month,  second  month,  third  month, 
etc — though  at  the  same  time  they  also  applied  a 
special  name  to  each  month.  This  double  nomen- 
clature had  nothing  to  do,  however,  with  the 
double  course  of  months  which  the  Jews  em- 
ployed after  leaving  Egypt,  one  making  the  civil 
and  the  other  the  sacred  year.  The  former  com- 
menced from  the  first  new  moon  in  October — and 
this  was  used  in  civil  and  agricultural  concerns 
only — ^and  the  latter  from  the  first  new  moon  in 
April,  because  they  left  Egypt  on  the  fifteenth  of 
that  month,  and  it  was  used  in  regelating  the 
time  of  their  feasts,  etc.  The  prophets  use  this 
reckoning.  "From  the  time  of  the  institution  of 
the  Mosaic  Law  downward,  the  month  appears 
to  have  been  a  lunar  one.  The  cycle  of  religious 
feasts,  commencing  with  the  Passover,  depended 
not  simply  on  the  month,  but  on  the  moon ;  and 
the  new  moons  themselves  were  the  occasions 
of  regular  festivals"  (Num.  x:io;  xxviii:ii-i4). 

The  length  of  the  month  was  regelated  by  the 
changes  of  the  moon,  but,  twelve  lunar  months 
making  only  354  days  and  6  hours,  the  Jewish 
year  was  short  of  the  true  solar  year  by  twelve, 
days.  To  compensate  for  this  difference,  the  Jews 
every  three  years  intercalated  a  thirteenth  month, 
which  they  called  Ve-adar,  the  second  Adar,  and 
thus  their  lunar  year  became  equal  to  the  solar. 
The  changes  of  the  moon  were  carefully  watched, 
and  a  formal  announcement  made  of  the  appear- 
ance of  the  new  moon  by  sound  of  trumpets  and 
beacon  fires  (Num.  x:io;  Ps.  lxxxi:3).  These 
observations  were  continued  throug[hout  Jewish 
history,  though  it  is  evident  that  the  Jews  were  in 
possession  of  calculations  by  which  the  course  of 
the  moon  could  be  predicted  (i  Sam.  xx:5,  24, 
27).    (See  Moi^th;  Festivals;  First  Fruits.) 

(3)  Week   (Heb.  y^^,  shaw-boo'ah,  sevened; 

Gr.  ffdfipnTow,  sab'bat'On,  rest). 

The  division  of  time  into  portions  of  seven 
days  found  among  many  different  nations  which 
cannot  have  adopted  it  from  one  another — such  as 
the  Chinese,  Peruvians,  etc. — is  by  some  referred 
back  to  the  order  of  the  creation,  and  by  others 
to  the  "seven  planets,"  the  principal  fact  in  ancient 
astronomy. 

The  Jews  gave  no  special  names  to  the  days 
of  the  week,  but  simply  distinguished  them  by 
their  number,  as  the  first,  second,  or  third  day. 
The  names  of  the  days  now  in  use  in  the  Englisn 
langruage  are  derived  from  the  Saxon,  in  which 
they  had  a  mythological  signification. 

Besides  weeks  of  seven  days,  which  were  ren- 
dered from  one  Sabbath  to  another,  the  Jews  had 
a  week  of  years,  or  seven  years,  and  a  week 
of  seven  times  seven  years,  which  brought  in  the 
fiftieth  or  jubilee  year.     (See  Week.) 

(4)  Day  (Heb.  ^^yome:  Gr.  4m^/ni,  hay-met' ah). 


The  natural  day  consists  of  twenty- four  hours, 
or  one  revolution  of  the  earth  upon  its  axis.  The 
artificial  day  is  the  time  during  which  the  sun  is 
above  the  horizon.  The  civil  day  is  reckoned 
differently  by  different  nations— some  from  sun- 
rise to  sunrise ;  others  from  sunset  to  sunset ; 
others  still  from  noon  to  noon,  or  from  mid- 
night to  midnight.  The  Jewish  day  was  reckoned 
from  evening  to  evening,  adopted,  as  some  think, 
from  Gen.  i  15,  or,  as  others  with  more  probability 
hold,  from  the  "use  of  the  lunar  calendar  in  regu- 
lating days  of  religious  observance*'  (Lev.  xxiii: 
32).  Their  Sabbath,  or  seventh  day,  which  was 
the  only  day  named — the  others  were  numbered 
merely — ^began  on  what  we  call  Friday,  at  sun- 
set, and  ended  on  what  we  call  Saturday,  at  sun- 
set (Exod.  xii:i8).  This  mode  of  reckoning  days 
was  not  uncommon  in  other  Eastern  nations.  The 
day  was  originally  divided  into  morning,  noon, 
and  night  (Ps.  Iv:i7).  But  besides,  the  Jews 
distinguished  six  unequal  parts,  which  were  again 
subdivided,  (i)  Dawn,  subdivided  into  gray  dawn 
and  rosy  dawn,  (2)  Sunrise.  Some  supposed 
that  the  Hebrews,  prior  to  leaving  Egypt,  began 
the  day  at  that  time,  but  discontinued  it  by  divine 
command,  and  began  at  even  in  order  to  be  differ- 
ent from  those  nations  which  worshiped  the  ris- 
ing sun.  (3)  The  heat  of  the  day,  about  nine 
o'clock  (i  Sam.  xi:ii;  Neh.  vii:3,  etc.).  (ii) 
The  two  noons  (Gen.  xliii:i6;  Deut.  xxviii:29). 
(5)  The  cool  (lit.  wind)  of  the  day,  before  sunset 
(Gen.  iii:8).  (6)  Evening.  In  Exod.  xii:6;  xxx: 
8,  margins,  occurs  the  phrase  "between  the  two 
evenings,"  which  probably  is  correctly  taken  to 
mean  "between  the  beginning  and  end  of  sun- 
set." 

Figurative,  The  word  "day"  is  used  of  a 
festal  day  (Hos.  vii:5)  ;  a  birthday  (Job  iii:i)  ; 
a  day  of  ruin  (Hos.  i  ni ;  Job  xviii  :20)  ;  the  judg- 
ment day  (Joel  i:i5;  i  Thess.  v:2;  Acts  xvii:3i)  ; 
and  the  kingdom  of  Christ  (John  viii:s6;  Rom. 
xiii:i2).  It  is  also  often  used  to  denote  an  in- 
definite time  (Gen.  ii:4;  Is.  xxii:5).  The  term 
"three  days  and  three  nights,"  in  Matt.  xii:40, 
denotes  the  same  space  of  time  as  "three  days" 
(Matt,  xxvii  .63,  64).    (See  Day.) 

(5)  Hour  (Chald.  *^?^,  shaw-aw^  properly  a 
look;  Gr.  fipa,  ho' rah). 

The  ancient  Hebrews,  like  the  Greeks  (Homer 
Iliad,  xxi:3),  were  unacquainted  with  any  other 
means  of  distinguishing  the  times  of  day  than  the 
natural  divisions  of  morning,  midday  or  noon, 
twilight,  and  night  (Gen.  xv:i2;  xviii:i;  xix:i. 
i5»  23).  The  earliest  mention  of  hours  occurs 
in  Daniel  (iii:i5;  iv:i9;  v:5)  ;  and  even  in  the 
Septuagint  dpa,  invariably  signifies  a  season  of 
the  year,  as  in  Homer  and  Hesiod.  As  the  Chal- 
da^ns  claimed  the  honor  of  inventing  this  system 
of  notation  (Herod,  ii.  119),  it  is  most  probable 
that  it  was  during  their  residence  in  Babylon  that 
the  Jews  became  familiar  with  their  artificial 
distribution  of  the  day.  At  all  events  no  trace 
of  it  occurs  before  the  captivity  of  that  people; 
while,  subsequently  to  their  return  to  their  own 
land,  we  find  the  practice  adopted,  and,  in  the 
time  of  Christ,  universally  established,  of  divid- 
ing the  day  and  night  respectively  into  twelve 
equal  portions  (Matt.  xx:3-5;  John  xiip;  Acts 
v:7;  XIX 134).  The  Jewish  horology,  however,  in 
common  with  that  of  other  Eastern  nations,  had 
this  inherent  defect,  that  the  hours,  though  always 
equal  to  one  another^  were  unequal  in  regard  to 
the  seasons  and  that  as  their  day  was  reckoned 
from  sunrise  to  sunset,  and  not  from  the  fixed 
period  of  noon,  as  with  us,  the  twelve  hours  into 
which  it  was  divided  varied,  of  course,  in  dura- 


TIMES,  OBSERVER  OF 


16C2 


TIMOTHY 


tion  according  to  the  fluctuations  of  summer  and 
winter.  The  midday,  which  with  us  is  the  twelfth 
hour,  the  Jews  counted  their  sixth,  while  their 
twelfth  hour  did  not  arrive  till  sunset.  (See 
Hours.) 

TIMES;  0B8EBVEB  OF  (tims,  5b-zerv'er  5v), 
(Deut.  xviii.-io,  14;  Lev.  xix:26;  2  Kings  xxi:6;  2 
Chron.xxxiii:6).    See  Magic;  Magicians. 

TIMNA  (tifm'na),  (Heb.  ^i^^,  tim-naw\  re- 
straint). 

1.  A  concubine  of  Eliphaz,  son  of  Esau  (Gen. 
xxxvi:  12-22;  I  Chron.  i:36),  from  \yhom  the 
name  passed  over  to  an  Edomitish  tribe  (Gen. 
xxxvi  :4o;  i  Chron.  i:5i).    B.  C.  after  1963. 

2.  An  Esauite  "duke"  of  Edom,  in  Mount  Seir 
((jfen.  xxxvi  :4o;  i  Chron.  i  :5i).  B.  C.  much  after 
1963. 

TIMKAH  (trm'na),  (Heb.  '"^^W*  tim'naw'),  or 

TIMNATH  (Heb.  ^dL^r^,  tim-nath'),  portion. 

1.  An  ancient  city  of  the  Canaanites  (Gen. 
xxxviii:i2),  first  assigned  to  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV :  10-57),  and  afterwards  to  Dan  (Josh. 
xix:43);  but  it  long  remained  in  the  possession 
of  the  Philistines  (Judg.  xiv:i;  2  Chron.  xxviii: 
18;  comp.  Joseph.  Aniiq.  v.  8.  5).  It  is  chiefly 
noted  as  the  abode  of  Samson's  bride,  and  the 
place  where  he  held  his  marriage  feast.  It  is  prob- 
ably represented  by  a  deserted  site  now  called 
Tibneh,  which  is  about  one  hour's  journey  south- 
west of  Zerah,  the  residence  of  Samson. 

2.  A  town  of  Judah,  in  the  mountain  district 
(Josh.  xy:57),  where  Tamar  beguiled  Judah  into 
intercourse  with  her  (CJen.  xxxviii:i2-i4). 

3.  Same  as  Timna,  2. 

TTMNATH  (tTm'nath).    See  Timnah. 

TIMKATH-HEBES'  (tlm'nath-he'rez),  (Heb. 
D^n  n:9n^  tim-nath'  kheh'res,  portion  of  Heres, 
Judg.  ii:9).    See  Timnath-Serah. 

TIMKATH-SEBAH    (tlm'nath-se'rah),  (Heb. 

ni9"n:?pn^  Um-nath'  seh'rakk,  portion  of  abund- 
ance, /.  e,t  remaining  portion). 

A  town  in  the  mountains  of  Ephraim,  which 
was  assigned  to  Joshua,  and  became  the  place  of 
his  residence  and  burial  (Josh.  xix:5o;  xxiv: 
30).  In  Judg.  iirg,  it  is  called  Timnath-heres 
{portion  of  the  sun)  ;  but  the  former  is  probably 
the  correct  reading,  since  a  possession  thus  given 
to  Joshua  after  the  rest  of  the  land  was  dis- 
tributed (Josh.  xix:5o),  would  strictly  be  a  por- 
tion remaining.  This  was  prdbably  the  same 
with  the  Timnah  (Oa/ivd,  Thamna),  of  Josephus 
(Antiq.  iv.  11.  12;  De  Bell.  Jud.  iii.  3.  5),  the 
head  of  a  toparchy  lying  between  those  of  Gophna 
and  Lydda,  which  is  recognized  in  a  place  called 
Tibneh,  lying  northwest  of  Gophna  on  the  Ro- 
man road  to  Antipatris  (Bibliotheca  Sacra,  i.  483), 
and  eight  and  a  half  miles  southwest  of  Kefr 
Haris. 

TIMNITE  (ttm'nite),  (Heb.  NP?,  tim-nee'),  the 

designation  of  Samson's  father-in-law  (Judg.  xv:6), 
because  of  his  residence  at  Timnah. 

TIMON  (ti'mon),  (Gr.  T/^wr.  tee'mone,  valuable). 

The  fifth  of  the  seven,  commonly  called  "dea- 
cons," who  were  appointed  to  act  as  almoners  on 
the  occasion  of  complaints  of  partiality  by  the 
Hellenistic  Jews  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  vi:i-6).  A. 
D.  29.     (See  Deacons.) 

TIMOTHEUS  (tr-mo'the-iis),  (Gr.  Tt/i6^eof,  tim- 
oth'eh-os,  honoring  God),  the  Greek  form  of  Tim- 
othy (Acts  xvi:i;  xvii:i4,  etc.). 

TIMOTHY  (tlfm'o-thj^),  (Gr.  Ti^^eoj,  tim-oth*- 
eh-oSt  honoring  God),  a  young  Christian  of  Derbe, 


grandson  of  Lois,  and  son  of  Eunice,  a  Jewess,  by 
a  Greek  father,  who  was  probably  a  proselyte 
(Acts  xvi:i;  xx:4). 

He  seems  to  have  been  brought  up  with  great- 
care  in  his  family,  and  to  have  profited  well  by 
the  example  of  the  'unfeigned  faith'  which  dwelt 
in  the  excellent  women  named  in  2  Tim.  i  :$ ;  iii  :i5. 

(1)  ConverBion  and  Circumcision.  The  tes- 
timonials which  Paul  received  in  Lycaonia  in  favor 
of  this  young  disciple,  induced  the  Apostle  to 
make  him  the  companion  of  his  journeys  and  la- 
bors in  preaching  the  Ciospel,  for  which  purpose 
he  circumcised  him  (Acts  xvi:2,  3;  i  Tim.  iv: 
6).  He  became  his  most  faithful  and  attached 
colleague;  and  is  frequently  named  by  Paul  with 
truly  paternal  tenderness  and  regard. 

(2)  Paul's  Companion.  He  accompanied  Paul 
to  Macedonia,  to  Philippi,  to  Thessalonica,  and 
to  Berea,  where  he  left  him  and  Silas  to  con- 
firm the  converts  (Acts  xvii:i4).  When  at 
Athens,  he  directed  Timothy  to  come  to  him  (A. 
D.  52),  and  thence  sent  him  back  to  Thessalonica, 
from  whence  he  afterwards  returned  with  Silas, 
to  Paul  at  Corinth  (Acts  xviii:5),  where  he  con- 
tinued with  the  Apostle,  and  is  named  with  Silas 
at  the  beginning  of  the  two  epistles  to  the  Thes- 
salonians. 

(3)  Journeys  to  Macedonia.  About  A.  D.  56, 
Paul  sent  Timothy  with  Erastus  into  Macedonia 
(Acts  xix:22),and  directed  him  to  call  at  Corinth, 
to  refresh  the  minds  of  the  Corinthians  in  the 
truth.  Some  time  after,  writing  to  this  church 
(i  Cor.  iv:i7),  he  recommends  to  them  the  care 
of  Timothy,  and  directs  them  to  send  him  back 
in  peace. 

Timothy  returned  to  Paul  in  Asia,  who  there 
stayed  for  him,  whence  thejr  went  together  into 
Macedonia  and  the  Apostle  joins  Timothy's  name 
with  his  own  in  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Cor- 
inthians, which  he  wrote  from  this  province,  about 
the  middle  of  A.  D.  57.  He  also  sends  his  com- 
mendations to  the  Romans,  in  the  letter  which  he 
wrote  to  them  from  Corinth,  the  same  year,  or 
about  A.  D.  58  (Rom.  xvi:2i). 

(4)  At  Bome.  Though  it  does  not  appear,  by 
the  Acts,  that  Timothy  was  with  Paul  the  two 
years  in  which  he  was  prisoner  at  Caesarea,  nor 
during  his  voyage  to  Rome;  yet  he  had  accom- 
panied him  in  his  journey  to  Jerusalem  (Acts 
XX  :4),  and  it  is  certain  he  was  in  Rome  when 
the  Apostle  wrote  to  the  Philippians,  to  the  Colos- 
sians,  and  to  Philemon,  because  he  is  named  in 
the  titles  of  these  epistles,  which  were  written 
A.  D.  60,  61,  62.  The  year  following,  when  Paul 
wrote  to  the  Hebrews  (Heb.  xiii:23;  A.  D.  64), 
be  tells  them  that  Timothy  was  come  out  of  prison ; 
but  he  mentions  no  circumstances,  either  of  his 
imprisonment  or  delivery. 

(5)  Last  Years.  When  the  Apostle  returned 
from  Rome  (A.  D.  64),  he  left  Timothy  at 
Ephesus  (i  Tim.  i:3),  as  the  overseer  of  that 
church.  The  first  of  the  two  letters  addressed 
to  him  was  written  from  Macedonia,  about  A. 
D.  64  or  65  (i  Tim.  v:23).  The  Apostle  recom- 
mends him  to  be  more  moderate  in  his  austerities, 
and  to  drink  a  little  wine,  because  of  the  weakness 
of  his  stomach,  and  his  frequent  infirmities.  After 
Paul  came  to  Rome  (A.  D.  65),  he  wrote  to  him 
his  second  letter,  which  is  full  of  kindness  and 
tenderness  for  this  his  dear  disciple,  and  which 
is  justly  considered  as  the  last  will  of  the  Apostle. 
He  desires  him  to  come*  to  Rome  to  him  before 
winter,  and  to  bring  with  him  several  things  that 
had  been  left  at  Troas  (2  Tim.  iv  19-13).  The 
tradition  is,  that  Timothy  retained  the  charge  of 
the  church  at  Ephesus  till  his  death,  and  event- 


TIMOTHY.  EPISTLES  TO 


1663 


TIMOTHY,  EPISTLES  TO 


ually   suflFered   martyrdom    iri   that   city,   under 
Domitian  or  Nerva. 

TIMOTHY,  EPISTLES  TO. 

The  common  authorship  of  these  two  epistles 
has  seldom  been  denied ;  nor,  if  denied,  could  the 
denial  be  successfully  maintained,  so  marked  and 
so  numerous  are  the  points  of  resemblance  be- 
tween the  two,  except  upon  the  assumption  that 
the  one  has  been  made  up  from  the  other.  When, 
however,  we  proceed  to  inc^uire,  By  whom  were 
they  written?  the  question  is  one  which  has  oc- 
casioned in  more  recent  times  no  small  contro- 
versy. 

If  we  defer  to  the  testimony  of  the  early  ec- 
clesiastical writers,  no  doubt  will  remain  upon  the 
point.  For  the  high  antiquity  of  these  epistles, 
the  allusions  to  passages  in  them  by  Barnabas, 
Clement  of  Rome,  Polycarp,  and  Ignatius,  suffi- 
ciently vouch  (Lardner,  ii.  20,  38,  79,  96).  That 
they  are  also  to  be  regarded  as  genuine  produc- 
tions of  the  Apostle  whose  name  they  bear,  is  at- 
tested by  Irenaeus  (Adv.  Hcby.  lib.  i.,  sub  init, 
iii.  3.  3)  ;  by  Theophilus  of  Antioch,  who  quotes 
I  Tim.  ii:i,  2,  along  with  Rom.  xiii:/,  8,  as  part 
of  *the  divine  word'  (Ad  Autol,  iii.  14)  ;  by  Qem- 
ent  of  Alexandria  {Strom,  ii.  ^83 ;  ibid,  p.  448) ; 
by  Tertullian  (De  PrcBSer.  Hceret.  c.  25) ;  by 
Caius  (ap.  Euseb.  Hist.  Eccles.  vi.  20)  ;  by  Ori- 
gen,  etc.  (comp.  Lardner,  vol.  ii).  To  this  weighty 
mass  of  external  evidence,  there  is  nothing  to  op- 
pose of  the  same  kind,  for  the  omission  of  these 
epistles  by  Marcion  from  his  Apostolicon,  is  a 
fact,  to  which,  from  the  well-known  caprice  and 
prejudice  of  that  heretic,  no  weight  can  be  at- 
tached. Unless,  therefore,  difficulties  of  an  in- 
surmountable nature  are  presented  by  the  epistles 
themselves  to  our  regardmg  them  as  the  produc- 
tions of  Paul,  we  must  hold  their  claim  to  rank 
as  his  to  be  unimpeachable. 

1.  Objections  to  Paul's  Authorship  0/ First 
Epistle*  That  such  difficulties  are  presented  by 
these  epistles  has  been  confidently  maintained  by 
Eichhorn  (Einleit.  iii.  sq.  317),  and  De  Wette 
(Einleit.  s.  283,  sq.),  as  well  as  by  some  other 
scholars  of  less  note.  The  learned  and  acute 
Schleiermacher  has  also  assailed  the  genuineness 
of  the  first  epistle  in  his  Kritisches  Sendschreiben 
an  J.  C.  Gass  (Berlin,  1807)  ;  but  that  of  the 
second  he  admitted,  and  not  only  so,  but  was 
wont  to  censure  the  attempts  of  those  who  re- 
jected it  and  that  to  Titus,  as  'removing  the 
occasion  and  the  means  for  the  criticism  of  the 
first'  (Liicke,  Theol.  Stud,  und  Krit.,  1834,  s.  766). 
To  examine  all  the  cavils  which  these  eminent 
men,  in  the  exercise  of  that  microlo^stic  criti- 
cism, in  which  it  seems  characteristic  of  their 
nation  to  delight,  would  be  a  task  altogether  in- 
compatible with  the  limits  within  which  we  arc 
confined.  A  succinct  survey  of  the  more  weighty 
of  their  objections  we  shall,  however,  attempt  to 
supply;  be^nning  with  those  which  are  common 
to  both  epistles,  and  proceeding  to  such  as  are 
peculiar  to  each. 

(1)  Style  Not  Pauline.  It  is  objected  that 
the  general  style  of  these  epistles  is  not  Pauline. 
*Has  Paul's  language  in  general,'  asks  Eichhorn, 
*the  clearness  and  ease  of  expression  which  we 
find  in  these  pastoral  epistles?  Is  it  not  much 
more  unpolished,  careless,  and  allied  to  a  prose 
which  has  been  thrown  together,  rather  than  care- 
fully elaborated?*  etc.  The  force  of  such  an 
objection,'  Eichhorn  adds,  'it  is  very  difficult  to 
make  apparent  to  those  who  have  not  the  natural 
gift  of  discerning  modes  of  writing.*  A  most 
convenient  difficulty!  enabling  the  critic  to  retort 
the  charge  of  incapacity  upon  all  who  do  not  see 


the  characteristics  of  Paul's  style  in  exactly  the 
same  light  as  they  are  viewed  by  him.  We  shelter 
ourselves  behind  the  ample  authority  of  Hug, 
who  says  of  the  latter  part  of  the  objection,  that 
it  *is  absolutely  false,'  and  who  replies  to  the 
former  by  asserting  for  a  letter,  written  by  the 
Apostle  to  a  friend  so  intimate  as  Timothy,  the 
right  to  exhibit  a  more  free  and  flowing  style 
than  would  be  proper  in  a  letter  addressed  to  a 
church  (Introd.  Fosdick's  transl.  p.  569). 

(2)  TTnusual  Expressions.  Much  stress  is  laid 
by  all  who  have  impugned  the  Pauline  origin  of 
these  epistles  on  the  occurrence  in  them  of  drai 
\rif6fieya,  and  forms  of  expression  not  else- 
where usual  with  Paul.  But  to  this  it  may  be 
replied  that  the  same  objection  might  be  offer^ 
against  many  of  the  unquestioned  writings  of  the 
Apostle,  such,  for  example,  as  the  epistle  to  the 
Galatians,  in  which  fifty-seven  dira|  >£y6fiepa  oc- 
cur, and  the  epistle  to  the  Philippians,  in  which 
we  find  fifty-four,  etc.;  from  which  it  appears 
but  fair  to  infer  that  the  occurrence  of  such  is, 
so  far  as  it  can  prove  anything,  an  evidence  for, 
rather  than  against,  the  Pauline  origin  of  these 
epistles.  All  such  reasonings,  however,  appear 
to  rest  upon  too  precarious  a  basis  to  be  allowed 
much  weight.  When  it  is  remembered  how  much 
the  style  of  a  writer  is  affected  by  his  subject, 
by  his  design,  by  the  state  of  his  mind  at  the  time 
of  writing,  by  the  circumstances  of  the  parties  for 
whom  his  composition  is  intended,  as  well  as  how 
much  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  the  style  of 
even  a  very  careful  writer  alters,  we  shall  cease 
to  be  much  moved  by  the  occurrence  in  the 
epistles  of  such  a  writer  as  Paul,  of  unexpected 
varieties  and  peculiarities  of  expression.  The  only 
valid  argument  that  can  be  urged  against  the  genu- 
ineness of  a  writing  from  such  facts  is  when  it 
can  be  shown  that  the  writer  has  used  phrases  or 
words  which  it  is  historically  impossible  that  the 
party  to  whom  the  writing  is  ascribed  could  have 
employed;  as  has  been  done  so  successfully  in 
several  instances  by  Bentley,  in  his  work  on  the 
Epistles,  ascribed  to  Phalaris.  No  attempt  of  this 
sort,  however,  is  made  by  those  who  have  im- 
pugned the  authenticity  of  the  Epistles  to  Tim- 
othy; 'not  one  word  has  been  adduced  which  can 
be  shown  to  be  foreign  to  the  age  of  Paul ;  not  a 
single  phrase  has  been  pointed  out,  of  which  either 
the  outward  form  or  the  conception  on  which  it 
is  based  belongs  to  a  later  age'  (Planck,  Bemer- 
kungen,  etc.,  s.  17).  So  far  from  this,  Eichhorn 
himself  admits  'that  they  have  in  their  language 
much  that  is  Pauline,'  and  that  the  allusion  to  the 
Apostle's  persecuting  zeal  before  his  conversion  ( i 
Tim.  i:i3),  the  principles  asserted  respecting  both 
the  substance  and  the  form  of  Christianity,  and 
the  proofs  adduced,  are  highly  Pauline  (p.  318). 

Besides  these  objections,  which  apply  to  both 
epistles  alike,  there  are  some  which  affect  each 
epistle  separately. 

(3)  Belation  to  Timothy.  To  the  first  epistle 
it  is  objected:  (i)  That  it  presents  Timothy  in  a 
light  in  which  it  is  inconsistent  with  other  notices 
of  him  in  Paul's  epistles  to  regard  him.  Here  he 
appears  as  little  better  than  a  novice,  needing 
instruction  as  to  the  simplest  affairs  of  ecclesi- 
astical order:  whereas,  in  the  first  epistle  to  the 
Corinthians,  written  earlier  than  this,  we  find  him 
(iv:i7)  described  by  Paul  as  'Mv  beloved  son, 
and  faithful  in  the  Lord,  who  shall  bring  you 
into  remembrance  of  my  ways  which  be  in  Christ, 
as  I  teach  everywhere  in  every  church ;'  and  in  i 
Thess.  i:i-3,  we  are  told  that  the  Apostle  had  sent 
him  to  Thessalonica  to  establish  the  believers 
there,  and  to  comfort  them  concerning  their  faith. 


^ 


TIMOTHY,  EPISTLES  TO 


1664 


TIMOTHY,  EPISTLES  TO 


If  Timothy  was  so  well  able  to  regulate  the 
churches  at  Corinth  and  ThessaloniCa,  how,  it  is 
asked,  can  it  be  supposed  that  a  short  while  after- 
wards he  should  require  such  minute  instructions 
for  his  conduct  as  this  epistle  contains?  To  this 
it  may  be  replied,  (a)  that  in  visiting  Corinth 
and  Thessalonica  Timothy  acted  as  the  Apostle's 
delegate,  and  had  doubtless,  received  from  him 
minute  instructions  as  to  how  he  should  proceed 
among  those  to  whom  he  was  sent;  so  that  the 
alleged  diflference  in  *the  circumstances  of  Timothy 
when  sent  to  Corinth,  and  when  left  in  Ephesus, 
disappears;  (b)  that  it  does  not  necessarily  follow, 
from  the  injunctions  given  to  Timothy  in  this 
epistle,  that  the  writer  regarded  him  as  a  novice ; 
for  thev  rather  respect  the  application  of  general 
principles  to  peculiar  local  circumstances,  than  set 
forth  instructions  such  as  a  novice  would  require ; 
and  (c)  it  is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  the  Apostle 
designed,  through  Timothy,  to  present  to  the 
church  at  large  a  body  of  instruction  which  should 
be  useful  to  it  in  all  ages  of  its  existence. 

(2)  It  is  objected  that  after  the  church  at 
Ephesus  had  enjoyed  the  Apostle's  instructions 
and  presidency  for  three  years,  it  could  not  have 
been,  at  the  time  this  epistle  is  supposed  to  have 
been  written  by  Paul,  m  such  ignorance  of  ec- 
clesiastical arrangements  as  the  injunctions  here 
given  would  lead  us  to  suppose.  But  what  is 
there  in  the  epistle  that  necessitates  such  a  sup- 
position ?  It  contains  many  directions  to  Timothy 
how  he  should  conduct  himself  in  a  church,  some 
of  which  are  certainly  of  an  elementary  charac- 
ter, but  there  is  nothing  that  leads  to  the  con- 
clusion that  they  were  all  intended  for  the  benefit 
of  the  church  at  Ephesus,  or  that  the  state  of 
that  church  was  such  as  to  require  that  in- 
junctions of  this  kind  should  be  given  for  its 
sake  alone.  Timothy's  sphere  of  evangelistic  ef- 
fort extended  greatly  beyond  Ephesus;  and  this 
epistle  was  designed  at  once  to  guide  him  as  to 
what  he  was  to  do  in  the  churches  which  he  might 
be  called  to  regulate,  and  to  supply  his  authority 
for  so  doing.  Besides,  does  it  not  naturally  oc- 
cur that  such  minute  injunctions  are  just  such  as 
a  person  forging  this  epistle  at  a  later  period,  in 
Paul's  name,  would  be  most  likely  to  avoid? 

(3)  The  absence  of  allusions  to  events  in  Tim- 
othy's history  has  been  alleged  against  the  Paul- 
ine origin  of  this  epistle.  A  strange  objection, 
and  as  untenable  as  strange!  This  may  be  seen 
by  a  reference  to  the  following  passages :  i  :i8 ;  iv : 
14:  v:23;  vi:i2. 

(4)  It  is  alleged  that  the  writer  of  this  epistle 
has  made  such  a  mistake  as  Paul  could  not  have 
made  when  he  classes  Alexander  with  Hymenaeus 
( I  Tim.  i  :20)  as  a  false  Christian,  whereas  we 
know  from  2  Tim.  iv:i4,  that  he  was  not  a 
Christian  at  all.  But  where  is  the  shadow  of  evi- 
dence that  the  Alexander  mentioned  in  i  Tim. 
i  :20,  is  the  same  person  with  the  Alexander  men- 
tioned in  2  Tim.  iv:i4?  Was  this  name  so  un- 
common in  Ephesus  that  we  must  needs  suppose 
a  blunder,  where  a  writer  speaks  of  one  so  called 
as  a  heretic,  simply  because  in  other  passages 
mention  is  made  of  one  so  called  who  was  not  a 
heretic?  Nothing  can  be  more  obvious  than  that 
there  .were  two  Alexanders,  just  as  there  might 
have  been  twenty,  known  to  the  Apostle  and 
Timothy ;  and  that  of  these  two  one  was  a  heretic 
and  troubler  of  the  church  at  Ephesus,  and  the 
other  probably  a  heathen  and  an  enemy  of  the 
Apostle. 

(5)  In  I  Tim.  i  :20,  mention  is  made  of  Hy- 
menaeus  as  a  heretic,  whom  the  writer  makes  Paul 
say  he  had  excommunicated;  but  this  is  a  mis- 


take, for  in  2  Tim.  ii:i7,  we  find  Hymenaeua 
still  a  member  of  the  church  at  Ephesus,  and 
such  a  mistake  could  not  have  been  made  by 
Paul.  Here,  however,  it  is  assumed  without 
proof,  (i)  that  the  H3msenaeus  of  the  one  epistle 
is  the  same  as  the  Hymenaeus  of  the  other;  (2) 
that  being  the  same,  he  was  still  a  member  of  the 
same  church;  and  (3)  that  it  was  impossible  for 
him,  though  excommunicated,  to  have  returned 
as  a  penitent  to  the  church,  and  again  to  have 
become  a  plague  to  it.  Here  are  three  hypotheses 
on  which  we  may  account  for  the  fact  referred  to, 
and  until  they  be  all  excluded  it  will  not  follow 
that  an^  blunder  is  chargeable  upon  the  writer  of 
this  epistle. 

(6)  In  I  Tim.  vi:i3,  the  writer  refers  to  our 
Lord's  good  confession  biefore  Pontius  Pilate.  Now 
of  this  we  have  a  record  in  John's  Gospel ;  but  as 
this  was  not  written  in  Paul's  time,  it  is  urged 
that  this  epistle  must  be  ascribed  to  a  later  writer. 
It  is  easy  to  obviate  any  force  that  may  appear 
to  be  in  this  remark  bv  the  consideration  that  all 
the  prominent  facts  of  our  Lord's  life,  and  espe- 
cially the  circumstances  of  his  death,  were  famil- 
iarly known  by  oral  communication  to  all  the 
Christians  before  the  Gospels  were  written. 
Though,  then,  John's  Gospel  was  not  extant  in 
Paul's  time,  the  facts  recorded  by  John  were  well 
known,  and  might  therefore  be  very  naturally  re- 
ferred to  in  an  epistle  from  one  Christian  to  an- 
other. Of  our  Lord's  confession  before  Pilate 
we  may  readily  suppose  that  Paul,  the  great  advo- 
cate of  the  spirituality  of  the  Messiah's  kingdom, 
was  especially  fond  of  making  use. 

(7)  The  writer  of  this  epistle,  it  is  affirmed, 
utters  sentiments  in  favor  of  the  law  which  are 
not  Pauline,  and  teaches  the  efficacy  of  good 
works  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  incompatible  with 
Paul's  doctrine  of  salvation  by  grace.  This  as- 
sertion we  may  safely  meet  with  a  pointed  denial. 
The  doctrine  of  this  epistle  concerning  the  law 
is,  that  it  is  good  if  it  be  used  vofdfjuat,  as  a  law, 
for  the  purposes  which  a  moral  law  is  designed 
to  serve ;  and  what  is  this  but  the  doctrine  of  the 
epistle  to  the  Romans  and  Galatians,  where  the 
apostle  maintains  that  in  itself  and  for  its  own 
ends  the  divine  law  is  holy^  just,  and  good,  and 
becomes  evil  only  when  put  out  of  its  proper 
place,  and  used  for  purposes  it  was  never  designed 
to  serve?  (Rom.  vii  17-12;  Gal.  iii:2i,  etc.)  What 
the  writer  here  teaches  concerning  good  works  is 
also  in  full  harmony  with  the  Apostle  Paul's 
teaching  in  his  acknowledged  epistles  (comp.  Rom. 
xii,  Eph.  V  and  vi,  etc.)  ;  and  if  in  this  epistle 
there  is  no  formal  exposition  of  the  Gospel 
scheme,  but  rather  a  dwelling  upon  practical  du- 
ties, the  reason  may  easily  be  found  in  the  pe- 
culiar character  of  this  as  a  pastoral  epistle — an 
epistle  of  official  counsels  and  exhortations  to  a 
minister  of  Christianity. 

(8)  De  Wette  asserts  that  i  Tim.  iii:i6,  bears 
marks  of  being  a  quotation  from  a  confession  or 
symbol  of  the  church,  of  which  there  were  none 
in  Paul's  day.  But  what  marks  of  this  does  the 
passage  present?  The  answer  is,  the  use  of  the 
word  homologomenos,  a  technical  word,  and  the 
word  used  by  the  ecclesiastical  writers  to  desig- 
nate something  in  accordance  with  orthodox  doc- 
trine. This  is  true;  but  as  technical  words  are 
first  used  in  their  proper  sense,  and  as  the  proper 
sense  of  homologomenos  perfectly  suits  the  pas- 
sage in  question,  there  is  no  reason  for  supposing 
any  such  later  usage  as  De  Wette  suggests.  Be- 
sides, his  argument  tells  both  ways,  for  one  may  as 
well  assert  that  the  ecclesiastical  usage  arose  from 
the  terms  of  this  passage,  as  affirm  that  the  termi 


TIMOTHY,  EPISTLES  TO 


1665 


TIMOTHY,  EPISTLES  TO 


of  this  passage  were  borrowed  from  ecclesiastical 
usage. 

(9)  The  writer  of  this  epistle  quotes  as  a  part  of 
Scripture  a  passage  which  occurs  only  in  Luke 
xiy;  but  as  Luke  had  not  written  his  Gospel  at 
the  time  Paul  is  supposed  to  have  written  this 
epistle,  and  as  it  is  not  the  habit  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament writers  to  quote  from  each  other  in  the 
way  they  quote  from  the  Old  Testament,  we  are 
bound  to  suppose  that  this  epistle  is  the  produc- 
tion of  a  later  writer.  But  does  this  writer  quote 
Luke  x:7,  in  the  manner  alleged?  The  passage 
referred  to  is  in  ch.  v:i8,  where  we  have  first  a 
citation  from  Deut.  xxv  .-4,  introduced  by  the  usual 
formula,  The  Scripture  saith;'  and  then  the 
writer  adds,  as  further  confirmatory  of  his  posi- 
tion, the  saying  of  our  Lord,  which  is  supposed 
to  be  quoted  from  Luke's  Gospel.  Now  we  are 
not  bound  to  conclude  that  this  latter  was  ad- 
duced by  the  writer  as  a  part  of  Scripture.  It 
may  be  regarded  as  a  remark  of  his  own,  or  as 
some  proverbial  expression,  or  as  a  well-known 
saying  of  Christ's,  by  which  he  confirms  the  doc- 
trine he  is  establishing.  We  are  under  no  neces- 
sity to  extend  the  formula  with  which  the  verse 
is  commenced  so  as  to  include  in  it  all  that  the 
verse  contains.  The  ical  by  itself  will  not  justify 
this;  indeed  we  may  go  further,  and  affirm  that 
the  use  of  koI  alone  rather  leads  to  an  opposite 
conclusion,  for  had  the  writer  intended  the  latter 
clause  to  be  regarded  as  a  quotation  from  Scrip- 
ture as  well  as  the  former,  he  would  probably 
have  used  some  such  formula  as  koI  xdXir  (comp. 
Heb.  ii:i3). 

(10)  De  V/ette  maintains  that  the  injunction  in 
ch.  v:23,  is  so  much  beneath  the  dignity  of  an 
Apostle,  that  we  cannot  suppose  it  to  have  pro- 
ceeded from  such  a  writer  as  Paul.  But  what  is 
there  in  such  an  injunction  less  dignified  than 
in  many  injunctions  of  an  equally  familiar  na- 
ture scattered  through  Paul's  epistles?  And  in 
what  is  it  incompatible  with  the  apostolic  char- 
acter that  one  sustaining  it  should  enjoin  upon  a 
young  zealous,  and  active  preacher,  whom  he  es- 
teemed as  his  own  son,  a  careful  regard  to  his 
health ;  the  more  especially  when,  by  acting  as  is 
here  enjoined,  he  would  vindicate  Christian  lib- 
erty from  those  ascetic  restraints  by  which  the 
false  teachers  sought  to  bind  it. 

2,  Objections  to  Pauline  Authorship  of 
Second  Epistte,  3uch  are  the  principal  objections 
which  have  of  late  been  urged  against  the  Pauline 
authorship  of  the  first  epistle  to  Timothy.  Let  us 
now  turn  to  glance  with  equal  brevity  at  those 
which  have  been  urged  agamst  the  second.  Of 
these  the  most  weighty  are  founded  on  the  as- 
sumption that  this  epistle  must  be  viewed  as  writ- 
ten during  the  Apostle's  first  imprisonment  at 
Rome;  and  as,  for  reasons  to  be  subsequently 
stated,  we  do  not  regard  this  assumption  as  ten- 
able, it  will  not  be  necessary  to  occupy  space 
with  any  remarks  upon  them.  We  may  leave  un- 
noticed also  those  objections  to  this  epistle  which 
are  mere  repetitions  of  those  urged  against  the 
first,  and  which  admit  of  similar  replies. 

(1)  Beference  to  Fersecutions.  In  ch.  iii:ii, 
the  writer  enumerates  a  series  of  persecutions 
and  afflictions  which  befell  him  at  Antioch,  Icon- 
ium,  and  Lystra,  of  which  he  says  Timothy  knew. 
Would  Paul,  it  is  asked  in  making  such  an  enu- 
meration, have  committed  the  mistake  of  referring 
to  persecutions  which  he  had  endured  before  his 
connection  with  Timothy,  and  have  said  nothing 
of  those  which  he  endured  subsequently,  and  of 
which  Timothy  must  have  known,  whilst  of  the 
former  he  might  be  ignorant?  But  there  is  no 
105 


mistake  in  the  matter.  Paul  has  occasion  to  refer 
to  the  knowledge  Timothy  had  of  his  sufferings  for 
the  Gospel.  Of  these  some  had  occurred  before 
Timothy's  connection  with  him,  whilst  others  had 
occurred  while  Tinlothy  was  his  companion  and 
fellow-sufferer.  Of  the  latter,  therefore,  Paul 
makes  no  specific  mention,  feeling  thait  to  be 
unnecessary;  but  of  the  former,  of  which  Tim- 
othy could  know  only  by  hearsay,  but  of  which 
he  no  doubt  did  know,  for  we  cannot  conceive 
that  any  interesting  point  in  Paul's  previous  his- 
tory would  be  unknown  to  his  'dear  son  in  the 
faith,'  he  makes  specific  enumeration.  This  fully 
accounts  for  his  stopping  short  at  the  point  where 
Timothy's  personal  experience  could  amply  sup- 
ply the  remainder. 

(2)  Different  Circumstances.  The  declara- 
tion in  ch.  iv:7,  etc.,  is  incompatible  with  what 
Paul  says  of  himself  in  Phil.  iii:i2,  etc.  But 
respect  must  be  had  to  the  very  different  circum- 
stances in  which  the  Apostle  was  when  he  wrote 
these  two  passages.  In  the  one  case  he  viewed 
himself  as  still  engaged  in  active  work,  and  hav- 
ing the  prospect  of  service  before  him;  in  the 
other  he  regards  himself  as  very  near  to  death,  and 
shortly  about  to  enter  into  the  presence  of  his 
master.  Surely  the  same  individual  might  in  the 
former  of  these  cases  speak  of  work  yet  to  do, 
and  in  the  latter  of  his  work  as  done,  without  any 
contradiction. 

(3)  Allusions  to  Ceremonies.  In  chapters  i  :6, 
and  ii  :2,  there  are  allusions  to  ecclesiastical  cere- 
monies which  betray  a  kter  age  than  that  of  Paul. 
This  is  said  without  reason.  The  laying  on  of 
hands  in  the  conferring  of  a  karisma  was  alto- 

f ether  an  apostolic  usage;  and  the  hearing  of 
'aul's  doctrmes  was  what  Timothy,  as  his  com- 
panion in  travel,  could  easily  enjoy,  without  our 
needing  to  suppose  that  the  Apostk  is  here  repre- 
sented as  acting  the  part  of  professor  in  a  school 
of  theology. 

(4)  Evidence  of  Authenticity.  A  survey  of 
these  objections,  to  say  nothing  of  the  petty  cavils 
with  which  De  Wette  has  crowded  his  pages,  and 
which  one  can  only  wonder  that  such  a  man 
should  for  a  moment  have  deemed  worthy  of  no- 
tice, will  amply  show  that  no  real  and  insupera- 
ble objection  lies  in  the  way  of  our  yielding  full 
assent  to  the  claims  of  these  two  epistles  to  Tim- 
othy to  rank  among  the  productions  of  the  apos- 
tle Paul.  On  the  contrary,  the  entire  spirit,  tone, 
character,  and  contents  of  these  epistles  are  so 
truly  Pauline,  that  they  carry  the  evidence  of  their 
authenticity  with  them,  and  set  at  defiance  the 
idle  ingenuity  of  men  to  whom  skepticism  has  be- 
come a  ha'bit,  and  who,  indifferent  to  all  conse- 
quences, seek  only  to  display  their  learning  or 
acuteness  in  their  assaults  upon  the  sacred  writ- 
ings. 

3m  Time  of  Writing*  Assuming  that  these  epis- 
tles were  written  by  Paul,  the  question  next  to  be 
considered  respects  the  time  when  each  of  them 
was  composed. 

(1)  After  Leaving  Ephesus.  With  regard  to 
the  first,  it  is  clear  that  it  was  written  not  long 
after  Paul  had  left  Ephesus  for  Macedonia  (ch. 
1:3).  Now  from  Acts  xx:i,  we  learn  that  Paul 
left  Ephesus  after  the  uproar  caused  by  Deme- 
trius, and  went  into  Macedonia.  Shall  we  sup- 
pose, then,  that  it  was  at  this  timie  this  epistle  was 
written  ?  Many  excellent  critics  reply  m  the  af- 
firmative ;  and  upon  the  whole  we  think  this  opin- 
ion the  one  to  be  preferred.  It  is  not,  however, 
without  difficulties;  the  chief  of  which  lies  in 
the  fact  that  Timothy,  to  whom  this  epistle  is  ad- 
dressed, appears  to  have  been  with  Paul  in  Mace- 


TIMOTHY.  EPISTLES  TO 


1666 


TIMOTHY.  EPISTLES  TO 


donia  at  this  time  (comp.  2  Cor.  i:i).  To  ob- 
viate this  objection,  it  has  been  suggested  that 
Paul  might  have  written  this  epistle  immediately 
after  leaving  Ephesus,  and  the  second  to  the  Co- 
rinthians not  before  the  concluding  period  of  his 
stay  in  Macedonia;  so  that  Timothy  might  have 
visited  him  in  the  interval.  This  appears  to  re- 
move the  difficulty,  but  it  does  so  by  suggesting 
a  new  one;  for  how  on  this  supposition  are  we 
to  account  for  the  Apostle's  delaying  so  long  to 
write  to  the  Corinthians  after  the  arrival  of  Titus, 
by  whose  intelligence  concerning  the  state  of  the 
Corinthian  church  Paul  was  led  to  address  them? 
(See  Corinthians,  Epistles  to  the.)  It  may  be 
asked  also  if  it  be  likely  that  Timothy,  after  re- 
ceiving such  a  charge  as  Paul  gives  him  in  this 
epistle,  would  so  soon  have  left  Ephesus  and  fol- 
lowed the  Apostle. 

(2)  Possible  Later  Period.  Pressed  by  these 
difficulties,  many  critics  of  note  have  resorted  to 
the  hypothesis  that  this  epistle  must  have  been 
written  at  a  later  period,  subsequent  to  the  Apos- 
tle's first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  and  upon  a 
journey  undertaken  by  him  during  the  interval 
between  that  and  his  final  imprisonment.  As  the 
evidence  that  the  Apostle  took  such  a  journey  is 
purely  h3rpothetical  and  inferential,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  hypothesis  built  upon  it  as  to  the 
date  of  this  epistle  rests  at  the  best  on  somewhat 
precarious  gn'ounds.  This  hypothesis,  besides, 
seems  to  assume  the  possibility  of  churches  re- 
maining in  and  around  Ephesus  in  a  state  of  de- 
fective arrangement  and  order  for  a  greater  length 
of  time  than  we  can  believe  to  have  been  the  case. 
It  is  opposed  also  by  what  Paul  says,  ch.  iv:i2, 
from  which  we  learn  that  at  the  time  this  epistle 
was  written  Timothy  was  in  danger  of  being  de- 
spised as  a  youth;  but  this  could  hardly  be  said 
of  him  after  Paul's  first  imprisonment,  when  he 
must  on  the  lowest  computation  have  been  thirty 
years  of  age.  And,  finally,  this  hypothesis  is  di- 
rectly opposed  to  the  solemn  declaration  of  Paul 
to  the  elders  of  the  church  at  Ephesus  when  he 
met  them  at  Miletum:  *I  know  that  ye  all  shall 
see  my  face  no  more'  (Acts  xx:25),  for  it  as- 
sumes that  he  did  see  them  again  and  preached 
to  them.  These  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  hy- 
pothesis of  a  later  date  for  this  epistle  seem  to  us 
weightier  than  those  which  attach  to  the  other 
supposition. 

(3)  Prisoner  at  Borne.  With  regard  to  the 
second  epistle,  it  is  certain  that  it  was  written  at 
Rome,  and  whilst  Paul  was  a  prisoner  there  (i:8, 
16;  iirp;  i:i7);  but  the  question  arises,  was  it 
during  his  first  or  his  second  imprisonment  that 
this  took  place? 

In  favor  of  the  first,  the  most  weighty  consider- 
ation arises  out  of  the  fact  that  the  Apostle 
appears  to  have  had  the  same  irdividuals  as  his 
companions  when  he  wrote  this  epistle,  as  he  had 
when  he  wrote  the  epistles  to  the  Ephesians,  Phil- 
ippians,  and  Colossians,  and  that  to  Philemon, 
which  we  know  were  written  during  his  first  im- 
prisonment at  Rome.  *At  the  beginning  of  the 
imprisonment,*  says  Hug,  who  has  very  forcibly 
stated  this  argument  in  favor  of  the  earlier  hy- 
pothesis, 'when  the  epistle  to  the  Ephesians  was 
written,  Timothy,  who  was  not  one  of  Paul's  com- 
panions on  the  voyage  to  Italy  (Acts  xxvii:2), 
was  not  with  him  at  Rome;  for  Paul  does  not 
add  his  name  in  the  address  with  which  the  epistle 
commences,  as  he  always  did  when  Timothy  was 
at  his  side.  Timothy  afterwards  arrived ;  and  ac- 
cordingly, at  the  outset  of  the  epistles  to  the 
Colossians  and  Philemon,  his  name  appears  with 
the  Apostle's  (Col.  i  :i ;  Philem.  i)  ;  secondly,  Luke 


was  in  Paul's  company  (Col.  iv:i4;  Philem.  24)  ; 
thirdly,  Mark  was  likewise  with  him  (Col. 
iv:io;  Philem.  24);  fourthly,  Tychicus  was  then 
Paul's  diakonos  and  letter  bearer,  and,  in  particu- 
lar, was  sent  to  Asia  (Eph.  vi:2i;  Col.  iv:7,  8). 
All  these  circumstances  are  presented  to  view  in 
the  second  epistle  to  Timothy.  Timothy  was  not 
with  Paul  at  first,  but  was  summoned  to  his  side 
(2  Tim.  iv:9,  21)  ;  secondly,  Luke  was  with  him 
(iy:ii);  thirdly,  he  wishes  Mark  to  come  with 
Timothy,  so  that  he  must  have  been  with  him  in 
the  course  of  his  imprisonment  (iv:ii)  ;  fourthly, 
Tychicus  was  with  him  in  the  capacity  of  letter- 
bearer,  and,  in  particular,  was  sent  to  Asia  (iv: 
12).  Now,  in  order  to  suppose  that  Paul  wrote 
this  epistle  to  Timothy  during  a  second  imprison- 
ment at  Rome,  we  must  assume  that  the  circum- 
stances of  both  were  exactly  the  same,  etc.  We 
must  also  assume  that  Paul  at  both  times,  even 
in  the  latter  part  of  Nero's  reign,  was  permitted 
to  receive  friends  during  his  confinement,  to  write 
letters,  dispatch  messengers,  and,  in  general,  to 
have  free  intercourse  with  everybody'  {Introduc- 
tion, p.  556,  etc.,  Fosdick's  transL). 

(4)  Second  Imprisonment.  The  case,  as  here 
stated,  it  must  be  admitted,  is  strongly  in  favor 
of  our  assigning  the  composition  of  this  epistle 
to  the  time  of  Paul's  first  imprisonment  at  Rome. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  difficulties  lying  in  the  way 
of  this  seem  insuperable.  Hug's  reasoning  as- 
sumes that  the  epistle  must  have  been  written  in 
the  early  part  of  the  Apostle's  imprisonment,  else 
Timothy  could  not  have  been  absent  at  the  time 
of  its  composition.  But  that  this  is  utterly  inad- 
missible the  following  considerations  show: — 

(i)  Wh^^  Paul  wrote  to  the  Colossians,  the 
Philippians,  and  Philemon,  Demas  was  with  him; 
when  he  wrote  this  epistle  to  Timothy,  Demas 
had  forsaken  him,  having  loved  this  present  world 
and  gone  to  Thessalonica  (iv:io). 
^  (2)  When  Paul  wrote  to  the  Ephesians,  Colos- 
sians, Philippians,  and  Philemon,  he  was  in  good 
hopes  of  a  speedy  liberation  from  his  imprison- 
ment; when  he  wrote  this  epistle  to  Timothy  he 
had  lost  all  these  hopes,  and  was  anticipating 
death  as  near  at  hand  (iv:6-8). 

(3)  At  the  time  this  epistle  was  written  Paul 
had  been,  if  not  oftener,  at  least  once,  before  the 
bar  of  the  emperor,  when  he  had  offered  his  apol- 
ogy (iv:i6). 

(4)  Tychicus,  the  bearer  of  the  letters  to  the 
Colossians,  had  been  despatched  from  Rome  be- 
fore this  epistle  to  Timothy  was  written  (iv:i2). 

(5)  At  the  time  the  epistles  to  the  Colossians 
and  Philemon  were  written,  Aristarchus  was  with 
Paul;  by  the  time  this  was  written  Aristarchus 
had  left  Paul  (iv:ii).  All  these  circumstances 
forbid  our  supposing  that  this  second  epistle  to 
Timothy  was  written  before  the  epistles  above 
named,  that  is,  in  the  early  part  of  Paul's  first 
imprisonment  at  Rome.  Shall  we  then  assign  the 
epistle  to  a  later  period  of  that  same  imprison- 
ment? Against  this  also  lie  difficulties.  Before 
we  can  admit  it  we  must  suppose  that  Timothy 
and  Mark,  who  did  not  accompany  Paul  to  Rome, 
had  shortly  after  followed  him  thither,  and,  after 
remaining  awhile,  left  Paul,  and  were  again  re- 
quested by  him  in  this  epistle  to  return ;  that  dur- 
ing the  mterval  of  their  absence  from  Rome, 
Paul's  first  trial  had  occurred;  and  that,  yet  even 
before  he  had  so  much  as  appeared  before  his 
judges,  he  had  written  to  his  friends  in  terms 
mtimating  his  full  confidence  of  a  speedy  release 
(Phil.  1:25;  ii:24;  Philem.  22).  These  circum- 
stances may  perhaps  admit  of  explanation;  but 
there  are  others  which  seem  to  present  insuper- 


TIMOTHY.  EPISTLES  TO 


1G67 


TINSHEMETH 


able  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  supposition, 
that  this  epistle  was  written  at  any  period  of 
Paul's  first  imprisonment  at  Rome. 

(a)  Paul's  imprisonment,  of  which  we  have  an 
account  in  the  Acts,  was  of  a  much  milder  kind 
than  that  in  which  he  was  at  the  time  he  wrote 
this  epistle.  In  the  former  case  he  was  permitted 
to  lodge  in  his  own  hired  house,  and  to  receive  all 
who  came  to  him,  being  guarded  only  by  a  single 
soldier;  in  the  latter  he  was  in  such  close  con- 
finement that  Onesiphorus  had  no  small  difficulty 
in  finding  him,  he  was  chained,  he  suffered  evil 
even  unto  bonds  as  a  malefactor,  his  friends  had 
mostly  deserted  him,  and  he  had  narrowly  es- 
caped destruction  from  the  Roman  tyrant  (i:i6- 
i8;  ii:9;  iv:6,  7,  8,  18). 

(b)  In  ch.  iv:i3,  he  requests  Timothy  to  bring 
with  him  fromTroas  some  books,  parchments,  etc., 
which  he  had  left  at  that  place.  If  we  suppose  the 
visit  here  referred  to  the  same  as  that  mentioned  in 
Acts  xx:5-7,  we  must  conclude  that  these  docu- 
ments had  been  allowed  by  the  Apostle  to  lie  at 
Troas  for  a  space  of  seven  or  eight  years,  as  that 
length  of  time  elapsed  between  the  visit  to  Troas, 
mentioned  by  Luke,  and  Paul's  first  imprisonment 
at  Rome.  This  is  surely  very  unlikely,  as  the 
documents  were  plainly  of  value  to  the  apostle; 
and  if  by  phialonace  in  this  passage,  he  meant  a 
cloak  or  mantle,  the  leaving  of  it  for  so  lon^  a 
time  unused,  when  it  might  have  been  of  service, 
and  the  sending  so  anxiously  for  it,  when  it  could 
be  of  little  or  none,  as  the  Apostle's  time  of  de- 
parture was  at  hand,  must  be  allowed  to  be  not 
a  little  improbable. 

(c)  In  ch.  iv  :20,  Paul  speaks  of  having  left  Tro- 
phimus  sick  at  Miletus.  Now  this  could  not  have 
been  on  the  occasion  referred  to  in  Acts  xx:i5; 
for  subsequent  to  that  Trophimus  was  with  Paul 
at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xxi:29).  It  follows  that  Paul 
must  have  visited  Miletus  at  a  subsequent  period ; 
but  he  did  not  visit  it  on  his  way  from  Jerusa- 
lem to  Rome  on  the  occasion  of  his  first  imprison- 
ment ;  and  this,  therefore,  strongly  favors  the  hy- 
pothesis of  a  journey  subsequent  to  that  event, 
and  immediately  antecedent  to  the  writing  of  this 
epistle.  The  attempt  to  enfeeble  the  force  of  this 
by  translating  apelipon  *they  left,'  etc.,  and  un- 
derstanding it  of  messengers  from  Ephesus  com- 
ing to  visit  Paul,  is  ingenious,  but  can  hardly  be 
admitted,  as  no  sound  interpreter  would  forcibly 
supply  a  subject  to  a  verb  where  the  context  it- 
self naturally  supplies  one. 

(d)  In  ch.  iv  :20,  the  Apostle  says  'Erastus  abode 
in  Corinth.'  Such  language  implies  that  shortly 
before  writing  this  epistle  the  Apostle  had  been 
at  Corinth,  wnere  he  left  Erastus.  But  before  his 
first  imprisonment  Paul  had  not  been  at  Corinth 
for  several  years,  and  during  the  interval  Timothy 
had  been  with  him,  so  that  he  did  not  need  to 
write  to  him  at  a  later  period  about  that  visit 
(Acts  XX  :4).  Hug  contends  that  emeine  simply 
expresses  the  fact  that  Erastus  was  then  residing 
at  Corinth,  without  necessarily  implying  that  Paul 
had  left  him  there;  but  would  the  Apostle  in  this 
case  have  used  the  aorist? 

On  these  grounds  the  h3rpothesis  has  been 
adopted  that  Paul,  after  his  first  imprisonment, 
was  set  at  liberty,  resumed  his  missionary  labors, 
was  again  apprehended,  and  wrote  this  epistle  dur- 
ing his  second  imprisonment.  Whichever  hypoth- 
esis we  adopt  we  shall  encounter  difficulties;  but 
the  latter  seems,  upon  the  whole,  the  preferable 
(comp.  the  Introductions  of  Home,  Hug,  Michae- 
lis,  Eichhorn ;  Hemsen's  Leben  Pauli;  Paley's  Ho- 
r<B  Paulin<B,  etc.). 

4.  Design.      The  design  of  the  first  epistle  is 


partly  to  instruct  Timothy  in  the  duties  of  that 
office  with  which  he  had  been  intrusted,  partly  to 
supply  him  with  credentials  to  the  churdies  which 
he  might  visit,  and  partly  to  furnish  through  him 
guidance  to  the  churches  themselves.  It  may  be 
divided  into  three  parts,  exclusive  of  the  intro- 
duction (i:i,  2),  and  the  conclusion  (vi:20,  21). 

(1)  Beminding  Timothy  of  His  Duties.    In 

the  first  of  these  parts  (i:3-2o)  the  Apostle  re- 
minds Timothy  generally  of  his  functions,  and 
especially  of  the  duties  he  had  to  discharge  in 
reference  to  certain  false  teachers,  who  were  anx- 
ious to  bring  the  believers  under  the  yoke  of  the 
law. 

(2)  Instructions  Concerning  Order  of  Wor^ 
ship.  In  the  second  (ii-vi:2)  he  g^ves  Timothy 
particular  instructions  concerning  the  orderly  con- 
ducting of  divine  worship,  the  qualifications  of 
bishops  and  deacons,  and  the  proper  mode  of  be- 
having himself  in  a  church. 

(3)  Concerning  the  Ephesians.  In  the  third 
(vi:3-i9)  the  Apostle  discourses  against  some 
vices  to  which  the  Christians  at  Ephesus  seem  to 
have  been  prone. 

The  design  of  the  second  epistle  is  partly  to 
inform  Timothy  of  the  Apostle's  trying  circum- 
stances at  Rome,  and  partly  to  utter  a  last  warn- 
ing voice  against  the  errors  and  delusions  which 
were  corrupting  and  disturbing  the  churches.  It 
consists  of  an  inscription  (i:i-5);  of  a  series  of 
exhortations  to  Timothy  to  be  faithful  in  his  zeal 
for  sound  doctrine,  patient  under  affliction  and 
persecution,  careful  to  maintain  a  deportment  be- 
coming his  office,  and  diligent  in  his  endeavors  to 
counteract  the  unhallowed  efiforts  of  the  false 
teachers  (i:6;  iv:7);  and  a  conclusion  in  which 
Paul  requests  Timothy  to  visit  him,  and  sends  the 
salutations  of  certain  Christians  at  Rome  to  Tim- 
othy, and  those  of  the  Apostle  himself  to  some  be- 
lievers in  Asia  Minor. 

5,  Literature.  Paterson,  Commentary^  Lond. 
1848;  Ellicott,  Commentary,  Bost  1866;  Alford, 
Commentary^  1866;  Lange,  Commentary,  1868. 

TIN  (tto),  i^^hy^l^^^bed-eer :  Sept.  Kcunrlrepot, 
kaS'Sit  'er-os). 

If  this  substance  be  really  intended  by  the  He- 
brew word,  which  seems  somewhat  doubtful,  it 
is  first  mentioned  among  the  metals  which  were 
to  be  purified  by  fire  found  among  the  prey  taken 
from  the  Midianites  (Num.  xxxi:22).  It  is  also 
named  among  the  articles  of  commerce  which  the 
Tyrians  received  from  Tarshish  (Ezek.  xxvii: 
12) ;  and  a  leveling  instrument  of  hed-eeV  used 
by  builders  is  noticed  in  Zech.  iv:io.  (Marg. 
"stone  of  tin.")  The  Hebrew  word  also  denotes 
the  alloy  of  lead,  tin,  and  other  inferior  metals, 
combined  with  silver  in  the  ore  and  separated  from 
it  by  smelting  (Is.  i:25). 

TINKLING.    See  Bell;  Dress. 

TINSHEMETH  (tin-shg'meth),  (Heb.   ^^t^* 

tan-sheh'meth,  swan.  Lev.  xi:i8;  Deut.  xiv:i6). 

There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  this  is  not 
the  true  meaning  of  the  word  thus  rendered  in 
our  common  version,  for  the  swan  is  not  a  bird 
which,  in  migrating  to  the  south,  even  during  the 
coldest  seasons,  appears  to  proceed  further  than 
France  or  Spain,  though  no  doubt  individuals  may 
be  blown  onwards  in  hard  gales  to  the  African 
shore.  In  all  probability  the  bird  referred  to  is 
the  porphyrion  or  purple  gallinula.  The  porphy- 
rion  is  superior  in  bulk  to  our  water-hen  or  gal- 
linula,  has  a  hard  crimson  shield  on  the  forehead, 
and  flesh-colored  legs;  the  head,  neck,  and  sides 
are  of  a  beautiful  turquoise  blue,  the  upper  and 
back  parts  of  a  dark  but  brilliant  indigo. 


TIPHSAH 


1668 


TITHE,  TITHES 


The  porphyrion  is  a  remarkable  bird,  abound- 
ing in  the  southern  and  eastern  parts  of  Europe 
and  western  Asia,  feeding  itself  standing  on  one 
leg,  and  holding  its  food  in  the  claws  of  the  other. 
It  was  anciently  kept  tame  in  the  precincts  of 
pagan  temples,  and  therefore  perhaps  was  marked 
unclean,  as  most,  if  not  all,  the  sacred  animals 
of  the  heathens  were.  C.  H.  S. 

(tif'sah),   (Heb.   "BW,  tif-sakh',  a 


iv 


fording  place;  Sept.  Beo-pd,  thss-rah't  Thesra),  a 
large  and  opulent  city  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Euphrates. 

It  is  doubtless  the  same  as  the  Thapsacus  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  The  name  means  *ford;' 
and  the  town  was,  in  fact,  situated  at  the  lowest 
fording  place  of  the  Euphrates;  whence  it  be- 
came the  point  of  trading  communication  between 
the  natives  east  and  west  of  the  river.  On  this 
account,  and  as  commanding  the  ford,  the  pos- 
session of  the  place  was  deemed  of  gn'eat  impor- 
tance by  the  ruling  powers  of  the  day  (Xenoph. 
Anab.  i,  4-ii;  Arrian,  ii,  13;  iii,  7;  Strabo,  xvi, 
p.  1082;  Q.  Curtius,  X,  1-9).  Tliis  circumstance 
explains  the  contentions  of  the  kings  of  Syria 
and  Egypt  respecting  Carchemish,  which  was  a 
strong  place  a  little  lower  down  the  river,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Chaboras.  Solomon  obtained 
possession  of  Tiphsah  (i  Kings  iv:24),  probably 
m  connection  with  the  series  of  operations  (of 
which  the  building  or  fortification  of  Tadmor 
was  one)  adopted  by  him  for  the  purpose  of 
drawing  the  eastern  trade  into  his  own  dominions. 
(See  Solomon;  Tadmor.)  It  was  attacked  by 
Menahem,  king  of  Israel,  who  inflicted  great  cru- 
elties on  the  inhabitants  (2  Kings  xv:i6).  Noth- 
ing remains  of  Tiphsah  at  the  present  day  except 
the  name;  but  the  site  is  supposed  to  be  marked 
by  the  village  of  Ed-Deyr. 

TIBAS  (ti'ras),  (Heb.  ^T^.  Ue-rawce',  longing. 

desire).  The  youngest  son  of  Japheth,  the  son  of 
Noah  (Gen.  x  :2),  B.  C.  2514. 

TIBATHITES  (ti'rath-ites),  (Heb.  "'P?!?,  teer- 
aW'thee\%2X€), 

One  of  the  three  families  of  Scribes  residing  at 
Jabez  (i  Chron.  ii:55),  the  others  being  the 
Shimeathites  and  Suchathites. 

TIBE  (tir),  (Heb.  '^^^.  t  pek-ayr'\  an  ornamental 

headdress  (Ezek.  xxiv:i7,  2^^.  'Wi^  Xzxva peh-ayr' 
is  elsewhere  rendered  "goodly"  (Exod.  xxxix:28); 
"bonnet"  (Is.iii:i8;  Ezek.  xliv:i8);  and  "ornament" 
(Is.  xli:io).    (See  Dress). 

TTRHAKAH  (tir'ha-kah),  (Heb.  ^R^^l^,  teer- 

haw'-kaw,  Ethiopic  derivation),  king  of  Cush 
(Ethiopia  in  the  Common  Version),  who  in  the 
days  of  Hezekiah  came  out  against  Sennacherib 
when  he  was  making  war  on  Judah  (2  Kings  xix:9; 
Is.  xxxvii:g),  B.  C.  about  703.  He  is  the  Tarakos\ 
of  Manetho,  the  third  kine  of  the  twenty-fifth 
dynasty,  and  the  7>r<i>&^«',  of  Strabo  (xv:687),  with 
whom  the  twenty-fifth  Ethiopic  dynasty  came  to 
an  end. 

His  successful  opposition  to  the  power  of  As- 
syria is  recorded  on  the  walls  of  a  Theban  tem- 
ple, for  at  Medinet  Habu  are  the  figure  and  the 
name  of  this  king  and  the  captives  he  took.  That 
Tirhakah  ruled  at  Napata,  now  Gebel  Berkel,  and 
in  the  Thebaid  at  the  same  period,  is  proved  by 
the  additions  he  made  to  the  temples  of  Thebes, 
and  by  the  monuments  he  built  in  Ethiopia.  That 
he  was  a  very  potent  monarch  is  evident  from  his 
defeat  of  Sennacherib,  as  well  as  from  the  monu- 
ments he  has  left  both  in  Egypt  and  Ethiopia, 
and  his  maintenance  of  the  Egyptian  possessions 
in  Asia.  J.  R.  B. 


TIBHAKAH  (tlr'ha-nah),  (Heb..  ^i^T^,  Uer- 

khan-aw't  inclination  or  favor),  the  second  son  of 
Caleb  ben-Hezron  by  his  concubine  Maachah  ( i 
Chron.  ii:48),  B.  C.  about  1618. 

TIBIA  (tir'i-a),  (Heb.  KT^,  Ue-reh-yaw',  fear), 

the  third  son  of  Jehaleleel  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (i 
Chron.  iv:i6),  B.  C.  about  161 8. 
TIBSHATHA   ( tTr-sha-tha ),    (Heb.   with    the 

article,  ^??^l?i},  hat-Uer-shaw-thaw'),  a  title  borne 

by  Zerubbabel  and  Nehemiah,  as  Persian  gover- 
nors of  J  udsea  (Ezra  ii:63;  Neh.  vii:65,  70;  viiirg; 
x:i). 

It  seems  to  come  from  the  Persian  torsh,  'se- 
vere,* and,  in  that  case,  would  be  equivalent  to 
*your  severity:*  comp.  *  dread  sovereign.*  It  is 
used  of  Assyrian  (2  Kings  xviii:24;  Is.  xxxvi.'p). 
Median  (Jer.  li:28),  Persian  (Esth.  viiirp;  ix:3), 
and  Babylonian  under  governors  (Jer.  li:57; 
Ezek.  xxiii:6,  23). 

TIBZAH  (tir'zah),  1.  (Heb.  ^Tf>,  Uer-zaw',  de- 
light). This  tree  is  mentioned  only  once  in  Scrip- 
ture, namely  in  Is.  xliv:i4.  'He  (that  is,  the  car- 
penter, ver.  13)  heweth  him  down  cedars,  and 
taketh  the  cypresar  (Uer-zaw')  for  the  purpose  of 
making  an  idol.' 

There  is  no  doubt  but  the  wood  must  have  been 
of  a  texture  fit  to  be  worked,  as  well  as  to  re- 
tain the  shape  given  to  it.  Though  translated 
'cypress,'  we  have  no  proof  that  this  tree  was  in- 
tended, but  it  is  well  suited  for  the  purpose  indi- 
cated (Berosh).  The  Greek  translators,  Aquila 
and  Theodotion,  have  employed  a  word  which  de- 
notes the  wild  or  forest  oak.  The  oldest  Latin 
version  renders  the  Hebrew  word  by  ilex,  *the 
evergreen  oak.'  As  the  wood  of  this  species  is 
well-fitted  for  being  worked  into  images,  and  was 
so  employed  by  the  ancients,  it  is  possible  that 
it  may  be  that  mtended,  though  we  have  no  satis- 
factory proof  of  its  being  so.     (See  Cypress.) 

a.    (Heb.  5^VlO,/tf^r-/5««/',  delight;  Sept  Gep<rd. 

Thersa).  An  ancient  Canaanitish  city  (Josh. 
xii:24),  pleasantly  situated  (Cant.  vi:4),  which 
Jeroboam  made  the  capital  of  his  kingdom,  and 
which  retained  that  rank  till  Samaria  was  built 
by  Omri  (i  Kings  xiv:i7;  xv:2i,  33;  xvi:6,  2'^], 
Teiasir,  thirteen  miles  northeast  of  Samaria,  is 
suggested  as  the  site  of  the  ancient  city. 

3.  The  last  of  the  five  daughters  of  Zelophehad 
(Num.  xxvi:33;  xxviiri;  xxxvi.ii;  Josh,  xvii: 
3).    (See  Zelophehad.) 

^  TI8HBITE  (trsh'blte),  (Heb.  with  the  article. 

""S^Li,  hat'tish-bee*  \  Sept.  OcapiTris,  thes-bee'tace. 

Thesbite),  the  Gentile  name  of  Elijah— 'Elijah  the 
Tishbite'  (i  Kings  xvii:i,  2;  xxi:i7;  2  Kings  i:3,  8; 
ix:36)— derived  from  a  town  called  Tishbi  in  the 
tribe  of  Naphtali,  the  name  of  which  occurs  only 
in  Tob.  i:2,  Thisbe  (See  Reland,  Paleestina,  p.  1035). 

TISBI  (trs'rl),  (Heb.  ''ifJ?,  tisk-ree',  from  a  root 

which  denotes  to  begin),  was  the  first  month  of  the 
civil,  and  the  seventh  month  of  the  ecclesiastical 
year,  in  which  fell  the  Festival  of  Atonement  and 
that  of  Tabernacles. 

In  I  Kings  viii:2,  it  is  termed  the  month  of 
Ethanim,  that  is,  the  month  of  streaming  rivers, 
which  are  filled  during  this  month  by  the  au- 
tumnal rains.  It  corresponds  with  our  Septem- 
ber-October. 

TITHE,    TITHES  (tith,  tithes),  (Heb.  "^to^?. 

mah-as-ayr\  a  tenth.  Lev.  xxvii:3o,  31,  xz,  etc.; 
Sept.  deicdTiy,  dek-at'ay,  a  tenth,  a  part;  Vulg,  ete- 
cimce). 


TITHE,  TITHES 


1G69 


TITUS 


The  Hebrew  term  is  plainly  derived  from  the 
word  signifying  *ten/  which  also  means  *to  be 
rich;'  hence  ten  is  the  rich  number,  because  in- 
cluding all  the  units  under  it.  This  num^r 
seems  significant  of  completeness  or  abundance 
in  many  passages  of  Scripture.  Jacob  said  unto 
Laban,  Thou  hast  changed  my  wages  these  ten 
times'  (Gen.  xxxi:4i)  ;  *Am  not  I  better  to  thee 
than  ten  sons?'  (i  Sam.  i:8).  These  ten  times 
have  ye  reproached  me*  (Job  xix  :3)  ;  Thy  pound 
hath  gained  ten  pounds'  (Luke  xix:i6),  etc.  This 
number,  as  the  end  of  less  numbers  and  beginning 
of  greater,  and  as  thus  signifying  perfection,  suf- 
ficiency, etc.,  may  have  been  selected  for  its  suit- 
ableness to  those  Eucharistic  donations  to  relig- 
ion, etc.,  which  mankind  were  required  to  make 
probably  in  primeval  times.  Abraham  gave  to 
Melchizedec,  'priest  of  the  most  high  God,'  a  tenth 
of  all  the  spoils  he  had  taken  from  Chedorlaomer 
(Gen.  xiv:2o;  Heb.  vii:4).  The  incidental  way 
in  which  this  fact  is  stated  seems  to  indicate  an 
established  custom.  Jacob's  vow  ^Gen.  xxviii: 
22)  seems  simply  to  relate  to  compliance  with  an 
established  custom;  his  words  are,  literally,  *And 
all  that  thou  shalt  g^ve  me,  I  will  assuredly  tithe 
it  unto  thee.' 

(1)  Mosaic  Law.  The  Mosaic  law,  therefore, 
in  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  others,  was  simply 
a  reconstitution  of  the  patriarchal  religion.  Thus, 
the  consecration  of  a  portion  of  the  military  spoils 
is  commanded  (Num.  xxxi:3i,  sq.).  For  the  law 
concerning  tithes  generally,  see  Lev.  xxvii:30, 
etc.,  where  they  are  first  spoken  of  as  things  al- 
ready known. 

These  tithes  consisted  of  a  tenth  of  all  that  re- 
mained after  payment  of  the  first-fruits  of  seeds 
and  fruits,  and  of  calves,  lambs,  and  kids.  This 
was  called  the  first  tithe,  and  belonged  to  God  as 
the  sovereign  and  proprietor  of  the  soil  (Lev. 
xxvii  130-32;  2  Chron.  xxxi:5,  6).  The  proceeds 
of  this  rent,  God,  as  king,  appropriated  to  the 
maintenance  and  remuneration  of  his  servants  the 
Levites,  to  be  paid  to  them  in  their  several  cities 
(Num.  xviii:2i-24).  A  person  might  redeem  or 
commute  in  money  his  tithes  of  seeds  and  fruits, 
by  adding  the  value  of  a  fifth  part  to  them  (Lev. 
xxvii  131 ).  Out  of  this  tithe  the  Levites  paid  a 
tenth  to  the  priests,  called  the  tithe  of  tithes,  or 
tithe  of  holy  things  (Num.  xviii:26-28)  ;  and  an- 
other tithe  of  the  produce  of  the  fields  belong- 
ing to  their  cities  (ver.  29).  The  first  tithe  be- 
ing paid,  the  proprietor  had  to  set  apart  out  of  the 
remainder  a  second  tithe,  to  be  expended  by  him 
in  the  courts  of  the  tabernacle,  in  entertaining 
the  Levites  and  his  own  family,  etc.  (Deut.  xii: 
17).  If  the  trouble  and  expense  of  transporting 
this  second  tithe  in  kind  to  the  tabernacle  were 
too  great,  he  might  turn  it  into  money,  but  this 
he  must  take  in  person,  and  expend  there  for  the 
appointed  purpose  (verses  24-28).  It  seems  that 
the  people  were  left  to  their  own  consciences  in 
regard  to  the  just  payment  of  their  tithes,  subject, 
however,  to  the  solemn  declaration  'before  the 
Lord,'  which  they  were  required  to  make  con- 
cerning it  every  third  year  (Deut.  xxvi:i2-i6). 
Possibly  the  Levites  were  not  prohibited  from 
taking  due  care  that  they  received  their  rights, 
inasmuch  as  in  later  times,  at  least,  they  paid 
their  own  tithes  to  the  priests  under  sacerdotal 
supervision  (Neh.  x:38). 

(2)  Moderate  Payments.  Upon  examination  it 
will  be  found  that  the  payments  required  by  Moses 
of  the  Jewish  people  were  exceedingly  moderate, 
and  were  no  doubt  easily  borne  till  they  chose  to 
incur  the  additional  expenses  of  a  regal  estab- 
lishment.   It  pleased  God,  while  sustaining  the 


relation  to  them  of  sovereign  and  proprietor  of 
the  land,  to  acquire  the  same  quitrent  of  one- 
tenth  which  was  usually  paid  to  the  kings  in  other 
nations  (i  Sam.  viii:i4,  15,  17).  Aristotle  speaks 
of  it  as  'an  ancient  law'  at  Babylon  ((Economic. 
lib.  ii.  sub  fin.). 

In  Egypt  one-fifth  was  paid  to  the  king,  which 
was  more  than  the  first  fruits  and  first  and  sec- 
ond tithes  put  together.  This  quitrent  God  ap- 
pointed to  be  paid  to  the  Levites  for  their  sub- 
sistence, since  their  festive  share  in  the  second 
tithes  can  hardly  be  accounted  part  of  their  in- 
come. They  had,  as  a  tribe  of  Israel,  an  original 
right  to  one-twelfth  of  the  land,  for  which  they 
received  no  other  compensation  than  the  tithes, 
subject  to  the  sacerdotal  decimation,  their  houses, 
and  glebes.  In  return  for  these,  they  consecrated 
their  time  and  talents  to  the  service  of  the  public. 
(See  Levites.) 

The  payment  of  tithes,  etc.,  was  re-established 
at  the  restoration  of  religion  by  Hezekiah  (2 
Chron.  xxxi:5,  6,  12),  and  upon  the  return  from 
the  captivity  by  Nehemiah  (x:37;  xii  144;  xiii;5). 

The  prophet  Malachi  reproves  the  people  for 
their  detention  of  the  tithes,  etc.,  for  which  they 
had  brought  a  divine  chastisement  by  famine  upon 
themselves,  and  promises  a  restoration  of  plenty 
upon  their  amendment  (iii:8-i2;  comp.  Prov.  iii: 
9,  10;  Ecclus.  XXXV  rp). 

In  our  Savior's  time  the  Pharisees  scrupulously 
paid  their  tithes,  but  neglected  the  weightier  mat- 
ters of  the  law.  His  comment  on  their  conduct 
conveys  no  censure  on  their  punctiliousness  on 
this  point,  but  on  their  neglect  of  more  impor- 
tant duties.  These  ought  ye  to  have  done,  and 
not  to  leave  the  other  undone'  (Matt.  xxiii:23; 
Luke  xviii:i2).  In  regard  to  payment  of  tithes 
to  Melchizedec  (Heb.  vii:4,  etc.),  see  Stuart,  On 
the  Hebrews;  Professor  Wilson,  On  the  Priest- 
hood of  Christ.  On  the  Jewish  tithes,  see  Hot- 
tinger,  De  decimis  Judceorum,  Lugdun.  Batav. 
1713;  Michaelis,  On  the  Laws  of  Moses,  by  A. 
Smith,  Lond.  1814,  vol.  iii,  pp.  141-146;  and  On 
the  Heathen  Tithes;  Rose's  fnscriptiones  Grcecce, 
Lond.  1825;  p.  215;  Keil,  Bib.  Arch.;  Nordhausen, 
1855.  ^Ency.  Brit.  9th  edit.  Speaker's  Com.  on 
Genesis,  Numbers,  Leviticus  and  Deut. 

J.  F.  D. 

TTTIiE  (ti't'l),  (Gr.  Ti'rXot,  //r/^j.  Johnxixiip), 
the  inscription  of  the  crime,  for  which  men  were 
punished,  publicly  displayed,  as,  for  example,  on 
the  cross  ot  such  as  were  crucified. 

TITTLE  (th't'l),  the  diminutive  of  Ht,  hence  = 
minimum,  the  very  least  of  a  thing.  It  stands  for 
the  Greek  irepa/a,  ker-ah'yah,  little  horn  (Matt,  v: 
18;  Luke  xvi:i7). 

TITUS  (ti'tus],  (Gr.  Tfri/t,  tee*tos,  Titus),  a  Chris- 
tian teacher  and  companion  and  fellow  laborer  of 
St.  Paul. 

(1)  Conversion.  He  was  of  Greek  origin,  but 
was  converted  by  the  Apostle,  who  therefore  calls 
him  his  own  son  in  the  faith  (Gal.  ii:3;  Tit.  i:4). 
He  was  one  of  the  "certain  other"  persons  sent  by 
the  church  of  Antioch  to  Jerusalem  to  consult  the 
Apostles,  and  it  was  not  judged  necessary  that  he 
should  receive  circumcision  (Acts  xv:2;  Gal.  ii:i). 

(2)  Paul's  Companion.  After  a  time  we  find 
him  in  company  with  Paul  at  Ephesus,  whence  he 
was  sent  to  Corinth  (2  Cor.  xii:  18),  where  he 
was  well  received,  discharged  with  discretion  the 
task  confided  to  him,  and  declined  to  suffer  the 
church  to  defray  his  expenses  (2  Cor.  viii:i3,  16). 
He  then  proceeded  to  Macedonia,  and  at  Philippi 
rejoined  his  master,  who  had  vainly  been  expect- 
ing him  at  Troas  (2  Cot.  vii:6;  ii:i2,  13).  He 
was  then  employed  by  Paul  in  preparing  the  col- 


TITUS,  EPISTLE  TO 


1670 


TITUS,  EPISTLE  TO 


lection  for  the  poor  saints  in  Judea,  and,  as  an 
incident  of  this  mission,  became  the  bearer  of  the 
second  epistle  to  the  Corinthians  (2  Cor.  viii: 
16,   17,  23). 

(3)  At  Crete.  On  a  subsequent  journey,  Titus 
was  left  by  the  apostle  in  Crete,  to  establish  and 
regulate  the  churches  in  that  island  (Titus  i:5), 
and  he  was  still  there  when  he  received  the  epistle 
from  St.  Paul  which  bears  his  name  (Titus  iii: 
12).  He  is  therein  desired  to  join  the  Apostle  at 
Nicopolis ;  and  it  is  presumed  that  he  did  so,  and 
afterwards  accompanied  him  in  his  last  journey  to 
Rome,  whence  he  was  sent  into  Dalmatia  (2 
T!m.  iv:io). 

(4)  Death,  etc.  Tradition  states  that  Titus 
eventually  returned  to  Crete,  and  died  there  at  the 
age  of  94;  that  he  became  permanent  bishop  of 
the  island;  and  that  he  is  buried  at  Candia.  "Ti- 
tus" was  the  watchword  of  the  Cretans  during 
their  war  with  the  Venetians. 

TITT7S,  EPISTLE  TO. 

(1)  Gknuineness.  The  genuineness  of  this 
epistle  is  attested  by  a  large  body  of  evidence, 
and  seems  never  to  have  been  questioned,  except 
by  the  heretic  Marcion,  and  that  upon  the  most 
frivolous  gn'ounds  (Tertullian,  Adv,  Marcion,  v, 
21),  until,  in  recent  times,  it  was  attacked  by 
Eichhorn  and  De  Wette.  It  is  manifestly  quoted 
by  Clement  of  Rome  {Ep,  ad  Cor.  cap.  2)  ;  and 
it  is  referred  to  as  the  production  of  Paul  by 
Irenaeus  (iii,  3.  sec.  4)  ;  as  part  of  the  Divine  Word 
by  Theophilus  (Ad,  Antot,  iii,  sec  14)  ;  as  Paul's, 
by  Clement  of  Alexandria  (Strom,  lib.  i,  p.  299, 
and  in  many  other  places) ;  by  Tertullian  (De 
Prctser,  H(Fr.  c.  6) ;  and  by  Origen,  in  many 
places  (Lardner,  Works,  voL  ii,  8vo).  The  ob- 
jections of  the  (jerman  critics  are  founded  chiefly 
upon  the  difficulty  of  ascertaining  the  proper  date 
of  this  epistle,  and  upon  minute  peculiarities  in 
its  style  and  sentiments.  The  latter  class  of  ob- 
jections are  so  much  identical  with  those  already 
considered  in  reference  to  the  Epistle  to  Timothy, 
that  it  is  unnecessary  to  enter  upon  any  examina- 
tion of  them  here.  To  the  former  the  best  reply 
will  be  furnished  by  ascertaining,  if  possible, 
when  and  where  the  epistle  was  written ;  but  even 
should  we  fail  in  this,  it  would  be  strange  were 
we  to  relinquish  our  conviction  of  the  authentic- 
ity of  an  ancient  writing  simply  because,  pos- 
sessing very  imperfect  information  as  to  many 
parts  of  the  alleged  author's  history,  we  were  un- 
able to  say  with  certainty  when  he  was  in  circum- 
stances to  compose  it. 

(2)  Time  of  Writing.  It  is  evident  from  the 
epistle  itself  that  at  the  time  it  was  written  Paul 
had  recently  visited  Crete  (ch.  i,  5)  ;  that  he  was 
about  to  spend  the  winter  in  Nicopolis  (ch.  iii, 
12)  ;  and  that  Apollos  was  about  to  visit  Crete,  on 
his  way  to  some  other  place  (ch.  iii,  13).  These 
points  may  serve,  in  some  measure,  if  not  as  in- 
dices to  the  exact  time  when  this  epistle  was  writ- 
ten, at  least  as  criteria  by  which  to  test  the  truth 
of  any  hjrpothesis  that  may  be  suggested  on  this 
subject. 

We  learn  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostle  that  Paul 
visited  Crete  on  his  voyage  to  Rome  (ch.  xxvii: 
7)  ;  but  the  shortness  of  his  visit  at  that  time,  the 
circumstances  under  which  it  was  made,  and  the 
improbability  of  his  expecting  to  spend  the  ensu- 
ing winter  at  Nicopolis,  place  it  out  of- the  ques- 
tion to  suppose  that  it  was  to  this  visit  he  refers 
in  this  epistle.  As  this  is,  however,  the  only  visit 
recorded  by  Luke,  in  rejecting  it  we  are  forced  to 
suppose  another  visit,  and  to  find  some  period  in 
the  Apostle's  life  when  it  was  probable  that  such 
a  visit  was  paid. 


It  has  been  suggested  by  Hug  that  the  period 
referred  to  in  Acts  xviii:i8,  19  admits  of  our 
placing  this  visit  to  Crete  within  it.  Paul  at  that 
time,  was  on  his  journey  from  Corinth  to  Pales- 
tine, but  on  some  account  or  other  landed  at  Ej^e- 
sus.  This  leads  to  the  suggestion  that  the  Apos- 
tle must  either  voluntarily  have  departed  from 
the  usual  course  in  order  to  visit  some  place  Isring 
between  Corinth  and  Ephesus;  or  that  he  must 
have  been  driven  by  stress  of  weather  from  the 
course  he  meant  to  pursue.  In  either  case  the 
probability  of  his  visiting  Crete  at  that  time  is 
strong.  We  find,  from  the  mention  made  by  Paul 
in  this  epistle  of  Apollos,  that  he,  on  his  way 
from  Ephesus  to  Corinth  (Acts  xviii:24;  xix:i), 
was  to  touch  at  Crete;  which  renders  it  not  im- 
probable that  it  was  customary  for  ships  sailing 
between  these  two  ports  to  call  at  Crete  by  the 
way;  and  Paul  may  have  availed  himself  of  this 
practice  in  order  to  visit  Crete  before  going  to 
Palestine.  Or  he  may  have  sailed  in  a  ship  bound 
directly  from  Corinth  to  Palestine,  and  have  b^n 
driven  out  of  his  course,  shipwrecked  on  Crete, 
and  obliged  to  sail  thence  to  Ephesus  as  his  only 
remaining  method  of  getting  to  his  original  des- 
tination— a  supposition  which  will  not  appear  very 
improbable  when  we  remember  that  Paul  must 
have  suffered  several  shipwrecks  of  which  Luke 
gives  no  account  (2  Cor.  xi  123,  26)  ;  and  that  his 
getting  to  Ephesus  on  his  way  from  Corinth  to 
Palestine  is  a  fact  for  which,  in  some  way  or 
other,  we  are  bound  to  account. 

(3)  At  Ephesus.  It  was  whilst  staying  on  this 
occasion  at  Ephesus  that  Hug  supposes  Paul  to 
have  written  this  epistle.  As  confirmatory  of  this 
may  be  adduced  the  two  other  facts  referred  to. 
as  mentioned  in  the  Epistle  itself,  viz.,  the  visit  of 
Apollos  to  Crete,  and  Paul's  intention  to  winter 
at  Nicopolis.  From  Acts  xix  :i  we  learn  that  dur- 
ing the  time  Apollos  was  residing  at  Corinth, 
whence  he  had  gone  from  Ephesus,  Paul  was  en- 
gaged in  a  tour  through  the  upper  coasts  (viz., 
Phrygia  and  Galatia ;  comp.  Acts  xviii  :23) ,  which 
ended  in  his  return  to  Ephesus.  This  tour  was 
commenced  after  the  apostle  had  been  at  Jerusa- 
lem and  Antioch  (ch.  xviii  .-22) .  It  appears,  there- 
fore,-that  Paul  left  Antioch  much  about  the  same 
time  that  Apollos  reached  Corinth.  But  Apollos 
went  to  Corinth  from  Ephesus,  Paul  went  to  Je- 
rusalem from  Ephesus.  At  this  city,  therefore, 
they  must  have  met;  and  before  leaving  it  Paul 
probably  wrote  this  epistle,  and  gave  it  to  Apol- 
los to  deliver  to  Titus  at  CretCj  on  his  way  to 
Corinth. 

Further,  Paul  went  up  to  Jerusalem  to  keep 
the  feast;  after  which  he  visited  Antioch,  and 
then  traveled  for  some  considerable  time  in  up- 
per Asia.  He,  therefore,  probably  spent  the  win- 
ter somewhere  in  Asia  Minor.  Now  there  was  a 
town  named  Nicopolis,  between  Antioch  and  Tar- 
sus, near  to  which,  if  not  through  which,  Paul 
must  pass  on  his  way  from  Antioch  to  Galatia 
(Strabo,  lib.  xiv,  p.  465,  ed.  Casaubon,  fol.  1587). 
May  not  this  have  been  the  very  ijlace  referred  to 
in  Titus  iii:  12?  In  such  a  locality  it  was  quite 
natural  for  Paul  to  desire  to  spend  the  winter; 
and  as  Titus  was  a  native  of  Asia  it  would  be  well 
known  to  him,  especially  if  he  knew  what  route 
the  apostle  designed  to  pursue.  All  this  supports 
the  hypothesis  that  Paul  wrote  this  epistle  before 
leaving  Ephesus  to  go  to  Syria. 

Another  circumstance  in  favor  of  this  hypothe- 
sis is  the  close  resemblance  in  sentiment  and 
phraseology  between  this  epistle  and  the  first  epis- 
tle to  Timothy.  This  resemblance  is  so  close,  and 
in  some  particulars  so  peculiar,  that  we  arc  nat- 


TIZITE 


1671 


TOKEN 


urally  led  to  conclude  that  both  must  have  been 
written  whilst  the  same  leading  ideas  and  forms 
of  expression  were  occupying  the  Apostle's  mind. 
Now  the  first  Epistle  to  Timothy  was  most  prob- 
ably written  after  Paul  had  left  Ephesus  the  sec- 
ond time  to  go  into  Macedonia  (see  Timothy, 
Epistles  to),  that  is,  about  two  years  and  a  half 
after  the  period  when  Hug  supposes  the  Epistle 
to  Titus  to  have  been  written.  To  some  this  may 
appear  too  long  a  time  to  justify  any  stress  being 
laid  upon  the  similarity  of  the  two  epistles  in  this 
question  of  their  respective  dates;  but  when  it  is 
remembered  that  durmgthe  interval  Paul  had  been 
dealing  at  Ephesus  with  very  much  the  same  class 
of  persons,  to  whom  a  great  part  of  both  epistles 
refer,  and  that  both  are  addressed  to  persons 
holding  the  same  peculiar  office,  the  force  of  this 
objection  will  be  weakened. 

Such  is  Hug's  hypothesis.  To  us  it  appears  to 
be  worthy  of  all  respect.  The  only  on€  which  can 
compete  with  it  is  that  which  Benson,  Paley,  Pear- 
son, and  several  other  British  scholars  have 
adopted,  viz.,  that  this  epistle  was  written  after 
Paul's  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  and  while  he 
was  residing  probably  at  Nicopolis  in  Macedonia. 
As  this  hypothesis,  however,  is  formed  solely  out 
of.  the  epistle  itself,  it  can  be  legitimately  resorted 
to  only  when  no  other,  supported  by  external  au- 
thority, can  be  found.  If  Hug's  hypothesis  be  not 
untenable,  it  must  on  this  account  claim  the  pref- 
erence. W.  L.  A. 

TIZITE  (ti'zite),  (Heb.  T^?,  tee-tsee^),  the  desig- 
nation of  Joha  the  son  of  Shimri  (i  Chron.  xi:45). 

TOAH  (t5'ah).   (Heb.    D'f^.   to'akh,  inclined, 

lowly),  a  Kohathite  Levite,  ancestor  of  Samuel 
(i  Chron.  vi:34),  called  ToHU  (i  Sam.  i:i),  and  Na- 
HATH  (i  Chron  vi:26). 

TOB  (t6b),  (Heb.  D*t3,  tobe^  good),  a  region  or  dis- 
trict beyond  the  Jordan  into  which  Jephthah  with- 
drew when  expelled  from  Gilead  (JiKig.  xi:5). 
Hanun,  king  of  Ammon,  drew  soldiers  from  Tob 
(2  Sam.  x:6,  R.  V.). 

It  was  probably  the  district  of  Gilead  known 
in  Greek  as  the  land  of  Tubias  (i  Mace.  v:i3; 
comp.  2  Mace.  xii:i7).  Exact  situation  is  de- 
batable. 

TOB-ADONIJAH  (t6b'  &d-o-ni'jah),  (Heb.  2ltd 
•"ff^'lS,,  tobe  ad-o-nee-yah',  good  is  Adonijah),  one 

of  the  Levites  sent  by  Jehoshaphat  through  the 
cities  of  Judah  to  teach  the  law  to  the  people  (2 
Chron.  xvii:8),  B.  C.  910. 

TOBIAH  (to-bi'ah),  (Heb.  •"'J3'^^»  Uhbee-yaw'. 
goodness  of  Jehovah). 

1.  A  base  Samaritan,  who,  having  raised  him- 
self from  a  state  of  slavery  to  be  a  trusted  favor- 
ite of  Sanballat  (Neh.  ii:io,  19),  did  his  utmost 
to  gratify  his  master  by  resisting  the  proceedings 
of  Nehemiah  in  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jerusalem. 
Tobiah  entered  into  a  league  with  Sanballat  and 
the  surrounding  nations  against  the  Jews  (Neh. 
vi:i7).  These  dishonest  practices  and  the  use 
of  threats  alike  proved  nugatory  (Neh.  ii:i9,  20). 
Nehemiah,  however,  was  obliged  to  leave  Jerusa- 
lem. By  this  absence  Tobiah  profited,  in  order, 
with  the  aid  of  his  relative  Eliashib,  the  priest, 
to  get  himself  comfortably  and  splendidly  estab- 
lished in  *a  great  chamber  in  the  house  of  God' 
(ch.  xiii:4).  But  his  glory  was  short  lived.  Nehe- 
miah returned  and  caused  him  and  his  household 
stuff  to  be  ignomdniously  cast  out  of  the  Temple 
(Neh.  xiii:4-9).  This  is  the  last  that  we  know 
of  this  member  of  that  vile  class  who  are  ready 


and  unscrupulous  tools  in  the  hands  of  their  su- 
periors for  any  dishonorable  undertaking. 

J.  R.  B. 
2.  Children  of  Tobiah  were  among  those  who 
returned  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel,  and  were 
unable  to  prove  their  kinship  with  the  Israelites 
(Ezra  ii:6o;  Neh.  vii:62).    (B.  C.  before  536.) 

TOBLTAH  (to-brjah),  (Heb.  same  as  Tobiah). 

1.  A  Levite  whom  Jehoshaphat  sent  with  others 
to  teach  the  law  in  the  cities  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xvii:8).     (B.  C.  910.) 

2.  A  Jew  of  the  captivity  from  whom  the 
prophet  Zechariah  was  commtanded  to  obtain  .sil- 
ver and  gold  of  which  to  make  crowns  to  put  on 
Joshua's  head  (Zech.  vi:io,  14).    (B.  C.  519.) 

TOBIT,  BOOK  OF  (to'bit.bdbk  6v),  (Sept.  Tw^/t, 
ioh'bit :  "libpilT.toh'bate ;V\i\g.  Tobias,  Tobis\  (see 
Apocrypha),  one  of  the  deutero-canonical  books, 
containing  the  private  history  of  a  venerable  and 
pious  old  man  of  this  name,  who  was  carried  cap- 
tive into  Assyria  by  Shalmaneser. 

Nothing  is  known  with  certainty  respecting 
either  the  author  or  the  age  of  the  book.  Pro- 
fessor Stewart  ascribes  it  to  an  early  period  of 
the  exile.  The  question  has  been  first  raised  in 
modern  times,  whether  this  book  is  a  true  history 
or  a  moral  fiction.  All  ancient  writers  looked 
upon  it  as  historical  and  authentic.  As  far  as 
we  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  Luther  was  the 
first  who  doubted  its  historic  truth.  Gutmann,  a 
modern  Jewish  Rabbi,  adopts  the  opinion  that  it 
is  a  fiction  founded  on  facts.  Its  authority  in  the 
early  Christian  church  is  beyond  question. 

W.  W. 

TOCHEN   (tO'ken),   (Heb.  T?K   t&ken,    task, 

measure),  a  town  of  Simeon  (i  Chron.  iv:32),  prob- 
ably the  same  called  Telem  (Josh.  xv:24),  and 
Telaim  (I  Sam.  xv:4). 

TOGAKTWAH  (to-gar'mah),  (Heb.  '"^Pl^,  to-gar- 
maw'). 

According  to  Moses  Chorenesis,  the  Armenians 
consider  themselves  to  be  descended  from  Gomer, 
through  Torgom,  and  therefore  they  call  them- 
selves the  house  of  Torgom,  The  sons  of  Gomer 
were  Ashkenaz,  Riphath,  and  Togarmah  (Gen.  x: 
3;  I  Chron.  i:6). 

Armenia  was,  according  to  Strabo  (xi:i3,  9,  p. 
529),  distinguished  by  the  production  of  good 
horses  (comp.  Xenoph.  Anab.  iv,  5,  24;  Herod. 
vii,  40).  This  account  harm0ni7.es  with  the  state- 
ment that  the  house  of  Togarmah  traded  in  the 
fairs  of  Tyre  in  horses,  and  horsemen,  and  mules 
(Ezek.  xxvii;i4).  The  situation  of  Togarmah 
was  north  of  Palestine :  '(Jomer  and  all  his  bands ; 
the  house  of^  Togarmah  of  the  north-quarters' 
(Ezek.  xxxviii;6).  (See  Ararat;  Armenia;  Na- 
tions, Dispersion  of.) 

TOHTT  (t5'hu),  (Heb.  Wl,  to'Moo,  lowly),  an 
ancestor  of  Samuel  (i  Sam.  i:i),  called  Toah  in  i 
Chron.  vi:34. 

TOI  (ts'l),  (Heb.'*3?i^,  to'ee,  error;  Gr.  Good,  fAoa). 

King  of  Hamath  on  the  Orontes,  who  sent  his  son 
Joram  to  David  to  congratulate  him  on  the  defeat 
of  Hadadezer,  king  of  Sj^ria,  and  to  carry  gifts  of 
gold  and  silver  (2  Sam.  viiiip,  10),  B.  C.  1036. 

TOKEN  (t5'k'n),  (Heb.  T)%  dth,  a  sign),  the 
blood  was  a  token  that  Crod  would  spare  the  Israel- 
ites (Exod.  xii:i3). 

The  same  word  is  translated  sign  (Exod.  xiii: 
9,  16;  Is.  viii:i8;  lv:i3;  Ezek.  xiv:8).  Circum- 
cision was  a  token  of  a  covenant  (Gen.  xvii: 
11);  also  the  Sabbath  (Exod.  xxxi:i3).    Token 


TOIA 


1672 


TONGUES,  CONFUSION  OF 


was  the  prophetic  sign  of  the  fulfillment  or  truth 
of  a  prophecy   (Exod.  iii:i2). 

TOLA  (to'la),  (Heb.  ^Y^,  fo-Zaw',  a  worm). 

1.  Firstborn  son  of  Issachar  (Gen.  xlvi:i3). 
(B.  C.  1856.)  His  six  sons  were  the  progenitors 
of  the  Tolites  (Num.  xxvi:23;  i  Chron.  vii:i,  2). 

^*  Judge  of  Israel  after  Abimelech  and  a  son 
of  Puah.  He  judged  Israel  for  twenty-three 
years  at  Shamir  in  Mount  Eptraim,  where  he  died 
and  was  buried  (Judg.  x:i,  2).  (B.  C.  1319- 
1296.) 

TOLAD   (tS'iad).   (Heb.   ^v'*",  t(hlawd\  birth, 

generation),  a  town  of  Simeon  (i  Chron.  iv:29), 
sometimes  given  as  El-tolad  (Josh.  xv:30).  Not 
identified. 

TOLATTES  (tO'la-Ites),  (Heb.  ^^\*^,  to-law-e^, 

from  Tola),  the  name  of  the  descendants  of  Tola 
the  son  of  Issachar  (Num.  xxvi:23). 

TOLL  (t5l).    See  Taxes;  Tribxtte. 

TOMB  (tQQm).    See  Burial. 

TONaS    (tSngz),   (Heb.   "R^?,    mei'kawkh% 

pinchers  for  snufHng  a  lamp  or  holding  coals 
(i  Kings  vii:49;  2  Chron.  iv:2i;  Is.  vi:6;  Exod.xxv: 
33;  XXX vii:23;  A.  V." snuffers";  Num.  iv:9).    The 

Heb.  "'?^!^,  mah-ats-awd' t  ax,  is  also  thus  rendered 

(Is.  xliv:i2);  elsewhere  ax  (Jer.  x:3). 

TONaUE  (tung),  (Heb.  ]*'^),  law-shone* :  Sept. 
i\(a<r(ra,  gloce'sah,  tongue;  ipmrfi,  foh-nay' ,  voice; 
Vulg.  lingua^  os), 

1.  Literal  Uses.  'Every  one  that  lappeth  the 
water  with  his  tongue,  as  a  dog  lappeth  (Judg. 
vii.'S;  Job  xxvii:4;  Ps.  xxxy:28;  xxxix:i,  3;  jj- 
14;  lxvi:i7;  Prov.  xv:2;  Zech.  xiv:i2;  Mark  vii: 
33.  35;  Luke  1:64;  xvi:24;  Rom.  iii:i3;  i  Cor. 
xiv:9;  James  1:26;  iii:5,  6,  8;  i  Pet.  iiino;  Rev. 
xvi:io;  Ecclus.  xvii:6;  Wisd.  x:2i;  2  Mace,  vii: 
4 ;  for  the  tongue  of  the  dog,  Ps.  Ixviii  -.23 ;  of  the 
viper,  Job  xx:i6;  of  idols,  Baruch  vi:8;  the 
tongues  of  the  seven  brethren  cut  out,  2  Mace. 
vii:4,  10;  comp.  Prov.  x:2o).  Various  explana- 
tions have  been  offered,  why  Gideon's  three  hun- 
dred followers  should  have  been  selected  because 
they  lapped  water  out  of  their  hands,  standing  or 
perhaps  moving  onward,  while  they  who  stayed 
and  'bowed  down  to  drink'  were  rejected.  Jo- 
sephus  says,  that  the  former  thereby  showed  their 
timorousness  and  fear  of  being  overtaken  by  the 
enemy,  and  that  these  poor-spirited  men  were 
chosen  on  purpose  to  illustrate  the  power  of  God 
in  the  victory  (Antiq.  v,  6,  3).  It  denotes  a 
particular  language  or  dialect,  spoken  by  any 
particular  people/  Everyone  after  his  tongue*  (Gen. 
X  :5,  20,  31 ;  Deut.  xxviii  149 ;  Esth.  i  :22 ;  Dan.  i : 
4;  Jfohn  v:2;  Acts  i:i9;  ii:4,  8,  11;  xxvi:i4;  i 
Cor.  xii  :io ;  xiii  :i ;  xiv  :2 ;  Rev.  xvi  :i6) .  Speak- 
ing a  language  (Is.  Ixvi:i8;  Dan.  iii:4,  7,  etc.; 
Rev.  \:g;  viirp;  x:ii;  xiip;  xiv:6;  xvii:i5).  It 
is  used  for  anything  resembling  a  tongue  in 
shape.  Thus,  *a  wedge  of  gold,'  literally  a  'tongue' 
(Josh.  vii:2i,  24). 

2,  Figurative*  (i) '  Unlo  me  every  tongue  shall 
swear/  that  is,  every  man  (Is.  xlv:23;  comp.  Rom. 
xiv:ii;  Phil.  ii:ii;  Is.  Iiv:i7).  (2)  The  tongue 
is  said  to  rejoice  (Acts  ii:26);  to  meditate  (Ps. 
lii:2);  to  hate  (Prov.  xxvi:28);  to  be  bridled 
(James  i  :26) ;  to  be  tamed  (James  iii  :8 ;  comp. 
Ecclus.  xxviii  :i8,  etc.).  (3)  It  is  apostrophized 
(Ps.  cxx:3).  By  metonymy  for  speech  generally. 
'Let  us  not  love  in  tongue  only*  (i  John  iii:i8). 
(4)  'Accuse  not  a  servant  to  hts  master,'  literally, 
'hurt  not  with  thy  tongue'  (Prov.  xxxrio).     (s) 


'The  law  of  kindness  is  in  her  tongue/  1.  e.,  speech 
(xxxi:26;  Is.  iii:8;  1:4;  Wisd.  i:o).  (6)  To  gnazv 
the  tongue,  or  gnash  the  teeth,  is  expressive  of 
great  torment,  rage,  and  despair  (Rev.  xvi:  10). 
(7)  Under  the  tongue,  or  lips,  or  in  the  mouth, 
sometimes  denotes  in  the  heart,  but  ready  to  be  ut- 
tered by  the  tongue  or  lips  (Ps.  x:7;  cxl:3).  (8) 
Sometimes  the  tongue  is  put  for  the  heart  (Ps.  Iii : 
2).  (9)  God  divides  men's  tongues,  when  he  con- 
founds their  joint  plots  against,  and  persecutions 
of  his  people  (Ps.  lv:9).  (10)  A  deceitful  or 
double  tongue,  is  that  which  utters  things  false, 
deceiving,  and  inconsistent  (Zeph.  iii  113;  i  Tim. 
iii:8).  (11)  A  wholesome  tongue,  is  speech  that 
shews  a  sincere  heart,  and  tends  to  the  edification 
of  others  (Prov.  xv:4).  (12)  A  bridled  tongue, 
or  watched  mouth,  is  one  restrained  from  sinful 
reproaches,  or  passionate  language  (James  i:26; 
Ps.  xxxixri  and  cxli:3).  (13)  A  tamed  tongue, 
is  one  restrained  from  evil  language,  and  applied 
to  good  (James  iii:8).  (14)  A  soft  tongue,  is 
kind  and  courteous  speech  (Prov.  xxyiis)*  (15) 
The  tongue  of  the  learned,  is  ability  to  speak,  to 
the  conviction,  edification  and  comfort  of  men's 
souls  (Is.  1:4). 

TONaXJES,  COKFUSION  OF  (tiings,  cdn-fG'- 
zhiin  dv). 

The  part  of  the  primeval  history  which  relates 
this  fact,  so  remarkable  and  influential  upon  the 
subsequent  fortunes  of  mankind,  is*  contained  in 
Gen.  xi:i-io.  This  narrative  which  is  given  in 
the  style  best  adapted  to  the  comprehension  of 
mankind  in  the  infantile  state  of  our  race,  may 
be  resolved  into  a  statement  to  this  effect: — 

An  orderly  and  peaceful  distribution  and  mi- 
gration of  the  families  descended  from  Noah  had 
been  directed  by  divine  authority,  and  carried  into 
general  effect.  But  there  was  a  part  of  mankind 
who  would  not  conform  themselves  to  this  wise 
and  benevolent  arrangement.  This  rebellious  party, 
having  discovered  a  region  to  their  taste,  deter- 
mined to  remain  in  it.  They  proceeded  to  erect 
a  lofty  edifice,  which  was  to  be  a  signal  house, 
a  rallying  point,  and  probably  to  erect  around  it 
groups  of  habitations,  not  mere  tents,  but  houses 
with  brick  walls,  so  that  the  adventurers  had  both 
a  city  and  a  tovver.  This  was  an  act  of  rebellion 
against  the  divine  government.  The  omniscient 
and  righteous  God  therefore  frustrated  it,  by  in- 
flicting upon  them  a  remarkable  affection  of  the 
organs  of  speech,  which  produced  discord  and 
separation. 

(1)  Date.  The  date  of  this  event  we  cannot 
satisfactorily  place  so  early  as  at  one  hundred 
years  after  the  flood,  as  it  is  in  the  commonly  re- 
ceived chronology.  Every  view  that  we  can  take 
of  the  previous  history  inclines  us  to  one  of  the 
larger  systems,  that  of  the  Septuagint,  which 
gives  five  hundred  and  thirty  years,  or  that  of 
Josephus,  adopted  with  a  little  emendation  by  Dr. 
Hales,  which  gives  six  hundred  years;  and  thus 
we  have  at  least  five  centuries  for  the  intervening 
period. 

(2)  Extent.  Upon  the  question.  Whether  all 
of  mankind  were  engaged  in  this  act  of  concerted 
disobedience,  or  only  a  part,  we  confess  ourselves 
unable  to  adduce  irrefragable  evidence  on  either 
side,  but  we  think  that  there  is  a  great  prepon- 
derance of  argument  on  the  part  of  the  latter 
supposition. 

(3)  Nature.  Admitting,  however,  our  inabil- 
ity to  determine,  with  absolute  certainty,  on 
which  side  of  this  alternative  the  truth  lies,  no 
difference  accrues  to  the  subject  of  this  article. 
What  were  the  phenomena  of  the  case  ?  In  what 
did  the  Confusion  of  Tongues  actually  consist f 


TONGUES,  GIFT  OF 


1673 


TOPHET  OR  TOPHETH 


For  the  answer  a  considerable  variety  of  opinions 
has  been  promulgated.  The  hypothesis  of  a 
change  in  the  pronunciation,  leading  to  diversified 
results,  some  of  which  might  be  of  persistent  in- 
fluence, appears  to  us  to  have  the  most  of  proba- 
bility and  reason  on  its  side.  J.  P.  S. 

TONGUES,  GIFT  OF  (tfings.  gTft  6v).  The 
gift  of  tongues  was  granted  on  the  day  of  Pente- 
cost. 

The  chief  passages  from  which  we  have  to  draw 
our  conclusion  as  to  the  nature  and  purpose  of 
the  gift  in  question  are — (i)  Mark  xvi:i7;  (2) 
Acts  ii:i-i3,  x:46,  xix:6;  (3)  i  Cor.  xiirio,  28, 
xiv  :2.  The  promise  of  a  new  power  coming  from 
the  Divine  Spirit,  giving  not  only  comfort  and 
insight  into  truth,  but  fresh  powers  of  utterance 
of  some  kind,  appears  once  and  again'  in  our 
Lord's  teaching.  The  disciples  are  to  take  no 
thought  what  they  shall  speak,  for  the  Spirit  of 
their  Father  shall  speak  in  them  (Matt,  xrip, 
20;  Mark  yiii:ii).  The  lips  of  Galilean  peasants 
are  to  speak  freely  and  boldly  before  kings.  The 
prontise  of  our  Lord  to  his  disciples,  "They  shall 
speak  with  new  tongues"  (Mark  xvi  117),  was  ful- 
filled on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  when  cloven 
tongues  like  fire  sat  upon  the  disciples,  and  "every 
man  heard  them  speak  in  his  own  language"  (Acts 
ii:i-i2.    (See  Pentecost.) 

TONGUES  OF  FIRE  (ttings  dv  fir). 

On  the  day'  of  Pentecost  "tongues,  like  as  of 
fire,"  were  said  to  rest  on  the  disciples  (Acts  ii: 
3).  As  they  were  only  similar  to  fire  they  bore 
an  analogy  to  certain  electric  phenomena.  By 
this  means  the  presence  of  the  Spirit  manifested 
itself  to  the  people  there  assembled.  (See  Pen- 
tecost.) 

TOOTH,  TEETH  (tSSth,  teth),  (Heb.^g,  sAam; 
Sept.  6Ms,  od-oos'^  Ps.  lviii:6;  Prov.  xxx:i4;  Joel 
1:6).  ^ 

In  Ps.  iii:7,  lekh-ee'  (Heb.  *n?)  is  used  for  the 

human  jawbone,  for  that  of  an  ass(Judg.  xv:i5-i7), 
and  for  that  of  a  leviathan  (Job  xli:i4). 

Although  shin-nah' yim  is  the  general  word  for 
teeth,  yet  the  Hebrews  had  a  distinct  term  for 
molars  or  jaw  teeth  especially  of  the  larger  ani- 
mals; thus  tneth-al'leh'Oth'  (Heb.  ^ll^^D^,  Job 
xxix:i7;  Ps.  lvii:4;  Prov.  xxx:i4;  Joel  1:6),  and,  by 

transposition,  mal-et-teh-oth'  (Heb.  f^'^?^5,  Ps. 
lviii:6). 

/.  Literal  Use.  The  term  is  used  first,  with 
reference  to  the  literal  member  itself  in  man,  the 
loss  of  which,  by  violence,  is  specified  by  Moses, 
in  illustration  of  his  law  concerning  taliones, 
'tooth  for  tooth*  (Exod.  xxi:24).  This  outrage 
occurring  between  freemen  (or  between  an  Israel- 
ite and  a  foreigner.  Lev.  xxiv:2o),  admitted  like 
other  cases  of  maiming,  most  probably  of  a  pe- 
cuniary compensation,  and  under  private  arrange- 
ment, unless  the  injured  party  proved  exorbitant 
in  his  demand,  when  the  case  was  referred  to  the 
judge,  who  seems  addressed  in  Deut.  xix:2i. 

2.  Figurative,  (i)  A  'broken  (or  rather  'bad,' 
that  is,  decayed)  tooth*  is  referred  to  in  Prov. 
XXV :  19,  as  furnishing  an  apt  similitude  of  'confi- 
dence in  an  unfaithful  man  in  the  time  of  trou- 
ble.' (2)  *The  teeth  of  beasts!  or  rather  'tocth; 
is  a  phrase  expressive  of  devastation  by  wilr'*  ani- 
mals: thus,  7  will  send  the  teeth  of  beasts  up 0:^ 
them'  (Deut.  xxxii:24;  comp.  2  Kings  xvii:25). 
(3)  The  word  is  sometimes  metaphorically  used 
for  a  sharp  cliff  or  summit  of  a  rock  (Job  xxxix : 
28)  :  thus/T he  eagle  dwelleth  and  abideth  upon  the 
tooth  of  the  rock*  So  also  (i  Sam.  xiv  14):  'a 
sharp'  rock  on  the  one  side  and  a  sharp  rock  on 


the  other  side.'  (4)  'His  teeth  shall  be  white 
with  mdlk*  (Gen.  xlix:i2),  which  the  Sept.  and 
Vulg.  understand  to  mean  'whiteness  greater  than 
milk'  (Num.  xi:33;  Prov.  x:26;  Cant.  iv:2;  vi: 
6).  (5)  'A  Aesh'hook  with  three  teeth'  means 
prongs  ( I  Sam.  ii:  13).  (See  Hooks.)  (fi)  *The 
teeth  of  lions'  is  a  symbol  of  the  cruelty  and  rapac- 
ity of  the  wicked  (Job  iv:io).  (7)  To  take  one's 
Aesh  into  one's  teeth,'  signifies  to  gfnaw  it  with 
anguish  (Job  xiii:i4;  comp.  Rev.  xvi:  10).  (8) 
'The  skin  of  his  teeth/  with  which  Job  says  he 
had  'escaped*  in  his  affliction,  is  understood  by 
the  Vulgate,  of  the  lips ;  but  (jesenius  understands 
it  as  a  proverbial  expression,  meaning,  I  have 
scarcely  a  sound  spot  in  my  body.  (9)  'To  smite 
upon  the  jawbone*  and  *to  break  the  teeth'  mean 
to  disgrace,  and  to  disable  (Ps.  iii:7;  comp.  Mic. 
vi:i3;  i  Kings  xx:35;  Lam.  iii:3o).  (10)  The 
teeth  of  calumniators,  etc.,  are  compared  to  'spears 
and  arrows'  (Ps.  lvii:4;  comp.  i  Sam.  xxiv:9). 
To  break  the  teeth  of  such  persons,  means  to  dis- 
able them  (Ps.  lviii:6).  (11)  To  escape  the  mal- 
ice of  enemies  is  called  an  'escape  from  their 
teeth'  (Ps.  cxxiv:6;  Zech.  ix:7).  (12)  Oppres- 
sion is  compared  to  *  jaw-teeth  like  swords,  and 
grinders  like  knives*  (Prov.  xxx:i4).  (13)  Beau- 
tiful teeth  are  compared  to  'sheep  newly  shorn 
and  washed*  in  Cant.  iv:2;  vi:6;  but  the  remain- 
ing part  of  the  comparison,  'whereof  every  one 
beareth  twins,  and  none  is  barren  among  them,* 
is  much  better  rendered  by  Le  Clerc,  'all  of  them 
twins,  and  none  hath  lost  his  fellow.'  (14)  To 
'break  the  teeth  with  gravel  stones,*  is  a  most  hy- 
perbolical metaphor  for  inflicting  the  harshest  dis- 
appointment (Lam.  iii:i6).  (15)  'Iron  teeth*  w 
the  symbol  of  destructive  power  (Dan.  vii:7, 
19).  (16)  A  nation  having  the  teeth  of  lions,  and 
the  cheek-teeth  of  a  great  lion,  denotes  one  which 
devours  with  irresistible  force  (Joel  i:6;  comp. 
Ecclus.  xxi:2;  Rev.  ix:8).  (17)  'Prophets  who 
bite  with  their  teeth,2Lnd  cry  Peace,*  are  greedy  and 
hypocritical  prophets  (Mic.  iii:5).  (18)  'To  take 
azvay  blood  out  of  the  m>outh,  and  abominations 
from  between  the  teeth,*  means,  to  rescue  the  in- 
tended victims  of  cruelty  (Zech.  ix:7).  'Clean- 
ness of  teeth,'  is  a  periphrasis  for  hunger,  famine 
(Amos  iv:6).  (19)  Gnashing  of  teeth  means  prop- 
erly grinding  the  teeth  with  rage  or  despair  (Job 
xvi:9;  Lam.  ii:i6;  Ps.  xxxv:i6;  xxxvii:i2;  cxii: 
10).  (20)  'To  cast  in  the  teeth,*  is  an  old  Eng- 
lish phrase  (for  the  Hebrew  has  no  such  idiom), 
signifying  to  reproach;  thus  'the  thieves  who  were 
crucified  with  Jesus  cast  the  same  in  his  teeth' 
(Matt.  xxvii:44).  (21)  A  'sharp  threshing  in- 
strument having  teeth',  means,  literally  having 
'edges*  (Is.  xli:i5).  (22)  The  action  of  acids  on 
the  teeth  is  referred  to  in  the  proverb,  'the  fathers 
have  eaten  sour  grapes,  and  the  children's  teeth  are 
set  on  edge*  (Ezek.  xviii:2;  Prov.  x:26). 

J.  F.  D. 
TOPAZ  (ts'piz).    See  Pitdah. 

TOFHEL  (to'phel),  (Heb.  ^?^.  to  'fel,  lime,  mor- 
tar), a  place  probably  on  the  boundary  of  the  Si- 
naitic  desert,  and  a  halting  place  of  the  Israelites 
(Deut.  i:i).  Tufileh  has  been  doubtfully  suggested 
as  the  site  of  Tophel. 

TOPHET  or  TOPHETH  (tS'phet,  or  tS'pheth), 

(Heb.  HSn  tojeth,  spittle). 

Iiocation.  A  place  very  near  to  Jerusalem, 
on  the  southeast,  in  the  valley  of  the  children 
of  Hinnom,  where  the  ancient  Canaanites,  and 
afterwards  the  apostate  Israelites,  made  their  chil- 
dren to  pass  through  the  fire  to  Moloch  (comp. 
Ps.  cvi:^;  Jer.  vii:3i).    This  was  done  first  l^ 


TORCH 


1674 


TOWN  CLERK 


Ahaz  (2  Kings  xvi:3},  and  afterwards  by  Manas- 
seh  (xxi:i6).  After  the  return  from  the  Captiv- 
ity, the  Jews  resumed  the  ancient  name  for  the 
whole  valley,  viz.,  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  called 
in  our  Lord's  time  by  the  Greek  name  Ge  Hin- 
nom (by  corruption,  Gehenna)  ;  and  in  order  to 
perpetuate  the  disgrace  of  idolatry,  they  made 
it  the  common  receptacle  of  the  filth,  etc.,  of  the 
city,  in  which  fires'  were  continually  kept  burn- 
ing, to  consume  the  carcasses  of  animals,  executed 
criminals,  etc.,  the  unconsumed  portions  of  which, 
as  well  as  the  offscourings  in  general,  became  the 
nidus  of  insects,  whose  larvae,  or  'worms,'  reveled 
in  the  corruption.  These  circumstances  furnished 
the  most  apt  representation  to  the  Jewish  mind  of 
future  punishment  (2  Kings  xxiii:io;  Is.  xxx:33; 
Jer.  xix:6,  11-14). 

TORCH   (t6rch),   (Heb.   '"^^f,  pel-aw-datt/. 

steel),  perhaps  scythes,  or  armature  would  be 
more  accurate  (Nan.  11:3).    (See  Lamp.) 

Figurative.  The  flaming  torch  is  figurative  of 
destruction  and  devastation  (Zech.  xii:6). 

TOBMAH  (tor'mih),  (Heb.  ^VW.  tor -maw', 
fraud,  deceit). 

This  word  occurs  in  Judges  ix:3i,  marg.,  a 
town  in  which  Abimelech  was  once  found.  R.  V. 
renders  it  "craftily,"  and  the  town  Tormah  disap- 
pears. 

TOBMENTOB  (tdr-mSnt'er),  (Gr.  Pck<rawi<n"fit, 
bas-an-is-tace'),  one  who  hopes  to  extract  truth  by 
torture  (Matt.  xviii:34).  Claudius  Lysias  brought 
Paul  into  the  castle  to  examine  him  by  scourgmg 
(Acts  xxii:24,  25). 

TORTOISE  (t6r.trs),  (A.  V.,  Lev.  xi:29;  R.  V. 
••great  lizard"). 

The  Hebrew  2?,  tsawb,  is  the  cognate  of  the 

Arab,  dahh,  which  is  the  term  applied  to  the  land 
monitor,  Psammosaurus  scincus,  an  animal  often 
six  feet  long,  and  to  another  lizard,  Uromastyx 
spinipes,  which  attains  a  length  of  two  feet,  and 
has  a  short  rounded  head,  and  a  tail  surrounded 
by  rings  of  spines.  The  Septuagint  has,  in  place 
of  "tortoise,"  "land  crocodile,"  but  this  reptile 
seems  to  be  meant  by  the  "chameleon"  of  the  next 
verse.  A  large  land  tortoise  is  found  in  all  these 
regions,  and,  like  the  dhabb,  is  eaten  by  the  na- 
tives. There  is  also  in  Palestine  a  water  tortoise. 
Tswab,  however,  does  not  refer  to  any  of  them, 
and  therefore  the  tortoise  must  be  omitted  from 
the  list  of  Scripture  animals. 

TOW  (to).     1.   Neh-o'reth  (Heb.  ^^^},  Judg. 

xvirg;  Is.  1:31),  as  being  shaken  or  beaten  off  from 
flax  in  hatcneling. 

2.  Pish'taw'  (Heb.  ^?9,  Is.  \\\\\:i7\flax  or  its 

coarse  part.    (See  Flax  ;  Pishtah.) 

TOWEL  (tou'gl),  (Gr.  \ivriov,  len'tee-on\  a  linen 
cloth  or  apron,  which  servants  put  on  when  about 
to  work  (John  xiii:4,  5). 

Girding  one's  self  with  a  towel  was  the  com- 
mon mark  of  a  slave,  by  whom  the  service  of 
footwashing  was  ordinarily  performed. 

TOWER  (tou'er),  the  translation  of  several 
words  in  the  original  Scriptures: 

1.  Migdole'  (Heb.  ^^^),  or  mig-dawV  (hi'?), 
is  from  a  root  meaning  "to  become  great.*'    (See 

MiGDOL.) 

2.  Or-nawn'  (Heb.  liH^,  strong),  a  siege  tower 

(Is.  xxiii:i3). 

3.  Pin-noth'  (Heb.  nl25).  ^^  comers  and  battle- 
ments of  the  walls  of  the  fortifications  (Zeph.  i:i6; 
iii:6;  comp.  2  Chron.  xxvias). 


4.  Of  el  (Heb.  ^%^,  hill,  2  Kings  v:24).  Sec 
Ophel. 

5.  Maw-tsore^  (Heb.  *^'^?),  a  fortress,  only  in 
Hab.  ii:i. 

6.  Mits-peh'  (Heb.  ^f  P).  See  Mizpeh.  (Mc. 
&  Str.  Cyc.) 

7.  Bakh'an  (Heb.  103).    "A  word  often  used  for 

'tower*  in  the  Egyptian  records  is  bekhen^  bakhun, 
or  bekhenU 

This  word  Brugsch  declares  to  be  'identical  with 
the  Hebrew  bekhon!  and  to  mean  an  'outlook,*  *a 
tower  built  on  a  hill.'  It  applies,  he  says,  to  'any 
building  from  which  one  can  look  far  out  into  the 
land,  and  which  itself  is  visible  afar;  thence  any 
house  standing  high;  a  tower.'  ...  In  any 
event  it  is  a  word  which  is  used  in  the  Hebrew 
interchangeably  with  mig-dole,  for  a  watchtower." 
(Trumbull,  Kadesh-Barnea,  p.  368.) 

8.  Poor'^s  (Gr.  v^pyos),  a  tower,  a  fortified 
structure  nsing  to  a  considerable  height,  to  repel 
a  hostile  attack,  or  to  enable  a  watchman  to  see  in 
every  direction.    (Barnes*  Bib.  Diet,) 

Towers  were  common  in  vineyards  (Is.  v:2), 
and  are  often  seen  at  the  present  day.  They  are 
sometimes  thirty  feet  square  and  sixty  feet  high, 
and  are  a  kind  of  pleasure-house,  serving  as  a  shel- 
ter for  the  watchmen  and  as  a  summer  retreat  for 
the  owner,  affording  an  extensive  prospect  and 
fresh  air. 

TOWEB  OF  BABEL  (ba'b'l).  See  Babel, 
Tower  of;   Language;  tongues,  Confusion 

OF. 

TOWBB  OF  EDAB  (e'der),  (Gen.  xxxv:2i), 
or  TOWEB  OF  THE  FLOCK,  as  it  is  called 
in  Micah  iv:8. 

This  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  particular  tower 
about  a  mile  from  Bethlehem,  and  to  have  been 
erected,  like  other  towers,  for  the  use  of  shep- 
herds and  herdsmen  to  superintend  their  fiocks 
and  descry  the  approach  of  danger  (2  Chron. 
xxviiio).  Some  have  supposed  that  the  phrase 
"tower  of  the  flock"  had  prophetic  reference  to 
Bethlehem  as  the  birthplace  of  the  Savior. 

TOWEB  OF  SHEGHEM  (she'kSm). 

This  seems  to  have  been  a  very  strong  and  spa- 
cious citadel  overlooking  the  town  of  Shechem, 
to  which  the  inhabitants  fled  for  refuge  when  the 
town  was  besieged  by  Abimelech.  Fearing  that 
this  would  not  protect  them,  they  escaped  to  the 
temple  of  one  of  their  idol-gods,  which  was  also 
fortified,  and  the  supposed  sanctity  of  which  they 
hoped  would  deter  Abimelech  from  attacking  it ; 
but  he  surrounded  it  with  fire  made  of  green 
boughs,  and  burned  or  suffocated  the  whole  mul- 
titude (Judg.  ix:46).    (See  Abimelech). 

TOWEB  OF  SILOAM  (si-l5'to),  supposed  to 
have  been  a  high  structure  erected  near  the  foun- 
tain or  pool  of  Siloam  (Luke  xiii:4). 

Christ's  reference  to  its  destructive  fall  shows 
how  far  he  rose  above  the  current  superstition 
which  considered  individual  misfortunes  as  indi- 
vidual punishments.     (See  Siloam.) 

TOWN  CLEBX  (Gr.  ypafifutreCt,  gram -ma/' 
yooce'). 

An  oflice  of  rank  and  dignity  in  Ephesus,  as  is 
evident  from  the  conduct  of  this  functionary  as 
recorded  in  Acts  xix  :35,  41.  He  appears  to  have 
been  the  keeper  of  the  archives  of  the  city,  pre- 
sided over  municipal  gatherings,  put  matters  to 
vote,  and  performed  the  duties  of  the  chief  mag- 
istrate when  the  latter  was  away.  The  speech 
which  the  town  clerk  delivered  on  the  occasion 
referred  to  was  very  ingenious,  revealing  great 


TOWNS 


1675 


TRACHONITIS 


tact  and  ability  to  subdue  popular  excitement. 
(Schaff,  Bib.  Did.) 

TOWNS.  We  use  the  term  in  its  general  sig- 
nification, so  as  to  embrace  any  assemblage  of 
inhabited  human  dwellings  of  larger  size  than  a 
hamlet  or  a  village,  the  only  way  in  which  we  can 
speak  with  correctness  and  advantage. 

Towns  are  a  natural  result  of  the  aggregative 
principle  in  human  nature.  Necessity  led  the 
early  races  of  men  to  build  their  towns  on  lofty 
spots,  where,  with  the  aid  of  the  natural  advan- 
tages of  the  ground,  they  could  easily  protect 
themselves  against  beasts  of  prey  and  human  foes. 
A  town,  and  a  stronghold  or  fort,  would  thus  be 
originally  identical.  As  population  increased  and 
agriculture  spread,  so  some  degree  of  security 
came,  which  permitted  the  inhabitants  of  the  cas- 
tle to  diffuse  themselves  over  the  hillside,  and 
take  up  their  abode  in  the  valley,  and  by  the  side 
of  the  stream  that  lay  nearest  their  acropolis ;  still 
the  inhabitants  kept  at  no  gresit  distance  from  the 
center  of  strength,  in  order  not  to  be  deprived  of 
its  protection.  The  town,  however,  would  thus 
be  enlarged,  and  as  the  necessity  for  self-defense 
still  existed,  so  would  the  place  soon  be  sur- 
rounded with  walls.  Thus  would  there  be  outer 
and  inner  bulwarks,  and  in  some  sort  two  species 
of  community — the  townspeople,  who  tilled  the 
ground  and  carried  on  trade,  and  the  soldiers, 
whose  business  it  was  to  afford  protection :  these 
two,  however,  in  the  earliest  stages  of  civilization 
•  were  one,  the  peasant  and  tradesman  taking  arms 
when  the  town  was  put  in  danger. 

(1)  Orig^.  How  early  towns  were  formed 
cannot  be  determined  by  any  general  principle: 
they  were  obviously  a  work  of  time.  The  pri- 
mary tendency  in  population  was  to  diffuse  it- 
self. Aggn'egation  on  particular  spots  would  take 
place  at  a  later  period.  When  then  Cain  is  said 
to  have  built  a  city  (Gen.  iv:i7y,  the  first  city 
(Enoch,  so  called  after  Cain's  son),  we  have  evi- 
dence which  concurs  with  other  intimations  to 
show  that  it  is  only  a  partial  history  of  the  first 
ages  that  we  possess  in  the  records  of  the  book  of 

.  Genesis.  In  the  time  of  the  Patriarchs  we  find 
towns  existing  in  Palestine  which  were  originally 
surrounded  with  fortifications,  so  as  to  make  them 
'fenced  cities.*  In  these  dwelt  the  agn'icultural 
population,  who  by  means  of  these  places  of 
strength  defended  themselves  and  their  property 
from  the  nomad  tribes  of  the  neighboring  desert, 
who  then,  as  they  do  now,  lived  by  plunder.  Nor 
were  works  of  any  great  strength  necessary.  In 
Palestine  at  the  present  day,  while  walls  are  in 
most  parts  an  indispensable  protection,  and  agri- 
culture can  be  advantageously  prosecuted  only  so 
far  as  sheltered  by  a  fortified  town,  erections  of  a 
very  slight  nature  are  found  sufficient  for  the  pur- 
pose, the  rather  because  the  most  favorable  locali- 
ties offer  themselves  on  all  sides,  owing  to  the 
natural  inequality  of  the  ground. 

(2)  Ancient  Method.  Of  the  ancient  method 
of  building  in  towns  and  cities  we  have  no  ac- 
curate knowledge,  any  farther  than  we  may 
gather  information  from  the  ruins  which  still  lie 
on  the  soil  of  Palestine.  But  these  ruins  can  af- 
ford only  general  notions,  as,  though  they  are  nu- 
merous, and  show  that  the  Land  of  Promise  was 
thickly  peopled  and  highly  flourishing  in  its  better 
days,  the  actual  remains  of  ancient  towns  are  to 
be  ascribed  to  different  and  very  distant  periods 
of  history.  The  crusades  left  many  strongholds 
which  are  now  in  a  state  of  dilapidation;  but  the 
crusades  are  of  modern  days  compared  with  the 
times  of  the  Savior,  which  themselves  are  remote 
from  the  proper  antiquity  of  the  nation.      The 


law  of  sameness,  however,  which  prevails  so  rig- 
idly in  Eastern  countries,  gives  us  an  assurance 
that  a  modern  town  in  Palestine  may  be  roughly 
taken  as  a  type  of  its  ancient  predecessors. 

(3)  Gates.  At  the  gates  of  the  town,  which 
were  frequented  as  the  court  of  justice,  the  town's 
market,  the  rendezvous  for  loungers,  newsmong- 
ers, pleasure-seekers,  there  were  wide  open  places 
of  greater  or  less  dimensions,  where  on  important 
occasions  the  entire  population  assembled  for  con- 
sultation or  for  action  (Neh.  viii:i,  i6;  2  Chron. 
xxxii:6;  2  Sam.  xxi:i2;  Job  xxix:7j  2  Kings 
viiri).  The  streets  were  not  so  narrow  as  streets 
generally  are  in  modern  Oriental  towns.  Their 
names  were  sometimes  taken  from  the  wares  or 
goods  that  were  sold  in  them :  thus  in  Jer.  xxxvii : 
21,  we  read  of  'the  bakers'  street.'  The  present 
bazaars  seem  to  be  a  continuation  of  this  ancient 
custom.  The  streets  of  Jerusalem  at  least  were 
paved  (Joseph.  Antiq.  xx  :g.  7) ;  but  the  streets 
of  most  cities  of  Palestine  would  not  need  pav- 
ing, in  consequence  of  the  rocky  nature  of  the 
foundations  on  which  they  lay.  Herod  the  Great 
laid  an  open  road  in  Antioch  with  polished  stone 
(Joseph.  Antiq.  xvi.  5.  3;  comp.  i  Kings  xx:34). 
In  regard  to  the  earlier  periods,  we  find  only  a 
notice  to  the  effect  that  Solomon  caused  the  fore- 
court of  the  Temple  to  be  laid  with  flags.  Besides 
paved  streets,  Jerusalem  before  the  exile  had  an 
extensive  system  of  watercourses  or  aqueducts, 
which  seems  to  have  been  rendered  necessary  by 
the  natural  supply  having  been  limited  to  one  or 
two  spots  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  This  sub- 
ject has  been  handled  by  Robinson,  and  more 
fully  by  Olin  (ii.  139,  sq.:  see  Is.  vii:3;  xxiirp; 
2  Kings  xx:20;  Joseph.  Antiq.  xviii.  3.  2).  Other 
cities  were  contented  with  the  fountains  whose 
existence  had  probably  led  to  their  formation  at 
the  first. 

(4)  Municipal  and  Sanitary  Begulations. 
"What  may  be  called  the  police  and  sanitary  reg- 
ulations were  of  the  strictest  character.  Of  Ot- 
sarea,  e.  g.,  we  know  that  there  was  a  regular  sys- 
tem of  drainage  into  the  sea,  apparently  similar 
to,  but  more  perfect  than  that  of  any  modern  town 
(Josephus,  Ant.,  xv,  9,  6).  The  same  holds  true 
with  regard  to  the*  temple  buildings  at  Jerusa- 
lem. But  in  every  town  and  village  sanitary 
rules  were  strictly  attended  to.  Ometeries,  tan* 
neries,  and  whatever  also  might  be  prejudicial  to 
health,  had  to  be  removed  at  least  fifty  cubits  out* 
side  a  town.  Bakers'  and  dyers'  shops,  or  stables, 
were  not  allowed  under  the  dwelling  of  anothei 
person.  Again,  in  building,  the  line  of  each  street 
had  to  be  strictly  kept,  nor  was  even  a  projec- 
tion beyond  it  allowed.  In  general  the  streets 
were  wider  than  those  of  modern  Eastern  cities. 
The  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  circumstance  that 
so  many  towns  were  built  on  hills  (at  least  in 
Judaea),  would,  of  course,  be  advantageous  from  a 
sanitary  point  of  view.  It  would  also  render  the 
paving  of  the  streets  less  requisite.  But  we  know 
that  certain  towns  were  paved — ^Jerusalem  with 
white  stones  (Josephus,  Ant.,  xx,  9,  7).  To  ob- 
viate occasions  of  dispute,  neighbors  were  not  al- 
lowed to  have  windows  looking  into  the  courts  or 
rooms  of  others,  nor  might  the  principal  entrance 
to  a  shop  be  through  a  court  common  to  two  or 
three  dwellings"  (Edersheim,  Sketches  of  Jewish 
Social  Life,  pp.  87-93). 

TBACHONinS  (trSk'o-nl'tis),  (Or.  Tpoxwv^Tit, 
trakh-o-nee'tts,  rough),  was,  in  the  days  of  the 
Herodian  dynasty,  the  name  of  the  country  sit- 
uated between  the  Antih*banus  and  the  Arabian 
mountains  south  of  Damascus  and  west  of  the 
provinces   of   Batanaea,  Gaulonitis,  Ituraea,  and 


TRADE 


1676 


TRANSFORMED 


AaranitiSfUnder  about  the  thirty-third  degree  of 
northern  latitude. 

It  formed,  with  Ituria,  a  tetrarchy,  ruled  by 
Philip,  Herod's  brother,  at  the  time  of  John  the 
Baptist  (Luke  iii:i).  It  is  at  present  called  Ledja, 
The  eastern  range  of  inountains  is  now  called 
Dshebel  Afamit,and  contains  great  caverns  in  chalk 
rocks.  The  southern  portions  of  the  ancient 
Trachonitis,  or  the  present  Ledja,  consist  chiefly 
of  basalt  rocks.  C.  H.  F.  B. 

TRADE  (trad),  used  in  the  sense  of  occupation 
(Gen.  xlvi:32,  34;  Luke  xix:i5),  and  traffic  (£zek. 
xxvii:i2, 14;  Gen.  xxxivno);  hence  to  make  gains 
(Matt.  XXV :  16),  as  a  seaman  (Rev.  xviii:4). 

The  "land  of  traffic"  (Ezek.  xvii:4),  should 
read  land  of  Canaan.  Traffic  also  has  the  mean- 
ing of  travel  for  the  purpose  of  trade  (Gen.  xlii : 
34;  I  Kings  x:is;  Ezek.  xxviii:5,  18). 

TRADITION  (tri-dish'iSn),  (Gr.  vapddwnt,  par- 
ad' os-is,  a  giving  over),  a  giving  over  either  by  word 
of  mouth  or  in  writing.  It  denotes  a  sentiment  or 
custom  not  written,  but  delivered  down  by  succes- 
sion (Matt.  xv:2;  Mark  vii:3,  5,9, 13;  Col.  ii:8;  GaL 

I:i4). 

The  Jews  had  numerous  traditions,  which  they 
did  not  commit  to  writing,  before  their  wars 
against  the  Romans,  under  Adrian  and  Severus. 
Then  rabbi  Judah,  the  Holy,  composed  theMishna, 
that  is,  the  second  law;  which  is  the  most  ancient 
collection  of  Jewish  traditions.  To  this  were 
added  the  Gemara  of  Jerusalem,  and  that  of 
Babylon,  which,  together  with  the  Mishna,  form 
the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem,  and  that  of  Babylon. 
(See  Talmud.)  Our  Savior  often  censured  the 
false  traditions  of  the  Pharisees;  and  reproached 
them  with  preferring  these  to  the  law  itself  (Mark 
vii:7;  Matt.  xv:2,  3).  He  gives  several  instances 
of  their  superstitious  adherence  to  vain  ob- 
servances, while  they  neglected  essential  things. 

The  Christians  also  had  traditions,  which  they 
received  from  Christ,  or  his  apostles.  Paul  (2 
Thess.ii  :i5)  says,  "Therefore,  brethren,  stand  fast, 
and  hold  the  traditions  which  ye  have  been  taught, 
whether  by  word  or  by  our  epistle."  The  ancient 
fathers  acknowledged  the  truth  and  authority  of 
the  Apostolical  traditions,  but  they  have  not  pre- 
tended that  we  must  blindly  receive  as  Apostolicd 
traditions  all  that  may  be  put  upon  us  as  such. 

TRAFFICKER  (traf'ftk-er),  (Is.  xxiii:8),  is  from 
a  word  signifying  Canaanite,  and  means  a  trades- 
man. 

TBAIN  (tran),   (Heb.  ^tD,  khah'yii,  strength), 

a  retinue  of  men  and  servants  such  as  followed 
the  Queen  of  Sheba  (i  Kings  x:2).  Isaiah  (vi:i) 
speaks  of  the  Lord's  train,  wnich  filled  the  Temple. 

TRANCE  (trans),  (Gr.  l/rarocit,  ek'stas-iSt  out  of 
the  normal). 

This  word  occurs  only  twice  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (Num.  xxiv:4,  16),  and  in  both  instances  is 
supplied  by  the  translators,  and  not  found  in  the 
original.  In  the  A.  V.  of  the  New  Testament  it 
occurs  three  times  (Acts  x:io;  xi:5;  xxii:i7). 
The  word  is  translated  elsewhere  by  "astonish- 
ment," "amazement"  (Mark  v:42;  Luke  v:26). 
The  word  etymologically  denotes  a  state  of  mind 
in  which  external  objects  are  entirely  unnoticed 
and  forgotten,  and  the  soul  seems  for  the  time  to 
have  passed  out  of  the  body,  and  to  be  occupied 
in  purely  spiritual  contemplations.  This  state 
may  sometimes  be  the  effect  of  natural  causes; 
but  in  the  case  of  Peter  there  was  an  interposi- 
tion of  supernatural  power.  (Schaff,  Bib,  Diet,) 

TBANSFIOTJBATION  (trans-fTg-u-ra'shfin). 
One  of  the  most  wonderful  incidents  in  the  life 


of  our  Savior  upon  earth,  and  one  so  instnicttve 
that  we  can  never  exhaust  its  lessons,  is  the 
Transfiguration  (Matt.  xvii:2;  Mark  ix:2;  Luke 
ix:29).  The  Apostle  Peter,  towards  the  close  of 
his  life,  in  running  his  mind  over  the. proofs  of 
Christ's  majesty,  found  none  so  conclusive  and 
irrefragable  as  the  scenes  when  he  and  others 
were  with  him  in  the  holy  mount,  as  eye  wit- 
nesses that  he  received  from  God  the  Father  honor 
and  glory,  when  there  came  such  a  voice  to  him 
from  the  excellent  glory.  This  is  my  beloved 
Son,  in  whom  I  am  well  pleased'  (2  Pet.  i:i7;  see 
also  John  i:i4).  If  we  divide  Christ's  public  life 
into  three  periods — ^the  first  of  miracles  to  prove 
his  divine  mission,  the  second  of  parables  to  in- 
culcate virtue,  and  the  third  of  suffering,  first 
clearly  revealed  and  then  endured,  to  atone  for 
sin — the  transfiguration  may  be  viewed  as  his 
baptism  or  initiation  into  the  third  and  last  He 
went  up  the  mount  of  transfig^ation  on  the 
eighth  day  after  he  had  bidden  every  one  who 
would  come  after  him  take  up  his  cross,  declar- 
ing that  his  kingdom  was  not  of  this  world,  that 
he  must  suffer  many  things,  and  be  killed,  etc. 

(1)  Place.  The  mount  of  transfiguration  was 
long  thought  to  have  been  Mount  Tabor;  but  as 
this  height  is  fifty  miles  from  C^aesarea  Philippi, 
where  Jesus  last  taught,  it  is  now  supposed  to 
have  been  a  mountain  much  less  distant,  namely, 
Mount  Hermon. 

(2)  Purpose.  The  final  causes  of  the  trans- 
figuration, although  in  part  wrapped  up  in  mystery, 
appear  to  be  in  part  plain.  Amon^  its  intended 
lessons  may  be  the  following: — First,  to  teach 
that,  in  spite  of  the  calumnies  which  the  Pharisees 
had  heaped  on  Jesus,  the  old  and  new  dispensa- 
tions are  in  harmony  with  each  other.  To  this  end 
the  author  and  the  restorer  of  the  old  dispensa- 
tion talk  with  the  founder  of  the  new,  as  if  his 
scheme,  even  the  most  repulsive  feature  of  it,  was 
contemplated  by  theirs,  as  the  reality  of  which 
they  had  promulgated  only  types  and  shadows. 
Secondly,  to  teach  that  the  new  dispensation  was 
superior  to  the  old.  Moses  and  Elias  appear  as 
interior  to  Jesus,  not  merely  since  their  faces 
did  not,  so  far  as  we  know,  shine  like  the  sun, 
but  chiefly  because  the  voice  from  the  excellent 
glory  commanded  to  hear  him,  in  preference  to 
them.  Thirdly,  to  gird  up  the  energies  of  Jesus 
for  the  great  agony  which  was  so  soon  to  ex- 
cruciate him.  Fourthly,  to  comfort  the  hearts 
of  the  disciples,  who,  being  destined  to  see  their 
master,  whom  they  had  left  all  to  follow,  nailed  to 
a  cross,  to  be  themselves  persecuted,  and  to  suf- 
fer the  want  of  all  things,  were  in  danger  of 
despair.  But  by  being  eyewitnesses  of  his  maj- 
esty they  became  convinced  that  his  humiliation, 
even  though  he  descended  into  the  place  of  the 
dead,  was  voluntary,  and  could  not  continue  long. 

J.  D.  B. 

TBANSFOBMED  (tr^s-f6rmd').  (Gr.  MeraAu>/>^ 
met-am-or-fd'o),  used  of  the  change  of  the  moral 
character  for  the  better  (Rom.  xh:2),  through  the 
renewal  of  the  innermost  mental  nature. 

Men  are  "transformed"  by  the  renewings  of 
their  minds,  when  their  nature  is  changed 
from  its  likeness  to  Satan,  into  the  image  of  God, 
in  knowledge,  righteousness,  and  true  holiness, 
and  their  practice  is  rendered  conformable 
to  his  law  (Rom.  xii:2).  Satan  is  "trans- 
formed "into  an  angel  of  light,  when  he  tempts 
to  things  under  the  appearance  of  knowl- 
edge, holiness,  spiritual  liberty,  eminent  fellow- 
ship with  God;  and  his  ministers  are  "trans- 
formed*' into  apostles  of  Christ,  when  they  pre- 
tend an  uncommon  mission  from  Christ,  and  have 


TRANSGRESSION 


1677 


TRESPASS  OFFERING 


great  appearances  of  seriousness,  zeal,  and  de- 
votion (2  Cor.  xi:  13-15). 

TBJLNSGBESSION  (trIUis-gr&h'iin),  disobey- 
ing a  law,  going  over  the  limits  which  it  fixes  for 
action  or  forbearance,  (Esth.  iii:3). 

Sin  is  a  "transgression,"  as  thereby  we  treach- 
erously overpass  the  limits  which  God  hath  fixed 
for  our  duty  in  his  law,  and  do  what  he  forbids, 
or  omit  what  he  requires  (i  John  iii:4),  and  a 
TRANSGRESSOR  IS  a  sinncr,  particularly  a  noted  one 
(Is.  xlviii:8;  Gal.  ii:i8;  Is.  Iiii:i2).  In  Heb.  ii:2 
the  two  words  "transgression"  and  "disobedience" 
in  this  passage  are  nearly  synonymous.  The  for- 
mer may  be  considered  as  passing  oyer  the  bounds 
prescribed  by  a  law,  or  doing  the  things  we  ought 
not  to  do,  and  "disobedience"  as  a  refusal  to  do 
what  it  enjoins,  or  not  doing  the  things  we  ought 
to  do.  The  two  words  are  here  united,  so  that 
every  violation  of  the  command  may  be  included. 

TRANSLATE  (tr^s-lat'),  to  remove  from  one 
person,  place,  or  state  to  another;  so  Abner  in- 
tended to  "translate"  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  taking 
it  from  Ishbosheth,  and  giving  it  to  David  (2  Sam. 
m:io). 

Enoch  was  "translated"  when  he  was  removed, 
soul  and  body  at  once,  from  earth  to  heaven 
(Heb.  xi:s).  Men  at  their  conversion  are  "trans- 
lated;" are  brought  out  of  the  kingdom  of  Satan, 
and  a  state  of  sin  and  misery,  to  a  state  of  union 
with,  and  subjection  to  Christ  (Col.  i:i3)* 

TBAP  (trap).  See  Snare;  Hunting.  Used 
figuratively  of  danger  or  sin  (Job  xviii:ioj  Prov. 
xni:i4;  Exod.  x:7;  i  Sam.  xviii:2i;  Rom.  xiiq). 

TBEAD,  TBEADING,  TBEADEBS  (trSd. 
trSd'Ing,  trgd'ers).  See  AGRICULTURE;  THRASH- 
ING Floor;  Wine  Press. 

TBEAST7BE  (trSzh'Ar),  (usually  from  the  Heb.' 

*^S?,  jLW'tsar't  to  hoard). 

It  denotes  anything  collected  together,  in  stores. 
So  a  treasure  of  corn,  of  wine,  of  oil;  treasures 
of  gold,  silver,  brass ;  treasures  of  coined  money. 
Snow,  winds,  hail,  rain,  waters,  are  in  the  treas- 
uries of  Crod. 

FigoratiVe.  (1)  God's  treasures  are  col- 
lected quantities  of  snow,  hail,  rain,  waters,  wind 
(Job  xxxviii:22;  Jer.  Ii:i6;  Ps.  cxxxv:;).  (2) 
The  clouds  which  water  and  fructify  the  earth, 
are  called  his  good  treasure  (Deut.  xxviii:i2). 
(3)  the  wealth  hid  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  is 
called  his  hidden  treasure  (Ps.  xvii:i4).  (4) 
His  people  are  his  treasure,  collected  from  among 
men,  and  carefully  kept,  and  highly  valued  by 
him  as  his  jewels  (Exod.  xix:s;  Mai.  Hi  117). 
(5)  Christ  is  represented  as  a  treasury;  in  him 
dwells  all  the  fullness  of  God  (Col.  ii  rj,  9).  (6) 
He  and  his  gospel  are  a  treasure  hid  %n  the  Held 
(Matt.  xiii:44).  (7)  This  treasure  is  in  earthen 
vessels,  as  it  is  committed  to  poor  weak  men  to 
preach  and  exhibit  (2  Cor.  iv:7).  (8)  Men  have 
within  them  a  good  treasure  of  holy  dispositions, 
gifts,  graces,  and  thoughts  (Matt.  xii:3S)  ;  or  an 
evil  treasure  of  wicked  inclinations  and  erroneous 
opinions  (Luke  vi:45).  (9)  Wealth  obtained  by 
fraud,  oppression,  and  the  like,  is  called  treasures 
of  wickedness  (Prov.  x:2).  (10)  The  fear  of 
the  Lord  is  his  treasure;  it  is  delightful  to  God, 
and  very  profitable  to  the  saints  (Is.  xxxiii:6). 
(11)  Men's  treasure,  laid  up  for  them,  is  eternal 
glory,  prepared  in  heaven  for  the  saints,  and 
which  is  laid  up  by  receiving  Christ  and  walking 
in  him  (Matt.  vi:i9,  20). 

TBEASTTBEB  (trgzh'tir-er).  (Heb.  ^V},  ghiz- 
bawr*),  an   important   officer  in  Eastern  courts 


(Ezrai:8;  vii:2i;  Dan.  iii:2,  3),  who  was  often  the 
heir  to  the  throne  (2  Chron.  xxvl:2i). 

TBEASUBY  (trSzh'tir-y).  In  the  court  of  the 
women  in  the  Temple  were  thirteen  chests  for  re- 
ceiving the  offerings  (Mark  xii:4i;  John  viii:2o). 
See  Temple  Treasury,  p.  1 143. 

TBEATY  (tre'tj).  See  Alliances;  Covenant. 

TBEE  (tre),  (Heb.  Y?,  aUs;  Gr.  bM^ov,  den'* 

dron).  The  Hebrews  were  forbidden  to  destroy 
the  fruit  trees  of  enemies  (Deut.  xx:i9, 20). 

(1)  Famous  Trees.  There  are  mentioned  the 
trees  of  Allon-bachuth  (Gen.  xxxv:8),  the  tama- 
risk in  Gibeah  (i  Sam.  xxii:6),  the  terebinth  of 
Shechem  (Josh.  xxiv;26),  the  palm  of  Deborah 
(Judg.  iv:5),  the  terebinth  of  enchantments 
(Judg.  ix:37),  of  wanderers  (Judg.  iv:ii),  and 
others  (i  Sam.  xiv:2;  x:3). 

(2)  Worship.  The  Canaanites  worshiped 
groves  and  trees  (Ezek.  vi:i3;  xx:28;  Is.  irzp, 
30;  lvii:5).  (See  Robertson,  Early  Religion  0/ 
Israel,  p.  248.) 

(8)  Tree  of  Knowledge  and  of  Life.  These 
were  planted  by  (jod  in  the  garden  of  Eden  and 
were  named  from  their  relation  to  man  ((jen. 
ii:i7).  It  seems  to  have  been  thought  that  man 
could  secure  immortality  by  eating  of  this  tree 
(Prov.  iii:i8;  xi:3o;  Ezek.  xlvii:i2;  Rev.  ii:?; 
xxn:i4). 

TBENOH  (trSnch),  (Heb.  ^)^^,  teh-aw-law'). 

A  kind  of  ditch  cut  into  the  earth,  for  the  purpose 
of  receiving  and  draining  the  water  from  adjacent 
parts. 

Something  of  this  kind  was  the  trench  cut 
by  the  prophet  Elijah,  to  contain  the  water  which 
he  ordered  to  be  poured  on  his  sacrifice  (i  Kings 
xviii:32,  35,  38),  and  which,  when  filled  to  the 
brim  with  water,  was  entirely  exhausted,  evapo- 
rated, by  the  fire  of  the  Lord,  which  consumed  the 
sacrifice. 

Trenches  is  also  a  military  term,  and  denotes 
one  description  of  the  approaches  to  a  fortified 

town   (Heb.   '0,   khale).    They    were    anciently 

used  to  surround  a  town,  to  enclose  the  besieged, 
and  to  secure  the  besiegers  against  attacks  from 
them  (2  Sam.  xx:is).  Trenches  could  not  be  cut 
in  a  rock;  and  it  is  probable,  that  when  our  Lord 
says  of  Jerusalem  (Luke  xix:43),  "Thy  enemies 
shall  cast  a  trench  about  thee,"  meaning,  "they 
shall  raise  a  wall  of  enclosure,"  he  foretold  what 
the  Jews  would  barely  credit. 

Such  being  the  nature  of  trenches,  it  seems  that 
our  translators  have  used  this  word  incorrectly 
in  I  Sam.  xxvi  :$ :  "Saul  was  sleeping  within  the 
trench."  A  trench  demanded  too  much  labor, 
and  was  too  tedious  an  operation,  to  be  cut  round 
every  place  where  a  camp  lodged  for  a  night.  The 
margin,  therefore,  hints  at  a  circle,  or  ring,  of 
carriages,  which  is  no  doubt  the  meaning  of  the 

Heb.  '|?5,  mah-gawL 
TBESFASS  (trgs'p^is). 

1.  (Heb.  ^t%,peh'shah,  revolt),  the  breaking  of 
a  covenant  (Exod.  xxiirp;  i  Sam.  xxv:28). 

2.  The  word  mah-aF  '25,  to  cover  up,  is  used 
of  a  stealthy  act  (Lev.  xxvi  40;  Josh.  vii:i). 

8.  An  unintended  offense,  or  error,  is  expressed 
by  the  Heb.  ^f  ?,  aw-shawm  (Lev.  v:6;  Matt.  6:14, 
15),  and  the  Gr.  vapdfrrufna,  par-ap' to-mah, 

TRESPASS  OFFEKINa  (trSs'pas  df'ferlng)^ 
See  Offering. 


TRIAL 


1678 


TRINITY 


TRIAL  (trl'al)«  See  Punishments. 

TBIBBS  (tribs),  (Heb.  ?^¥9,  mat'Uh\  or  ^Jft 

The  name  of  the  great  groups  of  families  into 
which  the  Israelitish  nation,  like  other  Oriental 
races,  was  divided.  The  modern  Arabs,  the  Bed- 
ouins, and  the  Berbers,  and  also  the  Moors  on 
the  northern  shores  of  Africa,  are  still  divided 
into  tribes.  The  clans  in  Scotland  are  also 
analogous  to  the  tribes  of  the  ancient  Israelites. 

Snumeration.    In  Gen.  xlix«  the    tribes    are 
enumerated  according  to  their  progenitors;  viz., 
I,  Reuben,  the  firstborn;  2,  Simeon,  and  3»  Levi, 
instruments  of  cruelty ;  4,  Judah,  whom  his  breth- 
ren  shall   praise;   5»   Zebulun,   dwelling  at  the 
haven  of  the  sea;  6,  Issachak,  the  strong;  7» 
Dan,  the  judge;  8,  Gad,  whom  a  troop  shall  over- 
come, but  who  shall  vanquish  at  last;  9,  AsheRt 
whose  bread  shall  be  fat;  10,  Naphtau,  giving 
goodly  words;   11,  Joseph,  the  fruitful  bough; 
12,  Benjamin,  the  wolf;  all  these  were  originally 
the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel.    In  this  enumeration  it 
is  remarkable  that  the  subsequent  division  of  the 
tribe  of  Joseph  into  the  two  branches  of  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh,  is  not  yet  alluded  to.    After  this 
later  division  of  the  very  numerous  tribe  of  Jo- 
seph (Num.  xxvi:28;  Josh.  xvii:i4,  17)  into  the 
two  branches  of   Ephraim    and   Manasseh  had 
taken  place,  there  were,  strictly  speaking,  thirteen 
tribes.    It  was,  however,  usual  to  view  them  as 
comprehended  under  the  number  twelve  (Exod. 
xxiv:4;  Josh.  iv:2,  etc.),  which  was  the  more 
natural,  since  one  of  them,  namely,  the  caste  of 
the  Levites,  did  not  live  within  such  exclusive 
geographical  limits  as  were  assigned  to  the  others 
after  they  exchanged  their  nomadic  migrations 
for  settled  habitations,  but  dwelt  in  towns  scat- 
tered through  all  the  other  twelve  tribes  (Josh. 
xiii:i4,33).      Concerning    the   arrangement    of 
these  tribes  on  their  march  through  the  wilder- 
ness in  their  encampments  around  the  ark,  and 
in  their  occupation  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  sec 
the  cognate  articles,  such  as  Exodus,  Encamp- 
ment, Genealogy,  Levites,  Wandering  (The)  and 
the  names  of  the  several  tribes.       C.  H.  F.  B. 

TBIBX7LATI0N  (trtb'ti-la'shiin),  (Heb.  ^  tsar, 
or  "^?,  tsawr,  narrow;  Gr.  m^i%,  thlip'sis,  a  pres- 
sure), expresses  in  our  version  much  the  same  at 
trouble  or  trial;  importing  afflictive  dispensations, 
to  which  a  person  is  subjected,  either  by  way  of 
punishment,  or  by  way  of  experiment 

For  tribulation,  by  way  of  punishment  (Judff. 
x:i4;  Matt.  xxiv:2i,  29;  Rom.  iiip;  2  Thess.  1: 
6).  For  tribulation  by  way  of  trial  (John  xvi: 
33;  Rom.  v:3;  2  Thess.  i:4). 

TBIBT7TE  (trtb'tit),  (Heb.  ^8,  mas,  from  masas, 

•to  melf  or  'liquify;*  Gr.  0^,  for'os,  a  tax),  a  tax 
which  one  prince  or  state  agrees,  or  is  compelled 
to  pay  to  another,  as  the  purchase  of  peace,  or  m 
token  of  dependence. 

(1)  Capitation  Tax.  The  Hebrews  acknowl- 
edged the  sovereign  dominion  of  (jod  by  a  tribute, 
orcapitationof  half  a  shekel  a  head,  which  was  paid 
yearly  (Exod.  xxx  113).  Our  Savior  (Matt,  xvii: 
25)  thus  reasons  with  Peter:  "Of  whom  do  the 
kings  of  the  earth  take  custom  or  tribute?  of  their 
own  children,  or  of  strangers?"  Meaning,  that 
he,  as  Son  of  God,  ought  to  be  exempt  from  this 
capitation.  We  do  not  find  that  either  the  kings 
or  the  judges  of  the  Hebrews  when  they  were 
of  that  nation,  demanded  tribute.  Solomon,  at 
the  beginning  of  his  reign  (i  Kings  ix:2i-3^; 
2  Chron.  viii  :9)  compelled  the  Canaanites,  left  in 


the  cotmtry,  to  pay  tribute  and  to  perform  the 
drudgery  of  the  public  works  he  had  undertaken. 
Toward  the  end  of  his  reign,  he  also  imposed 
a  tribute  on  his  own  people,  and  made  them  work 
on  the  public  buildings  (i  Kings  v:i3,  14;  ix: 
15;  xi:27),  which  alienated  their  minds,  and 
sowed  the  seeds  of  that  discontent  which  after- 
wards ripened  into  open  revolt,  by  the  rebellion  of 
Jeroboam. 

(2)  Foreign  Tribute.  The  Israelites  were  at 
various  times  subjected  to  heavy  taxes  and  tributes 
by  their  foreign  conquerors.  After  Judaea  was 
reduced  to  a  Roman  province,  a  new  poll  of  the 
people  and  an  estimate  of  their  substance  were 
taken  by  command  of  Augustus,  in  order  that  he 
might  more  correctly  regtdate  the  tribute  to  be 
exacted  (Joseph.  Antiq,  xvii,  15).  This  was  a 
capitation  tax  levied  at  so  much  a  head,  and  im- 
posed upon  all  males  from  14,  and  all  females 
from  12  up  to  65  years  of  age  (Ulpian,  Digest  de 
Censih.  lib.  iii;  Fischer,  De  Numism,  Census). 

(3)  OpiK>sitioni  To  oppose  the  levying  of  this 
tribute  Judas  the  Gaulonite  raised  an  insur- 
rection of  the  Jews,  asserting  that  it  was  not  law- 
ful to  pay  tribute  to  a  foreigner,  that  it  was  a 
token  of  servitude,  and  that  the  Jews  were  not  al- 
lowed to  acknowledge  any  for  their  master  who 
did  not  worship  the  Lord.  They  boasted  of  being 
a  free  na4:ion,  and  of  never  having  been  in  bondage 
to  any  man  (John  viii  133) .  These  sentiments 
were  extensively  promulgated,  but  all  their  efforts 
were  of  no  avail  in  restraining  or  mitigating  the 
exactions  of  their  conquerors. 

(4)  Christ  and  the  Pharisees.  The  Pharisees 
who  sought  to  entangle  Jesus  in  his  talk  (Matt 
xxii:i7),  sent  unto  him  demanding  whether  it 
was  lawful  to  give  tribute  unto  C^sar  or  not; 
but  knowing  their  wicked  designs  he  replied. 
'Why  tempt  ye  me,  ye  hypocrites  ?*  'Render  unto 
C^sar  the  things  which  are  Caesar's,  and  unto  God 
the  things  that  are  God's.' 

The  apostles  Peter  and  Paul  severally  recom- 
mended submission  to  the  ruling  powers,  and  in- 
culcated the  duty  of  paying  tribute,  "tribute  to 
whom  tribute  is  due'  (Rom.  xiii:i-8;  i  Peter  ii: 
13).  G.  M.  B. 

TBIBTJTB  MONEY  (trfb'<lt  miin'y).  The 
money  collected  by  the  Romans  in  paynaentof  the 
taxes  imposed  upon  the  Tews  (Matt.  xxii:i9;  xvii? 
25;  xxii:i7;  Mark  xii:i4:  Luke  xx:22;  xxiii:2). 

The  phrase  may  apply  to  money  of  any  descrip- 
tion, coined  or  uncoined.  The  piece  .nhown  to 
our  Savior  at  his  own  request  was  a  Roman  coin, 
bearing  the  image  of  one  of  the  Caesars,  and  must 
have  been  at  that  time  current  in  Judaea,  and  re- 
ceived in  payment  of  the  tribute  in  common  with 
other  descriptions  of  money.  There  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  tribute  was  collected  exclu- 
sively in  Roman  coans,  or  that  the  tribute  money 
was  a  description  of  coin  different  from  that 
which  was  in  general  circulation.  (See  Money.) 
G.  M.  B. 

TBUJITY  (trtn'I-ty),  the  union  of  three  in  one; 
generally  applied  to  the  ineffable  mystery  of  three 
persons  in  one  God,  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit 

This  doctrine  is  rejected  by  many  because  it  is 
incomprehensible;  but,  if  distinct  personaHty, 
agency,  and  divine  perfections,  be  in  Scripture 
ascribed  to  the  Father,  and  to  the  Son,  and  to  the 
Holy  Spirit,  no  words  can  more  exactly  express 
the  doctrine,  which  must  unavoidably  be  thence 
inferred,  than  those  commonly  used  on  this  sub- 
ject, viz.,  that  there  are  three  distinct  Persons  in 
the  Unity  of  the  (Godhead.  The  sacred  oracles 
most  assuredly  teach  us,  that  the  One  living  and 


TRIUMPH 


1679 


TUBAL 


true  God  is,  in  some  inexplicable  manner,  Triune, 
for  he  is  spoken  of,  as  One  in  some  respects,  and 
as  Three  in  others  (Gen.  1:26;  Gen.  ii:6,  7;  Is. 
xlviii:i6;  Is.  xxxiv:i6;  2  Cor.  xiii:i4;  John  xiv: 
23;  Matt,  xxviiirig;  2  Thess.  iii:s;  i  John  v: 
7;  Acts  v:3,  4).  The  Trinity  of  Persons  in  the 
Deity  consist^  with  the  Unity  of  the  Divine  Es- 
sence ;  though  we  cannot  explain  the  modus  of  it, 
as  the  modus  in  which  any  being  subsists  accord- 
ing to  its  distinct  nature  and  known  properties, 
is  a  secret  to  the  most  learned  of  men,  and  prob- 
ably will  always  continue  so.  But  if  the  most  com- 
mpn  of  God's  works,  with  which  we  are  the  most 
conversant,  be  in  this  respect  incomprehensible, 
how  can  men  think  that  the  modus  existendi  (or 
manner  of  existence)  of  the  infinite  Creator  can 
be  level  to  their  capacities? 

The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  indeed  a  mystery, 
but  no  man  has  yet  shown  that  it  involves  in  it 
a  real  contradiction.  Many  have  ventured  to  say, 
that  it  ought  to  be  ranked  with  transubstantiation, 
as  equally  absurd.  But  Archbishop  Tillotson  has 
shown  by  the  most  convincing  arguments  imagin- 
able, that  transubstantiation  includes  the  most  pal- 
pable contradictions ;  and  that  we  have  the  evidence 
of  our  eyes,  feeling,  and  taste,  that  what  we  re- 
ceive in  the  Lord's  supper  is  bread,  and  not  the 
body  of  a  man;  whereas  we  have  the  testimony 
of  our  eyes  alone,  that  the  words  "This  is  my 
body,"  are  at  all  in  the  Scriptures.  Now  this  is 
intelligible  to  the  meanest  capacity:  it  is  fairly 
made  out,  and  perfectly  unanswerable.  But  who 
ever  attempted  thus  to  prove  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  to  be  self-contradictory?  What  testimony 
of  our  senses,  or  what  demonstrated  truth,  does 
it  contradict  ?  Yet  till  this  be  shown,  it  is  neither 
fair  nor  convincing,  to  exclaim  against  it  as  con- 
tradictory, absurd  and  irrational.  Buck. 

TRIUMPH  (tri'timf),  (Heb.  ^^?,  aw-las',  to  ex- 
ult; Vi?,  aw-/afs',  to  jump  for  joy;  Gr,  Bpia/Afiedta, 
three-ani'byoo'o,  a  noisy  song). 

It  especially  denotes  shouting  and  joy  on  ac- 
count of  victory  over  an  enemy.  God  triumphs 
over  his  enemies,  when  he  has  an  easy  and  glori- 
ous victory  over  them  (Exod.  xv:i,  21). 

Christ  triumphed  over  principalities  and  powers 
on  the  cross:  he  joyfully  finished  transgression, 
made  satisfaction  for  sin,  a!id  thus  undermined 
the' power  of  Satan,  and  laid  an  effectual  founda- 
tion for  the  overthrow  of  his  kingdom  in  the 
world,  and  in  the  hearts  of  the  elect  (Col.  ii:is). 
The  saints  triumph  alway  in  Christ,  and  in  God's 
work  and  praise;  amidst  weakness,  sinfulness 
and  trouble,  they  rejoice  in  Christ's  person,  of- 
fices, righteousness,  power  and  love,  and  with  joy 
think  ofj  delight  in,  and  extol  the  work  of  re- 
demption, and  the  whole  providence  of  Giod  con- 
nected with  it  (2  Cor.  ii:i4;  Ps.  xcii:4,  and  cvi: 
47).  Philistia's  triumphing  because  of  David, 
may  either  be  an  irony  sigfnifying  their  mourning 
and  howling  at  his  conquest  of  them;  or  it  may 
denote  their  having  reason  to  rejoice,  as  they 
had  got  a  better  master  than  their  tyrannical 
lords;  or  the  phrase  may  signify  his  triumphing 


my 
:9). 


over  them  (Ps.  lx:8,  and  cviii 

TBOAS  (trS'as),  (Gr.  Tpwdf,  troc^'),  more  fully 
Alexandria  Troas,  a  city  of  northern  or  Lesser 
Mysia,  in  Asia  Minor,  situated  on  the  coast  at 
some  distance  southward  from  the  site  of  Troy 
upon  an  eminence  opposite  the  island  of  Tenedos 
(Strabo,  xiii,  p.  593;  Plin.  Hist.  Nat.  y,  33). 

Paul  was  twice  at  this  place,  and  while  here  re- 
ceived the  intimation  that  he  was  to  carry  the 
Gospel  into  Europe  (Acts  xvi:8,  9;  xx:5;  2  Cor. 


ii:i2;  2  Tim.  iv:i3).  The  name  Troas,  or  Troad, 
strictly  belonged  to  the  whole  district  around 
Troy.  Alexandria-Troas  is  represented  by  the 
present  Eski-Stamboul,  and  its  ruins  are  now 
concealed  in  the  heart  of  a  thick  wood  of  oaks, 
with  which  the  country  abounds. 

TB0OYLLIX7M  (tro-jyi'li-iSm),  (Gr.  T/w7iJXXtor, 
tro-gooC lee'On)^  a  town  and  promontory  on  the 
western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  opposite  Samos,  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Mycale  (Strabo,  xdv,  p.  636). 

Paul  sailed  through  this  channel  on  his  way 
to  Jerusalem  at  the  close  of  his  third  mission- 
ary trip  and  spent  a  night  in  Trogyllium  (Acts 
xx:is).  "St.  Paul's  Port"  is  the  name  still  given 
to  the  harbor  there. 

TBOOF  (troop),  (Heb.  *^.  gawd,  fortune),  (Is. 
lxv:ii). 

1.  An  incorrect  translation  of  Gad,  the  god  of 
fortune  (Is.  lxv:ii).     (See  Gad.) 

2.  Heb.  ^^\,  ghed'ood,  a  band,  or  marauding 

party  (Gen.  xlix:i9;  2  Sam.  iii:22;  xxii:3o;  Job  xix: 
12;  Fs.  xviii.*29). 

TBOFHIMXTS  (tr6f'i-miis),  (Gr.  Tp6<Pifios,  trof- 
ee-mos,  nourishing),  a  disciple  of  Ephesus,  who  ac- 
companied St.  Paul  into  Judea,  and  was  the  in- 
nocent cause  of  the  dangers  which  the  Apostle 
there  encountered. 

For  having  been  recognized  by  some  Jews  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  seen  in  company  with  Paul,  they 
took  occasion  to  accuse  Paul  of  having  brought 
Greeks  into  the  temple  (Acts  xx:4;  xxi:29).  His 
name  does  not  again  occur  till  after,  seemingly, 
the  first  imprisonment  of  Paul.  In  one  of  the  en- 
suing journeys  he  remained  behind  at  Miletus 
sick  (2  Tim.  iv:2o).  This  circumstance  is  re- 
garded as  furnishing  a  strong  fact  to  show  that 
Paul  was  twice  imprisoned  at  Rome ;  for  Trophi- 
mus,  in  the  first  passage  to  Miletus  (Acts  xx: 
15),  was  not  left  behind,  but  proceeded  to  Judaea; 
after  which  we  do  not  lose  sight  of  Paul  for  one 
day,  and  know  that  he  was  not  again  at  Miletus 
before  his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome. 

TBOTJOH  (tr6f),  (Heb.  ^VP,  sho'keth,  drinking), 
a  vessel  for  watering  stock  (Gen.  xxiv:2o;  xxx:38; 
Ex.  ii:i6).    (See  Fountain;  Well.) 

TBOW  (trs),  (Gr.  3o<ci?«.  dok-eh'o,  Luke  xviiig), 
to  think,  to  judge,  to  believe,  to  be  of  opinion;  so 
employed  that  the  meaning  is  easily  understood 
from  the  context. 

TBTJOE  BBEAKEB  (trus  brak'er),  (Gr.  ^- 
Tordot,  as'pon-dost  without  a  treaty),  one  who  is  re- 
gardless of  honor  or  truth,  implacable  (2  Tim,  iii:3; 
Rom.  i:3i;  A.V.  "covenant  breaker"). 

TBT7MP  (triSmp).    Same  as  Trumpet. 

TBT7MPET  (triimp'gt).  See  Musical  Instru- 
ments. 

TBX7MPETS,  FEAST  OF  (triimp'Sts,  fSst  dv). 
See  Festivals. 

TBYPHENA  and  TBYFHOSA  (try-phs'ni 
and  try-ph5's4),  (Gr.  T/>i$0atra,  troo'/ahee-nah,  lux- 
urious; Tpv0O<ro,/r<%?-^'-5/i^,  luxurious),  female  dis- 
ciples at  Rome,  who  labored  to  extend  the  Gos- 
pel and  to  succor  the  faithful  (Rom.  xvi:i2).  Their 
nistory  is  unknown;  but,  from  their  names,  they 
were  probably  sisters. 

TBYFHOSA  (try-ph5's4).    See  Tryphena. 

TT7BAL  (tu'bal),  (Heb.  ^S'^^,  too-bat,  meaning 

uncertain),  Sept.  eo/3A,  Tho-bar,  a  son  of  Japheth, 
and  a  people  descended  from  him  (Gen.  x:2;  Is. 
Uvi:i9;   £zek.  xxvii:i3;   xxxii.*26;   xxxviii:2y  3; 


TUBAL-CAIM  161 

xxxix:i),  supposed  to  have  been  settled  id  Asia 
Minor  near  the  Euxine.  (See  Nations,  Dispes- 
EiON  OF).  His  descendants  are,  no  doubt,  the 
Tubia  of  Assyrian  inscriptions  and  the  Tibareni, 
or  Tibarcnoi  of  classical  writers.  (See  Sayce, 
Higher  Crit.  p.  130.) 

TUBAI^AJN(tQ'bal-kain),(Heb.ril  ^T^.toef. 
bal-kak'yin,  meaning  uncertain),  son  of  Lamecb 
and  Zilldh,  lo  whom  the  invention  of  the  art  of 
forgiijy  metals  is  ascribed  in  Gen.  iv:12. 

TUDSUULiA,    ERI-EAXU,    AND  EUDUSr* 

T.ATT-B  (p)  aiTKAI.. 

Having  been  requested  to  write  briefly  about 
the  above  names,  which  so  closely  resemble  the 
Tidal,  Arioch,  and  Chedorlaomer  of  Gen.  xiv 
(notwithstanding  a  certain  amount  of  doubt  in  the 
reading  of  one  character  of  the  last  of  the  three), 
I  ^ve  here  a  short  account  of  the  tablets  upon 
which  they  were  found. 

(1)  The  First  Fragment  which  came  to  my 
notice  (Sp.  iii,  2)  is  very  badly  mutilated,  and  it 
is  with  great  difficulty  that  the  text,  as  far  as  it 
is  preserved,  can  be  read.  Eri-Eaku  is  mentioned 
first,  but  simply  as  father  of  Dur-makh-iloni,  and 
there  is  then  a  reference  to  the  spoiling  of  some 
place,  and  to  waters  having  come  over  Babylon 
(or  Babylonia)  and  the  great  temple  Saggil  (a 
£-saggil).  Afterwards  we  read  that  "the  old  man 
and  the  child  (were  slain)  with  the  sword,"  and 
execuiions  seem  to  have  taken  place.  Then  comes 
the  mention  of  "Tudkhula,  son  of  Gazia"  (pos- 
sible completion:  Gagtani),  and  two  lines  farther 
on  we  read  that  "his  (qy.,  whose?)  son  fell  upon 
him  with  the  weapon  of  his  hand,"  in  conse- 
quence whereof,  perhaps  "his  (qy.,  the  son's?) 
dominion(?)  (was  proclaimed?]  before  the  tem- 
ple (of  ihe  goddessl  Annunit."  This  is  followed 
by  a  reference  to  [the  king  of?]  Elam,  who  seems 
to  have  spoiled  the  city  Akhkhelal  (?)  and  the 
land  of  RabbaC,  making  them  "like  heaps  of 
ruins,"  and  taking,  seemingly,  "the  fortress  of 
Akkad  and  the  whole  of  Borsippa(?)."  We  then 
have  a  phrase  which  seems  to  say  that  Kudur- 
lakhma!,  his  son  (possibly  the  son  of  the  ruler 
of  Elam),  piercedf?)  his  heart  with  the  steel 
sword  of  his  girdle,  and  it  may  be  conjectured 
that  he  thereupon  (as  many  another  had  done 
before,  and  would  do  afterwards)  mounted  the 
throne,  and  "captured  his  enemy."  There  is  after- 
wards a  reference  to  "those  kings.  lords  of  si[n]," 
t.  p.,  "sinful  men,"  but  Ihe  text  is  too  mutilated 
to  make  a  good  connected  sense. 

(2)  Tho  Second  Tablet  found  referring  to  this 
period  was  Sp.  ii,  9S7.  It  reads  that  the  gods  (ap- 
parently) "in  their  faithful  counsel  had  favor  for 
Kudur-lakhgumal,*  king  of  Elam,"  who  de- 
scended, and  did,  in  Babylon,  that  which  was 
good  unio  them  i.  e.,  in  their  eyes)  so  the  text 
seems  to  say,  Dur-makh-?lani,  here  called  "son  of 
Eri-Eku,"  IS  referred  to,  lower  down,  in  connec- 
tion with  some  correspondence  which  seems  to 
have  passed  concerning  their  respective  rights  to 
the  throne. 

(3)  Tha  Third  Tablet.  The  third  tablet  ii 
a  large  fragment  numbered  Sp.  158  and  Sp.  ii, 
926,  and  contains  about  eighty  lines  of  writing, 
in  many  places  in  a  rather  defective  condition. 
It  begins  by  a  reference  to  the  spoiling  of  the 
temple  of  Du-makh  ("the  supreme  seat")— appar- 
ently by  the  personage  who  forms  the  subject  of 
the  inscription — and  the  miraculous  divine  mani- 
festations which  took  place  on  that  occasion,  when 
the  gods  were  clothed  with  light,  and  flashed  like 
lightning  before  him.     After  a  gap,  there  b  a 


0  TURTLEDOVE 

series  of  paragraphs  referring  to  the  wickedness 
of  the  Elamile,  who  plundered  the  temples,  and 
whose  depredations  were  attributed  to  the  anger 
and  displeasure  of  the  gods.    In  the  fifth  para- 

fraph,  and  only  then,  do  we  leam  who  this  wicked 
ilamite  was — it  was  Kudur-lakh-gu[mal],*  "the 
doer  of  the  evils."  The  next  paragraph  refers 
to  Ide-Tutu,  apparently  a  prince  of  Tiamtu  (the 
shores  of  Ihe  Persian  Gulf),  where  either  he  or 
the  Elamite  invader  founded  a  pseudo-capital. 
After  this  the  Elamile  is  said  to  have  directed 
his  yoke  to  go  down  to  Borsippa,  and  then  tra- 
versed "the  road  of  darkness,"  which  is  further 
explained  as  Kharran  meskis,  probably  "the  road 
to  Messch,"  destroying  the  land,  subduing  the 
princes,  spoiling  the  temples,  and  plundering  the 
people,  whose  goods  he  carried  off  to  Elam.  At 
this  point  the  text  becomes  more  defective,  and 
then  breaks  off  altogether. 

(4)  Ths  Three  Hunee.  The  Greek  forms 
show  us  that  Tidal  is  for  Tidgfaal,  and  Chedor- 
laomer for  Chedor-laghomer.  The  likeness  be- 
tween Tidal,  Arioch,  and  Chedorlaomer  and  Tud- 
khula, Eri-Eaku,  and  Kudur-lakhgumal  (notwitfa* 
standing  the  slight  doubt  in  the  value  laih)  will 
probably  be  admitted  as  incontestable.  Is  it  merely 
a  coincidence  that  these  names  all  occur  together 
on  the  same  tablet,  or  are  tb^  really,  name  for 
name,  the  same  as  the  Biblical  names  which  re- 
semble them  so  closely?  The  doctrine  of  chances 
will  probably  indicate  the  correct  answer. 

T.  G.  P. 

TUUBANS  (tUr'bmit).    See  Headdmbss, 

TUBTLEDOVS  (tflr'tl  dQv').  (Heb.  ntl.  tore). 
occurs  in  Gen.  xv:^;  Lev.  I;i4;  v:7,ii,  etc;  Luke 
iii34> 

The  birds  of  this  subgenus  are  invariahly 
smaller  than  pjgeons  properly  so  called:  they  are 
mostly  marked  with  a  patch  of  peculiarly  colored 
scutelatcd  feathers  on  the  neck,  or  with  a  collar 
of  black,  and  have  often  other  markings  on  the 


smaller  wing  covers.  The  species  Columba  Tur- 
tur,  with  several  varieties  merely  of  color,  ex- 
tends from  the  west  of  Europe  through  the  north 
of  Africa,  to  the  islands  south  of  China.    The 


TUTORS 


1681 


TYRE 


turtledove  of  Palestine  is  specifically  the  same; 
but  there  is  also  a  second,  we  believe  local :  both 
mign'SLte  further  south  in  winter,  but  return  very 
early;  when  their  cooing  voice  in  the  woods  an- 
nounces the  spring.  In  the  rites  of  the  Hebrew 
law,  full  grown  or  old  turtledoves  might  be  of- 
fered in  pairs,  but  only  (gosal)  the  young  of 
pigeons  not  full  grown.  They  were  the  usual 
offering  of  the  poor  (Lev.  v:ii)  ;  a  circumstance, 
Bochart  remarks,  indicating  the  humble  station 
of  the  Virgin  Mary,  since  at  her  purification  she 
offered  a  pair  of  turtledoves  instead  of  a  lamb. 

C*  xi«  S* 

TX7T0BS  (tu'tSrs)»  overseers  of  property  for 
heirs  (Gal.  iv:2). 

TWELVE  (twSlv).    See  Number. 

Figurative*  In  allusion  to  the  twelve  tribes 
of  Israel,  twelve  loaves  of  shew-bread  were  on  the 
table  of  the  sanctuary:  Christ  chose  twelve 
Apostles,  whose  doctrines  are  called  twelve  stars 
on  the  head  of  the  gospel  church;  twelve  thou- 
sand are  said  to  be  sealed  of  every  tribe;  the 
new  Jerusalem  has  twelve  gates,  and  twelve 
foundations:  and  the  tree  of  life  bears  twelve 
manner  of  fruits  (Matt.  x:i,  a;  Rev.  xii:i;  vii. 
xxi.  and  xxii:2). 

TWILIGHT  (twi'Ut),  a  mixture  of  light  and 
darkness,  as  in  the  morning  after  daybreak,  and  at 
even  when  the  sun  is  set  (l  Sam.  xxx:l7;  Prov. 
vn:g).    See  Time. 

TWINKUNO  (twln'kllng),  of  an  eye,  a  small 

moment  (i  Cor.  xv;52). 

TYOHICUS  (tyk'i-kiis),  (Gr.  Tvx**^,  too-khee- 
kos't  fateful),  is  the  name  of  an  assistant  and  com- 
panion of  the  Apostle  Paul. 

He  accompanied  Paul  on  his  third  missionary 
journey  (Acts  xx.d),  and  was,  at  a  later  period, 
the  bearer  of  Paul's  letter  from  Rome  to  the 
Colossians.  He  was  with  Paul  in  his  first  impris- 
onment, and  Paul  styled  him  a  beloved  brother, 
faithful  minister,  and  fellow  servant  in  the  Lord, 
who  should  declare  all  his  state  unto  the  Colos- 
sians, to  whom  he  was  sent  that  he  might  know 
their  estate  and  comfort  their  hearts  (Col.  iv:7, 
8).  For  a  similar  purpose  Tychicus  was  sent  to 
the  Ephesians  also  (Eph.  vi:2i,  22;  2  Tim.  iv: 
12),  and  employed  in  various  missionary  journeys 
(Titus  iii:i2).  According  to  tradition,  Tychicus 
was  made  bishop  of  Chalcedon.       C.  H.  r.  B. 

TYPE  (tip),  (Gr.Tthrof,  too'pos),  something  struck 

ofiF. 

The  best  definition  of  this  vrord,  Perhaps  in  its 
theological  sense,  is  that  which  Heb.  x:  i  sup- 
plies, viz.,  a  type  is  a  shadow  of  good  things  to 
come,  or,  as  the  Apostle  elsewhere  expresses  it 
(Col.  ii:i7),  *a  shadow  of  things  to  come;  but 
the  body  is  of  Christ.'  Adopting  this  definition 
as  the  correct  one,  we  proceed  briefly  to  point  out 
the  different  types  by  which  (jod  was  pleased  in 
various  ages  to  show  forth  the  person  and  work 
of  the  Redeemer. 

1.  Before  the  law,  Adam,  Enoch,  Noah,  Mel- 
chizedec,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Joseph  were  emi- 
nently typical  of  (Christ.  Again,  under  the  law, 
Moses,  Joshua,  Samson,  David,  Solomon,  Elijah, 
Elisha,  Jonah,  Zerubbabel,  and  Joshua  the  high 
priest  were,  in  many  points,  sing^arly  types  of 
Christ. 

2.  The  firstborn,  the  Nazarites,  prophets,  priests, 
and  kings,  were  typical  orders  of  persons, 

8.  Under  the  head  of  things  typical  may  be 
noticed:  Jacob's  ladder,  the  burning  bush,  the 
pillar  of  cloud  and  fire,  the  manna,  the  rock,  and 
the  brazen  serpent 


4.  Actions  typical  were :  the  deliverance  otit  of 
^^ypU  passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  sojourn  in  the 
wilderness,  passage  over  the  Jordan,  entrance  into 
Canaan,  and  restoration  from  Babylon. 

5.  Rites  typical  were:  circumcision,  various 
sacrifices,  and  sundry  purifications. 

6.  Places  typical  were :  the  land  of  Canaan,  the 
cities  of  refuge,  the  tabernacle,  and  the  Temple. 

The  above  tvpes  were  designed  to  shadow  forth 
Christ  and  the  blessings  of  his  salvation ;  but  there 
were  others  also  which  pointed  at  our  miseries 
without  him.  There  were  ceremonial  unclean- 
nesses;  the  leprosy,  for  instance,  was  a  type  of 
our  natural  pollution;  and  Hagar  and  Ishmael  a 
tjrpe  of  the  covenant  of  works. 

As  there  must  be  a  similarity  or  analogy  be- 
tween the  t3rpe  and  the  antitype,  so  there  is  also  a 
disparity  or  dissimilitude  between  them. 

It  is  not  in  the  nature  of  ^pe  and  antitype 
that  the^  should  agree  in  all  things;  else,  instead 
of  similitude,  there  would  be  identity.  Hence  the 
apostle,  whilst  making  Adam  a  type  of  Christ,  yet 
shows  how  infinitely  the  latter  excelled  the  former 
(i  Cor.  XV 147).  So  the  priests  of  old  were  types 
of  Christ,  though  he  infinitely  excelled  them  both 
as  to  his  own  person  and  as  to  the  character  of 
his  priesthood  (see  Heb.  vii,  viii,  ix,  and  x). 

TYBANNTJS  (ty-rin'nus).  (Gr.  T«Jporw,  too' ran- 
«<75,  sovereign),  a  sophist  or  rhetorician  of  Ephesus, 
who  kept  one  of  those  schools  of  philosopny  and 
eloquence  so  common  at  that  period. 

St.  Paul  preached  for  two  years  daily  in  his 
school  after  quitting  the  synagogue  (Acts  xix: 
9).  This  proves  that  the  school  was  Greek,  not 
Jewish.  It  does  not  appear  whether  Tyrannus 
was  himself  a  convert  or  not;  for  it  may  be  that 
he  let  to  the  Apostle  the  house  or  hall  which  he 
used:  but  it  is  more  pleasant  to  suppose  that  he 
was  a  convert,  and  that  the  Apostle  was  hospita- 
bly entertained  by  him  and  obtained  the  use  of 
the  hall  in  which  he  himself  taught.  (Ramsev, 
St,  Paul  p.  271.) 


(tyre),  (Heb.  HIT  or  lif,  tsore;  Gr.  Ttfpof. 
too'ros).  Besides  its  antiquity,  manufactures,  col- 
onies, and  commerce,  the  city  of  Tyre  claims  at- 
tention as  frequently  mentioned  in  Biblical  histo- 
ry, and  still  more  on  account  of  the  prophecies  of 
its  overthrow,  and  their  exact  fulfillment.  Its  He- 
brew name,  tsore,  which  means  a  rock,  was  prob- 
ably derived  from  its  being  at  first  founded  for 
purposes  of  defense  on  a  rocky  hill.  Our  word 
Tyre  and  its  Latin  form  Tyrus,  which  are  used 
interchangeably  in  the  A.  V.,  as  well  as  its  Greek 
form  too'-ros,  are  only  slightly  changed  from  the 
Aramaean  form  of  the  original  Hebrew  nanre. 

The  original  position  of  Tyre  was  on  the  east- 
em  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  about  midway 
between  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor,  near  the  north- 
western frontier  of  Palestine.  It  was  a  colony 
of  Zidon,  and  was  founded  before  the  records  of 
history.  As  early  as  the  eleventh  century  before 
the  advent  of  Christ,  the  Tyrians  had  become  fa- 
mous for  skill  in  the  arts. 

(1)  Hiram.  About  1142  B.  C.  (2  Sam.  v:ii), 
their  king  Hiram  sent  cedar  trees  to  Jerusalem, 
and  workmen  who  built  David  a  house.  A  genera- 
tion later,  when  Solomon,  preparing  to  build  the 
Temple,  sent  to  the  same  monarch  for  similar 
assistance,  he  said  to  him  (i  Kings  v:6).  Thou 
knowest  that  there  is  not  among  us  any  that  can 
skill  to  hew  timber  like  unto  the  Sidonians/  He 
also  (i  Kings  vii:  13)  sent  and  fetched  Hiram 
out  of  Tyre,  a  widow's  son,  filled  with  cunning 
to  work  all  works  in  brass.  In  subsequent  ages, 
every  kdng  coveted  a  robe  of  Tyrian  purple,  and 


TYRE  Ifl 

Ezekiel  (3ucvii.i6)  speaks  of  'the  multitude  of 
wares  of  its  making,'— emeralds,  purple,  and 
broidered  work,  and  fine  linen,  and  coral,  and 
agate. 

(2)  Commerce.  The  commerce  of  Tyre  was 
commensurate  with  its  manufactures.  Situated  at 
the  entry  of  the  sea,  it  became  a  merchant  of  the 
people  for  many  isles.  It  was  inhabited  by  seafar- 
ing men,  and  was  styled  by  way  of  eminence  'the 
merchant  city,'  whose  merchants  were  princes, 
whose  traffickers  were  the  honorable  of  the  earlh 
(Is.  xxiii:8).  Among  the  other  Tyrian  colonies, 
whither  'their  own  feet  carried  them  afar  off  to 
sojourn,'  were  Cyprus,  Utica,  and  Carthage.  In 
the  27tb  chapter  of  Ezekiel,  Syria,  Persia,  and 
Egypt,  Spain,  Greece,  and  every  (juarter  of  the 
ancient  world,  are  portrayed  hastening  to  lay  their 
most  precious  things  at  the  feet  of  Tyre,  who  sat 
enthroned  on  ivory,  covered  with  blue  and  purple 
from  the  isles  of  Elishah ;  while  the  Gammadims 
were  in  her  towers,  hanged  their  shields  upon 
her  walls  round  about,  and  made  her  beauty  per- 
fect 

(8)  Attacked  by  AsByria.  Near  the  close  of 
the  eighth  century  before  the  Christian  era,  Shal< 
maneser,  the  king  of  Assyria  who  captured  Sa- 


2  TYRK 

become  a  flourishing  emporium  for  all  the  king- 
doms of  the  world  upon  the  face  of  the  earth. 
'and  heaped  up  silver  as  the  dust,  and  fine  gold 
as  the  mire  of  the  sireels,'  was  assailed  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great  in  the  midst  of  bis  Oriental  career 
of  conquest.  It  sustained  a  siege  of  seven  months, 
and  was  at  length  taken  only  by  means  of  a  mole, 
by  which  the  island  was  turned  into  a  peninsula, 
and  rendered  accessible  by  land  forces.  In  con- 
structing this  mole  Alexander  made  use  of  the 
ruins  of  the  old  city,  and  (hereby  fulfilled  two 
prophecies.  One  was  (Ezek,  xxviiia),  'And  they 
shall  lay  thy  stones  and  thy  cimlier  and  thy  dust 
in  the  midst  of  the  water.'  The  other  was  (verse 
21),  'And  thou  shalt  be  no  more:  though  thou 
be  sought  for,  yet  shalt  thou  never  be  found  again, 
saith  the  Lord  God.'  So  utterly  were  the  ruins 
of  old  Tyre  thrown  into  the  sea,  that  its  exact 
site  is  confessedly  undeterminable,  although  the 
ruins  of  nearly  fifty  cities  near  Rome,  which  per- 
ished almost  2,500  years  ago,  testify  that  the  ex- 
tinction of  every  trace  of  a  city  is  a  sort  of 
miracle.  Moreover,  Alexander  laid  Tyre  in  ashes  r 
thus  accomplishing  the  prediction  of  Zechariah 
Cix;4),  'She  shall  be  devoured  with  fire.'  Besides, 
as  ships  from  Tyre,  out  on  a  three  years'  voyage^ 


maria,  was  led  by  cupidity  lo  lay  siege  to  Tyre. 
He  cut  off  its  supplies  of  water  which  aqueducts 
had  furnished,  but  wells  within  the  walls  supplied 
their  place ;  and  at  the  end  of  five  years  he  gave 
up  his  blockade  as  hopeless. 

(4)  Old  Testament  frophedsB.  It  was  against 
a  city  such  as  this,  so  confident,  and  to  all  ap- 
pearance so  justifiably  confident,  of  sitting  a  queen 
forever,  that  several  prophets,  particularly  Isaiah 
and  Ezekiel,  fulminated  the  denunciations  which 
Jehovah  dictated  (Is.  xxiii;  Jer.  xxv:22;  Ezek. 
xxvi;  xxvii;  xxviii;  Amos  i;9,  10 ;  Zech.  ix:z, 
4).  They  prophesied  that  it  should  be  overthrown 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  that  it  should  revive,  but  at 
length  be  destroyed  and  never  rebuilt. 

(6)  Folflllment  of  Prophecy.  Before  a  gen- 
eration had  passed  away,  according  to  Josephus, 
Pbilostratus,  and  Seder  01am,  Nebuchadnezzar 
came  up,  as  had  been  predicted  (Elzek.  xxvi: 
7-15),  makine  a  fort,  caslmg  a  mount,  and  lifting 
up  the  buckler.  At  the  end  of  thirteen  years 
(about  A.  M.  3422)  he  took  the  city,  at  least 
that  on  the  mainland,  and  Tyre  was  forgotten  sev- 
enty years,  as  had  been  foretold  by  Isaiah  (xxiii; 
15).    In  the  year  B.  C  333  Tyre,  which  had  again 


returned  to  find  that  city  razed  to  the  grouDd 
which  they  had  left  and  looked  to  find  once  more 
in  the  perfection  of  beauty,  there  is  a  significance 
in  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah  not  at  first  obvious 
(xxiii:i,  14)  :  "Howl,  ye  ships  of  Tarshish;  for 
it  is  laid  waste,  so  that  there  is  no  house,  no  en- 
tering in.  Howl,  ye  ships  of  Tarshish,  for  your 
strength  is  laid  waste.' 

The  mole  of  Alexander  has  prevented  Tyre 
from  becoming  insulated  again.  The  revival  of 
the  city  was  long  retarded  by  the  rivalship  of  the 
newly-founded  Alexandria,  and  by  other  causes, 
but  It  was  at  length  partially  restored,  and  was 
often  the  subject  of  contest  during  the  crusades. 
It  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Europeans  till  1291, 
when  it  was  finally  yielded  lo  the  Moslems.  Its 
fortifications,  which  were  almost  impregnable, 
were  demolished,  and  it  has  never  since  been  a 
place  of  consequence.  Travelers  of  every  succeed- 
ing century  describe  it  as  a  heap  of  ruins,  broken 
arches  and  vaults,  tottering  walls  and  towers,  with 
a  few  starveling  wretches  housing  amid  the  rub> 
bish. 

(6)  Present  Condition.  It  was  half  ruined  by 
an  earthquake  in  1837.    One  of  the  belt  bccoodU 


TYRUS 


1683 


TZADDI 


of  its  present  appearance  is  given  l]y  the  Ameri- 
can traveler  Robinson,  who  spent  a  Sabbath  there 
in  1838  (Biblical  Researches,  iii.  395)  :  I  con- 
tinued my  walk,'  says  he,  'along  the  shore  of  the 
peninsula,  part  of  which  is  now  unoccupied  except 
as  "a  place  to  spread  nets  upon,"  musing  upon  the 
pride  and  fall  of  ancient  Tyre.  Here  was  the 
little  isle,  once  covered  by  her  palaces  and  sur- 
rounded by  her  fleets :  but  alas !  thy  riches  and  thy 
fame,  thy  merchandise,  thy  mariners  and  thy 
pilots,  thy  caulkers,  and  the  occupiers  of  thy  mer- 
chandise that  were  in  thee, — where  are  they? 
Tyre  has  indeed  become  like  "the  top  of  a  rock." 
The  sole  tokens  of  her  more  ancient  splendor 
—columns  of  red  and  gray  granite,  sometimes 
forty  or  fifty  heaped  together,  or  marble  pillars 
— lie  broken  and  strewed  beneath  the  waves  in  the 
midst  of  the  sea;  and  the  hovels  that  now  nestle 
upon  a  portion  of  her  site  present  no  contradic- 
tion of  the  dread  decree,  "Thou  shah  be  built  no 


more. 


J.  D.  B. 


TYBUS  (ty'rus),  the  Greek  form  of  Tyre  (Jer. 
XXV :22;  xxvh:3;  xlvii:4;  £zek.  xxvi:2-4,  7,  15; 
xxvii:2,  3,  8,  32;  Hos.  ix:i3;  Amos  i:9, 10;  Zech. 
ix:2,  3). 

TYBOPCEON,  THE  (Gr.  4  tQv  TvpoToiQv  4>dpay^, 
hay  tohn  too-ro-poy-ohn'  far'anx,  the  Valley  of  the 
Cheesemongers),  a  valley  which  divided  ancient 
Jerusalem  into  two  high,  steep  promontories.  It 
extended  from  the  northern  table-land  to  the  pool 
of  Siloam.  It  was  a  very  important  feature  in 
the  topography  of  the  holy  city.  Though  during 
the  ages  great  masses  of  ruins  and  rubbish  have 
well  nigh  filled  up  this  famous  valley,  modem 
excavators  have  labored  patiently  and  success- 
fully in  tracing  out  its  original  course.  Professor 
Robinson  and  Gapt.  Warren  have  both  conducted 
most  interesting  explorations  here.  The  former 
proved  thereby  that,  agreeably  with  the  descrip- 
tion of  Josephus,  this  depression  swept  around 
the  northern  outlook  of  the  southwest  hill.  Capt. 
Warren  explored  here  to  depths  of  from  50  to  80 
feet  and  discovered  ancient  drains  and  reservoirs 
cut  in  the  rocky  bed  of  this  valley,  also  several 
hundred  feet  of  the  foundations  of  the  west 
Haram  wall,  with  one  of  its  historic  gates.  He 
likewise  unearthed  the  ruins  of  two  massive 
bridges  of  the  olden  time.  One  found  at  a  depth 
of  sixty  feet  below  the  present  surface,  is  all  that 
is  left  of  the  great  bridge  which  once  spanned 
the  Tyropoeon  and  led  from  the  Temple  to  the 
upper  part  of  Jerusalem. 

TZAPHTZAPHA    (zaf'zafei),    (Heb.    "|?P5f. 

tsaf-tsaw-faw'),  occurs  only  in  Ezek.  xvii:5,  and  is 
usually  translated  'willow  tree:*  'He  took  also  of 
the  seed  of  the  land,  and  planted  it  in  a  fruitful 
field;  he  placed  it  by  great  waters,  and  set  it  as  a 
willow  tree. 

According  to  tradition  the  Israelites  hung  their 
harps  on  the  weeping  willow.  The  species  which 
is  called  chilaf  by  the  Arabs  is  called  Salix  jE^yf^ 
tiaca  by  botanists;  and  it  is  probable  that  it  is 
also  found  in  Syria,  and  may  be  the  above  safsaf. 
Indeed,  it  was  found  by  Hasselquist  on  hrs  jour- 
ney from  Acre  to  Sidon,  as  he  mentions  it  as  S. 
Egyptiaca,  v.  S.  Safsaf.  (See  Oreb;  Willow 
Tree.)  J.  F.  R. 

TZEBI  (t^'hi),(tieh.^7^,ised'ee';  Sept.  ^picdf, 

dor'kas\  gazelle).  Dorcas  is  applicable  to  the 
whole  group  of  gazelles  properly  so  called. 


We  may  here  notice  that  Ant  Subgutturosa 
may  have  been  the  typical  animal  whence  Thisbe. 
in  the  Babylonian  legend  of  Pyramus  and  Thisbe, 
took  her  name;  and  that  the  Cervus  Dama,  or 
fallow  deer,  said  to  have  been  seen  in  Palestine 
by  Hasselquist,  was  the  same  species,  or  Cervus 
Barbarus,  which,  when  young,  has  horns  slightly 
palmated,  and  a  speckled  livery.  (See  Anti- 
lope.)  C.  H.  S. 

TZEBI   (z€'ri),  (Heb.  ^'IV,  iser-ee'),  translated 

da/m,  occurs  in  Gen.  xxxviiiaj;  xliii:ii;  and  in 
both  passages  is  mentioned  along  with  A?/  and 
necotn,  with  the  addition  in  the  second  of  botnim 
and  shekadim. 

In  Gen.  xliii:ii,  lacob  thus  addresses  his  sons: 
'Take  of  the  best  fruits  in  the  land  in  your  ves- 
sels, and  carry  down  the  man  a  present:  a  little 
balm  (tseri),  and  a  little  honey,  spices  (see  Ne- 
coth),  and  myrrh  (see  Lot),  nuts  (see  Botnim), 
and  almonds.'    In  the  separate  articles  on  these 
substances  some  general  observations  have  been 
made,  which  will  equally  apply  to  tseri.  This  must 
have  been  a  produce  of  Gilead,  or  of  the  northern 
parts  of  Syria,  and  would  thus  be  suitable  for  con- 
veying to  Egypt  on  the  occasion  referred  to.  Balm 
or  balsam,  we  have  seen,  was  an  Arabian  and 
Abyssinian  plant  cultivated  in  one  or  two  places. 
But    it    is   difficult   to  determine   exactly   what 
substance  is  intended:  we  may,  however,  adduce 
the  other  passages  in  which  the  word  is  found. 
Ezekiel    (xxvii:i7)    mentions  tseri   along    with 
'wheat  of  Minnith,  and  Pannag,  and  honey,  and 
oil,'  as  merchandise  which  Judah  brought  to  the 
market  of  Tyre.  That  it  was  possessed  of  medici- 
nal properties  appears  from  Jer.  viii  :22 :  'Is  there 
no  balm  in  Gilead?'    'Go  up  into  Gilead  and  take 
balm'  (xlvi:ii).    'Take  balm  for  her  pain,  if  so 
she  may  be  healed'  (xli  :8).    It  has  been  variously 
translated — cera,  theriaca,  cedri  resina,  siacti  i*n- 
guenta,    medicamenta,    resina,    colophonia.     We 
are  unable,  however,  distinctly  to  connect  any  of 
the  above  names  with  any  product  of  Gilead.  But 
there  is  a  product  which,  though  little  known  to 
Europeans,  is  highly  esteemed  by  the  Arabs,  ac- 
cording to  the  testimony    of    several  travelers. 
This  is  the  oil  of  the  sackum  tree,  sometimescalled 
the  Jericho  plum  tree,  also  the  Jerusalem  willow, 
oleaster  or  wild  olive  tree,  or  Elaagnus  angusti- 
folius  of  Linnaeus.    The  fruit  of  one  species  is 
much  esteemed  in  Persia,  and  known  by  the  name 
of  sinsyd.    The  Syrian  fruit  is  ovoid,  but  oblong, 
fleshy,  having  an  olive-shaped  nut  with  a  kernel 
containing  oil.    The  oil  is  separated  by  pressure 
and  floating  it  on  water,  and  a  further  portion  by 
boiling.    The  Arabs  are  described  by  Maundrell 
and  Mariti  as  holding  it  in  high  esteem,  and  as 
preferring  it  to  the  balsam  of  Mecca,  because 
they  found  it  very  eflicacious  against  contusions 
and  wounds.    (See  Balsam  Tree.)      J.  F.  R. 


(zl-ylm),  (Heb.  B'**??./^^-j'^««',  beasts 
of  the  wilderness,  Is.  xxxiv:i4  and  Jer.  1:39). 

Bochart  is  inclined  to  recognize  this  word  as  a 
general  term  denoting  cats,  or  any  kind  of  wild 
beasts  that  frequent  dry  places  in  Palestine. 
e-yeem  or  iyim  may  include  also  the  various 
wild  canidpe  (dogs)  of  the  same  region,  amount- 
ing to  at  least  twelve  species,  without  including 
two  hyenas.    (See  Weasel.)  C.  H.  S. 

TZADDI  (^),  the  nineteenth  letter  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet,  corresponding  to  the  Englii^ 
letter  Z. 


UCAL 


1684 


UNCLEAN,  UNCLEANNESS 


U 


trOAL  (Q'kal),  (Heb.  V^,  o(hkawl\  I  am  strong). 

One  of  two  sons,  pupils,  or  contemporaries,  to 
whom  Agur  addressed  his  prophecy  or  proverbs 
(Prov.  XXX  :i).  This  interpretation  represents 
the  traditional  Hebrew  punctuation,  and  derives 
support  from  verse  4,  where  a  person  is  addressed 
and  asked  to  answer,  if  he  knows.  Another  in- 
rerpretation,  which,  however,  neglects  the  punctu- 
ation, is  given  on  the  margin  of  the  R.  V.,  which 
reads  as  follows :  "The  man  saith  I  have  wearied 
myself  O  God,  I  have  wearied  myself  O  God 
and  am  consumed,  etc."  The  passage  is  very  ob- 
scure. 

The  majority  of  the  commentators  regard 
"Ithiel"  and  "Ucal"  as  disciples  of  "Agur,  the 
Son  of  Jakeh,  the  oracle."    R.  V. 

UBL  (O'el),  (Heb.  b}<1«,  oo-aU*,  wish  of  God), 
one  of  the  "sons"  of  Bam,  who  put  away  his  Gentiie 
wife  after  the  Captivity  (Ezra  x:34).  B.  C.  458. 

UKKAZ  (iik'naz),  (i  Chron.  iv:i5),  Marg.  for 
Kenaz. 

XJLAI  (u'U-I),  (Heb.  ^^^^  oc-lay* ;  Sept.  Oa^X, 

uhaV),  a  river  which  flowed  by  Susa  (see  Shu- 
sh an)  into  the  united  stream  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates. 

It  is  mentioned  in  Dan.  viii:2.  It  is  called  by 
Pliny  Eulctus  {Hist.  Nat.  vi,  81),  but  is  described 
by  Greek  writers  under  the  name  of  Choaspes 
(Herodot.  v,  49;  Strabo,  xv,  p.  728),  and  is  now 
known  by  the  name  of  Kerah,  called  by  the  Turks 
Karasu.  This  river  is  formed  by  the  junction  of 
many  streams  in  the  province  of  Ardelan,  in 
Kurdistan.  It  runs  through  the  plain  of  Ker- 
manshah,  and,  being  greatly  increased  in  magni- 
tude by  the  junction  of  two  small  rivers,  pro- 
ceeds with  a  furious  course  towards  Khuzistan, 
receiving  numerous  tributaries  in  its  passage.  It 
passes  on  the  west  of  the  ruins  of  Shus  or  Susa, 
and  enters  the  Shat-ul-Arab  about  twenty  miles 
below  Korna.     (Porter,  Travels,  ii,  412.) 

T7LAM  (Q'lam),  (Heb.  ^7^,  oo-lawm\  porch, 

vestibule;  Gr.  0*X<l/ii  uiam). 

1.  The  son  of  Sheresh,  a  descendant  of  Gilead, 
the  grandson  of  Manasseh,  and  father  of  Bedan 
(i   Chron.  vii:i7).     (B.  C.  about  1618.) 

2.  The  firstborn  of  Eshek,  a  descendant  of 
Saul.  His  descendants  were  famous  as  archers 
(i  Chron.  viii:39,  40).     (B.  C.  about  588.) 

TTLLA  (iiri4),  (Heb.  ^?f .  oo-iaw',  burden  or 

yoke),  head  of  a  family  of  Asherites  (i  Chron. 
vii:39).  B.  C.  about  1014, 

UMMAH    (iSm'mah),    (Heb.    '"^P?,   oo-mawh*. 

gathering),  one  of  the  cities  allotted  to  Asher 
(Josh.  XIX :30  only).    It  is  not  identified. 

UNCIAL  LETTEBS.    See  Manuscripts,  Bib- 
lical. 
TTNOntOXTHCISED    (tin-serlciim-slzd),    (Heb. 
^  aw-rale)^  used  to  represent  a  heathen  (Gen. 

xxxiv:i4;  Judg.  xiv:3;  xv:i8;  i  Sam.  xiv:6;  Jer. 
ix:26;  Rom.  iv:9;  i  Cor.  viiiiB);  one  who  is  slow  of 
speech  (Exod.  vi:i2.  30;  iv:io),  or  bard  of  hear- 
ing (Jer.  vino;  Acts  vii:5i). 

A  tree  under  three  years  old  was  called  «nr»>- 
cutncised,  that  is,  it  was  unclean  by  law  (Lev. 


^, 


xix:23).  The  word  is  also  used  of  an  impure 
heart  (Lev.  xxvi:4i ;  Ezek.xliv:9;  Acts  vii:5i). 

XTNCnLEAN,  XTNCLBANKESS  (iin-klen'.  nn- 

klgn'nes),  (Heb.  «5¥,  taw-may,  to  be  foul;  ^4. 

ifi^-^«/\  rejection^  Lev.  xx:2i;  Ezra  ix:ii;  •T!?» 

er-vaw*,  nudity,  Deut.  xxiii:i4;  Zecb.  xiii:i;  ^l*i?i 

kaW'deLshe\  consecrated.  Job  xxxvi-i4;'^?i?,>fetftt^ 

reh\  accidental  disqualification,  Deut.  xxiiiiio; 
Gr.  dird^o^ot,  ak^athdr-tos ;  fuaafiM,  mee-as-mos*, 
contamination). 

(1)  Animals,  (i)  All  animals  strangled,  or 
dead  of  themselves,  or  through  beasts  or  birds  of 
prey;  (2)  whatever  beast  did  not  both  part  the 
hoof  and  chew  the  cud,  and  certain  other  smaller 
animals  "creeping  things;"  (3)  birds  mentioned 
in  Lev.  xi  and  Deut  xiv;  (4)  whatever  in  the 
waters  had  not  both  fins  and  scales;  (5)  what- 
ever winged  insect  had  not  besides  four  legs  the 
two  hind  legs  for  leaping;  (6)  things  offered  in 
sacrifice  to  idols ;  (7)  all  blood  or  whatever  con- 
tained it  (save  perhaps  the  blood  of  fish,  as 
would  appear  from  that  only  of  beast  and  bird 
being  forbidden  (Lev.  vii:26),  and  therefore  flesh 
cut  from  the  live  animal;  (8)  as  also  all  fat  in 
masses  among  the  intestines,  and  probably  wher- 
ever discernible  and  separable  among  the  flesh, — 
were  called  unclean  (Lev.  iii:i4-i7;  vii:2i);  (9) 
the  eating  of  blood  was  prohibited  even  to  "the 
stranger  that  sojourneth  among  you"  (Lev.  xvii: 
10,  12,  13.  14)  ;  (10)  as  regards  blood,  the  prohi- 
bition dates  from  the  declaration  to  Noah  against 
"flesh  with  the  life  thereof,  which  is  the  blood 
thereof*  ((jen.  ix:4),  which  was  perhaps  re- 
garded by  Moses  as  still  binding  upon  all  Noah's 
descendants. 

(2)  Of  Man.  Uncleanness,  as  referred  to  man, 
may  be  arranged  in  three  degrees;  (a)  that  which 
defiled  "until  even,"  and  was  removed  by  bath- 
ing and  washing  the  clothes  at  the  end  of  k — 
such  were  all  contacts  with  dead  animals;  {b) 
that  graver  sort  which  defiled  for  seven  days,  and 
was  removed  by  the  use  of  the  "water  of  separa- 
tion"— such  were  all  defilements  connected  with 
the  human  corpse;  (c)  uncleanness  from  the 
morbid,  puerperal,  or  menstrual  state,  lasting  as 
long  as  that  morbid  state  lasted;  and  in  the  case  of 
leprosy  lasting  often  for  life  (Lev.  chapters  xiii, 
XIV,  xv:5-24;  Num.  v:2).  (i)  As  the  htunan  per- 
son was  itself  the  seat  of  a  covenant  token,  so 
male  and  female  had  each  their  ceremonial  obli- 
gations in  proportion  to  their  sexual  differences. 
(2)  There  is  an  emphatic  reminder  of  human 
weakness  in  the  fact  of  birth  and  death — ^man's 
passage  alike  into  and  out  of  his  mortal  state— ' 
being  marked  with  a  stated  pollution.  The  corpse 
bequeathed  a  defilement  of  seven  days  to  all  who 
handled  it,  to  the  "tent"  or  chamber  of  death, 
and  to  sundry  things  within  it.  Nay,  contact  with 
one  slain  in  the  field  of  battle,  or  with  even  a 
human  bone  or  grave,  was  no  less  effectual  to  pol- 
lute, than  that  with  a  corpse  dead  by  the  course 
of  nature  (Num.  xix:ii-i8;  xxxirip).  This 
shows  that  the  source  of  pollution  lay  in  the  mere 
fact  of  death.  (3)  The  duration  of  defilement 
caused  by  the  birth  of  a  female  infant,  being  dou- 
ble that  due  to  a  male,  extending  respectively  to 


UNCLEAN  BIRDS 


1685 


UNITARIAN  CHURCH,  THE 


eighty  and  forty  days  in  all  fLev.  xii:2-5),  may 
perhaps  represent  the  woman  s  heavier  share  in 
the  first  sin  and  first  curse  (Gen.  iii:i6;  i  Tim. 
ii:i4).  (4)  Amongst  causes  of  defilement  should 
be  noticed  the  fact  that  the  ashes  of  the  red  heifer, 
burnt  whole,  which  were  mixed  with  water,  and 
became  the  standing  resource  for  purifying  un- 
cleanness  in  the  second  degree,  themselves  be- 
came a  source  of  defilement  to  all  who  were  clean, 
even  as  of  purification  to  the  unclean,  and  so  the 
water,  (s)  Somewhat  similarly  the  scapegoat, 
who  bore  away  the  sins  of  the  people,  defiled  him 
who  led  him  into  the  wilderness,  and  the  bringing 
forth  and  burning  the  sacrifice  on  the  Great  Day 
of  Atonement  had  a  similar  power.  This  lightest 
form  of  uncleanness  was  expiated  by  bathing  the 
body  and  washin^f  the  clothes.  (6)  Besides  the 
water  of  purification  made  as  aforesaid,  men  and 
women,  in  their  "issues,"  were,  after  seven  days, 
reckoned  from  the  cessation  of  the  disorder,  to 
bring  two  turtledoves  or  young  pigeons  to  be 
killed  by  the  priests.  (7)  All  these  kinds  of  un- 
cleanness disqualified  for  holy  functions:  as  the 
hiyman  so  affected  might  not  approach  the  con- 
gregation and  the  sanctuary,  so  any  priest  who  in- 
curred defilement  must  abstain  from  holy  things 
(Lev.  xxii:2-8). 

TTNOLEAK  BIBDS  (Qn-klen'  herds). 

The  species  which  the  law  forbade  the  Israelites 
to  use  for  food  (Lev.  xi  and  Deut.  xiv)  include 
bats,  because  in  the  most  ancient  classifications 
of  animals,  all  flying  animals  were  considered  to 
belong  more  to  birds  than  quadrupeds;  in  other 
respects  the  list  is  confined  nearly  to  the  same 
genera  and  species  as  are  at  the  present  day  re- 
jected in  all  Christian  countries.  There  are  only 
twenty  named ;  but  in  the  text  the  additional  words 
*of  the  like  kind'  clearly  imply  sometimes  even 
more  than  genera,  and  the  explanations  of  the 
law  superadded  by  human  authority  indicate  sev- 
eral which  do  not  occur  in  either  list.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  list:  Eagles;  Gypxta,  or  bearded 
Vulture;  Osprey — Bacha;  Glede — Black  Kite; 
Vulture — Merlin  and  allied  species ;  Raven — Crow 
and  congeners;  Ostrich;  Night  Hawk,  or  Goat- 
sucker; Cuckoo — Gull;  Hawk  and  congeners; 
Owl;  Caspian  and  Nilotic  Tern;  Night  Heron; 
Porphyrio;  Pelican;  White  Carrion  Vulture  Ne- 
ophron ;  Stork ;  Heron — Plover  and  allied  species ; 
Hoopoo ;  and  Bat.  Every  ornithologist  who  re- 
views this  question  with  care  will  feel  with  Winer 
{Bibiisch.  Real -Wdrterbuch),  that,  with  certain 
exceptions,  the  proposed  identifications  cannot  be 
regarded  as  claiming  entire  confidence. 

C  H.  D. 

UMOTiON  (ilnk'shfin),  (Gr.  xpf^P^t  Mris'maA, 
ointment),  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  as  an  aid  to 
the  attainment  of  a  knowledge  of  truth  (i  John 
ii:2o). 

TJNDBFILBD    (iin-d^'fll'd).  (Heb.  ^,  tawm, 

complete),  usually  in  a  moral  sense,  one  who  is 
pious  (Ps.  cxixri);  or,  as  in  Cant.  v:2;  virQ,  of  a 
bride  who  is  faithful  to  her  marital  vows).  In  the 
New  Testament  "undefiled"  is  the  rendering  of  the 
Greek  d^airot  (am-ee' an-ios),  unsoiled,  pure. 

Thus  Jesus  was  undefiled  (Heb.  vii:26),  1.  e., 
free  from  sin.  "The  bed  undefiled"  (xiii:4)  is 
one  free  from  adultery.  A  religion  that  is  sin- 
cere (James  1:27).  and  the  inheritance  reserved 
for  the  just  (i  Pet.  i:4),  are  "undefiled." 

TTNDEBOntDINO  (iin'der-gerdTng),  bmding  a 
ship  with  chains  (Acts  xxvii:i7). 

This  was  done  in  heavy  weather  to  hold  the 
ship  together.  It  is  called  frapping  in  modem 
times. 


TJNDEBSETTEBS  (iin'der-sSt'tSrs),  (Heb.  ^ 

kaw'thafe\  shoulder),  supports  for  holding  the 
laver  in  Solomon's  temple  (1  Kings  vii:3o).  (See 
Layer). 

TTNIOOBN  (Q'nl-kdm),  (Heb.  ^\  rame,  Ps.  xxii: 
21,  wild  oxen). 

Any  one-horned  animal,  as  the  rhinoceros  (Is. 
xxxiv:7,  A.  V.  margin).  The  biblical  animal, 
however,  was  two-horned  (Deut.  xxxiii:  17,  where 
the  word  is  singular,  and  not  plural,  as  in  A.  V.). 
It  was  possessed  of  great  strength  (Num.  xxiii: 
22;  xxiv:8),  but  was  too  untamable  to  bend  its 
neck  to  the  yoke,  or  assist  man  in  his  agricul- 
tural labors  (Job  xxxix:9-i2).  It  was  frisky  in 
youth  (Ps.  xxix:6).  It  was  not  the  wild  buffalo, 
for  this  beast  is  quite  tamable.  The  R.  V.  mar- 
gin (Num.  xxiii  :22)  renders  it  by  ox-antelope, 
meaning  the  oryx  (Antilope  leucoryx),  (Sec 
Antelope;  Reem.) 

XJNITABIAN  OHUBOH,  THE. 

(1)  Ooncemlng  the  Church  Doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  and  Founding  of  Denomination.  The 
Church  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  which  had  been 
defined  with  extreme  precision  in  the  early  creeds, 
was  much  questioned  or  denied  in  the  controver- 
sies of  the  Protestant  Reformation..  The  point 
chiefly  at  issue  was  the  proper  deity  of  Christ; 
that  of  the  Holy  Spirit  appears  rarely  in  the  dis- 
cussion, and  is  treated  with  considerable  variety 
and  freedom  of  opinion.  The  representative  names 
of  this  period  are  those  of  Servetus,  a  Spaniard, 
(1509-1553;  burned  for  heresy  at  Geneva),  who 
held  that  Jesus,  riot  being  Grod,  yet  represents  to 
us  all  of  deity  that  we  can  know ;  and  Socinus,  an 
Italian  (1539-1603),  who  held  that  Jesus,  not  be- 
ing God,  may  yet  be  worshiped  as  "a  god"  (a  di- 
vine person),  since  he  is  the  appointed  agent  of 
the  Almighty  in  effecting  the  work  of  man's  sal- 
vation. 

This  latter  opinion  was  first  made  the  central 
dogma  of  a  system  of  theology  about  1578.  Un- 
der the  personal  influence  of  Socinus  a  body  of 
something  over  one  hundred  congregations  in 
Poland,  known  as  "Socinian,"  came  to  be  a  con- 
siderable power,  especially  in  the  field  of  edu- 
cation. Its  chief  college,  at  Racovia,  is  said  to 
have  had  more  than  a  thousand  students.  It  was 
mercilessly  exterminated  by  a  decree  of  exuc  lu 
1660.  In  Transylvania,  or  Eastern  Hungary, 
Unitarianism  was  recognized  in  1568  as  one  of 
four  legal  "religions,"  under  a  royal  charter  de- 
fining certain  privileges,  which  the  Unitarian  body 
there,  including  one  hundred  and  six  congrega- 
tions, enjoys  to  this  day.  Its  founder  was  Fran- 
cis E>avid  (15 10- 1579),  who  died  in  prison,  under 
a  malicious  charge  of  innovation  in  doctrine. 

(2)  In  Great  Britain.  In  England  the  Uni- 
tarian opinion  appears  frequently,  both  within 
and  without  the  Established  Church,  in  the  first 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century ;  but  was  first  em- 
bodied in  a  religious  organization  in  1774  by  The- 
ophilus  Lindsey  (1723-1808),  who  had  withdrawn 
from  the  establishment  the  year  before.  As  doc- 
trine, its  earlier  expounders  were  Joseph  Priest- 
ley (1733-1804),  Thomas  Belsham  (1750-1829), 
and  Lant  Carpenter  (1780-1840)  ;  and  it  was  held 
to  be  allied  with  the  "materialism"  of  Locke  and 
Hartley.  It  has  since  been  most  brilliantly  de- 
fended and  illustrated  by  James  Martineau  (boro 
1805),  who  has  associated  it  with  a  severely  iii« 
tellectual  and  ethically  noble  religious  philosophy, 
and  with  critical  studies  which  exhibit  the  ex- 
treme breadth  of  modern  liberal  scholarship.  In 
the  British  Islands  about  three  hundred  and  fifty 
congregations  are  known  as  Unitarian,  many  of 


UNITARIAN  CHURCH,  THE 


1686     UNITED  BRETHREN.  THE    IN  CHRIST 


them  still  retaining,  in  their  official  title,  their 
original  names  as  Presbyterian,  Baptist,  or  Con- 
gregational. 

(8)  In  the  TJnited  States  and  Canada.  The 
Unitarian  body  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
includes  about  four  hundred  and  fifty  congfre- 
gations  (in  thirty-six  of  the  states,  besides  two 
territories  and  Canada),  of  which  two  hundred 
and  sixty-nine  are  found  in  the  northeastern 
states.  It  was  not  originally  constituted  as  a 
sect ;  and,  in  general,  its  members  would  still 
disclaim  belonging  to  a  sect,  or  holding  any  sys- 
tem of  doctrinal  opinions  by  which  it  could  be 
defined.  The  name  "Unitarian"  had  come,  in 
1815,  to  be  applied  to  about  one  hundred  and 
twenty  congregational  societies  of  eastern  Massa- 
chusetts, with  a  few  others  more  or  less  widely 
scattered,  whose  pastors  had  been  known  as  "lib- 
eral" in  the  controversies  of  the  day.  It  was  ac- 
cepted reluctantly,  if  at  all  (except  to  define  in- 
dividual opinion),  by  the  best  known  leaders  of 
the  liberal  body,  and  is  adopted,  at  this  day,  in 
the  title  of  not  much  more  than  one-third  of  its 
associated  churches.  The  points  of  agreement 
among  these  are:  (i)  Denial  of  the  trinitarian 
dogma;  (2)  a  general  tendency,  in  religious  opin- 
ion, to  what  is  known  as  "liberalism  ;*'  (3)  refusal 
to  be  bound  by  any  statement  of  doctrine  as  a 
condition  of  membership ;  (4)  assertion  that  char- 
acter and  conduct,  not  opinion,  is  the  true  test  of 
Christianity.  Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  frame  a  statement  which  might  define  their 
position  more  precisely;  but  no  such  statement 
was  ever  generally  accepted  among  them,  until  a 
National  Conference  at  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1896,  passed  the  resolution  that  "these 
churches  accept  the  religion  of  Jesus,  holding,  in 
accordance  with  his  teaching,  that  practical  re- 
ligion is  summed  up  in  love  to  God  and  love  to 
man." 

(4)  American  Leaders.  The  two  best-known 
leaders  of  American  Unitarianism  have  been 
William  E.  CHianning  (1780-1842)  and  Theodore 
Parker  (1810-1860).  These  names  represent  two 
widely  different  periods,  or  t3rpes,  separated  by 
the  sharp  and  serious  division  of  opinion  that 
prevailed  during  the  discussions  of  1840-1850.  The 
name  of  Channing  stands  for  a  religion  founded 
"stricHy  on  the  superhuman  authority  of  the  New 
Testament,  devout  and  humane  in  spirit,  tending 
strongly  to  ethics  and  philanthropy,  wide  in 
sympathy,  grave  and  somewhat  austere  in  temper, 
attached  to  forms  of  piety,  as  the  true  means  of 
promoting  purity  of  life.  The  name  of  Parker 
stands  for  an  equal  fervor  of  piety  and  conse- 
cration of  life,  but  a  far  bolder  and  more  ag- 
gressive mental  independence,  greater  vigor  in  at- 
tack on  error  of  opmion  or  wrongs  in  the  body 
politic,  distinct  repudiation  of  dogmatic  or  so- 
called  supernatural  authority,  and  a  frank  ac- 
ceptance of  natural  science  as  the  true  ally  of  re- 
ligious thought.  This  latter  type,  blending  with 
the  former,  almost  imperceptibly  at  first,  but  with 
increasing  energy,  has  not  only  avoided  the 
break  of  fellowship  which  it  seemed  to  threaten, 
but  has  to  a  great  degree  supplanted  the  other 
in  the  common  mind.  Thus,  belief  in  the  Chris- 
tian miracles,  accepted  sixty  years  ago  without 
dispute,  has  never  been  openly  disavowed  by  the 
Unitarian  body  as  such;  but  no  Unitarian  would 
now  use  miracles  to  define  the  fellowship  or  de- 
fend the  truth  which  he  calls  Christian  theism. 

(5)  Present  Condition  and  Attitude.  So  far 
as  can  be  judged  at  present,  denominational  har- 
mony and  activity  seem  to  have  been  greatly  pro- 
moted by  the  distinct  acceptance  of  this  position. 


Whether  vigor  of  church  life  or  denominational 
growth  will  be  equally  promoted  by  it,  turns  on 
an  experiment  wholly  new  in  the  religious  world, 
of  which  it  would  be  idle  to  predict  the  issue.  As 
to  the  possibility  of  union,  or  co-operating  with 
other  religious  bodies,  it  would  seem  that  the 
question  must  be  divided.  The  situation  is  clearly 
favorable  to  individual  sympathies,  and  mutual 
help  in  many  forms  of  Christian  work.  But  any 
attempted  fusion  or  alliance  among  bodies  of 
widely  different  opinions  and  antecedents  would 
probably  baffle  and  weaken  such  mutual  help.  So 
far  as  Unitarianism  has  succeeded  hitherto,  it  has 
been  as  an  intellectual  or  ethical  movement,  strong 
in  the  individual  minds  it  has  enlisted.  As  a 
form  of  ecclesiastical  life,  or  sectarian  enterprise, 
it  has  been,  and  probably  always  will  be,  rela- 
tively weak.  J.  H.  A. 

UNITED  BBETHBEN,  THE,  IN  CHBIST. 

The  Church  of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ 
took  its  origin  toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  in  eastern  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and 
Virginia,  in  an  evangelical  movement  conducted 
by  ministers  and  people  of  several  denominations. 
The  Church  was  not  a  product  of  schism,  or  in 
any  proper  sense  an  offshoot  from  any  existing 
denomination,  but  was  formed  by  the  union  of 
people  of  different  churches,  who  found  a  com- 
mon pn'ound  in  the  advanced  views  of  spiritual 
experience  and  life  which  they  adopted. 

(1)  Early  Leaders.  The  most  conspicuous 
figure  in  the  formation  and  early  progress  of  the 
Church  was  Philip  William  Otterbein,  a  learned 
(krman  divine,  who  came  to  America  as  a  mis- 
sionary of  the  (jerman  Reformed  Church,  in  the 
year  1752,  he  being  then  twenty-six  years  of  age. 
He  served  successively  congregations  in  Lancas- 
ter and  Tulpehocken,  Pennsylvania;  Frederick 
City,  Maryland;  and  York,  Pennsylvania,  until 
1774  when  he  accepted  the  pastorate  of  a  newly 
formed  independent  Reformed  congfregation  in 
the  city  of  Baltimore.  Holding  higher  ideas  of 
Christian  experience  and  living  than  prevailed 
generally  among  his  brethren,  he  preached  his 
views  freely,  and  usually  with  great  acceptance 
to  his  congregations.  He  also  instituted  prayer 
and  experience  meetings  for  the  purpose  of  fos- 
tering among  them  a  more  earnest  spiritual  life — 
forms  of  service  which  as  a  young  pastor  he 
had  been  accustomed  to  hold  before  his  coming  to 
America.  He  remained  in  the  pastorate  of  the 
Baltimore  congregation  to  the  end  of  his  life,  a 
period  of  nearly  forty  years. 

While  residing  at  York,  and  subsequently  in 
Baltimore,  he  made  frequent  visits  to  other  points, 
where  his  earnest  insistence  on  the  doctrine  of 
the  new  birth  and  a  more  devout  type  of  Chris- 
tian living  gained  many  adherents  to  his  views. 
It  was  during  one  of  these  visits  that  he  first 
met,  in  a  country  neighborhood,  in  Lancaster 
county,  Pennsylvania,  in  the  summer  of  about 
1768,  the  Rev.  Martin  Bcehm,  a  minister  in  the 
Mennonite  Church.  Mr.  Boehm  was  preaching 
on  the  occasion  to  a  large  congn'egation  assem- 
bled in  a  country  barn.  Without  acquaintance 
with  Mr.  Otterbein,  Mr.  Boehm  had  for  some 
time  been  preaching  with  great  zeal  the  same 
earnest  gospel  which  Otterbein  proclaimed.  Ot- 
terbein heard  with  profound  interest  the  warm 
words  of  life  from  Mr.  Bcehm's  lips,  and  when 
he  ceased  speaking,  the  tall,  courtly  German  arose, 
and  casting  his  arms  about  the  slight  form  of  the 
simple  hearted  and  plainly  attired  Mennonite,  ex- 
claimed with  deep  feeling,  IVir  sind  brueder, 
"We  are  brethren,"  The  incident  is  understood 


UNITED  BRETHREN,  THE,  IN  CHRIST    1687     UNITED  BRETHREN,  THE,  IN  CHRIST 


as  having  suggested  the  name  for  the  new  de- 
nomination when  it  was  finally  organized. 

(2)  Besults.  The  preaching  of  these  men  led 
to  the  true  conversion  and  a  better  spiritual  life 
of  many  who  held  church  membership,  but  whose 
religious  life  was  chiefly  an  outward  formalism. 
The  converts  were  organized  into  bands  or 
classes  for  Christian  fellowship  and  worship.  Per- 
sons from  among  them  were  appointed  as  class 
leaders,  whose  duty  it  was  to  conduct  a  weekly 
service  and  otherwise  exercise  a  spiritual  over- 
sight over  their  brethren.  Some  of  these  devel- 
oped into  ministers,  and  other  ministers  also 
joined  in  the  movement.  Thus,  in  time,  a  con- 
siderable body  of  ministers  became  engaged  in 
this  special  work,  but  for  a  number  of  years  they 
remained  without  organization.  Gradually  it  be- 
came desirable  to  send  authorized  persons  to  visit 
the  scattered  bands  for  their  spiritual  edification, 
and  thus  dawned  the  beginnings  of  the  itinerant 
system  of  church  supply,  which  the  Church  later 
adopted  as  one  of  its  permanent  characteristics. 

(3)  Organization.  It  was  for  many  years  not 
the  wish  of  the  leaders  of  the  movement  to  or- 
ganize a  separate  denomination.  Indeed,  Mr.  Ot- 
terbein  retained  his  connection  with  the  German 
Reformed  Church  to  the  end  of  his  life,  as  Mr. 
Wesley,  the  founder  of  Methodism,  did  in  the 
Church  of  England.  Mr.  Boehm  fared  differently, 
his  brethren  finally,  with  evident  regret,  exclud- 
ing him  from  their  fellowship  on  account  of  what 
they  regarded  his  heretical  preaching.  But  Provi- 
dence dearly  led  the  way,  and  against  the  wishes 
of  these  men  it  became  necessary,  in  time,  to  ef- 
fect a  formal  organization.  The  nrst  formal  con- 
ference of  ministers  was  held  in  Mr.  Otterbein's 
parsonage,  in  Baltimore,  in  1789.  Of  the  four- 
teen then  recognized  as  associated  in  the  work 
seven  were  present.  At  this  conference  a  brief 
but  comprehensive  confession  of  faith,  from  the 
pen  of  Mr.  Otterbein,  was  adopted;  also  a  series 
of  rules  for  the  government  of  the  ministers 
and  members.  A  second  conference  was  held 
in  1 791,  the  number  of  ministers  having  now 
increased  to  twenty-two.  No  formal  conference 
was  again  held  until  the  year  1800.  This  confer- 
ence, held  near  Frederick  City,  Maryland,  as- 
sumed a  position  of  much  historic  interest.  A 
completed  organization  was  now  effected,  a  name 
for  the  new  body,  "The  United  Brethren  in 
Christ,"  was  adopted,  and  bishops  were  for  the 
first  time  elected,  the  choice  falling  naturally  upon 
Mr.  Otterbein  and  Mr.  Boehm.  The  ministers 
now  numbered  thirty-two.  No  statistics  remain 
showing  the  strength  of  their  following.  But 
thus  organized,  and  bearing  now  a  definite  name, 
the  Church  took  its  place  as  a  distinct  body  among 
the  early  American  denominations.  Up  to  this 
time,  and  for  a  number  of  years  after,  the  preach- 
ing was  exclusively  in  the  German  language.  At 
the  present  time  less  than  four  per  cent,  of  the 
congregations  of  the  Church  have  their  services 
in   German. 

(4)  Development.  In  1815,  the  work  of  the 
Church  having  followed  the  lines  of  emigration 
westward  into  Ohio  and  other  regions,  a  call  was 
issued  for  the  holding  of  a  General  Conference. 
This  conference  was  composed  of  delegates  elected 
from  the  different  sections  of  the  Church,  and 
was  the  first  of  the  series  of  similar  conferences 
held  quadrennially,  since  1817,  to  the  present  time. 
The  conference  added  two  articles  to  the  confes- 
sion of  faith,  and  amended  and  further  defined  the 
rules  of  government.  The  General  Conference 
of  1841  adopted  a  constitution  for  the  Church 
which  remained  in  force  in  unamended  form  un- 


til 1889.  A  General  Conference  held  in  1885 
adopted  measures  preparatory  to  a  revision  of 
the  confession  of  faith  and  the  amending  of  the 
constitution.  A  commission  of  twenty-seven  men, 
including  the  six  bishops,  was  appointed,  charged 
with  the  duty  of  preparing  the  proposed  re- 
vision. Their  work  on  being  submitted  to  a  pop- 
ular vote  was  approved,  and  the  General  Confer- 
ence of  1889  declared  the  instruments  to  be  duly 
adopted.  The  revised  confession  states  in  com- 
pact form,  in  thirteen  articles,  the  doctrines  of 
the  Church.  In  theological  classification  it  is  Ar- 
mitiian.  (See  Discipline  of  the  United  Brethren 
in  Christ,  pp.  12-14.) 

(5)  Church  Government.  In  general  polity 
the  United  Brethren  Church  is  classed  with  the 
Methodist  family  of  churches.  Its  ecclesiastical 
bodies  are  the  general,  annual,  and  quarterly  con- 
ferences. The  General  Conference  (quadren- 
nial) is  composed  of  ministerial  and  lay  dele- 
gates, chosen  by  the  people  at  large.  In  it  is 
vested  the  law-making  power  of  the  Church,  and 
it  is  also  the  final  court  of  appeals.  The  annual 
conferences,  also  ministerial  and  lay,  have  the 
oversight  of  the  churches  within  their  boundaries, 
and  appoint  their  pastors.  The  quarterly  confer- 
ence IS  the  official  body  of  the  local  church  or 
circuit  The  bishops  of  the  Church  are  elected  by 
the  General  Conference  for  quadrennial  terms, 
as  are  all  its  general  officers.  They  have  a  gen- 
eral oversight  of  diocesan  districts,  at  present 
four  in  number,  and  preside  over  the  annual  and 
general  conferences.  Presiding  elders  are  elected 
by  the  annual  conferences,  and  have  the  oversight 
of  districts  within  the  conferences.  The  method 
of  pastoral  supply  is  that  known  as  the  itinerant 
system.  Pastors  are  appointed  annually  to  their 
charges,  but  since  1893  may  be  reappointed  to  the 
same  charges  an  indefinite  number  of  times.  The 
presiding  bishop  and  presiding  elders  are  the  ap- 
pointing committee,  and  appeal  from  their  de- 
cision IS  seldom  taken.  Women  are  eli^ble  to 
ministerial  orders,  and  to  seats  in  all  ofiicial  bod- 
ies, including  the  General  Conference.  A  small 
number  are  m  the  pastoral  service. 

(6)  Present  Oondition  and  Attitude.  In  edu- 
cational work  the  Church  is  fairly  provided  for, 
having  thirteen  institutions  of  various  grades,  in- 
cluding a  theolop^cal  seminary,  located  at  Dayton, 
Ohio.  At  this  city  is  also  located  the  Church  pub- 
lishing house,  from  which  the  denominational  pub- 
lications, periodical  and  otherwise,  are  issued.  It 
is  a  thoroughly  equipped  house,  with  small  liabili- 
ties, and  a  net  valuation  in  excess  of  three  hun- 
dred thousand  dollars.  The  Church  has  its  Home, 
Frontier  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society,  and 
Woman's  Missionary  Association,  progressive  in- 
stitutions, with  headquarters  in  the  publishing 
house.  The  foreign  mission  fields  of  the  Church 
are  in  Sierra  Leone,  West  Africa,  Germany,  China 
and  Japan.  The  denomination,  according  to  the 
statistics  of  1901,  has  4,179  organized  churches, 
1,910  itinerant  and  local  preachers,  and  242,602 
members. 

On  questions  of  reform  the  Church  has  long 
occupied  advanced  ground.  Slave  holding  was 
never  tolerated  among  its  members.  On  temper- 
ance, a  rule  prohibiting  the  manufacture  and  sale 
of  ardent  spirits  by  members  of  the  Church  was 
adopted  by  the  General  Conference  as  early  as 
1841.  Earlier  stringent  action  dates  back  to  1833, 
and  even  to  1814,  a  year  before  the  sitting  of  the 
first  General  Conference. 

The  primary  thought  of  the  founders  of  the 
United  Brethren  Church  was  that  of  promoting  a 
more  spiritual  type  of  religious  experience  and 


UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH       1688       UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 


life  than  was  generally  prevalent  at  that  time  in 
the  diurches  from  which  they  came.  The  advo- 
cacy of  any  particular  dogma  or  creed,  or  form 
of  church  government,  or  question  of  reform,  had 
no  place  in  their  thought  or  purpose.  Outward 
forms  of  worship  and  of  church  government  they 
must  needs  have,  but  these  held  in  their  view  a 
minor  relation.  In  the  matter  of  forms  they  ex- 
ercised a  wide  toleration.  Throughout  the  his- 
tory of  the  United  Brethren  Church  to  the  pres- 
ent time  this  larger  insistence  upon  a  real  con- 
version of  the  heart  and  a  true  spiritual  life  has 
remained  a  dominant  characteristic 

The  Church  is  broadly  catholic  in  spirit.  It 
affiliates  readily  with  other  denominations  in  all 
ecumenical  work,  and  would  be  found  ready  to 
join  other  churches  in  any  general  movement 
looking  toward  a  union  of  all  Christians.  D.  B. 
UNITED  EVANGELIOAL  OHTXBOH. 

(See  article  on  page  1759.) 

UNITED  PBESBYTEBIAN  CHX7BCH,  THE, 
OF  NOBTH  AMESIOA. 

The  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  North 
America  is  directly  descended  from  the  Scotch 
dissenting  churches.  The  Associate,  and  The  Re- 
formed. The  great  immigration  from  Scotland 
and  Ireland  during  the  last  century  brought  many 
members  of  these  churches  to  America  in  search 
of  personal  freedom  and  permanent  homes.  They 
setUed  chiefly  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  the 
Carolinas,  moving  westward  to  the  new  lands  as 
these  were  opened  up.  They  kept  up  their  church 
relations,  and  maintained  their  spiritual  life,  by 
organizing  societies  for  worship  and  the  study  of 
the  Word.  For  many  years  they  were  without 
ministers,  but  in  every  group  there  was  a  man 
abundantly  qualified  to  lead  in  the  exercises.  At 
length  ministers  were  sent  to  them,  and  on  Nov. 
2,  1753,  the  Associate  Presbytery  of  Pennsylvania 
was  organized,  and  three  years  later  the  Presby- 
tery of  New  York.  The  Reformed  Presbytery 
was  organized  May  lo,  1774,  near  Harrisburg,  Pa. 

(1)  Cause  of  Separation  from  Mother  Church. 
Separated  from  the  original  causes  of  division, 
livmg  under  new  conditions,  intensely  loyal  to  the 
cause  of  the  Colonies,  these  churches  soon  felt 
themselves  drawn  together.  During  1780^1782 
the  several  presbyteries  agreed  upon  a  basis  of 
union,  and  on  the  first  day  of  November,  1782, 
the  synod  met  in  Philadelphia,  and  constituted 
The  Associate  Reformed  Church.  After  a  few 
statements  concerning  the  atonement,  faith,  the 
Gospel  offer,  and  civil  government  in  its  relation 
to  the  church,  the  basis  of  union  declared  "that 
both  parties,  when  united,  shall  adhere  to  the 
Westminster  Confession  of  Faith,  the  Catechisms 
and  Propositions  Concerning  Church  Govern- 
ment." They  separated  themselves  from  the  par- 
ent churches  by  declaring  "that  they  shall  claim 
the  full  exercise  of  discipline,  without  dependence 
on  foreign  judicatories.  At  its  first  meeting  the 
synod  adopted  an  exhibition  of  jprinciples,  after- 
wards known  as  the  "Little  Constitution,"  in 
which,  among  other  things,  thejr^  said  that  they 
held  the  chapters  of  the  Confession  of  Faith  re- 
lating to  the  power  of  the  civil  magistrate  in  re- 
ligion and  church  affairs  open  to  consideration 
and  amendment.  In  relation  to  discipline  thev 
said  that  notorious  violations  of  the  law  of  God, 
and  such  errors  in  doctrine  as  unhinge  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  shall  be  the  only  scandals  for  which 
deposition  and  excommunication  shall  be  passed: 
and  the  highest  censures  of  other  offenders  shall 
be  dissolution  of  the  connection  between  the 
synod  and  the  offender.    "The  terms  of  admis- 


sion to  fixed  communion  shall  be  soundness  in 
the  faith  as  defined  in  the  Confession  of  Faith  and 
the  Catechisms,  submission  to  the  government 
and  discipline  of  the  Church,  and  a  holy  conver- 
sation." In  1799  the  Synod  changed  the  Confes- 
sion of  Faith  as  to  the  powers  of  the  civil  magis- 
trate so  as  to  express  clearly  the  principle  of  re- 
ligious freedom— "a  free  church  in  a  free  state." 

(2)  Befusal  of  Some  to  Unite.  Some  of  the 
Associate  Presbytery,  at  the  last  moment,  refused 
to  enter  the  union,  and  continued  the  existence 
of  the  Associate  Church.  The  large  immigration 
from  the  parent  church  increased  their  number 
rapidly,  congregations  were  multiplied,  and  in 
1801  a  synod  was  organized  with  four  presby- 
teries. In  1804  the  General  Synod  of  the  Asso- 
ciate Reformed  Church  was  organized,  with  four 
subordinate  synods,  and  presbyteries  extending 
from  New  York  to  the  Carolinas  on  the  south, 
and  to  Central  Ohio  on  the  west.  Both  churches 
prospered,  occupying  the  same  general  field.  Many 
of  the  congregations  of  the  Associate  Church  in 
the  South  became  involved  in  slavery.  In  i8n 
the  Synod  directed  that  all  slaves  be  set  at  lib- 
erty, or,  at  least,  be  treated  as  free,  and  in  1831 
all  slave  holders  were  excluded  from  communion. 
This  practically  destroyed  the  Associate  Church 
in  the  South.  Troubles  arose  in  the  Associate 
Reformed  Church.  The  great  distance  and  the 
fatigue  of  travel  made  it  impossible  for  the  re- 
mote presbyteries  to  be  fully  represented  in  the 
General  Synod,  which  always  held  its  meetings 
in  the  East.  Divergencies  began  to  appear,  mis- 
understandings arose,  some  cases  of  discipline 
created  dissatisfaction,  and  the  Synod  in  the  West 
and  the  Synod  in  the  South  withdrew ;  an  attempt 
was  made  to  unite  the  remaining  synods  of  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania  with  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  with  the  result  of  the  dissolution  of  the 
Synod  of  Pennsylvania,  1820-1822.  Thus  the 
Synod  of  New  York,  the  Synod  of  the  West  and 
the  Synod  of  the  South  became  independent,  but 
co-ordinate  synods.  The  Synod  of  the  South  con- 
tinues its  existence  until  the  present  time.  In  1841 
the  General  Synod  of  the  West  was  organized, 
and  in  1855  the  Synod  of  New  York  and  the  Gen- 
eral Synod  of  the  West  united  under  the  name  of 
"The  Associate  Reformed  Church  of  North 
America." 

(3)  Union  Perfected.  Occupying  the  same 
territory,  composed  of  the  same  dass  of  people, 
having  substantially  the  same  standards,  the  Asso- 
ciate and  the  Associate  Reformed  Churches  gradu- 
ally drew  together,  and  after  negotiations  through 
many  years  they  agreed  upon  a  basis  of  union, 
the  same  to  be  a  part  of  the  organic  law  of  the 
United  Church.  On  the  26th  of  May,  1858,  the 
union  was  consummated  under  the  name  "The 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of  North  America." 
By  common  consent,  without  formal  action,  the 
words  of  one  of  the  moderators  on  the  day  of  the 
union  became  the  motto  of  the  Church:  "The 
Truth  of  God — Forbearance  in  Love." 

The  organization  was  completed  by  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  next  year  appointing  boards  for 
missions  at  home  and  abroad,  church  building, 
education,  and  publication;  subsequently,  also  for 
tnissions  to  the  Freedmen  and  for  ministerial  re- 
lief A  general  committee  on  home  missions,  com- 
posed of  a  delegate  from  each  presbytery,  meets 
one  week  before  the  General  Assembly,  and  makes 
the  appropriations  for  the  coming  year.  The  con- 
tributions for  all  purposes  average  twelve  dollars 
and  fifty-one  cents  per  member:  the  average  sal- 
ary of  pastors  is  one  thousand  and  fifty-six  dollars. 

(4)  Memberahip.    At  the  present  time  (1901) 


UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH       1689 


UNITY  OF  GOD 


there  are  twelve  synods,  sixty-five  presbyteries, 
nine  hundred  and  twenty-seven  ministers  and 
nine  hundred  and  fifty  congregations,  with  one 
hundred  and  twenty-three  thousand  five  hundred 
and  forty-one  members.  The  foreign  missions 
are  in  Egypt  and  the  Punjab,  India.  They  have 
been  very  successful,  reporting  sixty-five  ordained 
ministers,  of  whom  thirty  are  natives,  eleven  thou- 
sand six  hundred  and  fifteen  members,  and  thir- 
teen thousand  six  hundred  and  forty-one  pu- 
pils in  the  schools.  In  each  mission  there  is  a 
school  of  high  grade,  and  also  a  theological  sem- 
inary. In  the  missions  to  the  Freedmen  th^re  are 
two  colleges,  in  one  of  which  there  is  a  theological 
department,  and  ten  other  schools  with  an  enroll- 
ment of  three  thousand  four  hundred  and  forty- 
6ve  pupils. 

{5)  Institations  of  Learning.  As  early  as  1794 
the  Associate  Presbytery  established  a  theological 
seminary,  now  located  at  Xenia,  Ohio ;  in  1804  the 
General  Synod  of  the  Associate  Reformed  Church 
opened  one  in  New  York  City,  now  located  at 
Newburg,  and  used  as  a  summer  training  school ; 
and  in  1825  the  Allegheny  seminary  was  founded 
by  the  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  the  West. 
Six  colleges  are  maintained :  Westminster,  at  New 
Wilmington,  Pa. ;  Monmouth,  at  Monmouth,  111. ; 
Tarkio,  at  Tarkio,  Mo. ;  Cooper,  at  Sterling,  Kan. ; 
Muskingum,  at  New  Concord,  O. ;  and  Knoxville, 
at  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  for  the  Freedmen. 

(6)  Young  People's  Societies.  The  young 
people's  societies  are  organized  as  The  Christian 
Union,  under  a  joint  committee  of  the  General 
Assembly  and  the  Annual  Convention,  and  a  sec- 
retary appointed  by  the  General  Assembly.  The 
committee  of  management  reports  annually  to  the 
General  Assembly.  There  are  nine  hundred  and 
ninety  societies,  with  a  membership  of  forty  thou- 
sand five  hundred  and  twenty-eight. 

(7)  Doctrines.  .  The  United  Presbyterian 
Chucch  holds  conservatively  the  Calvinistic  sys- 
tem of  doctrine,  as  exhibited  in  the  Westminster 
formulas,  modified  as  to  the  civil  magistrate,  and 
in  an  additional  testimony,  which  was  the  basis 
of  union.  This  testimony  is  designed  to  set  forth 
more  clearly  certain  doctrines  embodied  in  the 
Confession  of  Faith,  and  to  express  more  def- 
initely the  peculiar  principjes  of  the  denomina- 
tion. The  articles  cover  the  following  subjects: 
The  Plenary  Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures;  The 
Eternal  Sonship  of  Christ;  The  Covenant  of 
Works;  The  Fall  of  Man  and  his  Present  Ina- 
bility ;  The  Nature  and  Extent  of  the  Atonement ; 
Imputed  Righteousness;  The  Gospel  Offer;  Sav- 
ing Faith;  Evangelical  Repentance;  The  Believ- 
ers Deliverance  from  the  Law  as  a  Covenant; 
The  Work  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  The  Headship  of 
Christ;  The  Supremacy  of  God's  Law;  Slave 
holding;  Secret  Societies;  Communion;  Cove- 
nanting ;  Psalmody.  Both  the  antecedent  churches 
were  opposed  to  slavery,  and  prohibited  member- 
ship to  anyone  who  held  men  as  property. 

(8)  Proliibit  Membersliip  in  Secret  Orders. 
The  article  on  Secret  Societies  is  as  follows :  "All 
associations,  whether  formed  for  political  or  be- 
nevolent purposes,  which  impose  on  their  members 
an  oath  of  secrecy,  or  an  obligation  to  obey  a  code 
of  unknown  laws,  are  inconsistent  with  the  genius 
and  spirit  of  Christianity,  and  church  members 
should  not  have  fellowship  with  such  associa- 
tions." 

(9)  Bestricted  Communion.  The  article  on 
Communion  is:  "The  Church  should  not  extend 
communion  in  sealing  ordinances  to  those  who 
refuse  adherence  to  her  profession,  or  subjection 


to  her  government  and  discipline,  or  who  refuse 
to  forsjake  a  communion  inconsistent  with  the 
profession  which  she  makes;  nor  should  com- 
munion in  any  ordinance  of  worship  be  held  un- 
der such  circumstances  as  would  be  inconsistent 
with  the  keeping  of  these  ordinances  pure  and  en- 
tire, or  so  as  to  give  countenance  to  any  corrup- 
tion of  the  doctrines  and  institutions  of  Christ." 
The  principle  is  "restricted  communion;"  that  is, 
communion  under  the  supervision  of  the  session, 
as  against  open  or  unrestricted  communion. 
{Minutes,  1868,  page  488.)  For  good  order  and 
edification,  fellowship  in  the  communion  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  is,  ordinarily,  extended  only  to 
those  who  are  members,  on  the  principle  that 
privilege  is  bounded  by  jurisdiction;  but  a  certain 
discretionary  power  is  held  by  sessions  as  to  the 
admission  of  members  of  other  churches  to  com- 
munion in  special  circumstances,  on  their  knowl- 
edge, or  evidence,  of  the  proper  Christian  char- 
acter. 

(10)  Psalmody.  The  article  on  psalmody  is: 
"It  is  the  will  of  God  that  the  songs  contained  in 
the  Book  of  Psalms  be  sung  in  his  worship,  both 
public  and  private,  to  the  end  of  the  world;  and 
in  singing  God's  praise,  these  songs  should  be 
employed  to  the  exclusion  of  the  devotional  com- 
positions of  uninspired  men." 

(11)  Adherence  to  Principles.  The  spirit  of 
the  United  Presbyterian  Church  is  conservative 
as  to  doctrine,  fraternal  as  to  other  churches,  and 
evangelistic  as  to  work.  The  standards  are  for 
the  members  as  .well  as  for  the  ministers,  not  in 
the  spirit  of  sect,  but  to  keep  up  the  standard  of 
intellip^ent  faith,  and  to  promote  a  higher  Chris- 
tian life.  The  General  Assembly  is  in  corre- 
spondence with  the  Associate  Reformed  Synod 
of  the  South  as  to  union,  and  already  has  a  work- 
ing plan  of  cooperation.  It  is  represented  in 
the  Alliance  of  Reformed  Churches  holding  the 
Presbjrterian  system.  It  has  adopted  the  plan  of 
cooperation  in  Home  Mission  work  prepared  by 
the  western  section  of  the  Executive  Commission 
of  the  Alliance,  and  some  years  ago  gave  its  ad- 
herence to  the  plan  for  the  confederation  of  the 
Presbyterian  Churches  on  this  continent.  The 
ministers  and  members  are  hearty  supporters  of 
the  reforms  of  the  present  time,  especially  in  re- 
lation to  the  Sabbath  and  temperance.  There 
has  been  a  great  awakening  of  the  evangelistic 
and  missionary  spirit.  A  number  of  the  synods 
have  evangelists  under  regular  appointment,  and 
pastors  generally  make  this  feature  of  their  work 
more  prominent.  A.  G.  W. 

UNITY  (Heb.  "^K,  yakkad,  adverb  unitedly). 

oneness,  whether  of  sentiment,  affection  or  beha- 
vior (Ps.  cxxxiii:i). 

The  unity  of  the  fmth  is  an  equal  belief  of  the 
same  great  truths  of  God,  and  the  possession  of 
the  grace  of  faith  in  a  similar  form  and  degree 
(Eph.  iv:i3).  The  unity  of  the  spirit  is  that 
union  between  CHirist  and  his  saints  by  which  the 
same  divine  Spirit  dwells  in  both,  and  they  have 
the  same  disposition  and  aims;  and  that  unity  of 
the  saints  among  themselves  by  which,  being 
joined  to  the  same  Head,  and  having  the  same 
Spirit  dwelling  in  them,  they  have  the  same 
graces  of  faith,  love,  hope,  etc.,  and  are  rooted  and 
grounded  in  the  same  doctrine  of  Christ,  and 
have  a  mutual  affection  to  and  care  for  one  an- 
other (Eph.  iv:3).  Brown. 

UNITY  OP  GO©,  a  term  used  to  denote  that 
there  is  but  one  God  or  self-existent  Being. 

The  unity  of  God  is  argued  from  his  necessary 
existence,    self-sufficiency,   perfection,    independ- 


UNIVERSALIST  CHURCH.  THE 


1690 


UNIVERSALIST  CHURCH,  THE 


ence,  and  omnipotence ;  from  the  unity  of  design 
in  the  works  of  nature ;  and  from  there  being  no 
necessity  of  having  more  gods  than  one;  but  the 
Scriptures  set  it  beyond  all  doubt  (Deut.  vi:4; 
Ps.  lxxxvi:io;  Is.  xliiirio;  Mark  xii:29;  John 
xvii:3;  Rom.  iii:3o;  i  Cor.  viii:4,  6;  I  Tim.  ii:s). 

TTNIVEBSALIST  CHXTBCH,  THB,  TN 
AMERICA.  (1)  Principles.  Universalism  is 
thought  of  by  some  as  the  dogma  of  the  final  sal- 
vation of  all  souls.  By  others  it  is  conceived  to  be 
what  Liebnitz  named  a  theodicy,  or  solution  of  the 
problem  of  evil.  But  it  is  properly  apprehended 
when  it  is  perceived  to  be  a  theory  of  the  uni- 
verse. The  idea  of  Universalism  is  that  the  final 
cause  of  the  creation  is  the  evolution  of  the  moral 
order.  That  evolution  involves  the  attainment  suc- 
cessively of  right  and  good  ends,  and  finally  of 
the  end  of  universal  right  and  good.  It  is  part 
of  the  same  idea  that  truth  is  naturally  superior 
to  error,  right  to  wrong,  good  to  evil.  The  logic 
of  the  constitution  of  the  world  is  that  the  hu- 
man experiment  must  issue  in  a  perfected  and 
harmonious  society.  The  Christian  equivalent  of 
this  conception  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven, — ^a  hu- 
man order  conformed  to  the  divine  order  by  the 
transforming  power  of  an  indwelling  moral 
ideal. 

The  dogma  of  the  final  salvation  of  all  souls 
is  one  of  several  corollaries  resulting  from  the 
main  proposition.  The  good  of  the  whole  not 
only  involves  the  good  of  each,  but  is  dependent 
on  it.  There  can  be  no  perfected  human  society 
without  the  perfecting  of  the  members.  And  the 
solidarity  of  mankind,  which  is  the  philosophical 
formula  for  the  Christian  doctrine  that  God  is  the 
Father  of  all,  and  all  are  brethren,  compels  the 
conclusion  that 

"Not  one  life  shall  be  destroyed 
Or  cast  as  rubbish  to  the  void 
When  God  hath  made  the  pile  complete." 

(2)  Historical  Sketcli.  It  is  regarded  by  Uni- 
versalists  as  now  well  established  that  Univer- 
salism was  the  prevalent  doctrine  of  the  Church 
in  the  second  and  third  centuries.  They  find  a 
natural  explanation  of  this  fact  in  the  teaching 
of  the  New  Testament ;  and  of  the  subsequent  de- 
cline and  condemnation  of  the  doctrine,  in  the 
causes  which  led  the  Church  into  so  many  other 
grave  departures  from  the  simplicity  of  the  Gospel. 

But  organized  Universalism,  under  that  dis- 
tinctive name,  belongs  to  the  United  States,  and 
dates  from  the  preaching  of  the  Rev.  John  Mur- 
ray (1741-1815).  Mr.  Murray  was  a  disciple  of 
a  London  Universalist,  the  Rev.  James  Relly, 
who  was  in  turn  a  disciple  of  Whitfield.  He 
came  to  America  and  preached  his  first  ser- 
mon in  Good  Luck,  N.  J.,  in  September,  1770.  The 
beginning  is  rendered  interesting  and  even 
romantic  from  the  circumstance  that  one 
Thomas  Potter,  of  Good  Luck,  had  built  a  meet- 
ing house  and  was  waiting  for  the  Lord  to  send 
him  a  minister.  Mr.  Murray  was  borne  to  that 
shore  by  stress  of  weather  and  was  identified  by 
Potter  as  the  one  for  whom  he  was  waiting. 

There  were  other  preachers  of  Universalism  in 
America,  some  earlier  and  some  contemporary 
with  Mr.  Murray.  They  existed  among  the  Mys- 
tics, the  Dunkers,  the  Moravians,  the  Episco- 
palians, the  Congregationalists  and  the  Baptists. 
A  number  had  been  driven  out  from  the  churches 
on  account  of  their  Universalism  and  were  pro- 
claiming their  evangel  independently.  It  thus 
came  to  pass  that  not  long  after  Murray  began 
t6  lift  up  his  voice  in  the  New  World  he  found 


himself  in  company  with  others  of  like  precious 
faith. 

In  January,  1779,  a  number  of  persons  who 
had  been  excommunicated  from  the  First  Parish 
Church  of  Gloucester,  Mass.,  for  attending  upon 
the  ministry  of  the  Rev.  John  Murray,  met  and 
formed  an  association  under  the  name  of  "The 
Independent  Church  in  Gloucester."  This  was  the 
first  organization  of  Universalists  in  the  United 
States;  and  the  house  of  worship  which  the 
members  erected  in  1780  was  the  first  Universalist 
meeting  house  built  and  dedicated  in  America. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  there 
were  about  thirty  preachers  of  Universal  Sal- 
vation in  the  country  and  not  far  from  the  same 
number  of  "societies,"  or  preaching  places,  with 
somewhat  loosely  associated  congregations.  In 
1803  the  representatives  of  these  congregations 
held  a  General  Convention  in  Winchester,  N.  H., 
and  adopted  the  Winchester  Profession  of  Belief. 
This  has  been  the  "creed"  of  most  Universalist 
churches  since,  and  in  1870  was  made  the  creed 
of  the  denomination.  After  some  years  of  agi- 
tation and  endeavors  to  amend  the  Winchester 
Profession  a  Declaration  was  adopted  at  the 
General  Convention  in  Chicago  in  1897.  This 
is  now  the  basis  of  fellowship,  though  the  Win- 
chester Profession  is  still  kept  as  an  historical 
bond  and  may  be  used  by  any  church  or  associa- 
tion preferring  it  to  the  later  Declaration. 

(3)  The  Chicago  Declaration.  The  "Boston 
Proposition,"  amended  and  adopted  by  the  Gen- 
eral Convention  of  1897,  at  its  session  in  Chi- 
cago, 111.,  declares  the  conditions  of  fellowship 
in  the  Universalist  Church  to  be  as  follows : 

1.  The  acceptance  of  the  essential  principles 
of  the  Universalist  faith,  to-wit : 

The  universal  fatherhood  of  God. 

The  spiritual  authority  and  leadership  of  His 
son,   Jesus   Christ. 

The  trustworthiness  of  the  Bible  as  conts^ining 
a  revelation  from  God. 

The  certainty  of  just  retribution  for  sin. 

The  final  harmony  of  all  souls  with  God. 

The  Winchester  profession  is  commended  as 
containing  these  principles,  but  neither  this  nor 
any  other  precise  form  of  words  is  required  as  a 
condition  of  fellowship,  provided  always  that  the 
principles  above  stated  be  professed. 

2.  The  acknowledgment  of  the  authority  of 
the  Universalist  General  Convention  and  assent 
to  its  laws. 

(4)  Organization.  The  polity  of  the  Univer- 
salist Church  is  conformed  to  that  of  our  civil 
government.  The  unit  is  the  local  parish.  Parishes 
by  their  delegates  constitute  State  Conventions. 
Representatives  from  the  State  Conventions  form 
the  General  Convention,  which  meets  once  in 
two  years  and  is  the  controlling  body  of  the  de- 
nomination. A  plan  of  supervision  under  state 
superintendents  and  district  missionaries  has 
grown  up  in  recent  years,  and  has  culminated 
this  year  in  the  .appointment  of  a  "General  Su- 
perintendent," or  bishop.  The  denomination 
planted  a  mission  in  Japan  in  1891,  which  has  ex- 
panded into  many  local  churches,  a  theological 
school,  a  girls'  school  and  various  other  organi- 
zations. A  publishing  house  is  established  in 
Boston,  with  a  branch  m  Chicago.  Four  colleges, 
three  theological  seminaries  and  five  academies 
have  been  founded  and  are  maintained  by  the 
Church.  The  Chapin  Home  in  New  York  and  the 
Bethany  Home  in  Boston  are  samples  of  the 
charities  sustained  in  whole  or  in  part  by  the 
Universalist  body. 

The  aims  of  the  Universalist  organization  may 


UNKNOWN  GOD 


1691 


UNWRITTEN  SAYINGS 


be  said  to  be  twofold.  (a)  To  persuade  the 
Christian  world  to  return  to  the  original  princi- 
ples of  Christianity:  to  convert  the  followers  of 
Christ  to  the  religion  of  Christ,  (b)  To  initiate 
and  gradually  institute,  in  cooperation  with  other 
Christian  bodies,  a  religious  and  moral  order  on 
the  type  furnished  by  the  teaching  and  the  life  of 
Jesus,  in  which  reason  shall  replace  superstition 
and  spiritual  ideals  shall  supplant  sensual  and 
material. 

The  progress  of  the  Universalist  Church  has 
not  been  insignificant  either  in  numbers  or  in  or- 
ganized forces.  Yet  it  must  be  conceded  that 
its  chief  work  has  been  wrought  beyond  its  own 
limits,  in  modifying  the  views  of  God,  of  man, 
of  religion,  and  of  destiny,  held  by  the  various 
religious  bodies  and  by  the  general  public.  Other 
denominations  have  uniformly  held  the  doctrines 
of  Universalists  to  be  a  valid  ground  of  refusal 
to  fellowship  with  them,  and  have  not  seldom 
made  them  a  ground  of  opposition  and  attack. 
Sympathy  with  these  doctrines  has,  however, 
steadily  grown  in  all  the  churches,  until  a  much 
more  hospitable  feeling  prevails.  Many  signs  in- 
dicate the  approach  of  an  era  in  which  the  same 
fraternity  will  be  shown  towards  Universalists 
by  other  Christians  which  Universalists  have  ever 
been  willing  to  accord  to  all  the  disciples  of 
Christ  of  whatever  name.  I.  M.  A. 

UNKNOWN  GOD  (Gr.  (Lyvwaros  Bebs,  ag'noce- 
tos  theh-os't  unknown  god). 

St.  Paul  while  residing  in  Athens,  and  observ- 
ing the  manners  and  religious  customs  of  its  in- 
habitants, had  his  spirit  stirred  within  him,  when 
he  saw  how  entirely  they  were  immersed  in  idol- 
atry; and  being  unable  to  refrain  himself,  he 
commenced  in  the  synagogues  of  the  Jews,  and 
in  the  market-place,  to  hold  discussions  with  all 
whom  he  encountered.  This  led  to  his  being 
taken  to  the  Areopagus,  where,  surrounded  by 
perhaps  the  shrewdest,  most  polished,  most  acute, 
most  witty,  and  most  scornful  assemblage  that 
ever  surrounded  a  preacher  of  Christianity,  he. 
With  exquisite  tact  and  ability,  exposed  the  folly 
of  their  superstitions,  and  unfolded  the  character 
and  claims  of  the  living  and  true  God.  For  the 
purpose  of  more  effectually  arresting  the  atten- 
tion of  his  audience,  he  commenced  by  referring 
to  an  altar  in  their  city,  on  which  he  had  read 
the  inscription  agnosto  Theo,  To  the  Unknown 
God;  and  applying  this  to  Jehovah,  he  proposed  to 
declare  to  them  that  deity,  whom  thus,  without 
knowing  him  (agnountes),  they  were  worshiping. 

UNKNOWN  T0NGT7E  (i  Cor.  xiv:2,  4,  13,  14, 
19,  27)  is  a  gloss  of  the  A.  V.,  for  the  Greek  has 
simply  7Xw<r<ra  {gloce'sah,  a  tongue),  and  obviously 
a  different  language  from  that  usually  employed. 

These  verses  have  given  rise  to  the  notion  of 
a  strange,  ecstatic,  inspired,  unearthly  language; 
but  these  all  admit  of  a  different  solution.  In 
verse  2,  "he  who  speaketh  in  a  tongue"  evidently 
means,  he  who  speaks  some  foreign  living  lan- 
guage ;  the  supplied  word  'unknown'  in  the  A.  V. 
is  needless,  and  misleads  the  English  reader.  It 
is  further  said  that  'he  edifieth  himself  (which, 
as  Macknight  justly  pleads,  required  that  he 
should  understand  himself),  and  edifieth  the 
church  also  if  an  interpreter  were  present  (verse 
28).  The  apostle  says  (verse  14),  Tf  I  pray  in  a 
tongue,  my  spirit  prayeth,  but  my  understanding 
IS  unfruitful,*  which  words  in  English  seem  to  inti- 
mate that  the  speaker  might  not  understand  him- 
self;  but  the  words  signify,  *my  meaning^  (comp. 
I  Cor.  ii:i6;  Vulg.  sensum  domini),  or,  as  Ham- 
mond and  Schleusner  say,  *my  faculty  of  think- 
ing upon  and  explaining  to  others  the  meaning 


of  what  I  utter*  (comp.  verses  15,  19),  though  in 
verse  14  some  render  the  words  'that  others  may 
understand.*  The  key  to  the  difficulties  of  this 
subject  is  the  supposed  absence  of  an  inspired  in- 
terpreter (verse  28),  in  which  case  the  gift  would 
not  be  profitable  to  the  hearers.  The  gift  of 
tongues  was  to  cease  (i  Cor.  xiii:8).  (See 
Tongues,  Gift  of.) 

UNLEABNED  (Gr.  dypdfifMTos,  a-gram!  mat-os, 
unlettered),  such  as  are  but  little  instructed  in  sci- 
ence (Acts  iv:  1 3);  or  little  acquainted  with  the  mind 
of  God  and  the  teaching  of  his  Spirit  (2  Pet.  iii:i6). 
Unlearned  questions  are  such  as  minister  no  true 
and  substantial  knowledge  (2  Tim.  ii:23).  (See 
Agrammatos.) — Brown. 

UNLEAVENED  (iinlSv'  'nd),  (Heb.  ^V^,  mats- 

/yaw',  sweet).  (See  Bread;  Leaven;  Passover.) 

UNNI  (iin'm),  (Heb.  ^^,  oon-nee^  depressed). 

1.  One  of  the  Levite  doorkeepers  appointed  to 
play  the  psaltery  in  the  service  of  the  Temple  as  ar- 
ranged by  David  (i  Chron.  xv:i8,  20).    (B.C.  1043.) 

2.  A  Levite  concerned  in  the  musical  service 
after  the  return  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xiirp).  B. 
C.  535.  This  name  should  be  Unno  (Heb.  ''^^t 
oon-noo), 

TTNTEMPEBED  MOBTAB  (tin-t^m'perd  mdr'- 
ter),  (Heb.  ^1???,  taw-fale'),  weak  mortar  that  will 

not  "set"  (Ezek.  xiiiiio,  II,  14, 15;  xxii:28),  used 
for  coating  or  cementing  a  wall  that  is  dirty  and 
disfigured. 

Figurative.  'To  daub  with  untempered  mortar" 
(Ezek.  xiii:io,  11,  14,  15;  xxii:28),  means  "the 
people  build  up  foolish  hopes,  and  the  prophets  not 
only  paint  these  hopes  for  them  in  splendid  colors, 
but  even  predict  their  fulfillment,  instead  of  de- 
nouncing their  folly  .  .  .  The  plastering  is  there- 
fore a  figurative  description  of  deceitful  flattery 
or  hypocrisy'*  (Keil,  Com.), 

UNWMTTBN  SAYINGS,  commonly  called 
Agrapha  (Gr.  dypa<f>os,  ag'raf-os,  unwritten),  a 
term  which  refers  to  the  sayings  of  Christ  not 
mentioned  in  the  four  (^spels.  Of  these,  of 
course,  there  are  many,  as  John  tells  us  (xxi:25). 
Ihose  sayings  which  have  come  down  to  us  are 
found:  (i)  In  the  other  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, which  are  the  first,  best  and  surest  authori- 
^^*  «D  "'^^^"^vocal  example  is  seen  in  Acts  xx : 
35$  Remember  the  words  of  our  Lord  Jesus,  how 
he  said.  It  is  more  blessed  to  give  than  to  re- 
ceive.*' (2)  Some  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, as,  for  example,  the  Codex  Besae,  in  which 
is  a  much-quoted  addition  to  Luke  vi:4.  (3) 
Quotations  in  early  Christian  writers  and  in  lost 
gospels,  all  of  which  references  disappeared  after 
the  fourth  century,  as  soon  as  the  present  gospel 
text  had  been  generally  accepted.  Resch  has  ac- 
cepted as  genuine  seventy-four  of  these  sayings 
from  this  source,  saying,  however,  that  they  do 
not  affect  the  truth  of  our  Lord's  life.  (4)  "The 
Logia,  or  Sayings  of  our  Lord,"  found  in  Oxy- 
rhynchus,  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  south  of 
Cairo,  Egypt,  by  Messrs.  B.  F.  Grenfell  and  Ar- 
thur S.  Hunt,  in  1896. 

The  following  is  quoted  from  Rev.  W.  Locke 
in  The  Expositor:  "The  document  in  question 
IS  a  leaf  from  a  papyrus  book  containing  a  col- 
lection of  Logia,  or  Sayings  of  our  Lord,  of  which 
some,  though  presenting  several  novel  features, 
are  familar;  others  are  wholly  new.  It  was 
found  .  .  .  in  a  mound  which  produced  a  great 
niany  papyri  belonging  to  the  first  three  centuries 
of  our  era,  those  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  our 
fragment  belonging  to  the  second  and  third  centu- 


/ 


UPHARSIN 


1692 


URI 


ries.  This  fact,  together  with  the  evidence  of  the 
handwriting,  which  has  a  characteristically  Rom- 
an aspect,  fixes  with  certainty  300  A.  D.  as  the 
lowest  limit  for  the  date  at  which  the  papyrus 
was  written.  The  general  probabilities  of  the  case, 
the  presence  of  the  usual  contractions  found  in 
the  Biblical  manuscripts,  and  the  fact  that  the 
papyrus  was  in  book  (not  roll)  form,  put  the  first 
century  out  of  the  question,  and  make  the  first 
half  of  the  second  century  unlikely.  The  date, 
therefore,  probably  falls  within  the  period  of  150- 
300  A.  D.  The  fragment  measures  SH^SH  inches, 
but  its  height  was  originally  somewhat  gfreater, 
as  it  is  unfortunately  broken  at  the  bottom"  (pp. 

S»  6). 

The  English  rendering  of  the  Logia  (pp.  10-15), 
as  given  by  Grenfell  and  Hunt,  is  as  follows : 

No.  I.  "  .  .  .  and  then  shalt  thou  see  clearly 
to  cast  out  the  mote  that  is  in  the  brother's,  eye." 

No.  2.  "Jesus  saith.  Except  ye  fast  to  the  world, 
ye  shall  in  nowise  find  the  kingdom  of  God;  and 
except  ye  keep  the  Sabbath,  ye  shall  not  see  the 
Father." 

No.  3.  "Jesus  saith,  I  stood  in  the  midst  of  the 
world,  and  in  the  flesh  was  I  seen  of  them,  and  I 
found  all  men  drunken,  and  none  found  I  athirst 
among  them ;  and  my  soul  grieveth  over  the  sons 
of  men,  because  they  are  blind  in  their  heart. 
•    .    •    . 

No.  4.  Undecipherable. 

No.  5.  "Jesus  saith,  Wherever  there  are  .  .  . 
and  there  is  one  .  .  .  alone,  T  am  with  him. 
Raise  the  stone  and  there  thou  shalt  find  me; 
cleave  the  wood,  and  there  am  I." 

No.  6.  "Jesus  saith,  A  prophet  is  not  acceptable  - 
in  his  own  country,  neither  doth  a  physician  work 
cures  among  them  that  know  him." 

No.  7.  "Jesus  saith,  A  city  built  upon  the  top 
of  a  high  hill,  and  stablished,  can  neither  fall  nor 
be  hid." 

TTFHABSIN  (u-phar'sin).  See  Mene,  Mene, 
Tekel,  Upharsin. 

UPHAZ  (Q'pbaz),  (Heb.  ^?'^,  oo-fawz' ;  Sept. 

'O0df;  <hfaz\  a  country  from  which  gold  was  ob- 
tained (Jer.  xrg;  Dan.  x:5). 

It  is  generally  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of 
Ophir,  whfch  would  require  the  change  of  only 
one  letter,  and  there  are  other  cases  in  which  1 
and  T  are  interchanged.  But  Orelli  ( 0?»f .,  on 
Jer.  xiq)  says:  "It  is  inconceivable  that  the 
word  arose  by  error  from  this  well-known  name. 
Assyria  and  Babylon  might  have  other  gold  mines. 
Still  the  views  respecting  the  site  of  this  Uphaz 
remain  mere  conjectures." 

TJPPEB  BOOM  (fip'pef  ro5m),  (Heb.  •'^J^S,  oA 

ee-yaw',  lofty) (2  Kings  1:2;  xxiii:i2;  i  Chron.  xxviii: 
11;  2  Chron.  iiiip),  a  room  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
house,  used  to  receive  company,  hold  feasts,  to  re- 
tire for  meditation  and  prayer  ( Mark  xiv.15;  Luke 
xxii:i2). 

TTB  (fir).  (Heb.  IW,  oor,  light).  1.  Ur  c*  the 
Chaldees  was  the  native  place  of  the  family  of 
Abraham,  whence  he  migrated  first  to  Haran  and 
then  to  Canaan  (Gen.  xi:28, 31;  xv:7;  Neh.  ix:7). 

The  home  of  the  nativity  of  Abraham  was  long 
a  lost  city.  The  excavations  of  Mr.  Taylor,  in 
1854,  and  the  discovery  by  Major  Rawlinson  of 
important  historical  documents,  have  settled  be- 
yond reasonable  dispute  the  location  of  Ur  of 
the  Chaldees.  It  stood  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Euphrates  River,  on  a  spot  now  occupied  by  the 
mounds  of  Mugheir.  It  was  originally  a  port  on 
the  Persian  Gulf,  but  the  mounds  now  represent- 
ing its  ancient  site  stand  nearly  150  miles  above 


the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates.  This  great  distance 
between  its  old  site  and  the  present  headwaters 
of  the  gulf  are  due,  according  to  geologists,  to  the 
abundant  deposits  of  alluvia  made  by  the  river 
during  the  past  four  thousand  years.  The  in- 
scriptions discovered  give  a  list  of  kings  who 
ruled  over  this  territory  before  Babylon  came  to 
prominence,  or  became  a  capital.  Ur  was  pre- 
sided over  by  the  moon-god,  Sin,  who  was  like- 
wise the  patron  deity  of  Haran.  The  family  of 
Abram's  father,  in  its  migration  westward,  made 
an  important  stop  at  this  city.  It  was  located  near 
the  great  western  bend  in  the  Euphrates  and  was 
regarded  as  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  north- 
west territory.  It  stood  on  the  great  highway  of  com- 
merce between  the  East  and  the  West,  and  served 
as  a  kind  of  board  of  trade.  Its  name,  Haran 
{harranu),  means  "road,"  "way."  It  was  also  a 
cosmopolitan  city,  for  to  this  place  came  all  the 
nations  for  gain  and  trade.  (Price,  The  Monu- 
ments and  the  O.  T,  2d  ed.,  p.  99.) 

"The  extent  of  the  remains  at  Mukeyyer,  or 
Mugheir,  which,  however,  have  been  but  imper- 
fectly examined--show  that  the  ancient  city  was 
of  great  size.  The  inscriptions  on  clay  which 
have  been  found  there  must  be  ascribed  to  a  date 
long  before  B.  C.  2000.  But  the  question  whether 
Ur  of  the  Chaldees  was  a  city,  or,  as  the  Septua- 
gint  takes  it,  simply  the  territory  of  the  Chal- 
daeans,  makes  little  difference  here,  since  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions  agree  with  Strabo  in  show- 
ing that  the  Chaldxans  inhabited  the  southern 
region  of  Mesopotamia  in  which  Mukeyyer  is  sit- 
uated. The  inscriptions  found  at  Ur  itself  have 
at  present  been  few  in  number,  and  belong  to  a 
limited  period.  If  the  great  temple  of  the  moon- 
god,  founded  in  the  very  beginning  of  history, 
and  maintained  down  to  the  latest  times  of  the 
Babylonian  monarchy,  could  be  fully  excavated, 
or  if  the  city,  round  the  walls  of  which  lies  a 
circle  of  tombs,  could  be  ransacked  for  its  hidden 
archaeological  treasures,  the  results  would,  no 
doubt,  reward  the  hardest  labor."  (Basil  T.  A. 
Evetts,  New  Light  on  the  Bib.  and  The  Holy 
Land,  p.  338,  132.) 

"Wells  have  been  sunk  in  the  mound  in  places, 
and  enough  is  known  of  the  general  character  of 
the  mound  to  make  it  certain  that  it  contains 
quantities  of  antiquities  which  go  back  to  the  days 
of  its  early  history.  It  is  unfortunate  for  the 
progress  of  knowledge  relating  to  the  past  history 
of  the  race  that  excavations  on  this  site  cannot 
be  immediately  undertaken.  The  importance  of 
this  could  scarcely  be  overrated."  (Rogers,  His. 
of  Early  Bab.,  p.  15.) 

2.  The  father  of  Eliphal,  one  of  David's  "mighty 
men"  (i  Chron.  xi:35),  B.  C.  before  1043.  A  copyist 
seems  to  have  made  two  names,  Ur  and  Hepher, 
out  of  one,  which  was  perhaps  Ahasbai,  or  some- 
thing similar. 

XJBBANE  (ar'bane),  (Gr.  O&pPap^t,  oor-dan-os*, 
of  the  city),  a  disciple  at  Rome,  and  one  of  Paul  s 
companions  in  labor  (Rom.  xvirp).  Nothing  is 
known  of  him;  but  his  name  shows  him  to  have 
been  a  Roman.    A.  D.  55. 

XJBl  (u'ri),  (Heb'^T^^,  oo-ree\  fiery,  burning). 

1.  Father  of  Bezaleel  an  architect  of  the  Taber- 
nacle. He  was  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Exod. 
xxxi:2;  xxxv:30;  xxxviii:22;  i  Chron.  ii:2o;  2 
Chron.  i:5).    (B.  C.  before  1657.) 

2.  The  father  of  Geber,  Solomon's  tax  gatherer 
in  Gilead  (i  Kings  iviip).    (B.  C.  before  loio.) 

3.  A  gate  keeper  of  the  Temple,  who  divorced 
his  Gentile  wife  after  the  captivity  (Ezra  x:24). 
(B.  C.  458.) 


URIAH 


1603 


USURY 


T7RIAH    (ur-I'ah),   (Heb.   *^?1^,    oo-ree-yaw'^ 

dame  of  Jehovah;  Sept.  Oipiai), 

1.  A  Hittite  (and  therefore  a  descendant  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  Palestine),  whose  name  oc- 
curs in  the  list  of  the  'worthies'  or  champions 
of  king  David,  in  whose  army  he  was  an  officer 
(i  Chron.  xi:4i;  2  Sam.  xxiii:39).  (B.  C.  about 
988).  He  was  the  husband  of  Bath-sheba;  and 
while  he  was  absent  with  the  army  before  Rab- 
bah,  David  conceived  and  gratified  a  criminal 
passion  for  his  wife.  The  king  then  directed 
Joab  to  send  him  to  Jerusalem,  but  failing  to 
make  his  presence  instrumental  in  securing  Bath- 
sheba  from  the  legal  consequences  pf  her  miscon- 
duct, he  sent  him  back  with  a  letter  directing  Joab 
to  expose  him  to  the  enemy  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  ensure  his  destruction.  This  the  unscrupulous 
Joab  accomplished  (B.  C.  about  980)  ;  and  David 
then  took  the  widow  into  his  own  harem  (2  Sam. 
xi:26,  27).    (See  David;  Bath-sheba.) 

2.  (Is.  viii  :2.)     See  Urijah,  4. 

3.  (Ezra  viii  133;  Neh.  iii:4,  21.)  See  Urijah, 
2. 

T7BIAS  (u-ri'as),  (Gr.  Oiplat,  oo-ree'as),  the  hus- 
band of  Bath-sheba  (Matt.  i:6).    See  Uriah,  i. 

XJBIEIi  (a'ri-«l),  (Heb.  ^^^^^^  oo-ree-ale*.  fire 
of  God). 

1.  A  Levite,  son  of  Tahath,  of  the  family  of 
Kohath  (i  Chron.  vi:24).  (B.  C.  about  1550.) 

2.  Chief  of  the  Kohathites  who  with  his  breth- 
ren assisted  in  bringing  the  ark  from  the  house  of 
Obed-edom  (i  Chron.  xv.'S,  11).     (B.  C.  1043.) 

3.  Uriel  of  Gibeah,  the  father  of  Maachah, 
Michaiah,  the  favorite  wife  of  Rehoboam,  and 
mother  of  Abijah  (2  Chron.  xiii:2).  (B.  C. 
973.)  Called  "Maachah  the  daughter  of  Ab- 
salom." 

X7BUAH  (u-ri'jah),  (Heb.  same  as  Uriah). 

!•  A  prophet,  son  of  Shemaiah  of  Kirjath- 
j«arim  in  Judah,  who,  in  the  time  of  Jehoiakim,  ut- 
tered prophecies  against  Judaea  and  Jerusalem  of 
the  same  tenor  as  those  which  Jeremiah  was  com- 
missioned to  deliver.  Menaced  with  death  by  the 
king,  Urijah  sought  refuge  in  Egypt;  but  Judaea 
was  at  that  time  subject  to  Pharaoh-Necho,  who 
had  no  interest  in  protecting  a  proscribed  fugitive 
who  foretold  the  conquests  of  the  Babylonians.  He 
was  therefore  delivered  up  on  the  demand  of 
Jehoiakim,  who  put  him  to  death,  and  ordered 
him  to  be  buried  dishonorably  in  one  of  the  graves 
of  the  meanest  of  the  people  (Jer.  xxvi:20,  21). 
(B.  C.  about  609.) 

2.  A  priest  of  the  family  of  Hakkoz,  or  K02, 
who  stood  by  Ezra  while  he  instructed  the  peo- 
ple in  the  law  (Neh.  viii:4;  Ezra  viii -.33).   B.  C. 

457 

3.  A  high-priest  of  the  Jews  in  the  time  of  king 
Ahaz.  He  received  from  this  young  prince,  who 
was  then  at  Damascus,  the  model  of  an  altar 
which  had  there  engaged  his  attention,  with  or- 
ders to  make  one  like  it  at  Jerusalem.  It  was 
his  duty  to  refuse  compliance  with  this  danger- 
ous order;  but  he  made  such  haste  in  his  obedience 
that  the  altar  was  completed  by  the  time  Ahaz 
returned;  and  he  afterwards  went  so  far  in  his 
subservience  as  to  oflFer  upon  this  new  and  un- 
authorized altar  the  sacrifices  prescribed  by  the 
law  of  Moses  (2  Kings  xvi:io-i2).  He  was 
probably  not  so  fully  aware  as  he  oi^ght  to  have 
been  of  the  crime  and  danger  involved  in  this 
concession  to  a  royal  caprice,  being  a  transgfres- 
sion  of  the  law  which  fixed  the  form  of  the 
Mosaical  altar  (Exod.  xxvii:i-8;  xxxviii  :i-7) : 
for  he  appears  to  have  been  in  intention  a  good 
man,  as  he  is  one  of  the  'faithful  witnesses'  chosen 


by  Isaiah  (viii  :2)  to  attest  one  of  his  prophecies. 
(B.  C.  about  738.) 

XJBIM  AND  THUMMIM   (O-rim  and  thiim'- 

mim),  (Heb.  0'*T*^i?,  haw-oo-reem^  lights ;   Heb. 

D^^pnn]^  yeh-hat'toom-meem',  perfections),  doctrine 

and  truth;  Vulg.,  Doctrina  et  Veritas). 

(1)  Meaning  of  the  Words.  Hebrew  scholars 
agree  that  these  words  are  in  the  plural  and  mean 
as  above,  lights  and  perfections.  There  are  two 
principal  opinions  respecting  the  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim.  One  is.  that  these  words  simply  denote  the 
four  rows  of  precious  stones  in  the  breastplate 
of  the  high-priest  (Exod.  xxviii:3o),  and  are  so 
called  from  their  brilliancy  and  perfection ;  which 
stones,  in  answer  to  an  appeal  to  (jod  in  difficult 
cases,  indicated  his  mind  and  will  by  some  super* 
natural  appearance  (Num.  xxvii:2i).  Thus,  as 
we  know  that  upon  each  of  the  stones  was  to  be 
engraven  the  name  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Jacob, 
it  has  been  conjectured  that  the  letters  forming  the 
divine  response  became  some  way  or  other  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other  letters.  It  has  been 
conjectured  by  others  that  the  response  was  given 
by  an  audible  voice  to  the  high-priest  arrayed  in 
full  pontificals,  and  standing  in  the  holy  place 
with  his  face  turned  towards  the  ark.  The  other 
principal  opinion  is,  that  the  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim  were  two  small  oracular  images,  similar  to 
the  Teraphim,  personifying  revelation  and  truth, 
which  were  placed  in  the  cavity  or  pouch  formed 
by  the  folds  of  the  breastplate,  and  which  ut- 
tered oracles  by  a  voice.  (See  Priest,  Hebrew 
Priesthood;  Teraphim.)  The  latter  view  is  cor- 
roborated by  the  authority  of  Philo,  and  seems  to 
be  best  supported  by  external  evidence. 

(2)  Scriptural  Usage.  The  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim  are,  however,  in  the  Scripture  clearly  dis- 
tinguished from  the  breastplate  itself,  or  from  the 
four  rows  of  gems,  unless  we  can  imagine  that  the 
breastplate  should  be  so  called  before  the  gems, 
the  essential  part  of  it,  were  put  into  their  place. 
We  observe  the  like  distinction  made  in  the  ac- 
count of  Aaron's  consecration  (Lev.  viii:8;  comp. 
Ecclus.  xlvrio),  and  by  Josephus  (Antiq.  viii,  3, 
8),  where  he  distinguishes  the  to  logeion,  or 
oracle,  from  the  precious  stones.  The  distinc- 
tion indicated  in  these  passages  of  Scripture  is 
sufficiently  clear  to  withstand  the  inference  which 
has  been  derived  from  comparing  Exod.  xxviii: 
29,  with  30,  and  Exod.  xxxix:8,  etc.,  with  Lev. 
viii:8;  namely,  that  the  Urim  and  Thummim 
were  identical  with  the  gems  in  the  breastplate. 
In  Num.  xxvii:2i,  the  word  haworeem  alone  is 
used  in  a  brief  recapitulatory  manner,  and,  no 
doubt,  including  the  Thummim,  or  else,  in  the 
general  sense  of  divine  revelations,  answers,  etc., 
by  this  method  (comp.  i  Sam.  xxviii  :6).  The 
usual  order  is  reversed  in  Deut.  xxxiii:^  where 
it  is  Thummim  and  Urim.  The  last  mention 
of  them  occurs  after  the  return  of  the  captivity, 
when  'the  Tirshatha'  decreed  that  certain  claim- 
ants to  the  rights  of  the  priesthood,  but  who  could 
not  produce  their  ecclesiastical  pedigree,  should 
wait  'till  there  stood  up  a  priest  with  Urim  and 
with  Thummim,*  by  whom  their  claim  might  be 
infallibly  decided  (Ezra  ii:63).  J.  E.  D. 

TTSTJBY  (Q'zhti-rj^),  (Heb.  ^f  ?,  neh'shek,  a  bit- 

ine),  an  unlawful  contract  for  the  loan  of  money, 
to  be  returned  again  with  exorbitant  increase. 

By  the  laws  of  Moses  (Lev.  xxv:36,  37;  Deut. 
xxiii:i9,  20)  the  Israelites  were  forbidden  to  take 
usury  from  their  brethren  upon  the  loan  of 
money,  victuals,  or  an3rthing  else,  not,  it  has  been 
observed  by  Micbaelis,  as  if  he  absolutely  and  in 


UTHAI 


1094 


UZZIAH 


all  cases  condemned  the  practice,  for  he  expresslv 
permitted  interest  to  be  taken  from  strangers,  and 
from  the  Canaanites  (verse  20), but  only  out  of  fa- 
vor to  the  poorer  classes.  After  the  return  of  the 
Jews  from  captivity,  they  were  required  by  Nehe- 
miah  to  'leave  off  this  usury,'  which  had  grown  up 
contrary  to  law  (Ezek.  xviii:8,  13,  17),  and  to  re- 
store to  their  brethren  what  they  had  exacted  from 
them — *their  lands,  their  vineyards,  their  olive- 
yards,  and  their  houses;  also  the  hundredth  part 
of  the  money,  and  of  the  corn,  the  wine,  and  the 
oir  (Neh.  v:io,  11).  Our  Savior  denounced  all 
extortion,  and  promulgated  a  new  law  of  love 
and  forbearance : — *Give  to  every  man  that  asketh 
of  thee,  and  of  him  that  taketh  away  thy  goods, 
ask  them  not  again/  *Love  ye  your  enemies,  and 
do  good,  and  lend,  hoping  for  nothing  again' 
(Luke  vi:30,  35).  The  taking  of  a  reasonable  in- 
terest was  an  allowable  practice  (Matt.  xxv:27; 
Luke  xix:23). 

TTTHAI  (Q-tha-i),  (Heb.  ^G^^,  oo-thah'ee,  Jeho- 
vah succors). 

1.  The  son  of  Ammihud,  of  the  children  of 
Pharez,  son  of  Judah  (i  Chron.  ix:4).  In  Neh.  xi:4 
he  is  called  Athaiah,  the  son  of  Uzziah.    (B.  C. 

536.) 

2.  Son  of  Bigvai,  who  returned  with  Ezra  from 

captivity  (Ezra  viii:i4),  B.  C.  459. 
TTZ  (iSz),  (Heb.  yO?,  oots,  consultation). 

1.  A  region  and  tribe  named  in  X^^  i*i»  Jcr. 
XXV  :2o;  Lam.  iv:2i,  now  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  situated  in  the  south  of  Arabia  De- 
serta,  between  Idumaea,  Palestine,  and  the  Eu- 
phrates. (See  Nations,  Dispersion  of.)  The  tribe 
seems  to  have  been  descended  from  Uz,  the  son 
of  Aram  (Gen.  y.\2z)i  although  it  has  been  some- 
times doubted  whether  its  origin  might  not  rather 
be  referred  to  Huz,  the  son  of  Nahor  (Gen.  xxii: 
21),  or  to  Uz,  the  Horite,  son  of  Dishan  (Gen. 
xxxvi:28). 

3.  A  son  of  Aram  (Gen.  x:23;  i  Chron.  i:i7). 
(B.  C.  after  2500.) 

3.  Son  of  Nahor  and  Milcah  (Gen.  xxii:2i). 
(B.  C.  about  2000.)    See  Huz. 

4.  Son  of  Dishan,  the  son  of  Seir  ((Sen.  xxxvi: 
28).     (B.  C.  after  1950.) 

XTZAI   (Q'za-i),   (Heb.   '3'^,  o<hzah*ee,   strong), 

father  of  Palal,  who  assisted  Nehemiah  in  rebuild- 
ing the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii:25),  B.C. be- 
fore 446. 

UZAL  (a'zal),  (Heb.  ^P^,  oo-sawr),  a  son  of 

{oktan,  founder  of  one  of  the  numerous  tribes  of 
oktanidae  in  Yemen  (Gen.  x:27;  i  Chron.  i:2i). 
(See  Nations,  Dispersion  of.) 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  Sanaa  is  the  mod- 
ern name  of  the  city  founded  by  Uzal. 

TJZZA  (iiz'zi),  (Heb.^jy,  <%7j-raa/', strength). 

1.  A  Benjamite  and  elder  son  of  Ehud  (i 
Chron.  viii:7),  born  after  the  removal  of  his 
other  children.     (B.  C.  before  1612.) 

3.  Proprietor  of  a  garden  in  which  Manasseh 
and  Amon  were  buried  (2  Kings  xxi:i8,  26).  (B. 
C.  before  642.) 

3.  The  children  of  Uzza  were  a  family  of  Neth- 
inim  who  came  back  with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii: 
49;  Neh.  vii:5i).     (B.  C.  before  536.) 

4.  A  descendant  of  Merari  (i  Chron.  vi:29). 
See  UzzAH,  2. 

TJZZAH  (uz'zah),(Heb.  "^J?,  ooz-zaw',  strength). 

1.  A  son  of  Abinadab,  a  Levite,  who,  with  his 
brother  Ahio,  conducted  the  new  cart  on  which 
the  ark  was  taken  from  Kirjath-jearim  to  Jeru- 
salem. 


(1)  His  Sin.  When  the  procession  reached  the 
threshing-floor  of  Nachon,  the  oxen  drawing  the 
cart  became  unruly,  and  Uzzah  hastily  put  forth 
his  hand  to  stay  the  ark,  which  was  shaken  by 
their  movements.  For  this  the  anger  of  the  Lord 
smote  him,  and  he  died  on  the  spot. 

(2)  David's  Fear.  This  judgment  appeared  to 
David  so  severe,  or  even  harsh,  that  he  was  much 
distressed  by  it,  and  becoming  afraid  to  take  the 
ark  any  farther,  left  it  there,  in  charge  of  Obed- 
edom,  till  three  months  after,  when  he  finally  took 
it  to  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  vi:i-ii). 

(3)  The  Bestdt.  The  whole  proceeding  was 
very  irregular,  and  contrary  to  the  distinct  and  far 
from  unmeaning  regulations  of  the  law,  which 
prescribed  that  the  ark  should  be  carried  on  the 
shoulders  of  the  Levites  (Exod.  xxv  114), whereas 
here  it  was  conveyed  in  a  cart  drawn  by  oxen. 
The  ark  ought  to  have  been  enveloped  in  its  cov- 
erings, and  thus  wholly  concealed  before  the  Le- 
vites approached  it;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  any 
priest  took  part  in  the  matter,  and  it  would  seem 
as  if  the  ark  was  brought  forth,  exposed  to  the 
common  gaze,  in  the  same  manner  in  which  it 
had  been  brought  back  by  the  Philistines  ( i  Sam. 
vi:i3-i9).  It  was  the  duty  of  Uzzah,  as  a  Levite, 
to  have  been  acquainted  with  the  proper  course 
of  proceeding:  he  was  therefore  the  person  justly 
accountable  for  the  neglect;  and  the  judgment 
upon  him  seems  to  have  been  the  most  effectual 
course  of  ensuring  attention  to  the  proper  course 
of  proceeding,  and  of  checking  the  growing  dis- 
position to  treat  the  holy  mysteries  with  undue 
familiarity.  That  it  had  this  effect  is  expressly 
stated  in  i  Chron.  xv:2,  13,  14.    (B.  C.  1043.) 

2.  A  Merarite  Levite,  son  of  Shimei,  and  father 
of  Shimea  (i  Chron.  vi:29).    (B.  C.  before  1043.) 

TJZZEK  -  SHEBAH    (iiz'zen-s^e'rah),    (Heb. 

'^?8?  T?.^,    ooz'sane'   sheh-er-aw*,    the    plat   of 

Shera),  a  small  city,  founded  by  Sherah,  the 
daughter  of  Ephraim  (i  Chron.  vii:24).  It  is  thought 
to  have  been  at  Beit  Sira,  thirteen  miles  northwest 
of  Jerusalem. 

TTZZI  (iiz'zl),  (Heb.  ^^^^,  ooz-zee',  Jehovah  is  my 
strength). 

1.  Son  of  Bukki,  and  the  father  of  Zerahiah, 
in  the  line  of  the  high-priests  (i  Chron.  vi:S, 
6,  si;  Ezra  vii:4).     (B.  C.  about  1400.) 

».  Son  of  Tola,  son  of  Issachar,  and  father  of 
five  chief  men  (i  Chron.  vii:2,  3).  (B.  C.  after 
1874.) 

3.  A  son  of  Bela,  a  Benjamite  (i  Chron.  vii:7). 
(B.  C  after  1874.) 

4.  One  of  the  same  name  who  was  settled  in 
Jerusalem  after  the  return  from  Babylon  (i 
Chron.  ix:8).     (B.  C.  before  536.) 

6.  A  Levite,  of  the  "sons  of  Bani,"  who  was 
overseer  of  the  house  of  Levites  in  Jerusalem  un- 
der Nehemiah  (Neh.  xi:22).    (B.  C.  536.) 

6.  The  head  of  one  of  the  courses  of  priests  in 
the  time  of  Joiakim,  the  high-priest  (Neh.  xii: 
19).    (B.  C.  about  500.) 

XTZZIA  (uz-zl'a),  (Heb.  >^?^?,  ooz-zee-yaw'),  called 

an  Ashterathite,  one  of  David's  mighty  men 
(i  Chron.  xi:44),  B.  C.  1053. 

TTZZIAH  (uz-zl'ah),  (Heb.  •*^??,  ooz-zee-yaw' , 
strength  of  Jehovah). 

!•  A  man  also  called  Azariah,  a  king  of  Judah 
who  began  to  reign  B.  C.  809,  at  the  age  of  sixteen, 
and  reigned  fifty-three  years,  being,  with  the  sole 
exception  of  Manasseh's,  the  longest  reign  in  the 
Hebrew  annals. 

Uzziah  was  but  five  years  old  when  his  father 
was  slain.    He  was  sixteen  before  he  was  for* 


UZZIAH 


16d5 


UZZIELITES,  THE 


mally  called  to  the  throne :  and  it  is  disputed  by 
chronologers  whether  to  count  the  fifty-two  years 
of  his  reign  from  the  beginning  or  from  the  end 
of  the  eleven  intervening  years. 

(1)  Beign.  In  the  first  half  of  his  reign,  Uz- 
ziah  behaved  well,  and  was  mindful  of  his  true 
place  as  viceroy  of  the  Divine  King.  He  ac- 
cordingly prospered  in  all  his  undertakings.  His 
arms  were  successful  against  the  Philistines,  the 
Arabians,  and  the  Ammonites.  He  restored  and 
fortified  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  and  planted  on 
them  engines  for  discharging  arrows  and  great 
stones ;  he  organized  the  military  force  of  the  na- 
tion into  a  kind  of  militia,  composed  of  307,500 
men,  under  the  command  of  2,600  chiefs,  and  di- 
vided into  bands  liable  to  be  called  out  in  rota- 
tion; for  these  he  provided  vast  stores  of  all 
kinds  of  weapons  and  armor, — spears,  shields, 
helmets,  breastplates,  bows,  and  slings. 

(2)  Prosperity.  Nor  were  the  arts  of  peace 
neglected  by  him:  he  loved  and  fostered  agri- 
culture; and  he  also  dug  wells,  and  constructed 
towers  in  the  desert,  for  the  use  of  the  Hocks.  At 
length,  when  he  had  consolidated  and  extended 
his  power,  and  developed  the  internal  resources 
of  his  country,  Uzziah  fell.  His  prosperity  en- 
gendered the  pride  which  became  his  ruin. 

(3)  Usurps  the  Function  of  Priest.  In  the 
twenty-fourth  vear  of  his  reign,  incited  probably 
by  the  example  of  the  neighboring  kings,  who 
united  the  regal  and  pontifical  functions,  Uzziah, 
unmindful  of  the  fate  of  Dathan  and  Abiram, 
dared  to  attempt  the  exercise  of  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal functions  of  the  priests,  by  entering  the 
holy  place  to  burn  incense  at  the  golden  altar. 
But,  in  the  very  act,  he  was  smitten  with  leprosy, 
and  was  thrust  forth  by  the  priests.  He  continued 
a  leper  all  the  rest  of  his  life,  and  lived  apart  as 
such,  the  public  functions  of  the  government  be- 
ing administered  by  his  son  Jotham,  as  soon  as 


♦TALMUD  (tai'mud),  (Heb.  ^1$),  /aw'mad,  to 

learn).  The  Talmud  is  tfhe  work  which  embodies 
the  civil  and  canonical  law.  of  the  Jewish  people. 
It  contains  those  rules  and  institutions  by  which, 
in  addition  t?o  the  Old  Testament,  the  conduct  of 
that  nation  is  regulated.  Whatever  is  obligatory 
on  them,  besides  the  La-w,  is  recorded  in  this  work. 
Here  doubts  are  resolved,  duties  explained,  cases 
of  conscience  cleared  up,  and  the  most  minute  cir- 
cumstances relative  to  the  conduct  of  life  dis- 
cussed with  wonderful  particularity.  Hence  the 
contents  of  the  Talmud  are  of  a  diversified  char- 
acter, relating  not  merely  to  religion,  but  to  phi- 
losophy, medicine,  history,  jurisprudence,  and  the 
various  branches  of  practical  duty. 

There  are  two  works  which  bear  this  name,  the 
Talmud  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Talmud  of  Babylon. 
Each  of  these  is  composed  of  two  parts — the 
Mishna,  which  is  the  text,  and  is  common  to  both; 
and  the  Gemara,  or  commentary. 

The  Mishna,  signifying  repetition,  comprehends 
all  the  laws,  institutions,  and  rules  of  life,  which, 
besides  the  ancient  Hebrew  Scripture,  the  Jews 
thought  themselves  bound  to  observe.  It  was 
composed,  according  to  the  unanimous  testimony 
of  the  Jews,  about  the  close  of  the  second  century, 
and  was  the  work  of  rabbi  Jehuda  (or  Juda) 
Hakkadosh,  who  was  the  ornament  of  the  school 
of  Tiberias.  It  is  said  to  have  occupied  him  forty 
years.  The  commentaries  and  additions  which 
succeeding  rabbis  made,  were  collected  by  rabbi 
Jochanan  Ben  Eliezer,  some  say  in  the  fifth,  others 
say  in  the  sixth,  and  others  in  the  seventh  century, 
under  the  name  of  Gemara;  that  is,  completion, 
because  it  completed  the  Talmud.    A  similar  addi- 


he  became  of  sufficient  age  (2  Kings  xv:27,  28; 
2  Chron.  xxvi.). 

2.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  an  ancestor  of  Samuel 
(i  Chron  vi:24).    (B.  C.  about  1515.) 

3.  A  priest  of  the  sons  of  Harim.  who  divorced 
his  Gentile  wife  in  the  days  of  Ezra  (Ezra  x:2i). 
(B.  C.  458.) 

4.  Son  of  Zechariah  and  father  of  Athaiah*  or 
Uthai  (Neh.  xi:4).  (B.  C.  about  536.) 

5.  Father  of  Jehonathan,  one  of  David's  over- 
seers of  depositories  (i  Chron.  xxvii:25).  (B. 
C.  about  1053.) 

UZZIEL  (uz-zi'en,  (Heb.  ^^*^*?,  ooz  -  zee  -  cOe^ , 
"CJod  is  my  strength  ). 

1*  Fourth  son  of  Kohath,  father  of  Mishael, 
and  Aaron's  uncle  (Exod.  vi:ifi^  22;  Lev.  x:d; 
Num.  iii:i9,  27  30;  i  Chron.  vi:2,  18;  xv;io). 
(B.  C.  before  1658.) 

2.  A  Simeonite  captain,  son  of  Ishi  (i  Chron. 
iv:42),  who  defeated  the  Amalekites  of  Mount 
Seir  in  the  days  of  Hezekiah.  (B.  C.  about  712.) 

3.  One  of  the  sons  of  Bela  (i  Chron.  vii:7), 
and  head  of  a  Benjamite  house.     (B.  C.  after 

1874.) 

•  4.  A  musician,  one  of  Ihe  fourteen  sons  of 
Heraan,  in  David's  reign  (i  Chron.  xxv:4),  else- 
where called  AzAREEL  (verse  18). 

5.  A  Levite,  and  one  of  the  two  sons  of  Jedu- 
thun  (2  Chron.  xxix:i4,  19),  who  assisted  in 
cleansing  the  Temple  from  the  pollutions  of 
Ahaz.     (B.  C.  726.) 

6.  The  son  of  Harhaiah,  one  who  repaired  a 
part  of  the  wall  under  Nehemiah  (Neh.  iii:8). 
(B.  C.  446.) 

UZZIELITES,    THE    (uz-zI'eMtes),    (Heb. 

'*?S^?'?,  haw-oz-zee-ay-lee^  descendants  of  Uz- 

ziel,  the  Levite  (Num.  iii:2;f;  i  Chron.  xxvi:2^;  xv: 
10).  In  the  time  of  David  they  numbered  one 
hundred  and  twelve  adult  males. 


tion  was  made  to  the  Mishna  bjr  the  Babylonish 
doctors  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  ac- 
cording to  Enfield ;  and  in  the  seventh  according 
to  others. 

The  Talmud  of  Babylon  is  most  valued  by  the 
Jews;  and  this  is  the  book  which  they  mean  to 
express  when  they  talk  of  the  Talmud  in  general. 

Prof.  Samuel  Davidson  says:  "The  Jews  set 
so  high  a  value  on  the  Talmud  as  to  place  it  gen- 
erally above  the  inspired  Law.  Hence  we  find  in 
the  Masseceth  Sopherim  the  saying.  The  Biblical 
text  is  like  water,  and  the  Mishna  like  wine,  and 
the  six  orders  (sedarim)  like  aromatic  wine.'  In 
another  passage  the  following  words  occur — 'The 
Law  is  like  sak,  the  Mishna  like  pepper,  but  the 
six  orders  like  fine  spices.'  Again,  The  words  of 
the  scribes  are  lovely,  above  the  words  of  the 
Law;  for  the  words  of  the  Law  are  weighty  and 
light,  but  the  words  of  the  scribes  are  all  weighty.' 
'He  that  shall  say  there  are  no  phylacteries,  trans- 
gressing the  words  of  the  Law,  is  not  guilty ;  but 
he  that  shall  say.  There  are  five  totaphoth,  adding 
to  the  words  of  the  scribes,  he  is  guilty'  (Hieros. 
Berac.  fol.  3,  2).  Such  extravagant  praises  of 
their  oral  traditions  correspond  with  the  Savior's 
words,  'Making  the  word  of  God  of  none  effect, 
through  your  tradition  which  ye  have  delivered* 
(Mark  vii:i3).  But  they  do  not  harmonize  with 
the  real  nature  of  the  Talmud  itself;  for  the  book 
contains  many  fabulous,  trifling,  absurd,^  and  ir- 
reverent things.  It  unites  the  allegorizing  pro- 
pensity of  the  East  with  a  childish  prying  into  the 
most  curious  questions. 

*Tbl8  article  on  Talmud  appears  out  of  Its  alpha* 
betlcal  order,  bavlng  l>een  omitted  ttaroogb  overslgbt. 


VAGABOND 


iao6 


VAT 


V 


VAGABOND  (vSg'4-bdnd)»  (Heb.  nU»  nood), 
a  wanderer  (Gen.  iv:i2, 14;  Ps.  dx:io),  the  vagabond 
Jews  (Acls  xix;i3)  were  wandering  Jewish  sor- 
cerers, who  pretended  to  heal  by  secret  charms. 

VAHEB  (ya'heb)»  a  place  near  the  Amon  (NunL 
xxi:i4,  15,  R.  v.),  not  otherwise  known.      See 

DiZAHAB. 

VAIL  (val).    See  Veil;  Dress. 

VAIN  (vknS,  (Gr.  /idraios,  mafaA-yos,  Jaaies  1:26), 
empty,  worthless. 

VAINOLOBY  (vlUi'glO'rj^),  (Gr.  KepoSo^la,  ken- 
od-ox-ee' ah)t  glorying^  without  ^ust  cause,  undue 
self-esteem,  empty  pnde  (Phil.  ii:3). 

VAJEZATHA  (va-j«z'a*thi),  (Heb.  ^IP,  vah- 

yez-aw'thaw,  foreign  derivation),  one  of  the  ten 
sons  of  Haman,  slain  by  the  Jews  in  Shushan 
(Esther  ix.^),  B.  C.  473. 

VALLEY  (v&l'lT),  is  used  to  translate  hwt  dis- 
tinct Hebrew  words. 

1.  (Heb.  p9?,  afnuk,  to  be  deep).  This  ap- 
proaches more  nearly  to  the  general  sense  of  the 
English  word  than  any  other.  It  is  connected 
with  valley  of  Jezreel  (Josh.  xvii:i6;  Judg.  vi: 
33;  Hos.  i:5)  ;  Achor  (Tosh.  vii:24,  26;  xv:7;  Is. 
Ixvrio;  Hos.  ii:i5);  Ajalon  (Josh.  x:i2);  He- 
bron (Gen.  xxxvii:i4);  Jehoshaphat  (Joel  iii:2, 
12),  called  (verse  14),  fipiratively,  the  valley  of 
decision;  Keziz  (Josh.  xviii:2i). 

The  same  word  is  applied  to  certain  well-known 
places :  The  valley  of  booths  (  Ps.  Ix  :6 ;  cviii  7,  A. V. 
"of  Succoth")  ;the  valley  of  weeping  (Ps.  Ixxxiv: 
6,  A.  V.  "valley  of  Baca")  ;  the  valley  of  blessing 
(2  CHiron.  xx  :26,  A.  V.  "valley  of  Berachah") ; 
valley  of  Shaveh  ((Sen.  xiv:i7),  or  of  the  king 
("dale"  Gen.  xiv:i7;  2  Sam.  xviii:i8) ;  valley  of 
the  slime  pits  ((Sen.  xiv:3,  8,  10,  A.  V.  "of  Sid- 
dim")  ;  valley  of  the  oak  (i  Sam.  xvii:2,  19; 
xxi  :g,  A.  V.  "valley  of  Elah") ;  valley  of  giants 
(Josh.  XV  :8;  xviii:i6;  "valley  of  Rephaim,"  2 
Sam.  v:i8,  22,  etc.). 

2.  (Heb.  ^^,  gakee,  a  gorge).    Of  this  natural 

feature  there  is  one  example  remaining  which 
can  be  identified  with  certainty— the  deep  hollow 
which  encompasses  the  southwest  and  south  of 
Jerusalem,  and  which  is  the  Ge-ben-hinnom  of  the 
Old  Testament.  This  identification  appears  to 
establish  the  GaWee  as  a  deep,  abrupt  ravme^  with 
steep  sides  and  narrow  bottom.  Other  Gahees 
are,  Gedor,  Jiphthah-el,  Zeboim,  Zephathah,  that 
of  salt,  of  the  craftsmen,  that  on  the  north  side 
of  Ai,  and  the  one  opposite  Beth  Peor  in  Moab. 
(For  Scripture  references  see  the  respective  head- 
ings.) 

8.  (Heb.  '03,  nakk'al,  receiving).  This  ex- 
presses the  bed  of  a  stream,  often  wide  and 
shelving,  and  the  stream  itself,  which  after  the 
subsidence  of  the  rains  has  shrunk  to  insignificant 
dimensions. 

4.    (Heb.  '"^yi??,  bik^w\  a  split).    This  term 

appears  to  mean  rather  a  plain  than  a  valley,  and 
one  inclosed  by  mountains,  like  the  wide  district 
between  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon.  It  is  ren- 
dered by  "valley"  in  Deut.  xxxiv:3;  Josh.  xi:8, 
17;  xii:7;  2  Chron.  xxxv:22:  Zech.  xii:ii. 


5.  (Heb.  J^^Sf  5,  hash'Shef^y-Uai^ t  •^ralle>     is 

a  poor  rendering),  the  district  to  which  the  name 
has-ShefHdh  is  applied  in  the  Bible  has  no  resem- 
blance to  a  valley,  but  is  a  broad  tract  of  many 
hundred  miles,  which  sweeps  cently  down  from 
the  mountains  of  Judah  to  the  Mediterranean. 

It  is  rendered  "the  vale"  in  Deut  1:7;  Josh. 
x:40;  I  Kings  x:27;  2  Chron.  i:i5;  Jer.  xxxiii: 
i^;  and  "the  valley"  or  "valleys"  in  Josh.  ix:i; 
XI  :2,  16;  xii:8;  xv:33;  Judg.  iip;  Jer.  xxxii:44. 
(See  Palestine;  Plain.) 

VALLEY  GATE  (vil'll  gSt ),  (Heb.  ^^^ 
*^^*,  shah'ar  hag-gak'ee),  an  entrance  to  Jerusa- 
lem on  the  northwestern  end  (Neh.  ii:i3;  01:13). 
It  is  very  probably  the  present  Jaffa  Gate. 

VANIAH  (va-ni'ah),  (Heb.  HJ^  van'yaw\  «ie 

of  the  sons  of  Bani,  who  divorced  his  foreign  wife 
after  the  exile  (Ezra  x:36)  B.C.  458. 

VANITIES  (vinnr-tfz),  a  frequent  designatioQ^ 
in  the  Bible,  of  the  false  gods  of  the  heathen. 

1.  Aw'ven  (Heb.  1.}?,  to  pant)»  nothingness,  a 
vain  and  empty  thing  (Is.  xli:29;  Zech.  x:2). 

2.  Shawv   (Heb.  ^%  or  shav   (^  has   the 

meaning  of  desolation  ;  so  "months  of  vanity"  (Job 
vii:3)  are  those  of  calamity. 

8.  Heh'bel  (Heb.  ^??,  a  breath),   something 

fruitless,  vain,  empty^  (Job  ix:29;  xxi:^;  xxxv:i6; 

(er.   x:3,  8;    Lam.  iv:i7j;   specificany  of   idols 
2  Kings  xvii:i5;  Ps.  xxxi:6;  Jer.  ii:5;  Jonah  ii:8) 

4.^  To'Aoo(lleb.^!nr),  to  lie  waste),  a  desert;  (Deut 
xxxii:io;  xi:24),  "wilderness";  also  a  worthless 
thing  (Is.  xli:29);  as  an  idol\yXvi'X)\  comp.  lix^). 

5.  Mat-ah-yof  ace  (Gr.  iiMTouffrnt)  correspNonds  to 
shawv,  and  means  that  which  is  wanting  in  truth 
and  appropriateness  (2  Pet.  ii:i8);  that  which  is 
depraved,  degenerate  or  perverse  (Eph.  iv:i7); 
frailty,  want  of  vigor  (Rom.  viii:2o).  (Barnes,  Bib, 
Cyc, ;  Strong's  Concordance,) 

VASHNI  (vftsh'nl),  (Heb.  ^*tl,vash'nee\]^h  is 

praise) .  The  firstborn  of  Samuel  ( i  (Thron.  vi  :28) . 
But  in  I  Sam.  viii  :2  the  name  is  Joel.  Most  prob- 
ably in  the  Chronicles  the  name  of  Joel  has 
dropped  out,  and  "Vashni"  is  a  corruption. 

VASHTI   (vash'tl),  (Heb.  ^^^,vash'tee\^trh. 

beauty),  the  wife  of  Ahasuerus,  king  of  Persia, 
whose  refusal  to  present  herself  unveiled  before 
the  compotators  of  the  king  led  to  her  degrada- 
tion, andf  eventually  to  the  advancement  of  Esther 
(Esth.  1:9-12),  B.C.  483.)  (See  Ahasuerus;  Es- 
ther.) 

VAT  (vftt),  (Heb.  ^,  gath\  it  denotes  the  vA 

(Xi|v6f)  in  which  grapes  and  olives  were  trodden 
with  the  feet. 

These  were  either  formed  with  stones  and 
covered  with  insoluble  cement,  or  were,  in  favor- 
able localities,  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  forming 
raised  reservoirs,  into  which  the  picked  fi^pes 
were  cast  and  trodden  upon  by  men  to  press  out 
the  m^ist,  or  new  wine,  which  flowed  out  through 
gratings  or  spouts  into  large  vessels  placed  out- 
side, hupolamon.  In  the  Egyptian  paintings  these 
vats  are  represented  as  having  a  temporary  beam 


VATICAN 


1697 


VATICAN 


extended  over  them  with  short  ropes  hanging 
down»  by  which  the  treaders  held  fast,  and  which 
greatly  helped  them  in  their  labor,  inasmuch  as 
the  beam  acted  as  a  lever  in  its  rebound,  lifting 
them  up  from  the  mass  of  grapes  into  which  they 
sank. 

This  work,  although  laborious,  was  performed 
with  great  animation,  accompanied  by  vintage 
songs,  and  with  a  peculiar  shout  or  cry,  and  some- 
times by  instrumental  music  (Neh.  xiii:i5;  Lam. 
i:i5;  Is.  xvirp,  lo;  Jer.  xxv:30;  xlviii:32,  33; 
Joel  iii:i3).  F.  R.  L. 

VATIOAN  (v&i'X'hni),  (Lat.  vaticanus).  This 
term  denotes  the  magnificent  assemblage  of  build- 
ings on  the  Mons  Vaticanus,  or  the  Vatican  Hill, 
at  the  extreme  northwestern  part  of  the  city  of 
Rome.  It  is  often  used  to  indicate  the  authority 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  grounds  of 
the  supremacy  of  the  Church  of  Rome  are  briefly 
given  in  the  article  which  follows,  by  the  Rev- 
erend T.  J.  Shahan,  D.  D.,  Professor  of  Church 
History  in  the  Catholic  University  of  America, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

The  three  thousand  souls  who  formed  the 
nucleus  of  Christianitpr  at  Jerusalem  (Acts  ii:4i) 
increased  rapidly.  Tacitus  speaks  of  a  **great 
multitude*'  of  adherents  at  Rome  (A.  D.  64),  and 
a  letter  of  the  younger  Pliny  to  Trajan  shows  that 
the  mission  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Bithynia  had 
made  an  impression  on  the  entire  society  of  that 
province.  In  his  Apology,  TertuUian  appeals  to 
the  great  number  of  the  Christians  of  Africa.  By 
the  middle  of  the  third  century  the  episcopal  sees 
were  numerous  in  Central  and  Southern  Italy, 
and  the  synod  of  Elvira  (A.  D.  300)  shows  that 
in  Spain  Christians  were  very  numerous  in  every 
walk  of  life.  There  were  Christian  martyrs  in 
Britain  in  the  persecution  of  Diocletian.  St. 
Irenaeus  and  TertuUian  speak  as  though  the 
Britons  of  their  time  had  heard  the  gospel.  It  is 
not  probable  that  Christians  were  numerous  in 
Gaul  before  the  middle  of  the  third  century. 

In  the  first  decades  of  its  history  we  find  this  so- 
ciety divided  into  laity  and  clergy.  "The  layman 
is  bound  by  the  layman's  ordinances,"  writes  St." 
Clement  (about  A.  D.  96),  "and  the  apostles  ap- 
pointed their  first  fruits,  when  they  had  proved 
them  by  the  Spirit,  to  be  bishops  and  deacons  unto 
them  that  should  believe."  From  the  beginning  of 
the  second  century  we  find  in  all  Christian  com- 
munities a  bishop,  priests  and  deacons,  an  em- 
bryonic but  uniform  government  in  countries  re- 
mote from  one  another,  at  an  epoch  when  the  ac- 
tion of  the  principal  sees,  notably  Rome,  was  as 
yet  weak  and  faint.  This  phenomenon  easily  sug- 
gests the  apostolic  origin  of  the  episcopate. 

From  the  letters  of  St.  Ignatius  to  the  writings 
of  St.  Cyprian  the  bishop  is  head,  shepherd,  jud^e, 
representative  of  the  Christian  community,  its 
presiding  officer  in  worship,  and  its  bond  of  union. 
The  priests  are  counselors  to  the  bishop,  instruc- 
tors of  the  faithful,  and  vicars  of  the  bishop  when 
he  is  absent  or  incapacitated.  The  deacons,  hier- 
archically inferior  to  the  priests,  had  a  much 
greater  influence ;  the  temporal  administration  was 
practically  in  their  hands,  as  well  as  the  immediate 
service  of  the  bishop  in  divine  worship,  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  Eucnarist,  and  occasional  confer- 
ring of  baptism. 

About  the  middle  of  the  third  century  the  min- 
istry of  the  deacons  was  subdivided,  and  the 
"minor  orders"  introduced,  first  in  the  Church  of 
Rome.  The  selection  of  all  this  clergy  was  left  to 
the  bishop  with  the  counsel  of  his  presbytery  and 
the  good  will  of  the  people.  The  bishop  was 
elected  bV  the  local  clergy ;  the  assistance  of  three 

107 


bishops  was  required  for  a  licit  consecration.  The 
metropolitan  and  the  bishops  of  the  province  con- 
firmed the  newly-elect.  The  support  of  this 
clergy  came  from  weekly  offerings  of  the  Chris- 
tians, from  their  own  patrimony,  or  their  labor. 
Certain  qualities  were  recjuired  for  entrance 
among  the  clergy,  and  certain  impediments  were 
soon  established;  the  age  for  the  priesthood  was 
thirty,  that  for  the  episcopate  about  fifty.  Celibacy 
was  held  very  desirable  for  the  bishops,  priests 
and  deacons.  After  diaconal  ordination  clerics 
could  not  marry  without  renouncing  the  exercise 
of  their  order,  but  there  seems  to  have  been  no 
apostolic  law  obliging  to  continencjr  the  married 
man  who  became  deacon,  and  in  time  priest  or 
bishop. 

Each  bishop  governed  the  Christians  of  a  mu- 
nicipal district ;  as  a  rule,  his  authority  ran  parallel 
with  the  city  territory ;  thus  he  had  under  him  not 
only  the  municipal  clergy,  but  also  the  deacons, 
and  "rural  bishops"  who  governed  the  remote 
hamlets  or  towns.  The  bishop  of  the  provincial 
metropolis  soon  rose  to  the  dignity  of  metropoli- 
tan, because  of  the  size  of  his  city,  the  number  of 
his  flock,  and  the  standing  of  its  principal  mem- 
bers; great  influence,  too,  accrued  to  him  through 
the  custom  of  holding  frequent  synods  in  his  city 
— a  cnstom  as  old  as  the  nfth  or  sixth  decade  of 
the  second  century,  and  which  argues  a  monarch- 
ical episcopacy  very  widely  spread.  The  metro- 
politans were  subject  to  certain  higher  dignitaries 
whose  circles  of  influence,  established  long  before 
the  council  of  Nice  (A.  D.  325),  corresponded 
to  the  great  civil  divisions  of  the  empire.  They 
were  Alexandria,  Antioch  and  Rome.  Ephesus 
in  proconsular  Asia,  Caesarea  in  Cappadocia,  and 
Heraclaea  in  Thrace,  were  also  centers  of  a  su- 
perior unity.  This  unity  was  an  ideal  deeply  cher- 
ished and  practically  preserved  by  means  of  the 
correspondence  of  bishops,  annual  synodal  meet- 
ings, excommunication  of  offenders  against  dis- 
cipline or  belief,  letters  or  certificates  of  member- 
ship, and  the  bond  of  filiation  between  churches. 

Among  the  Christian  churches  one,  the  Church 
of  Rome,  was  especially  prominent  as  the  center 
of  unity.  The  bishops  of  Rome  very  soon  laid 
formal  claim  to  a  universal  authority  as  successors 
of  St.  Peter.  The  Roman  homily.  On  the  Gam- 
blers, perhaps  the  work  of  Pope  Victor  (A.  D. 
i89;i99),  asserts  the  power  of  the  keys  (Matt. 
xviii:i8),  the  vicarship  of  the  Lord,  and  an  orig- 
inal apostolic  authority  or  leadership.  St.  Qem- 
ent  of  Rome  writes  to  the  Corinthians  in  an  un- 
mistakable tone  of  authority,  that  the  discovery  of 
the  complete  text  has  confirmed.  St.  Irenaeus  of 
Lyons  (A.  D.  178),  attributes  to  the  Roman 
Church  an  authoritative  and  efficient  primacy, 
based  on  its  episcopal  succession  from  SS.  Peter 
and  Paul.  He  says :  "But  as  it  would  be  a  very  long 
task  to  enumerate  in  such  a  volume  as  this  the 
successions  of  all  the  churches,  we  do  put  to  con- 
fusion all  those  who  . .  .  assemble  in  unauthorized 
meetings  (we  do  this,  I  say),  by  indicating  that 
tradition,  derived  from  the  Apostles,  of  the  very 
great,  the  very  ancient,  and  universally  known 
Church,  founded  and  constituted  at  Rome  by  the 
two  most  glorious  Apostles,  Peter  and  Paul;  as 
also  (by  pointing  out)  the  faith  preached  to  men, 
which  comes  down  to  our  time  by  many  of  the 
successors  of  the  bishops.  For  it  is  a  matter  of 
necessity  that  every  (Thurch  should  agree  with  this 
(the  Roman)  Church,  on  account  of  its  pre- 
eminent authority;  that  is.  the  faithful  every- 
where."— Against  All  Heresies^  Bk.  Ill,  c.  3. 

St.  Ignatius  of  Antioch  (A.  D.  107-117).  ad- 
dressing the  Roman  Church,  speaks  of  its  "presi- 
dency of  love,"  its  "presidency  in  the  country  ot 


VEIL  16 

the  region  of  Ihc  Ron-ans,"  and  the  lately  discov- 
ered epitaph  ot  Abcrcius  shows  that  the  Rofnan 
Church  enjoyed  the  highest  degree  of  esteem 
among  all  other  churches.  At  the  same  time  the 
sense  of  local  self-sufficiency,  and  of  apostolic  au- 
thority lodged  in  the  episcopate,  personal  and  soli- 
dary, was  very  strong.  But  the  conduct  of  Origen, 
of  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  the  correspondence  of 
Saint  Cyprian,  the  attitude  of  inimical  emperors 
like  Decius  and  Aurelian,  show  that  the  essential 
authority  of  the  Roman  see  was  not  resisted,  even 
if  consciousness  of  the  common  origin  and  com- 
mon nature  of  the  episcopate  were  vivid  and  sen- 
sitive in  communities  accustomed  to  be  governed 
in  the  original  spirit  of  charity  and  humility  en- 
joined by  the  Master.  T.  J.  S. 

TTEIL  (val),  (Heb.  ^t^^.pawro'JtetA). 

The  veils  among  the  Hebrews  were  of  different 
Idnds  and  names,  some  descending  only  to  the 
wais^  while  others  reached  nearly  to  the  ground. 


The  ve.ils  mentioned  in  Scripture  were,  no 
doubt,  tnostly  analogous  to  the  wrappers  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  in  which  the  Eastern  women  envelop 
themselves  when  they  leave  their  houses.  These 
are  very  voluminous,  and,  among  the  common 
pet^le,  of  strong  and  coarse  texture,  like  that  in 
which  Ruth  carried  home  her  corn  (Ruth  iii: 
IS).  A  veil  called  T??.  tsaio-eef,  to  wrap, 
is  mentioned  in  Gen,  xxiv:65j  xxxviii:t4,  ig,  un- 
der circumstances  which  show  that  it  was  one 
of  those  ample  wrappers  which  women  wore  out 


«         VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES 

the  shoulders,  or  folded  about  the  body  in  some 
manner  which  distinguished  it  from  other  veils. 

VEH,  OF  IHS  TABEBNACLE  AKI> 
TSKFIiE    (val  fiv  thd  tab'er-na-k'l   ind    tem'p'l). 

The  screen  separating  the  holy  and  most  holy 
places  in  the  Tabernacle  and  Temple.  It  was  this 
piece  of  tapestry  that  was  rent  by  the  earthquake 
at  Christ's  crucifixion  (Matt.  xxvii;51,  etc). 
(See   Tabeknacle;   Teuple.) 

VEIN'  (van),  (Heb.  ''?^,  mo-tsaw',  source); 
a  place  where  a  thing  is  obtained  (i  Kings  x-Xj); 
arainc(Jobxxviii:i). 

VENOEANOE  (veni'ims),  (Heb.  ^I^,  tiaw 
koM',  to  grudge),  is  to  punish. 

In  a  bad  sense,  as  of  an  injured  person,  it  is 
to  take  vengeance,  to  avenge  oneself  (Jud^.  x»: 
7;  I  Sam.  xviii;2$;  Ezek.  xxvlis),  and  is  the 
expression  of  viiidictiveneis  (Lam.  iii:6o).  When 
vengeance  is  predicated  of  the  Lord  it  must  be 
taken  in  the  better  sense  of  righteous  retribution 
(Ps.  xciv:i;  Jer.  xx:ia,etc>. 

TENISON  (vSnT-i-o  or  v6n'i'n),  (Heb.T3f, 
Uah'yietfOt'^'^.,  tsay-davj',  hunting),  the  flesh  of 
game  taken  in  the  chase  (Gen.  xxv:28;  xxvtiij, 
5.331- 

VEBILT,  adv.,  positively,  surely,  -often  used 
by   Christ    to   call    attention   to   some   imporunt 


TEBHUJOH  (ver-mTl'yOn),  (Heb.  ''tt.sham- 
shar").  This  was  a  pigment  used  in  fresco  paint- 
ings, either  for  drawing  figures  of  idols  on  the 
walls  of  temples  fEzek.  xxi]i:i4),  for  coloring  the 
idols  themselves  (Wisd.  xiii:t4),  or  for  decorating 
the  walls,  and  beams  of  houses  (Jer.  xxii:i4),  Ver- 
milion was  a  favorite  color  among  the  Assyrians, 
as  is  Still  attested  by  the  sculptures  of  NimroQ 
and  Khorsabad. 

TEKSIONB  OF  THE  SCBITTUBES  (ver' 
shQns  6v  skrTp'lllrs),  a  general  name  for  transla- 
tions of  the  Scriptures  mto  other  languages  than 
the  original. 

Versions  are  immediate  or  mediate,  according 
as  they  are  made  directly  from  the  original  text 
or  through  the  medium  of  other  translations. 
Four  ancient  immediate  versions  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament have  come  down  to  modern  times :  the 
Septuagint,  the  Targums  of  Onkelos  and  Jona- 
than ben  Uz/iel,  the  Syriac  Peshito  with  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  its  predecessors,  and  the  Latin 
Vulgate.  They  derive  special  value  from  the  fact 
that  ihey  were  made  before  the  Hebrew  text  of 
the  Masoretes  was  established. 

1.  Arabic.  The  Arabic  versions  which  are 
extant  are  late  and  are  of  no  critical  importance. 
(Davis,  Bib.  Did.) 

2.  .Armenian.  Armenian  literature  begins 
with  Miesrob,  the  inventor  of  the  Armenian  al- 
phabet, at  the  commencement  of  the  fifth  century. 
Before  that  time,  the  Armenians  employed  the 
Syriac  letters.  After  making  an  alphabet,  Mies- 
rob,  assisted  by  two  of  his  pupils,  undertook  a 
translation  of  the  Bible,  which  he  completed  in 
A.  D.  410.  The  Old  Testament  part  was  made 
from  the  Greek :  in  the  book  of  Daniel,  from 
Theodotion ;  and  the  text  of  the  Seventy  which 
it  follows  appears  to  have  been  a  mixed  one,  for 
it  agrees  with  none  of  the  leading  recensions. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  interpolated  in  the  sixth 
een*'ity  from  the  Peshito;  but  this  is  doubtful. 
Gregory  Bar  Hebrieus  gives  it  as  a  mere  con- 
jecture.    (Wiseman,  Hortf  Syriaca,  p.  Ida.)     La 

"    ■     ■  ■  "     ■    ■  think  that  it 


Croze,  Michaelis,  and  Bredenkamp  t 


VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES 


1699 


VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES 


was  altered  from  the  Vulgate  in  the  thirteenth 
century;  but  Alter  and  Holmes  are  opposed  to 
that  idea.  The  probability  is  on  the  side  of  the 
former.  In  the  New  Testament  it  was  made 
from  the  original ;  but  here  too  it  is  said  to  have 
been  adapted  to  the  Peshito.  It  is  likely  that 
it  has  been,  at  least  in  this  part,  conformed  to 
the  Vulgate  by  Haitho  or  Hethom,  who  reigned 
over  the  lesser  Armenia  and  Cilicia  from  A.  D. 
1224  till  1270.  This  entire  version  was  first  pub- 
lished by  Bishop  Uscan  or  Osgan,  at  Amsterdam, 
in  1776,  quarto,  who  is  also  accused  of  interpolat- 
ing it.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Dr.  Zohrab, 
published  at  Venice  A.  D.  1805,  quarto,  for 
which  he  consulted  sixty-nine  MSS.  This  edi- 
tion was  collated  for  the  Greek  Testament  pre- 
pared by  Scholz,  who  thinks  that  if  we  possessed 
the  genuine  version,  we  should  find  its  text  to  be 
a  compound  of  the  Constantinopolitan  and  Alex- 
andrian families. 

3.  Chatdee.  See  Versions  of  The  Scrip- 
tures, II,  The  Tar  gums. 

4,  Egyptian.  After  the  death  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  the  Greeks  multiplied  in  Egypt,  and  ob- 
tained important  places  of  trust  near  the  throne  of 
the  Ptolemies.  The  Greek  language  accordingly 
began  to  diffuse  itself  from  the  court  among 
the  people,  so  that  the  proper  language  of  the 
country  was  either  forced  to  adapt  itself  to  the 
Greek,  as  well  in  construction  as  in  the  adoption 
of  new  words,  or  was  entirely  supplanted.  In 
this  way  originated  the  Coptic,  compounded  of  the 
old  Egyptian  and  the  Greek.  There  is  a  version 
in  the  dialect  of  Lower  Egypt  usually  called  the 
Coptic,  or  better  the  Memphitic  version ;  and  there 
is  another  in  the  dialect  of  Upper  Egypt,  termed 
the  Sahidic,  and  sometimes  the  Thebaic, 

(1)  The  Memphitic  Version.  The  Old  Tes- 
tament in  this  version  has  been  taken  from  the 
Septuagint,  and  not  the  original  Hebrew.  It  would 
appear  from  Miinter  (Specim,  verss.  Dan,  Coptic, 
Romae,  1786),  that  the  original  was  the  Hesychion 
recension  of  the  Seventy,  then  current  in  the  coun- 
try. There  is  little  doubt  that  all  the  Old  Tes- 
tament books  were  translated  into  the  Coptic 
dialect,  although  many  of  them  have  not  yet  been 
discovered.  The  Pentateuch  was  published  by 
Wilkins  (London,  1731,  4to) :  the  Psalms  at 
Rome  (1744  and  1749)  by  the  Propaganda  So- 
ciety. A  small  part  of  Jeremiah  (ix:i7,  to  xiii.) 
was  published  by  Mingarelli  at  Bologna  (1785)* 
and  the  ninth  chapter  of  Daniel,  in  MUnter's  work. 
Gregory  Bar  Hebraeus  quotes  the  version  in  the 
book  of  Psalms;  and  it  seems  to  have  been  well 
known  to  the  Syrians.  (Wiseman's  Hora 
Syriacce,  pp.  144-5.)  The  New  Testament,  made 
from  the  original  Greek,  was  published  by  Wil- 
kins, at  Oxford,  with  a  Latin  translation  (A.  D. 
1716).  Its  readings,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the 
place  where  it  was  made,  coincide  with  the  Alex- 
andrine family,  and  deserve  the  attention  of  the 
critic.  Unfortunately  the  version  is  not  yet  cor- 
rectly edited.    It  belongs  to  the  third  century. 

(2)  The  Thebaic.  This  version  was  also  made 
from  the  Greek,  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, and  probably  too  in  the  third  century. 
Only  some  fragments  of  the  Old  Testament  part 
have  been  printed  by  Mtinter,  Mingarelli,  and 
Zoega.  In  the  New  Testament  it  agrees  gen- 
erally, though  not  uniformly,  with  the  Alex- 
andrine family.  Not  a  few  readings,  however, 
are  peculiar;  and  some  harmonize  with  the  Latin 
versions. 

(3)  The  Bashxnuric  or  Axnmonian.  Only 
some  fragments  of  such  a  version  in  the  Old  and 


New  Testaments  have  been  published,  and  very 
little  is  known  concerning  it.  Scholars  are  not 
agreed  as  to  the  nature  of  the  dialect  in  which 
it  is  written;  some  thinking  that  it  does  not  de- 
serve the  name  of  a  dialect,  while  others  regard 
the  Bashmuric  as  a  kind  of  intermediate  dialect 
between  those  spoken  in  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt. 
Hug  and  De  Wette  are  inclined  to  believe  that  it 
is  merely  the  version  of  Upper  Egypt  translated 
into  the  idiom  of  the  particular  place  where  the 
Bashmuric  was  spoken.  The  origin  of  this  ver- 
sion belongs  to  the  third  or  fourth  century. 

(4)  The  Ethiopia  Version  was  made  some 
time  between  the  fourth  and  sixth  centuries  A. 
D. ;  it  is  the  oldest  monument  as  well  as  the 
foundation  of  the  whole  Ethiopic  literature.  Its 
translators  were  not  learned  men,  nor  entirely 
familiar  with  Greek,  but  the  rendering  is  faithful 
and  has  preserved  peculiarities.  The  Old  Testa- 
ment portion  was  not  translated  immediately  from 
the  Hebrew,  but  was  made  from  the  Greek  ver- 
sion, and  is  therefore  valuable  as  an  aid  in  de- 
termining the  text  of  the  Septuagint. 

(6)  The  Georgian  Version.  This  translation 
comprehends  the  entire  Bible,  made  from  the 
Septuagint  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  from  (jreek 
MSS.  of  the  Constantinopolitan  family  in  the 
New.  It  belongs  to  the  sixth  century.  The  au- 
thor or  authors  are  not  known.  The  edition 
published  at  Moscow,  A.  D.  1743,  folio,  was  in- 
terpolated by  the  Georgian  princes,  Arcil .  and 
Wacuset,  from  the  Slavonic  version.  This  cir- 
cumstance detracts  from  its  authority  and  value, 
since  it  is  now  impossible  to  separate  the  original 
from  the  interpolated  readings. 

(6)  The  Gothic  Version  was  made  in  the  lat- 
ter half  of  the  fourth  century  by  Ulphilas,  bishop 
of  the  West  Gk)ths.  It  embraced  the  whole  Bible 
except  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings,  which  the 
bishop  omitted,  because  he  thought  it  would  be 
dangerous  to  place  them,  with  their  warlike  spirit 
and  opposition  to  idolatry,  in  the  hands  of  the 
Goths.  Most  of  the  New  Testament,  but  little 
of  the  Old  Testament  in  this  version  is  extant 
The  translation  is  faithful  and  skillful. 

5.  Creek  Versions.  (1)  The  Septuagint.  The 
mos^  celebrated  Greek  version  of  the  Hebrew 
Scrfptures  and  the  oldest  complete  translation  of 
them.  It  was  called  the  Septuagint,  commonly  des- 
ignated by  LXX,  after  the  seventy  translators  re- 
puted to  have  been  employed  on  it  in  the  time  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  285-247,  B.  C.  (See  Alex- 
andria AND  New  Test,  p.  83. )  Aristobulus,  a  Jew- 
ish priest  who  lived  in  Alexandria  during  the  reigfn 
of  Ptolemy  Philometer,  181 -146  B.  C,  and  who  is 
mentioned  in  2  Mace.  i:io,  is  quoted  by  Qement 
of  Alexandria  and  Eusebius  as  stating  that  while 
portions  relating  to  Hebrew  history  had  been 
translated  into  Greek  previously,  the  entire  law 
was  translated  from  the  Hebrew  in  the  reign  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus  under  the  direction  of 
Demetrius  Phalereus. 

A  fabulous  account  of  this  version  is  given  in 
a  letter  of  Aristeas,  narrating  how  King  Ptolemy 
sent  an  embassy  to  the  high-priest  at  Jerusalem, 
with  large  sums  in  silver  and  gold;  and  how  the 
high-priest  selected  six  men  of  each  tribe,  who, 
after  a  magnificent  reception,  were  shut  up  in  cells 
on  the  seacoast,  and  completed  the  translation  in 
seventy-two  days.  The  internal  evidence  proves 
that  it  was  made  gradually,  and  by  men  deficient 
in  the  knowledge  handed  down  in  the  schools  in 
Palestine.  They  often  divide  sentences  wrongly, 
mistake  the  meaning  of  rart  words,  and  not  un- 
frequently  confess  their  ignorance  by  transcribing 
Hebrew   words   in   Greek  characters.     But   the 


VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES         1700        VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES 


story  was  so  generally  current  that  the  version 
was  called  the  Septuagint,  as  being  made  by  sev- 
enty (and  two)  men."  (Dean  of  Canterbury  in 
The  Observer.) 

These  ancient  reports  concerning  the  origin 
of  the  Septuagint  have  great  value,  although  re- 
liance cannot  be  placed  on  the  details,  and  the 
statements  regarding  the  scope  of  the  work  arc 
difficult  of  interpretation.  It  is,  however,  com- 
monly agreed  that  the  Septuagint  originated  in 
^SypU  that  the  Pentateuch  was  translated  into 
Greek  in  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  that 
the  other  books  followed  gradually,  and  that  the 
entire  work  was  completed  by  150  B.  C. 

Reference  to  a  Greek  version  of  the  law,  the 
prophets,  and  the  other  books  is  made  by  Jesus, 
son  of  Sirach,  as  early  as  132  B.  C.  (Ecclus. 
prolog^ue).  It  is  possible  that  the  work  was  re- 
vised in  the  Maccabsean  period.  The  version  is 
the  work  of  many  translators,  as  differences  in 
style  and  method  show,  and  its  quality  is  unequal 
in  different  parts;  it  is  also  much  corrupted. 

This  translation  holds  a  very  important  place 
in  church  history  for  the  following  reasons  given 
by  Dr.  Hemy  Alford,  the  Dean  of  Canterbury : 

"And,  first,  for  many  ages  it  was  the  sole  means 
by  which  the  Old  Testament  was  known  to  Chris- 
tians. The  Hebrew  Scriptures  were  absolutely 
unknown  in  the  West,  and  only  partially  known 
in  the  East;  and  thus  the  church  was  unable  to 
distinguish  between  what  was  genuine  and  what 
apocryphal.  The  old  Latin  version  (Vetus  Itala) 
was  made  from  the  Septuagint. 

"An  equally  important  service  which  it  ren- 
dered was  that  it  prepared  the  Gentile  world  for 
the  reception  of  CJhrist.  Those  devout  men  and 
women  of  whom  we  read  sp  much  in  St.  PauFs 
missionary  tours  were  Gentiles  whose  hearts  had 
been  reached  by  the  revelation  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment of  the  unity,  holiness,  omnipresence,  and  al- 
mighty power  of  God ;  and  it  was  the  Septuagint 
which  had  given  them  this  knowledge.  Without 
this  preparation,  going  on  for  nearly  three  cen- 
turies, the  (Sentile  world  would  not  have  been 
fit  to  receive  doctrines  so  pure  and  refined  as 
those  of  Christianity. 

"To  us  a  third  most  important  use  is  that  the 
Septuagint  bears  witness  to  the  substantial  ac- 
curacy of  the  Hebrew  text.  Made  in  Egypt  at  a 
distance  from  the  Palestinian  schools,  and  by  men 
evidently  untrained  in  the  vast  traditional  knowl- 
edge of  the  scribes,  it  has  preserved  for  us  a 
text  long  current  in  Egypt,  and  made  from  manu- 
scripts some  of  which  may  possibly  have  been 
carried  thither  in  the  times  of  Isaiah  and  Jere- 
miah. 

"Finally,  this  version  rendered  to  Christianity 
a  fourth  and  most  important  service;  for  it 
formed  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  both  in 
its  vocabulary  and  its  grammar.  The  New  Tes- 
tament, humanly  speaking,  could  not  have  been 
written  unless  the  Septuagint  had  provided  for 
it  a  language.*' 

Christ  and  his  Apostles  used  the  Septuagint 
frequently.  In  quoting  passages  from  the  Old 
Testament,  sometimes  they  did  so  verbatim,  or 
with  unimportant  verbal  changes,  from  the 
Septuagint ;  at  others,  they  set  it  aside,  and  ap- 
parently themselves  translated  from  the  original 
Hebrew.  There  are  about  three  hundred  and 
fifty  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the 
Gospels,  the  Acts,  and  the  Epistles,  of  which  only 
about  fifty  materially  differ  from  the  Greek.  When 
Philip  met  the  Ethiopian  eunuch,  the  latter  was 
reading  the  Septuagint  (Acts  viii:30-33). 

C2)  Aquila.    Aquila  was  a  Jew  of  Pontus,  who 


lived  in  the  reign  of  Adrian,  and  undertook  a 
Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament  about  A. 
D.  160.  It  appears  from  Jerome  (in  Ezek.  iii) 
that  there  were  two  editions  of  this  version,  the 
second  more  literal  than  the  first.  It  was  very 
highly  prized  by  the  Jews,  and  much  preferred 
to  the  Septuagint,  because  the  latter  was  em- 
ployed as  an  authorized  and  genuine  document 
by  the  early  Christians  in  their  disputations  with 
the  Hebrew  opponents  of  the  new  religion.  The 
very  circumstance  of  its  being  adopted  and  valued 
by  the  Jews  would  tend  to  create  a  prejudice 
against  it  among  the  Fathers,  independently  of  all 
perversion  of  Messianic  passages. 

(3)  Symmachus.  Symmachus  appears  to  have 
been  an  Ebionite  (Euseb.  Hist,  Eccles.  vi.  17; 
Demonstr,  Evang.  vii.  i,  Jerome,  Prcef  in  Esram; 
Assemani,  Bihl.  Orient,  ii.  278;  iii.  i,  17).  His 
Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament  was  made 
after  that  of  Theodotion,  as  may  be  inferred 
from  the  silence  of  Irenaeus,  and  the  language  of 
Jerome  in  his  commentary  on  the  xxxviii  chapter 
of  Isaiah.  The  style  of  the  work  is  good,  and 
the  diction  perspicuous,  pure,  and  elegant  ( Thieme, 
De  puritate  Symmachi;  Hody,  De  Bihl.  text. 
Original.).  It  is  of  less  benefit  in  criticism  than 
that  of  Aquila,  but  of  greater  advantage  in  in- 
terpretation. 

(4)  Theodotion.  Theodotion,  like  Symmachus, 
was  an  Ebonite.  Irenaeus  states  {Advers.  Hares, 
iii.  24)  that  he  belonged  to  Ephesus,  and  was  a 
Jewish  proselyte.  His  Greek  version  of  the  Old 
Testament  appeared  during  the  first  half  of  the 
second  century,  and  is  first  mentioned  by  Irenaeus. 
He  follows  the  Septuagint  very  closely,  so  that 
he  appears  to  have  intended  to  make  a  revision 
of  its  text,  rather  than  a  new  version.  He  is 
not  so  scrupulously  literal  as  Aquila  nor  so  free 
as  Symmachus.  He  was  certainly  not  well  ac- 
quainted with  Hebrew,  as  the  numerous  errors 
into  which  he  has  fallen  demonstrates. 

(6)  Origin.  When  Origen  traveled  into  Eastern 
countries  collecting  materials  for  his  Polyglot,  he 
discovered  three  other  Greek  versions  not  extend- 
ing to  the  entire  Old  Testament,  but  only  to  sev- 
eral books.  These  are  usually  designated  the 
fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh.  The  authors  were  un- 
known to  Origen  himself.  As  far  as  we  can  judge, 
they  appear  to  have  translated  the  original  some- 
v****!  freely  and  paraphrastically.  The  fifth  com- 
prehended the  Pentateuch,  Psalms,  Song  of  Solo- 
mon, and  the  twelve  Minor  Prophets,  besides  the 
books  of  Kings.  Jerome  says  that  the  author 
was  a  Jew,  meaning  probably  a  Jewish  Christian. 
The  sixth  version  contained  the  same  books  as 
the  fifth,  except  those  of  the  Kings.  The  author 
appears  to  have  been  a  Jewish  Christian  also. 
This  inference  has  been  drawn  from  his  render- 
ing of  Habak.  iii.  13.  The  seventh  embraced  the 
Psalms  and  Minor  Prophets.  Perhaps  the  author 
was  a  Jew.  The  three  translations  in  question 
were  made  subsequently  to  those  of  Aquila,  Sym- 
machus, and  Theodotion.  Very  few  fragments  of 
them  remain. 

(6)  Oraaco  -Veneta.  In  a  MS.  belonging  to  St. 
Mark's  Library  at  Venice,  there  is  a  Greek  ver- 
sion of  several  Old  Testament  books.  Its  in- 
ternal character  proves  that  the  translation  was 
made  directly  from  the  Hebrew.  It  is  more 
literal  than  any  other  ancient  version,  even  that 
of  Aquila,  adhering  with  slavish  scrupulosity  to 
the  original  words.  In  the  Chaldee  portions  of 
Daniel,  the  Attic  dialect  is  changed  for  the  Doric 
The  style,  however,  is  a  singular  compound.  Attic 
elegancies  occur  along  with  barbarous  expres- 
sions;  high-sounding  words  used   by  the  best 


VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES        1701        VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES 


Greek  writers,  by  the  side  of  others  contrary  to 
the  genius  of  the  Greek  language.  The  origin 
of  the  version  cannot  be  placed  higher  than  the 
ninth  century;  the  MS.  itself  was  written  in 
the  fourteenth.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the  au- 
thor was  a  Jew  or  a  Christian. 

6.  Latin  Versions.    (See  Vulgate.) 

7.  Persian  Versions,  The  Bible  seems  to 
have  been  translated  at  an  early  period  into  the 
Persian  language.  Both  Chrysostora  (Second 
Horn,  on  John)  and  Theodoret  (De  curand.  Grcec, 
Affect.)  speak  of  a  Persian  translation;  and,  ac- 
cording to  Maimonides,  the  Pentateuch  was  trans- 
lated many  centuries  before  Mohammed  into  this 
language  (Zunz's  Gottesdienstlichen  Vortrage,  p. 
9,  note  a).  A  Persian  version  of  the  Pentateuch 
was  first  printed  at  Constantinople,  in  Hebrew 
characters  (A.  D.  1546),  as  part  of  a  Polyglot 
Pentateuch;  and  afterwards  inserted  by  Walton 
in  the  London  Polyglot,  in  the  proper  Persian 
character.  It  was  made  after  the  time  of  the  false 
prophet,  and  must  have  been  later  than  the  eighth 
century.  The  text  follows  the  Hebrew  very 
closely,  according  to  the  Masoretic  recension,  re- 
taining many  of  the  original  terms,  from  the 
translator's  inability  to  render  them  into  Persian. 
Both  Onkelo's  and  Saadia's  versions  appear  to 
have  been  consulted  by  the  author. 

If  credit  is  to  be  given  to  the  inscriptions,  it 
was  made  by  Jacob,  the  son  of  Joseph  Tawus, 
for  the  use  of  the  Persian  Jews. 

8.  Samaritan  Versions.  The  Samaritan 
Pentateuch  was  a  recension  of  the  commonly  re- 
ceived Hebrew  text  of  the  Mosaic  Law,  in  use 
with  the  Samaritans,  and  written  in  the  ancient 
Hebrew  (Ibri),  or  so-called  Samaritan  character. 
This  recension  is  found  vaguely  quoted  by  some 
of  the  early  Fathers  of  the  church. 

(1)  History.  Eusebius  of  Csesarea  observes 
that  the  LXX  and  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch 
agree  against  the  Received  Text  in  the  number 
of  years  from  the  Deluge  to  Abraham.  Cyril  of 
Alexandria  speaks  of  certain  words  (Gen.  iv:8) 
wanting  in  the  Hebrew,  but  found  in  the  Samari- 
tan. The  same  remark  is  made  by  Procopius  of 
Gaza  with  respect  to  Deut.  i:6;  Num.  x:io;  x: 
9,  etc.  Other  passages  are  noticed  by  Diodorus, 
the  Greek  scholiast,  etc.  The  Talmud,  on  the 
other  hand,  mentions  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch 
distinctly  and  contemptuously  as  a  clumsily  forged 
record:  "Kom  have  falsified  your  Pentateuch/' 
said  R.  Eliezer  b.  Shimon  to  the  Samaritan 
scribes,  with  reference  to  a  passage  in  Deut.  xi: 
30,  where  the  well  understood  word  Shechem  was 
gratuitously  inserted  after  "the  plains  of  Moreh ;" 
"and  you  have  not  profited  aught  by  it"  (comp. 
Jer.  Sotah  21  b,  comp.  17;  Babli  33  b).  On  an- 
other occasion  they  are  ridiculed  on  account  of 
their  ignorance  of  one  of  the  simplest  rules  of  He- 
brew grammar,  displayed  in  their  Pentateuch. 

Down  to  within  the  last  two  hundred  and  fifty 
years,  however,  no  copy  of  this  divergent  code 
of  laws  had  reached  Europe,  and  it  began  to  be 
pronounced  a  fiction,  and  the  plain  words  of  the 
church  fathers — the  better  known  authorities — 
who  quoted  it  were  subjected  to  subtle  interpre- 
tations. Suddenly,  in  1616,  Pietro  della  Valle, 
one  of  the  first  discoverers  also  of  the  Cuneiform 
inscriptions,  acquired  a  complete  Codex  from  the 
Samaritans  in  Damascus.  In  1623  it  was  pre- 
sented by  Achille  Harley  de  Sancy  to  the  Library 
of  the  Oratory  in  Paris,  and  in  1628  there  ap- 
peared a  brief  description  of  it  by  J.  Morinus  in 
his  preface  to  the  Roman  text  of  the  LXX. 
Three  years  later,  shortly  before  it  was  pub- 
lished in  the  Paris     Polyglot,— whence    it    was 


copied,  with  few  amendments  from  other  codices* 
by  Walton, — Morinus,  the  first  editor,  wrote  his 
Exercitationes  Ecclesiastics  in  utrumque  Samaria 
tanorum  Pentateuchum,  in  which  he  pronounced 
the  newly  found  Codex,  with  all  its  innumerable 
variants  from  the  Masoretic  text,  to  be  infinitely 
superior  to  the  latter:  in  fact,  the  unconditional 
and  speedy  emendation  of  the  Received  Text 
thereby  was  urged  most  authoritatively.  Between 
1620  and  1630  six  additional  copies,  partly  com- 
plete, partly  incomplete,  were  acquired. 

The  number  of  manuscripts  in  Europe  grad- 
ually grew  to  sixteen.  During  the  present  cen- 
tury another  but  very  fragmentary  copy  was  ac- 
quired by  the  Gotha  Library.  A  copy  of  the  en- 
tire (?)  Pentateuch,  with  Targum  (Samaritan 
Version)  in  parallel  columns,  quarto,  on  parch- 
ment, was  brought  from  Nabulus  by  Mr.  Grove, 
in  1861,  for  the  Comte  de  Paris,  in  whose  library 

*A.  * 

It   IS. 

(3)  Description.  Respecting  the  external  con- 
dition of  these  manuscripts,  it  may  be  observed 
that  their  sizes  vary  from  i2mo  to  folio,  and  that 
no  scroll,  such  as  the  Jews  and  the  Samaritans 
use  in  their  synagogues,  is  to  be  found  among 
them.  Their  material  is  vellum,  or  cotton  paper: 
the  ink  used  is  black  in  all  cases,  save  the  scroll 
used  by  the  Samaritans  at  Nddu/us,  the  letters  of 
which  are  in  gold.  There  are  neither  vowels, 
accents,  nor  diacritical  points.  The  individual 
words  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  dot. 
Greater  or  smaller  divisions  of  the  text  are  marked 
by  two  dots  placed  one  above  the  other,  and  by 
an  asterisk.  A  small  line  above  a  consonant  indi- 
cates a  peculiar  meaning  of  the  word,  an  unusual 
form,  a  passive,  and  the  like ;  it  is,  in  fact,  a  con- 
trivance to  bespeak  attention.  The  whole  Penta- 
teuch is  divided  into  nine  hundred  and  sixty- 
four  paragraphs,  or  Kazsin,  the  termination  of 
which  is  indicated  by  these  figures,  =,  .*.,  or  <  . 

(3)  Authors,  (i)  According  to  the  Samaritans 
themselves  (De  Sacy,  Mem,  3;  Paul  us;  Winer), 
their  high-driest  Nathaniel,  who  died  about  20  B. 
C,  is  its  author.  Gesenius  puts  its  date  a  few 
years  after  Christ.  Juynboll  thinks  that  it  had 
long  been  in  use  in  the  second  post-Christian  cen- 
tury. Frankel  places  it  in  the  post-Mohammedan 
time.  Other  investigators  date  it  from  the  time 
of  Esarhaddon's  priest  (Schwarz),  or  either 
shortly  before  or  after  the  foundation  of  the  Tem- 
ple on  Mount  Gerizim.  It  seems  certain,  how- 
ever, that  it  was  composed  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  second  Temple;  and  being  intended, 
like  the  Targums,  for  the  use  of  the  people  ex- 
clusively, it  was  written  in  the  popular  Samaritan 
idiom,  a  mixture  of  Hebrew,  Aramaic  and  Syriac. 

(2)  T6  Saptapetrdc^f.  The  hatred  between  the 
Samaritans  and  the  Jews  is  supposed  to  have 
caused  the  former  to  prepare  a  Greek  translation 
of  their  Pentateuch  in  opposition  to  the  LXX  of 
the  Jews.  In  this  way  at  least  the  existence  of 
certain  fragments  of  a  Greek  version  of  the 
Saqiaritan  Pentateuch,  preserved  in  some  MSS. 
of  the  LXX,  together  with  portions  of  Aquila, 
Symmachus,  Theodotion,  etc.,  is  accounted  for. 
These  fragments  are  supposed  to  be  alluded  to  by 
the  Greek  Fathers  under  the  name  2a/«apetrt«c6i». 
It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  it  ever  existed 
(as  Gesenius,  Winer,  Juynboll,  suppose)  in  the 
shape  of  a  complete  translation,  or  only  desig- 
nated (as  Castellus,  Voss,  Herbst,  hold)  a  certam 
number  of  scholia  translated  from  the  Samaritan 
version.  Other  critics  again  (Havernick.  Heng- 
stenberg,  etc.)  see  in  it  only  a  corrected  edition 
of  certain  passages  of  the  LXX. 

(3)  In  1070  an  Arabic  Version  of  the  Samaritan 


VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES        1702 


VILLAGE 


Pentateuch  was  made  by  Abu  Said  in  Egypt,  on 
the  basis  of  the  Arabic  translation  of  Saadjah 
haggaon.  Like  the  original  Samaritan  it  avoids 
anthropomorphisms  and  anthropopathisms,  re- 
placing the  latter  by  euphemisms,  besides  occa- 
sionally making  some  slight  alterations,  more  es- 
pecially in  proper  nouns.  It  is  extant  in  several 
MS.  copies  in  European  libraries.  (For  a  further 
treatment  of  this  subject  see  Samawtan  Penta- 
teuch.) 

9.  Slavonic  Version.  This  translation,  em- 
bracing the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  was  made 
by  Cyril  of  Thessalonica  and  his  brother  Method- 
ius, who  invented  the  Slavic  alphabet.  In  the  Old 
Testament  the  Septuagint  was  followed ;  and  in 
the  New  the  original  Greek,  in  MSS.  belonging 
to  the  Constantinople  family.  According  to  Al- 
ter, the  Old  Testament  portion  was  originally 
made  from  the  Vetus  Jtala,  and  altered  in  the 
fourteenth  century  from  Greek  MSS.  Perhaps 
the  entire  text  of  the  version  has  been  revised 
after  the  Latin.  The  translation  is  very  literal, 
so  that  the  idiom  of  the  Slavonic  is  often  violated 
for  the  sake  of  retaining  the  Greek  construction. 
Of  the  readings  adopted  by  Griesbach,  this  ver- 
sion has  at  least  three-fourths.  In  consequence 
of  its  excellence,  it  is  considered  of  great  value 
in  the  criticism  of  the  Greek  Testament.  The 
edition  of  the  entire  Bible  published  at  Ostrog, 
1581,  is  the  basis  of  all  succeeding  impressions. 

10.  Spriac  Versions.  (1)  The  Old  Syiiac 
Version  of  the  New  Testament.  This  is  repre- 
sented by  the  Gospels  discovered  by  Mrs.  Lewis 
in  the  convent  of  St.  Catherine  on  Mount  Sinai  in 
1892,  and  by  the  closely  related  fragments  found 
by  Cureton  in  a  Syrian  convent  in  the  Nitrian 
desert  in  1841-43. 

(2)  The  Peshito.  Peshito  means  simple  or 
vulgate.  The  Old  Testament  was  made  directly 
from  the  Hebrew,  and  in  the  first  instance  was 
probably  prepared  for  the  use  of  Jewish  prose- 
Ijrtes.  It  was  made  as  early  as  the  first  century. 
The  New  Testament  is  a  revision  of  the  old  Syr- 
iac  in  order  to  bring  it  into  closer  agreement 
with  the  Greek  text  and  improve  its  diction  and 
style.  The  Peshito  seems  to  have  been  in  circu- 
lation in  the  second  century.  By  reason  of  its 
elegance  it  has  often  been  called  the  queen  of 
versions. 

(3)  The  Curetonian  Syriac  Gospels.  Among 
the  manuscripts  brought  from  the  Nitrian  mon- 
asteries in  1842,  Dr.  Cureton  noticed  a  copy  of  the 
Gospels  diflfering  greatly  from  the  common  text; 
and  to  this  the  name  of  Curetonian  Syriac  has 
been  rightly  applied.  Every  criterion  which  proves 
the  common  Peshito  not  to  exhibit  a  text  of  ex- 
treme antiquity  equally  proves  the  early  origin  of 
this.  Dr.  Cureton  considers  that  the  manu- 
script of  the  Gospels  is  of  the  fifth  century,  in 
which  competent  judges  are  agreed.  The  manu- 
script contains  Matt.  i-viii:22;  x:3i,  xxiii:25; 
Mark,  the  last  four  verses  only;  Luke  ii:48; 
iii:i6,  vii:33;  xv:2i,  xvii  :24-xxiv  141 ;  John  i:i- 
42 ;  iii  :6-vii  137 ;  xiv  :i  1-29. 

(4)  The  Jerusalem  Syriac  Lectionary.     The 

manuscript  in  the  Vatican  containing  this  ver- 
sion was  written  in  A.  D.  103 1  in  peculiar  Syriac 
writing;  the  portions  are  of  course  those  for  the 
different  festivals ;  the  dialect  is  not  common  Syr- 
iac. 

(5)  The  Philoxenian  Version  of  the  New 
Testament.  This  is  so  called  because  it  was 
translated  in  A.  D.  508  by  Philoxenus,  bishop  of 
Hierapolis,  in  Asia  Minor. 

(6)  Syriac  Versions  of  Portions  Wanting  in 
the  Peshito.    These  are   the   second   epistle  of 


Peter,  second  and  third  of  John,  Jude,  the  Apoc- 
alypse, John  viii:i-ii.  (See  Bible,  10,  I'arious 
Versions  and  Translations.) 

11.  TheSargums.  When  the  Jews  returned 
from  the  Babylonian  exile,  the  Hebrew  of  their 
forefathers  ceased  to  be  their  ordinary  speech, 
and  Aramaic,  misnamed  Chaldee,  took  its  place. 
It  soon  became  necessary  at  the  public  reading  of 
the  Scriptures  for  the  reader  or  his  assistant  to 
translate  the  passage  orally  that  the  people  might 
understand.  The  custom  of  explaining  obscure 
words  and  phrases  at  the  public  reading  was  in 
vogue  in  Ezra's  time  (Neh.  viii:8).  The  event 
referred  to  has  been  cited  as  evidence  that  the 
words  read  were  translated ;  but  this  is  more  than 
the  statement  warrants,  and  depends  upon  the  an- 
swer to  the  question  whether  the  Hebrews  had 
adopted  a  foreign  language  during  the  Exile.  The 
oral  targum — that  is,  interpretation  or  translation 
— which  became  necessary,  was  at  first  a  simple 
paraphrase  in  Aramaic;  but  eventually  it  became 
elaborate,  and  in  order  to  fix  it  as  a  translation 
and  render  it  authoritative  as  an  interpretation,  it 
was  reduced  to  writing.  These  written  Targums 
are  a  valuable  aid  in  determining  the  text  as  read 
in  the  early  synagogues,  and  in  discovering  the 
meaning  which  the  Jews  attached  to  difficult  pas- 
sages. The  principal  Targums  are  the  Targum 
of  Onkelos  on  the  Pentateuch,  and  the  Targum  of 
Jonathan  ben  Uzziel  on  the  prophets.  According 
to  the  Talmud,  Onkelos  was  the  friend  of  Ga- 
maliel and  a  fellow  pupil  of  Paul,  and  therefore 
lived  about  A.  D.  70.  His  Targum  would  then 
antedate  the  beginning  of  the  second  century;  but 
it  is  generally  regarded  as  a  later  production,  per- 
haps as  early  as  the  second  century.  It  is  quite 
literal.  The  Targum  of  Jonathan  ben  Uzziel,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  periphrastic;  and  it  is  of  later 
date.  The  Targ^ums  on  the  Hagiographa  date 
from  the  eleventh  century.  The  Targum  on  the 
Megilloth  or  five  books  of  Ecclesiastes,  Can- 
ticles, Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  Ruth  and  Esthtr 
is  evidently  a  compilation  by  several  persons. 
The  barbarism  of  its  style,  its  numerous  digfres- 
sions  and  idle  legends  all  concur  to  indicate  its 
late  date,  which  is  probably  not  later  than  the 
eighth  century.  The  paraphrase  on  the  book  of 
Ruth  and  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  is  the 
best  executed  portion.  Ecclesiastes  is  more  freely 
paraphrased;  but  the  text  of  the  Canticles  is  ab- 
solutely lost  amid  his  dull  and  fabulous  additions. 


(v5r'y),  (Gr.  dXriSus,  o/'Oy-tAoce',  John  vii: 
26).  It  denotes  in  its  original  sense  that  which  is 
true,  as  "My  very  friend  hath  got  his  mortal  hurt 
in  my  behalf." — dhakespeare. 

VESTBY    (vSs'trJ),   (Heb.    ''^W^5.     tnel-taw 

khaw'),  A  place  at  Samaria,  where  the  sacred 
vestments  ot  the  priests  of  Baal  were  kept  (2 
Kings  X  :22). 

VESTURE  (vSst'tire),  (Heb.  *^>^  leb-oosh\  Gen. 
xli:42;  Ps.  xxii:i8),  clothing. 

VEX  (vSks),  (Gr.  ^x^^Wi  okk-lek'o),  often  used  in 
the  A.  V.  in  the  sense  of  "harass,"  "torment," 
"afflict,"  "oppress,"  (e,g.  Num.  xx:i5;  i  Sam.  xiv: 
47;  Job  XXVU.-2;  Matt.  xv:22;  Acts  xii:i). 

VIAL  (vi'tfl),  (Heb.  "HS,  fiak,  from  the  word  to 

distil,  a  bottle,  i  Sam.  x:i);  called  "box"  in  2  Kings 
ix:i,  3;  Gr.  ^tdXiy  (Rev.  v:8,  etc.). 

VIOTTTAIj  (vTtI).    See  Banquet;  Food. 

VILLAGE  (vtl'laj),  a  collection  of  houses, 
smaller  than  a  town  or  city.  "Village"  in  the  A. 
v.,  is  the  rendering  of  several  Hebrew  and  Greek 
words. 


1.  Katv-fawr'  {Heb.   If?,  protected,  I  Chron. 


VINE,  THE 


t^"??),  covered  as  by  walls  (Neh,  vi:2J,  and  ko'fer 
^^^^.  I  Sam.  vi:l8),  aad  is  represented  by  the 
Arabic  kefr,  still  so  much  used.  In  the  Hebrew 
the  prefix  kaw-fawr'  implied  a  regular  village,  as 
Capemauni  which  had  in  later  times,  however, 
outgrown  the  limits  implied  by  its  original  desig- 

S.  A'Aflw-teww'fHeb.  ^!?7,  inclosed),  is  properly 
an  inctosure,  as  ol  farm  buildings  inclosing  a 
court  (Josh.  xiii:23,  28),  the  encampment  of  nO' 
mads  (Gen.  xxv:i6;  Deut.  ii:23,  A.  v.  "Haierim"), 
and  of  hamlets  near  towns  (Josh.  xv:32,  sq,;  i 
Chron.  iv:3i;  Neh.  xi:25),  especially  unwalled  sub- 
urbs of  watted  towns  (Lev.  xxv:3i ;  comp.  v:^4). 

3.  Ko'may  (Gr.  k*hij)  is  applied  to  Bethpage 


IS  (Lev.  xxv:3i ;  comp.  v:^4). 
,    . .    .  «*»"»)  is  applied  to  Betnpagi 
(Matt.  xxi:2),  Bethany  (Luke  x:3S;  John  xi:i),  Em 


s  (Luke  xxiv:i3),  Bethlehem  (John  vii:42).  A 
distinction  between  city  or  town  (roXft)  and  village 
(viifiil)  is  pointed  out  in  Luke  viiiii. 

4.  Other  tenns  are  improperly  translated  "vil- 
lage." Thus  the  plural  of  paw-raiv2'  (Heb.  from 
'5f,  10 separate),  rendered  "villages"  (Hab.  iiiii^), 
should  be  "  captains  "  or  "  eminent  men,"  (.  e.  men 
separated  by  tneir  rank  or  prowess  from  the  mass. 
In  Judg.  v:7,  II,  per-aw-sone'  [Heb.  V''^?,  prop- 
erly rulers)  is  rendered  "  villages,"  and  in  £iek. 
xxxviii:ii,  per-aiv-xoth'  (Heb.  ^"'7?)  means  "open 
country."    (See  Citv;  Town.)  (Mc.  &  Str.  Cyc.) 

VILLAINT  (vn'lln-if ),  (Heb,  '1^??,  neb-aw-laio' , 
deceitfulness,  dishonesty,  foolishness). 

In  Is.  xxxii  :6  "the  vile  person  will  speak  vil- 
lainy," may  better  be  rendered  "the  fool  speaks 
'^lly."    In  Jer.  "  "  ■  "^ 

I  the  practice 

TIKlJGAIt  (vrn'S-ger).    See  Wine. 

TIKi:OFSODOM(vtaof  sM'ora).  (Heb.H^i'ltfpi 
^^\  gapk-na-mm'  oo-miih-shad-moth'). 


just  what  the  writer  had  in  mind   (Deut. 
32).    It  has  been  generally  supposed  that  the  ref- 
erence is  to  the  apples  of  Sodom. 


Laborer*  to  ■  Vineyard. 

TINE,  THE  (vin,  the).  The  following  words  in 
the  original  Scriptures  denote  the  vine: 

1.  Ghek'/en  (Heb.  1^^),  twining  (Gen.' x1:9,  and 
many  other  places). 

2.  So-rake  (Heb.  15*), or  so-ray-kaw'  {"IJl*), 
la  a  term  denoting  a  ch<»ce  kind  of  vine  (Jer,  ii:2i; 


3-  NaW'Ueer'  (Heb.  ^'!o,  unpruncd;  an  "un- 
dressed vine"  (A.  V.  Lev,  xxvij,  11) /.£.,  one  which 
every  seventh  and  every  fiftieth  year  was  not 
pruned. 

4.  Am'Pel-os  (Gr.  d/irtXot),  a  word  of  generic 
signification  for  vine.    (Mc,  &  Str.  Cyc.) 

(1)  Culture.  The  grapevine  {Vitus  tiinifera) 
is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  the  shores  of  the 
Caspian.  Its  culture  "extends  from  about  the 
twenty-first  to  the  fiftieth  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude, and  reaches  from  Portugal  on  the  west  to 
the  confines  of  India  on  the  east.  It  is,  however, 
only  along  the  center  of  this  zone  that  the  finest 
wines  are  made"  (Hogg.  Vegetable  Kingdom,  p. 
181  )■  The  vine  is  very  frequently  mentioned  m 
Scripture,  as  might  be  expected  from  its  being 
a  native  of  the  East,  well  known  to  ancient  na- 
tions, and  highly  esteemed  for  its  various  natural 
and  artificial  products.  Every  part  of  the  vine 
was  and  still  continues  (o  be  highly  valued.  The 
sap  was  at  one  time  used  in  medicine.  Verjuice 
expressed  from  wild  grapes  is  well  known  for 
its  acidity.  The  late  Sir  A,  Burnes  mentions 
that  in  Caubul  they  use  grape  powder,  obtained 
by  drying  and  powdering  the  unripe  fruit,  as  a 
pleasant  acid.  When  ripe,  the  fruit  is  everywhere 
highly  esteemed,  both  fresh,  and  in  its  dried  state 
as  raisins.  The  juice  of  the  ripe  fruit,  called 
must,  is  valued  as  a  pleasant  beverage.  By  fer- 
mentation, wine,  alcohol,  and  vinegar  are  ob- 
tained; the  lees  yield  tartar;  an  oil  is  sometimes 
expressed  from  the  seeds;  and  the  ashes  of  the 
twigs   were    formerly   valued   in   consequence   of 

K'  :lding  a   salt,  which  we  now  know  to  be  car- 
nal e  of  potash. 

It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  there  are 
so  many  allusions  to  the  vine  in  the  Old  and  in 
the  New  Testament,  for  it  was  one  of  the  most 
valuable  products  of  Palestine,  and  of  particu- 
larly fine  quality  in  some  of  the  districts.  Those 
of  Eshcol,  Sorek,  Jibmah,  Jazar,  and  Abel,  were 
particularly   distinguished. 

(2)  The  Tlntftge  S«aaoii.  The  vintage  was  a 
season  of  general  festivity  which  commenced  in 
September.  At  present  the  towns  are  deserted^ 
and  the  people  live  among  the  vineyards  in 
the  lodges  and  tents  (comp.  Judg.  ix:27;  Is. 
xvi:io).    The  grapes  were  gathered  with  shouts 

01  joy  (Jer.  xxv:3oJ,  and  put  into  baskets 
(see  Jer.  vi:9).  They  were  then  carried  to 
the  "wine  press."  Those  intended  for  eat- 
ing were  perhaps  put  into  flat  open  baskets 
of  wickerwork.  as  was  the  custom  in  Egj-pt. 
In  Palestine,  at  present,  the  finest  grapes, 
says  Dr.  Robinson,  are  dried  as  raisins,  and 
the  jnice  of  the  remainder,  after  having 
been  trodden  and  pressed,  "is  boiled  down 
to  a  sirup,  which,  under  the  name  of  dibs, 
is  much  used  by  all  classes  wherever  vine- 
yards arc  found,  as  a  condiment  with  their 
food."  The  leaves  were  used  as  fodder, 
and  the  wood  as  fuel  (Ezek.  xv:3,  4;  comp. 
John  XV  :6). 

(3)  Vineyard!.    The  vineyard  was  gen- 
erally on  a  hill  (Is.  v  ri ;  Jer.  xxxi  :s ;  Amos 
ix:i3),  and  surrounded  by  a  wall  or  hedge 
in  order  to  keep  out  wild  boars  (Ps.  Ixxx: 
15),  jackals  and  foxes  (Num.  xxii:24;  Cant,  ii: 
is;  Ezra  xiii:4,  5;  Matt.  xxir33).     The  vineyard 
bad  one  or   more  towers  of  stone  in  which   the 
vinedressers  lived  (Is.  i:8;  v;2;  Matt.  xxi:33). 

(4)  The  ProBS.  The  press  and  vat  dug  (MatL 
xxi:33)  out  of  the  rocky  soil  were  part  of  the 
vineyard  furniture  (Is.  va). 


VINE,  WILD 


1704 


VIPER 


(5)  Culture  of  the  Vine  in  Egypt.  That  the 
vine  was  known  in  Egypt  we  learn  from  Gen. 
xl:9-ii;  Num.  xx:5;  Ps.  lxxviii:47;  and  Pales- 
tine had  vineyards  before  the  advent  of  the  Israel- 
ites (Deut.  vi:ii;  xxviii:3o;  Num.  xiii:3). 

(6)  Mosaic  Laws.  Moses  enacted  laws  regu- 
lating the  culture  of  grapes  while  his  people  were 
still  wandering  (Exod.  xxiiis;  xxiiiiii;  Lev. 
XXV  :5,  II ;  Num.  vi:3;  Deut.  xxiiig;  xxiii:24; 
xxiv:2i).  The  gleanings  were  for  the  poor  and 
the  stranger  (Jer.  xlixig;  Deut.  xxiv:2i).  Only 
in  the  fifth  year  did  the  fruit  fall  to  the  owners' 
disposal  (Lev.  xix  .-23-25;  comp.  Mark  xii:2).  As 
space  will  not  permit  us  to  notice  all  the  passages 
in  which  the  vine,  the  grape,  and  wine  are  men- 
tioned, we  must  refer  to  Celsius,  Hierobot.  vol.  i. 
pp.  400-444;  Calmet's  Dictionary;  Rosenmuller's 
Biblical  Bot.  p.  220;  and  to  Kitto*s  Physical  His- 
tory of  Palestine,  p.  324,  in  all  of  which  the  sub- 
ject is  amply  discussed  and  clearly  elucidated. 

J.  F.  R. 

Figurative,  (i)  A  fruitful  vine  is  often  ad- 
duced as  an  emblem  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  and 
also  the  vine  that  was  brought  out  of  Egypt  (Ps. 
ixxx:8).  (2)  A  period  of  security  and  repose  is 
figured  by  every  one  sitting  under  his  own  vine 
and  Hg  tree  (i  Kings  iv:2S;  Ps.  cxxviii:3);  and 
prosperity  by  'Judah,  a  lion's  whelp,  binding  his 
foal  to  the  vine,  and  his  ass's  colt  to  the  choice 
vine;'  both  indications  of  Eastern  manners,  when 
sitting  in  the  shade  is  most  pleasant,  and  where 
tying  cattle  in  similar  situations  is  a  common  prac- 
tice. (3)  Rebellious  Israel  is  compared  to  wild 
f  rapes,  etc.  (Is.  v:2,  4;  Jer.  ii:2i ;  Hos.  x:i).  (4) 
fere  professors  of  Christ  are  likened  to  unpro- 
ductive branches  of  the  vine  (John  xv:i-6),  the 
wicked  to  the  worthlessness  of  its  wood  (Ezek. 
XV  :2,  3,  6).  (5)  A  vine  that  does  not  mature 
its  fruit  is  likened  to  Israel  not  fulfilling  the  ex- 
pectation of  God  (Hos.  x:i).  (6)  To  plant  a 
vineyard  is  the  symbol  of  peace  (Neh.  ix:2S;  Is. 
lxv:2i;  Ezek.  xxviii:26).  It  is  also  a  symbol  of 
Israel  (Is.  v:7;  xxvii:2;  Jer.  xii:io),  and  the 
failure  of  the  vine  represents  dire  calamity  (Is. 
xxxii:io).  (7)  Christ  is  likened  to  a  vine;  he  is 
called  the  true  vine  (John  xv:i).  (8)  The  quick 
gfrowth  of  the  vine  is  a  symbol  of  the  growth  of 
saints  in  gfrace  (Hos.  xiv:7).  (9)  The  church  is  a 
vineyard.  God,  the  proprietor,  first  planted  the 
Jews  there,  as  his  vine,  and  gave  them  his  taber- 
nacle or  temple  as  their  wine  press,  and  his  or- 
acles, ordinances,  and  blessings.  He  let  out  this 
vineyard  to  their  keepers,  and  sent  the  prophets, 
and  at  last  his  Son,  to  demand  their  good  fruits ; 
but  these  being  abused  and  maltreated,  he  gave 
their  church  state  to  the  Gentiles,  and  at  different 
seasons  of  time  and  life  calls  men  to  labor  in  it 

(Is.   v:i-7;    Matt,   xxi  128-45;    Luke   xiii:6,   7; 
Matt.  xx:i-i6). 

VINE,  WILD  (vin.  wfld),  it  is  related  (2  Kings 
iv:38-40)  that  Elisha  having  come  again  to  Gilgal, 
when  there  was  a  famine  m  the  land,  and  many 
sons  of  the  prophets  were  assembled  there,  he 
ordered  his  servant  to  prepare  for  them  a  dish  of 
vegetables. 

'One  went  into  the  field  to  gather  herbs  (wotk\ 
and  found  a  wild  vine,  and  gathered  there  of  wild 
gourds  (pakyoth  sadeh)  his  lap  full,  and  came 
and  shred  them  into  the  pot  of  pottage,  for  they 
knew  them  not.  So  they  poured  out  for  the  men 
to  eat;  but  as  they  were  eating  of  the  pottage, 
they  cried  out,  O  thou  man  of  (5od,  there  is 
death  in  the  pot ;  and  they  could  not  eat  thereof.* 
From  this  it  appears  that  the  servant  mistook  the 
fruit  of  one  plant  {pakyoth)  for  something  else. 


called  ceoth,  and  that  the  former  was  vine  like; 
that  is,  with  long,  weak,  slender  stems,  and  that 
the  fruit  had  some  remarkable  taste,  by  which  the 
mistake  was  discovered  whenever  the  pottage  *as 
tasted.  Though  a  few  other  plants  have  been  in- 
dicated, the  pakyoth  has  almost  universally  been 
supposed  to  be  one  of  the  family  of  the  gourd  or 
cucumber  like  plants,  several  of  which  are  con- 
spicuous for  their  bitterness,  and  a  few  poisonous, 
while  others,  it  is  well  known,  are  edible.  There- 
fore one  of  the  former  may  have  been  mistaken 
for  one  of  the  latter,  or  the  ceoth  may  have  been 
some  similarly  shaped  fruit,  as,  for  instance,  the 
eggpkint,  used  as  a  vegetable. 

The  plant  referred  to  has  usually  been  supposed 
to  be  the  colocynth,  which  is  essentially  a  desert 
plant. 

VINEYABD  (vta'yerd).    See  Vine,  The. 

VINETABDS,   PLAIN  OF  THE  (vYn'yerds, 

plan  «v  th6),  (Heb.  2^9^?  '3?.  aw-bal^  ker-aw- 
tneetn  )• 

This  may  be  the  Abel  ceramim  of  Jephthah 
(Judg.  xi:33),  if  the  Aroer  named  in  the  same 
passage  is  the  place  of  that  name  on  the  Arnon 
(IV.  Mojeb).  It  is,  however,  by  no  means  cer- 
tain; and  indeed  the  probability  is  that  the  Am- 
monites, with  the  instinct  of  a  nomadic  or  semi- 
nomadic  people,  betook  themselves,  when  at- 
tacked, not  to  the  civilized  and  cultivated  coun- 
try of  Moab  (where  Beit  el-Kerm  is  situated), 
but  to  the  spreading  deserts  towards  the  east, 
where  they  could  disperse  themselves  after  the 
usual  tactics  of  such  tribes. 

VINTAGE.    See  Vine,  The. 

VIOL  (vf'iil),  (Heb.  *'?5,  nay'de/),  is  translated 

"psaltery."  except  Is.  v:i2,  (A.  V.  "viol.-  R.V. 
"lute");  xiviii  (A.V.  and  R.V. "viols");  Amos 
v:23  ("viols");  vi:5  ("viol").  But "  the  ancient  viol 
was  a  six-stringed  guitar"  (Smith,  Bid.  Diet., 
"  Psaltery  ••). 

Josephus  (Antiq.  vii.  12,  3)  says:  "The  viol, 
was  an  instrument  of  ten  stnngs;  it  was  played 
upon  with  a  bow."  Chanting  to  the  sound  of  it 
was  to  make  like  sounds  with  the  voice,  so  mod- 
ulating the  tones  as  to  correspond  with  the  sounds 
of  the  instrument.  (See  Musical  Instruments.) 

VIOLENCE  (vi'o-l^s).  The  translation  of  two 
Hebrew  and  three  Greek  words: 

Gaw-zaV  (Heb.  '15,  to  strip  oflF):  khaw-mawce^ 
(0^7,  using  force,  cruelty);  Dee-as-fo  (Gr.  dtoffttw, 
violent  intimidation);  Bee' ah  (Gr./3Za,  vital  activity). 

It  thus  denotes:  !•  Outrageous  force  (Acts 
xxi:25;  xxvii:4i). 

8.  Unjust  and  forcible  harassing,  hurting,  op- 
pressing, and  robbing  of  others  (Hab.  i:2,  3,  9; 
ii:8). 

3.  What  is  got  by  oppression  and  robbery 
(Zeph.  i:9). 

4.  Earnest  endeavor :  so  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
"suffereth  violence,"  and  the  "violent  taketh  it  by 
force:"  men  must  strive  to  enter  in  at  the  strait 
gate,  into  a  new  covenant  state,  and  by  earnest 
diligence  in  holiness,  prepare  for  the  heavenly 
glory  (Matt.  xi:i2). 

5.  Doo'nam-is  ( Gr.  dvraiuf,  strength,  ability), 
is  used  in  the  expression,  "Quenched  the  vio- 
lence of  fire"  (Heb.  xi:34).  The  "violence** 
of  Lebanon,  and  spoil  of  beasts,  spoken  of  the 
Chaldaeans.  was  their  unjust  and  brutal  murder, 
oppression,  and  robbery  of  the  Jews,  which 
brought  vengeance  on  their  heads  (Hab.  ii:i7). 

VIFEB  (vi'per).    See  SERPENT. 


VIRGIN 


1705 


VOW 


VTBGIN  (ver'jTn).    The  translation  of  two  He- 
brew words  and  one  Greek  word. 
X.  Al-maw'  ip''^{^.   veiled), a  young  woman  of. 

marriageable  age  (Gen.  xxiv:43;  Exod.  u:8;  Ps. 
bcviii:25;  A. V.  ^damsel" ;  Provjxxx  119; Cant.  1:3; 
vi:8;  Is.  vii:i4;  Joel  i:8). 

2.  Beth-co-law*  (•^?''^3.  separated),  denotes  a 
villain,  maiden  (Gen.  xxiv:i6;  Lev.  xxi:i3;  Deut. 
xxn:i4.  I5»  23,  28;  Judg.  xi:37;  i  Kings  i:2). 

8.  Par-then* OS  [Gt,  irapOivot,  a  virgin),  (Matt.  1:23; 
XXV : I,  7,  11;  Luke  i:27;  Acts  xxirp;  i  Cor.  vii:25,  28, 
33),  or  a  young  married  woman,  a  virgin  (2  Cor, 
XI :2),  used  of  a  man  free  of  all  uncleanness  (Rev. 
xiv:4). 

Regarding  the  virginity  of  Mary  the  mother  of 
Jesus,  see  Mary. 

VIBTTJB  (Gr.  d^iy,  ar^efay,  courage,  bravery, 
manliness;  idvaiut,  doo'nam-is,  {)Ower,  strength). 

In  2  Pet.  i  :5  it  denotes  especially  courage,  akin 
to  that  of  the  brave  Roman  soldier,  and  thus 
moral  bravery  which  will  include  right  thought 
and  course  of  action.  In  Phil,  iv  :8  it  denotes  any 
particular  moral  excellence,  as  modesty,  purity. 
Dunamis  signifies  power,  ability,  and  is  often  so 
rendered.  In  Mark  v:30;  Luke  virig;  viii:46,  it 
indicates  the  power  of  Christ  to  heal  disease. 

Mellin,  Kuntsprache  thus  defines  virtue:  (i) 
"The  moral  strength  of  the  human  will  in  the 
pursuit  of  duty."  (2)  "Readiness,  in  free  moral 
actions,  to  determine  one's  self  in  conduct  by  the 
conception  of  the  law."  (3)  "Courage  in  the 
presence  of  opposition  to  our  moral  sentiments." 
(4)  "Strength  of  principle  in  submission  to 
moral  duty."  (5)  "Strength  of  maxims  in  pur- 
suit of  duty."  (6)  "The  moral  faculty  of  self- 
control."  (7)  "The  harmony  of  the  will  with 
every  duty,  a  harmony  established  in  a  firm  moral 
sentiment."  (8)  "Moral  strength  of  will."  (9) 
"Firmly  grounded  sentiment  involving  the  com- 
plete fulfilling  of  duty."  (10)  "The  conformity 
of  sentiment  with  the  law  of  duty."  (11)  "The 
morally  good."  (12)  "The  moral  sentiment  in 
struggle.  (13)  "The  sentiment  conformed  to  law 
out  of  regard  to  the  law."   (Flem.  Vocab.  Phil.) 

VISION  (some  derivative  of  Heb.  •^W,  khaw- 
zaw\  to  perceive;  Gr.  hp6.Q»,  kor-ah' o ;  or  of'^^J'J* 
raw-aw',  to  see;  HvTOfiai,  op' tom-ahee). 

A  supernatural  presentation  of  certain  scenery 
or  circumstances  to  the  mind  of  a  person  while* 
awake  (Num.  xii:6-8).  Balaam  speaks  of  him- 
self as  having  seen  "the  vision  of  the  Al- 
mighty" (xxiv:i6).  In  the  time  of  Eli  it  is  said, 
"And  the  word  of  the  Lord  was  precious  in  those 
days;  there  was  no  open  vision  (i  Sam.  iii.i), 
I.  e.,  there  was  no  public  and  recognized  revela- 
tion of  the  divine  will  (comp.  Prov.  xxix:i8» 
"Where  there  is  no  vision  the  people  perish") 
(Mc.  &  Str.  Cyc.)     (See  Dream.) 

Vision  in  God.  The  theory  of  Malebranche 
is  that  the  sense  perceptions  are  not  really  or- 
ganic, but  are  made  possible  by  the  connection 
of  the  soul  with  God,  and  of  God  with  the  soul. 
"God  has  in  himself  the  idea  of  all  the  beings  he 
has  created.  He  sees  all  these  beings  by  consid- 
ering the  perfections  he  includes,  to  which  they 
are  related,  (jod  is  most  strictly  united  to  our 
souls  by  this  presence ;  so  that  he  may  be  said  to 
be  the  place  of  spirits,  as  space  is  the  place  of 
bodies.  These  two  things  being  supposed,  it  is 
certain  that  the  mind  can  see  what  there  is  in  God 
which  represents  created  beings;  that  being  most 
spiritual,  most  intelligible,  and  most  closely  pres- 
ent to  the  mind.    And  so  the  mind  may  see  in 


God  all  the  works  of  God.  supposing  God  willing 
to  discover  to  it  what  he  has  in  himself  that  rep- 
resents them." 

VISITATION  (Heb.   ^1??,  pek-ood-dofsf  :  Gr. 

iwtffKOTi/f,  ep'iS'kopay\  inspection,  is  sometimes 
taken  for  a  visit  of  mercy  from  God  (Gen.  1:24: 
Exod.  xiiiiiQ;  Luke  i:68),  but  oftener  for  a  visit  of 
rigor  and  vengeance. 

The  time  of  visitation,  etc.,  generally  signifies  a 
time  of  vengeance  or  affliction  or  of  close  in- 
spection (Exod.  xxxii':34;  Is.  xxiii:i7;  i  Pet.  ii: 
12).  Christ,  the  dayspring  from  on  high,  visited 
men,  when  he  assumed  our  nature,  and  when  he 
sends  his  Word  and  Spirit,  that  we  may  have 
fellowship  with  him,  and  share  of  his  blessings 
(Luke  i:78).  To  visit  the  fatherless  and  widow, 
or  the  sick  and  imprisoned  members  of  Christ,  is 
to  show  them  regard  and  pity,  and  to  help  them 
according  to  their  need  and  our  ability  (James  i : 
27;  Matt.  XXV 136,  43). 

VOCATION  or  OALUNG  (Gr.  xXi^tt ,  klay'su 
an  invitation). 

A  theolc^cal  term  expressing  the  gracious  act 
of  God  in  Christ,  by  which,  through  his  word  and 
Spirit  he  calls  forth  sinful  men,  who  are  liable 
to  condemnation  and  placed  under  the  dominion 
of  sin,  from  the  condition  of  the  animal  life,  and 
from  the  pollutions  and  corruptions  of  this  world 
(2  Tim.  frg;  Matt.  xi:28;  i  Pet.  ii:9,  10;  Rom. 
X 113-15;  I  Pet.  iiiiig;  Gen.  vi:3),  unto  "the  fel- 
lowship of  Jesus  Christ,"  and  of  his  kingdom  and 
its  benefits;  that,  being  united  unto  him  as  their 
head,  they  may  derive  from  him  life,  sensation, 
motion,  and  a  plenitude  of  every  spiritual  bless- 
ing, to  the  glory  of  God  and  their  own  salvation 
(i  Cor.  i:9;  Eph.  i:3,  6;  2  Thess.  ii:i3,  14).  The 
end  intended  is,  that  they  who  have  been  called, 
answer  by  faith  to  God  and  to  Christ  who  give 
the  call,  and  that  they  thus  become  the  cove- 
nanted people  of  God  through  Christ  the  mediator 
of  the  new  covenant;  and,  after  having  become 
believers  and  parties  to  the  covenant,  that  they 
love*  fear,  honor,  and  worship  God  and  Christ, 
render  in  all  things  obedience  to  the  divine  pre- 
cepts "  in  righteousness  and  true  holiness,"  and 
that  by  this  means  they  **  make  their  calling  and 
election  sure*!  (Prov.  i: 24;  Heb.  iiiry;  Rev.  iii: 
20;  Eph.  ii:ii-i6;  Deut.  vi:4,  5;  Jer.  xxxii:38, 
39;  2  Pet.  i:iO),  For  the  different  views  of  Cal- 
vinists  and  Arminians  on  the  subject  see  Elec- 
tion; Predestination. 

VOPHSI  (vSph'sI),  (Heb.  "P^i    vof'See\  addi- 

tional),  father  of  the  Nahbi  who  represented  the 
tribe  of  Naphtali  in  the  exploration  of  Canaan 
(Num.  xiii:i4),  B.  C.  before  1057. 

VOW    (vou),  (Heb.    "^3?,    naw'dar^  promise), 

is  represented  by  a  Hebrew  word  which  si^ifies 
to  *  promise,*  and  may  therefore  be  defined  as  a 
religious  undertaking,  either  (i)  positive,  to  do 
or  perform;  (2)  or  negative,  to  abstain  from 
doing  or  performing  a  certain  thing. 

The  morality  of  vows  we  shall  not  here  discuss, 
but  merely  remark  that  vows  were  ouite  in  place 
in  a  S3rstem  of  religion  which  so  largely  con- 
sisted of  doing  or  not  doing  certain  outward  acts, 
with  a  view  of  pleasing  Jehovah  and  gaining  his 
favor.  The  Israelite,  who  had  been  taught  by 
pKerformancesof  daily  recurrence  to  consider  par- 
ticular ceremonies  as  essential  to  his  possessing 
the  divine  favor,  may  easily  have  been  led  to  the 
conviction  which  existed  probably  in  the  primitive 
ages  of  the  world,  that  voluntary  oblations  and 
self-imposed  sacrifices  had  a  special  value  in  the 
sight  of  God.    And  when  onoe  this  conviction  bad 


VULGATE 


1706 


VULGATE 


led  to  corresponding  practice,  it  could  not  be 
otherwise  than  of  the  highest  consequence  that 
these  sacred  promises,  which  in  sanctity  differed 
little  from  oaths,  should  be  religiously  and  scrupu- 
lously observed. 

(1)  A  Guard  Against  Impending  Evil. 
Vows  which  rest  on  a  human  view  of  religious 
obligations,  assuming  as  they  do  that  a  kind  of 
recompense  is  to  be  made  to  God  for  good  en- 
joyed, or  consideration  offered  for  good  deside- 
rated, or  a  gratuity  presented  to  buy  off  an  im- 
pending or  threatened  ill,  are  found  in  existence 
m  the  antiquities  of  all  nations,  and  present  them- 
selves in  the  earliest  Biblical  periods  (Gen.  xxviii: 
20;  Judg.  xi:30,  35;  i  Sam.  i:ii;  2  Sam.  xv:8). 
With  great  propriety  the  performance  of  these 
voluntary  undertakings  was  accounted  a  highly 
religious  duty  (Judg.  xi:3S;  Eccles.  v:4.  s).  The 
words  of  the  last  vow  are  too  emphatic,  and  in 
the  present  day  too  important,  not  to  be  cited: 
'Better  is  it  that  thou  shouldest  not  vow,  than 
that  thou  shouldest  vow  and  not  pay'  (comp.  Ps. 
Ixvi:i3,  sq.;  Ixxviiii;  cxvi:i8).  The  views 
which  guided  the  Mosaic  legislation  were  not  dis- 
similar to  those  just  expounded.  Like  a  wise 
lawgiver,  Moses,  in  this  and  in  other  particulars, 
did  not  attempt  to  sunder  the  line  of  continuity 
between  the  past  and  the  present.  He  found  vows 
in  practice;  he  aimed  to  regelate  what  it  would 
have  been  folly  to  try  to  root  out  (Deut.  xxiii: 
21,  sq.).  The  words  in  the  22d  verse  are  clearly 
in  agreement  with  our  remarks:  'If  thou  shalt 
forbear  to  vow,  it  shall  be  no  sin  in  thee.* 

(2)  Vows  of  Devotion.  In  vows  of  devotion 
a  man  might  devote  to  sacred  uses  possessions 
or  persons,  but  not  the  firstborn  either  of  man  or 
beast,  which  was  devoted  already  (Lev.  xxvii: 
26).  Land  might  either  be  redeemed  or  not  (Lev. 
XXV,  xxvii).  Animals  fit  for  sacrifice,  if  devoted, 
could  not  be  redeemed  or  changed  (Lev.  xxvii  :9, 
10,  33).  A  man  might  devote  himself,  his  child 
(not  the  firstborn),  or  his  slave.  If  no  redemp- 
tion took  place,  the  devoted  person  became  a 
slave  of  the  sanctuary  (2  Sam.  xv:8).  Other- 
wise he  might  be  redeemed  according  to  the  scale 
given  in  Lev.  xxvii:  1-7. 

(3)  General  Vows.  Vows  of  Abstinence,  see 
CoRBAN.  Vows  of  Extermination,  see  Anath- 
ema. (Ezra  x:8;  Micah  iv:i3.)  It  seems  that 
the  practice  of  shaving  the  head  at  the  expira- 
tion of  a  votive  period  was  not  limited  to  the 
Nazaritic  vow  (Acts  xviii:i8,  xxi:24).  Vows 
were  entirely  voluntary,  but  once  made  were  re- 
garded as  compulsory  (Num.  xxx:2;  Deut.  xxiii: 
21;  Eccles.  v:4).  If  persons  in  a  dependent  condi- 
tion made  a  vow,  it  was  void,  if  disallowed  by 
the  one  supporting  the  dependent;  but.  if  they 
heard  without  disallowance,  it  was  to  remain 
good  (Num.  xxx:3-is).  Votive  offerings  aris- 
ing from  the  gain  in  any  impure  traffic  were 
wholly  forbidden  (Deut.  xxiii  :i8).    (See  Oath.) 

J.  R.  B. 

VULGATE  (vul'git),  {vulgata:  Gr.  «»inj,  koy- 
nay*),  the  name  generally  given  to  the  Latin  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  used  m  the  Western  church. 

(1)  Old  Latin  Translations.  There  have  been 
Latin  translations  of  the  Bible  from  the  first  ages 
of  the  Christian  church.  Of  these  Augustine  ob- 
serves (J)e  Doct.  Christ,  ii.  11)  :  Those  who 
have  translated  the  Bible  into  Greek  can  be  num- 
bered, but  not  so  the  Latin  versions.  For  in  the 
first  ages  of  the  church,  whoever  could  get  hold 
of  a  Greek  codex  ventured  to  translate  it  into 
Latin,  however  slight  his  knowledge  of  either 
language.' 


(2)  Itala  and  Other  Recensions.       In   the 

fourth  century  a  recension  of  the  text  took  place, 
which  from  being  made  in  Italy,  was  called  the 
Itala.  Augustine  preferred  the  Itala  to  all  other 
versions  as  being  the  most  literal.  The  issue  of 
the  Itala  was  followed  by  other  recensions,  of 
which  almost  the  only  effect  was  to  bring  the  text 
into  confusion ;  till  at  length  in  A.  D.  383  a  Chris- 
tian father,  Jerome  or  Hieronymus,  A.  D.  329 
or  331  to  420,  the  most  learned  scholar  of  his 
day  and  a  man  of  moral  earnestness  and  piety, 
was  requested  by  Damasus,  bishop  of  Rome,  to 
undertake  a  revision  of  the  Latin  New  Testa- 
ment by  the  help  of  the  Greek  original. 

(3)  Jerome  and  New  Testament  Revision. 
Some  of  the  changes  which  Jerome  introduced 
were  made  purely  on  linguistic  grounds,  but  it  is 
impossible  to  ascertain  on  what  principle  he  pro- 
ceeded in  this  respect.  Others  involved  questions 
of  interpretation.  But  the  greater  number  con- 
sisted in  the  removal  of  the  interpolations  by 
which  the  synoptic  gospels  especially  were  disfig- 
ured.   This  revision,  however,  was  hasty. 

(4)  Old  Testament  Revision  Jerome  next, 
at  the  request  of  his  friends,  undertook  a  new 
version  of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  Hebrew. 
This  version  was  occasioned  by  the  controversies 
with  the  Jews,  who  constantly  appealed  to  the 
original,  which  the  early  Christians  did  not  un- 
derstand. As  a  youth  he  had  pursued  the  study 
of  Hebrew,  and  after  his  removal  to  Bethleheip 
he  resumed  it  with  the  aid  of  Jewish  teachers. 
Samuel  and  Kings,  prefaced  by  the  famous  Pro- 
logus  galleatus  giving  an  account  of  the  Hebrew 
canon,  were  issued  in  392  A.  D.,  and  the  entire 
work  was  completed  in  405.  His  own  generation 
gave  him  abuse  rather  than  gratitude  for  the 
very  important  service  he  had  rendered  it;  and 
the  eminent  father,  whose  temper  was  none  of  the 
best,  retorted  by  expressing  the  contempt  which 
knowledge  feels  for  blatant  and  aggressive  ig- 
norance. 

His  work  was  by  many  condemned  as  heretical, 
and  even  his  friend  Augustine  feared  to  make 
use  of  it,  lest  it  might  offend  by  its  novelty,  in- 
troduce variety  between  the  (jreek  and  Latin 
churches,  and  distract  the  minds  of  Christians 
who  had  received  the  Septuagint  from  the  Apos- 
tles. In  one  instance,  where  an  African  bishop 
caused  the  book  of  Jonah  to  be  read  in  church  in 
this  version,  the  people  were  panic-struck  at 
hearing  the  word  hedera  (Jonah  iv:6,  9)  in  place 
of  the  old  reading  cucurbita,  Augustine  after- 
wards entertained  a  more  favorable  opinion  of  it, 
although  he  has  not  cited  it  in  any  of  his  ac- 
knowledged works. 

About  two  hundred  years  after  Jerome's  death 
his  work  had  acquired  an  equal  degree  of  respect 
with  the  ancient  Vulgate,  and  in  the  year  604 
we  have  the  testimony  of  Gregory  the  Great  to 
the  fact,  that  'the  Apostolic  see  made  use  of  both 
versions.*  It  afterwards  became  by  degrees  the 
only  received  version,  and  this  by  its  intrinsic 
merits,  for  it  received  no  official  sanction  before 
the  Council  of  Trent  Baruch,  Ecclesiasticus, 
Wisdom,  and  Maccabees  were  retained  from  the 
old  version. 

Jerome's  version  soon  experienced  the  fate  of 
its  predecessor;  it  became  sadly  corrupted  by  a 
mixture  with  the  old  version,  and  by  the  uncrit- 
ical carelessness  of  half-learned  ecclesiastics,  as 
well  as  by  interpolations  from  liturgical  writings 
and  from  glosses.  In  fact,  the  old  and  new  ver- 
sions were  blended  into  one,  and  thus  was  formed 
the  Vulgate  of  the  middle  ages. 


VULGATE 


1707 


VULTURE 


(5)  Other  Revisions.  In  the  ninth  century  an 
attempt  was  made,  but  not  on  the  soundest  prin- 
ciples, to  correct  the  Vulgate.  This  was  done  by 
command  of  Charlemagne,  who  intrusted  the  task 
to  Alcuin.  The  amended  Vulgate  was  now  intro- 
duced by  royal  authority  into  all  the  churches  of 
France.  It  is  still  doubtful  whether  the  correc- 
tion was  made  from  the  Hebrew  original,  or  from 
ancient  copies  of  the  Vulgate. 

In  the  eleventh  century  a  new  revision  was  un- 
dertaken by  Lanfranc,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and  another  in  the  succeeding  century  (at  which 
period  Roger  Bacon  says  that  it  was  horribly  cor- 
rupted), by  Cardinal  Nicolaus  the  Deacon,  a  good 
Hebrew  scholar.  About  the  same  period  appeared 
in  France  the  Epanorthotcp,  or  Correctoria  Bib- 
lica,  which  were  attempts  to  establish  the  true 
text  on  the  part  of  Abbot  Stephen,  Cardinal  Hugo, 
and  others.  From  these  corrections,  however,  it 
appears  that  the  corruptions  were  so  numerous  as 
to  render  it  almost  vain  to  expect  to  recover  the 
true  text.  'Every  reader  and  preacher,'  says 
Roger  Bacon  (Epist.  to  Clem.  IV.),  'changes 
what  he  does  not  understand:  their  correction  is 
the  worst  of  corruptions,  and  God's  word  is  de- 
stroyed.' This  Aras  the  state  of  the  text  at  the 
time  of  the  invention  of  printing,  by  which  its 
variations  were  more  clearly  brought  to  light, 
and  critical  attempts  made  to  amend  it. 

(6)  History  of  the  Printed  Text.  The  Latin 
Vulgate  was  the  first  book  ever  printed,  having 
been  issued  from  the  press  about  1455,  soon  after 
the  invention  of  printing.  The  earliest  printed 
editions  are  without  a  date.  The  first  which  has 
a  date  was  published  at  Mayntz  in  1462,  by  Fust 
and  Schoiffher.  It  was  afterwards  printed  *n 
1471,  1475,  and  1476.  Critical  editions  apj^^-ed 
in  1496,  1497,  1501,  1504,  1506,  1511,  and  1-^17— 
the  last  that  of  the  Complutensian  Polyglot.  «1i>ne 
with  great  care.  This  was  followed  by  the  Ant- 
werp Polyglot,  and  the  critical  editions  of  folm- 
aeus,  Rudel,  Benoist,  Isidore  Qarius,  and  R'^^  t 
Stephens.  The  variations  of  the  text  now  ap- 
peared more  plainly  than  ever.  Isidore  Ch.nis 
(1542)  corrected  more  than  8,000  errors  (wh'ch 
some  have  exaggerated  into  80,000).  Stephens* 
beautifully  executed  and  amended  text  (1527)  was 
condemned  to  be  burned.  This  learned  printer 
afterwards  collated  several  manuscripts,  and 
published  editions  in  1532,  1533,  and  1540.  This 
last  (the  fourth)  is  called  by  Father  Simon  a 
masterpiece.  Stephens'  edition  of  1545  (the  non- 
pareil) contained  a  new  version,  that  of  the  Old 
Testament  being  made  by  Leo  Judah,  Bibliander, 
and  Peter  Cholin.  This  is  one  of  those  called 
Vatable's  Bibles.  The  translator  of  De  Wette's 
Einleitun^  observes  that  Stephens'  sixth  and  sev- 
enth editions  (1546  and  1555)  contain  no  impor- 
tant improvements.  The  accurate  De  Wette,  how- 
ever, was  aware  that  the  seventh  edition  con- 
tained the  division  into  verses.  Benoist  (1541) 
made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  restore  Jerome's 
text. 

In  the  meantime  the  Council  of  Trent  passed 
its  famous  decree  (A.  D.  1546,  Sess.  4,  Decret. 
2)  respecting  the  Vulgate :  'The  most  holy  Synod, 
considering  that  no  small  advantage  will  accrue 
to  the  church  of  God,  if  from  all  the  Latin  edi- 
tions of  the  sacred  books  which  are  in  circulation, 
it  should  determine  which  is  to  be  received  as 
authentic  decrees,  and  declares  that  the  ancient 
Vulgate  version,  which  has  been  approved  in  the 
church  by  the  use  of  so  many  ages,  should  be  used 
in  public  readings,  disputations,  sermons,  and  ex- 
positions, 2L9  authentic  and  that  none  is  to  pre- 
sume to  reject  it  under  any  pretense  whatsoever.' 


De  Wette  (Einleitung)  conceives  that  this  decree 
shuts  the  door  against  any  exegetical  inquiry 
into  the  doctrines  of  the  church.  Moehler  (Sym- 
bolik,  p.  I,  ch.  V.  sec.  xlii.),  however,  maintains 
that  there  could  be  no  such  thing  as  an  exegetical 
inquiry  into  the  doctrines  of  the  church,  which 
declares  her  dogmas  by  her  infallible  authority 
independently  of  Scripture,  although  she  may  ap- 
ply and  even  misapply  testimonies  from  Scripture 
to  this  purpose,  being  infallible  in  the  former 
case,  but  not  in  the  latter.  The  most  learned  Ro- 
man Catholics  differ  materially  as  to  the  sense  ot 
the  word  authentic,  some  considering,  as  Morinus 
(Exercit,  BiW.),  that  the  Vulgate  is  hereby  pro- 
nounced to  be  an  inspired  version,  others  (as 
Suarez)  that  the  version  is  placed  above  all  ex- 
isting texts  of  the  originals.  Many  contend  that 
it  was  only  meant  to  give  it  a  preference  to  any 
other  Latin  version  then  in  use  (Bellarmin,  De 
Verho  Dei;  Calmet's  Dissert;  Jahn's  and  Hug's 
Introd.),  Some  of  the  Roman  theologians  hold 
it  to  be  infallible  only  so  far  as  faith  and  morals 
are  concerned  (Dens,  Theologia),  Hug  consid- 
ers the  meaning  of  the  decree  to  be,  that  'as  in 
civil  affairs  an  authentic  instrument  is  valid  evi- 
dence, so  in  public  religious  matters  the  Vulgate 
is  a  document  from  which  valid  arguments  may 
be  drawn,  without  prejudice,  however,  to  other 
documents  (viz.  the  originals)  ;  but  this  is  not  a 
prescription  of  doctrine,  and  from  its  nature  it 
could  not  be;  it  is  a  temporary  decree  of  disci- 
pline.' In  fact  few  Roman  Catholics  have  main- 
tained its  exemption  from  error,  and  the  most 
learned  and  judicious  Protestants  (Mill,  Prolegr, 
Bengel,  Apparatus;  Lachmann,  Preface)  justly 
conspire  in  holding  it  in  a  high  degree  of  venera- 
tion. Jahn  observes  that  the  Oriental  Christians 
in  communion  with  Rome  still  use  their  own  ver- 
sions, the  Greek,  Armenian,  Syriac,  and  Arabic. 

(7)  Siztine  and  Clementine  Vulgates.  On 
April  8,  1546,  the  Council  of  Trent  made  a  decree 
which  expressed  the  wish  for  a  fresh  revision. 
Scholars  were  dilatory  about  undertaking  the 
duty,  till  a  pontiff  of  iron  will,  Sixtus  V.,  urged 
on  the  work  and  even  took  a  personal  part  in  its 
accomplishment.  The  revision  was  published  in 
1590.  A  different  one  came  forth  under  the  aus- 
pices of  pope  Clement  VIII.  in  1592.  It  was  an 
improvement  on  the  Sixtine  edition,  but  did  not 
quite  render  it  obsolete.  Both  editions  are  still 
in  use.  The  Clementine  text  of  the  Vulgate  of 
the  Old  Testament,  with  the  various  readings  of 
the  codex  Amiatinus,  has  been  edited  by  Heyse 
and  Tischendorf,  and  the  New  Testament  accord- 
ing to  the  codex  Amiatinus  by  Tischendorf.  It 
is  from  the  Vulgate  that  a  large  part  of  the  tech- 
nical language  used  in  theology  is  derived.  For 
instance,  sacrament,  justificatioui  and  sanctifica- 
tion  are  simply  the  anglicized  forms  of  sacra- 
mentum,  iiistiicatio,  and  sanctiHcatio,  occurring 
in  the  Vulgate. 

VULTUBE  (vfil'ttlr),  (Heb.  •'^^??,  daw-aw'). 

An  unclean  bird  (Lev.  xi:i4).  The  species  of 
vulture  properly  so  called  have  the  head  naked 
or  downy,  the  crop  external,  and  very  long  wings ; 
they  have  all  an  offensive  smell,  and  we  know 
of  none  that  even  the  scavenger-ants  will  eat. 
When  dead  they  lie  on  the  ground  untouched  till 
the  sun  has  dried  them  into  mummies.  Those 
found  in  and  about  the  Egyptian  territory  are 
Vultur  fulvus,  V»  gyps  (Savigny),  V,  ALgyftius 
(Savigny),  V,  monachus  (Arabian  vulture),  V. 
cinereus,  V.  Nubicus,  and  a  black  species,  which 
is  often  figured  on  Egyptian  monuments  as  the 
bird  of  victory,  hovering  over  the  head  of  a  na- 
tional hero  in  battle,  and  sometimes  with  a  ban- 


WAGES 


IIOB 


WALK 


ner  in  each  talon.  It  is  perhaps  the  gypretus 
barbatus  (peres),  or  lammer  geyer,  by  the  Arabs 
called  nesr;  for  though  neither  a  vulture  nor  an 
eagle,  it  is  the  largest  bird  of  prey  of  the  old  con- 
tinent, and  is  armed  like  the  eagle  with  formida- 
ble daws.  The  head  is  wholly  feathered ;  its  cour- 
age is  equal  to  its  powers,  and  it  has  a  strength 
of  wing  probably  superior  to  all  raptorians,  ex- 
cepting the  condor ;  it  is  consequently  found  with 
little  or  no  difference  from  Norway  to  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  and  from  the  Pyrenees  to  Japan. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  White  Carrion 
Vulture  {Vulture  percnofterus)  is  the  bird  called 
in  Hebrew  (as  it  still  is  m  Arabic)  Racham,  ren- 
dered Gier-eagle  in  Lev.  xi:i8;  Deut.  xiv;i7.  It 
forms  a  small  group  of  Vulturidae,  subgenerically 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  Percnopterus  and 


Neophron,  differing  from  the  other  vultures  in 
the  bill  being  longer,  straight,  more  attenuated, 
and  then  uncinated,  and  in  the  back  of  the  head 
and  neck  being  furnished  with  longish,  narrow, 
suberectile  feathers.  In  size  the  species  is  little 
bulkier  than  a  raven,  but  it  stands  high  on  the 
legs.  Always  soiled  with  blood  and  garbage,  of- 
fensive to  the  eye  and  nose,  it  yet  is  protected  in 
Egypt  both  by  law  and  public  opinion  for  the 
services  it  renders  in  clearing  the  soil  of  dead 
carcasses  putrefying  in  the  sun,  and  the  culti- 
vated fields  of  innumerable  rats,  mice  and  other 
vermin.  It  extends  to  Palestine  in  the  summer 
season,  but  becomes  scarce  towards  the  north, 
where  it  is  not  specially  protected ;  and  it  accom- 
panies caravans,  feasting  on  their  leavings  and 
on  dead  camels,  etc 


W 


WAGES  (wa'JSz). 

1.  Usually  some  form  of  Heb.^^  {sauhkar'. 

Gen.  xxxi:8;  Exod.  i!:9;  Ezek«  xxix:i8,  19);  else* 
where  "  hire,"  "  reward,**  etc 

2.  Mas'koh'reth  (Heb.  rilS^B,  Gen.  xx!x:l5; 
xxxi:4i;  Ruth  ii:i2,  •'rewarcT^. 

8.  Peh-ool'law'  (Heb.  •*^??f.  Lev.  xix:i3:  Ps. 
cix:20,  "reward"). 

4«  Two  Greek  words  are  thus  rendered:  Mis» 
thos^  {jiuaBln,  John  iv:j6,  elsewhere  •*  reward,"  or 
••hire");  op-so'nee-on  Wifivwr,  Luke  iii:i4;  2  Cor. 
xi :8;  Luke  vi  123.  "reward").    (McC.  &  Str.  Cyc.) 

The  words  as  above  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  by 
this  term  signify  primarily  *to  purchase,*  to  ob- 
tain by  some  consideration  on  the  part  of  the  pur- 
chaser ;  thence  to  obtain  on  the  part  of  the  seller 
some  consideration  for  something  given  or  done, 
and  hence  to  hire,  to  pay,  or  receive  wages. 
Wages,  then,  according  to  the  earliest  usages  of 
mankind,  are  a  return  made  by  a  purchaser  for 
something  of  value — specifically  for  work  per- 
formed. And  thus  labor  is  recognized  as  prop- 
erty, and  wages  as  the  price  paid  or  obtained  in 
exchange  for  sudi  property.  In  this  relation 
there  is  obviously  nothing  improper  or  humiliating 
on  the  side  either  of  the  buyer  or  the  seller.  They 
have  each  a  certain  thing  which  the  other  wants, 
and  in  the  exchange  which  they  in  consequence 
make,  both  parties  are  alike  served.  In  these  few 
words  lies  the  theory,  and  also  the  justification 
of  all  service.  The  entire  comjnerce  of  life  is 
barter.  In  hire,  then,  there  is  nothing  improper 
or  discreditaible.  It  is  only  a  hireling,  that  is, 
a  mercenary,  a  mean,  sordid  spirit,  that  is  wrong. 
So  long  as  a  human  being  has  an3rthing  to  give 
which  another  human  being  wants,  so  long  has 
he  something  of  value  in  the  great  market  of  life ; 
and  whatever  that  something  may  be,  provided  it 
does  not  contribute  to  evil  passions  or  evil  deeds, 
he  is  a  truly  respectable  capitalist,  and  a  useful 
member  of  the  social  community.  The  Scriptural 
usage  in  applying  the  term  translated  'wages'  to 
sacred  subjects — thus  the  Almighty  himself  says 
to  Abraham  (Gen.  xv:i),  'I  am  thy  exceeding 
great  reward' — ^tends  to  confirm  these  views,  and 
to  suggest  the  observance  of  caution  in  the  em- 
ployment of  the  words  'hire'  and  *hireling,'  which 
have  acquired  an  offensive  meaning  hy  no  means 
originally  inherent  in  themselves,  or  in  the  He- 


brew words  for  which  they  stand  (Gen.  xxx:i8, 
32,  33). 

The  earliest  mention  of  wages  is  a  payment  in 
kind,  not  in  money  (Gen.  xxix:i5,  20;  xxxi.7, 
8,  41).  The  rate  of  wages  is  mentioned  (Matt. 
XX  :2)  as  about  sixteen  cents.  In  earlier  times 
it  was  doubtless  lower.  The  Mosaic  law  required 
a  daily  payment  of  wa^es  (Lev.  xix:i3;  Deut. 
xxiv:i4,  is),  and  to  withhold  them  was  wrong 
(Jer.  xxii:i3;  Mai.  iii:s;  James  v:4). 

J.  R.  B. 

WAGON  (wag'iSn).  (Heb.  ^)^^  ^g-aw-law',  that 
which  rolls  or  turns  round,  Gen.  xlv:i9,  21,  27; 
xlvi:5;  Num.  vii;3, 6-8;  3?^,  reh'keb.  Exek.  xxiii:24. 
elsewhere  "chariot").    See  Cart;  Chariots. 

WAIL  (w§l).    See  Mourning. 


(wak).  Walk  is  often  used  in  Scripture 
for  conduct  in  life,  general  demeanor  and  deport- 
ment, and  denotes  deliberation,  pleasure,  perse- 
verance and  progress. 

Figurative,  (i)  To  wa/Jb  with  God,  with 
the  Lord,  before  God,  and  after  the  Lord,  or  in  his 
name,  as  Enoch  and  Noah,  is  to  hear  and  believe 
his  word,  depend  on  him,  and  in  the  study  of  inti- 
mate fellowship  with  him,  and  under  a  continued 
impression  of  his  presence,  to  worship,  obey,  and 
please  him  (Gen.  v  124 ;  Zech.  x  :i2).  (2)  To  walk  in 
the  truth,  or  in  (jod's  fear,  way,  or  commandments, 
is  with  composure  to  persevere  in  the  profession, 
faith,  and  practical  improvement  of  the  gospel 
of  Christ,  and  to  live  in  a  course  of  obedience  to 
his  law  (2  John  a;  Deut.  v:33;  2  Chron.  xvii:4). 
(3)  To  walk  in  the  light,  or  in  the  light  of  God's 
countenance,  is  to  obey  the  commandments  of 
(5od  and  of  Christ  (Is.  ii:s;  i  John  vi:i3;  i  John 
ii:io).  ^  (4)  To  walk  in  the  comforts  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  is  habitually  to  enjoy  them  in  a  very  high 
degree  (Acts  ix:3i).  (5)  To  walk  worthy  of  the 
Lord,  is  to  be  in  subjection  to  the  holy  Jesus,  who 
left  us  an  example,  that  we  should  walk  in  his 
steps  (Col.  i:io;  i  Thess.  ii:i2).  (6)  To  walk 
by  faith,  is  to  rely  upon  Christ,  as  freely  and 
fully  offered  to  us  in  the  gospel  (2  Cor.  v:6,  7). 
(7)  To  walk  worthy  of  our  vocation  or  calling, 
out  of  the  world  into  the  fellowship  of  (jod's 
Son,  is  by  denying  ungodliness  and  worldly  lusts, 
to  live  soberly,  righteously,  and  godly  in  this 
present  world  (Eph.  iv:i).    (8)  To  walk  as  men, 


WALL 


1709 


WANDERING.  THE 


^s  to  behave  like  the  unregenerate  part  of  the 
world  (i  Cor.  iii:3).  (9)  To  walk  after  the 
flesh,  or  after  lusts,  is  to  be  directed  and  influ- 
enced in  our  practice  by  the  lusts,  appetites  and 
inclinations  of  our  corrupt  nature  (Rom.  viii:i; 
I  Pet.  iv:3;  Jude  16).  (10)  To  walk  in  darkness, 
in  falsehood,  and  craftiness,  is  to  live  in  an  un- 
regenerate state,  with  a  mind  ignorant  of  divine 
things,  and  with  pleasure  to  continue  in  lying, 
deceit,  or  other  wicked  courses  (i  John  i:6;  2 
Cor.  iv:2).  (11)  False  prophets  ica/^  in  the  spirit 
of  falsehood,  when,  pretending  to  have  the  Spirit 
of  God,  and  being  instigated  bv  the  devil,  they 
prophesy  falsely  to  the  people  (Mic.  ii:ii). 

WALL  (wall),  (Heb.  properly  *^*i?,  keer,  as  a 
defense;  or  *^^ '^,  Mo-maw\  as  a  barrier;  some- 
times 112^,  sAoor,  perhaps  from  its  rocky  character; 
various  forms  of  '^^^,  ^'aw-dar' ,  to  inclose;  occas- 
ionally ^^n,  Ma/e,  from  its  strength;  VT!?,  khah!' 
yitSt  from  its  exterior  position;  y^'^^, Maw-roots', 

from  its  being  dug,  etc.;  Or.  relxos,  ti-khos;  rotx"*** 
toy'khos. 

The  walls  with  which,  in  ancient  times,  all 
cities  were  surrounded,  in  contradistinction  from 
open  or  unwalkd  villages,  were  generally  built  of 
earth  or  clay  or  sun-dried  brick.  Hence  it  was 
necessary  to  build  them  of  great  thickness,  in 
order  to  ensure  their  permanency.  Houses  were 
often  erected  on  top  of  them,  or  they  were  pro- 
vided with  fortifications  (fenced  walls).  When 
any  breach  took  place  in  such  a  mass  of  earth, 
either  by  heavy  rains  or  some  defect  in  the  foun- 
dation, the  consequences  were  very  serious  (Ps. 
lxii:3;  Is.  xxxrij).     (See  Towns.) 

A  few  points  may  be  noticed  regarding  waJl 
construction : 

( 1 )  The  practice  common  in  Palestine  of  carry- 
ing foundations  down  to  the  solid  rock,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Temple,  and  in  the  present  day  with 
structures  intended  to  be  permanent  (Joseph. 
Ant.  XV,  II,  sec.  3;  Luke  vi:48;  Robinson,  ii,  338; 
Col.  Ch.  Chron.  [iSs?],  p.  459).  The  pains  taken 
by  the  ancient  builders  to  make  good  the  founda- 
tions of  their  work  may  still  be  seen,  both  in  the 
existing  substructions  and  in  the  number  of  old 
stones  used  in  more  modern  constructions. 

(2)  A  feature  of  some  parts  of  Solomon's  build- 
ings, as  described  by  Josephus,  corresponds  re- 
markably to  the  method  adopted  at  Nineveh  of 
encrusting  or  veneering  a  wall  of  brick  or  stone 
with  slabs  of  a  more  costly  material,  as  marble  or 
alabaster  (Joseph.  Ant.  viii,  5,  sec.  2;  Fergusson, 
Hdbk.,  202,  203). 

(3)  Another  use  of  walls  in  Palestine  is  to  sup- 
port mountain  roads  or  terraces  formed  on  the 
sides  of  hills  for  purposes  of  cultivation  (Rob. 
ii,  493,  iii,  I4,  45). 

(4)  The  "paths  of  the  vineyards"  (Num.  xxii : 
24)  is  illtistrated  by  Robinson  as  a  pathway 
through  vineyards,  with  walls  on  each  side 
(H.  W.  P.  Smith,  Bib.  Diet.) 

FiguratWe,  (i)  God  and  his  salvation  are  a 
wall,  aLd  wall  of  fire,  to  the  church,  whereby 
she  is  protected  from  all  danger  (Zech.  ii:5;  Is. 
xxviii;  Ezek.  xl),  etc.  (2)  And  the  government, 
safety,  and  strength  of  a  church  or  nation,  are 
represented  as  walls  (Ps.  Ii  :i8;  Is.  v:5;  Rev.  xxi: 
12;  Ezek.  xl),  etc.  (3)  Great  men  are  likened 
to  walls;  they  are  eminently  instrumental  in  the 
protection  and  safeguard  of  a  nation  (Is.  ii:i5). 
(4)  David  and  his  men  were  as  a  wall  to  protect 
Nabal's  flocks  from  the  Arabs  and  wild  beasts 
(i  Sam.  XXV  :i6).  (5)  Jeremiah  was  like  a 
fenced  brazen  wall;  for  God  enabled  him  coura- 


geously to  declare  the  truth,  and  preserved  him 
amidst  all  the  malicious  designs  of  his  enemies 
(Jer.  i:i8;  xv:2o).  (6)  The  ceremonial  law  was 
a  %vall  of  partition;  it  so  separated  between  the 
Jews  and  Gentiles,  that  few  of  the  latter  en- 
tered the  church  during  its  continuance  (Eph. 
ii:i4).  (7)  The  Chaldeans  were  like  a  wall  of 
iron  round  about  Jerusalem ;  they,  in  a  bold  and 
determined  manner,  laid  siege  to  it  till  they  had 
taken  it  (Ezek.  iv:3).  (8)  Wicked  men  are  like 
a  bowing  wall;  their  ruin  proceeds  from  them- 
selves and  is  very  sudden  and  dreadful  (Ps.  Ixii: 
3)-  (9)  Jerusalem  was  inhabited  without  walls, 
when  it  had  full  peace,  and  its  suburbs  were  large 
(Zech.  ii:4).  {10)  In  the  day  thy  walls  are  to  be 
built,  shall  the  decree  for  repairing  it  be  published, 
and  the  decree  against  it  be  far  removed,  or  hin- 
dered (Mic.  viiiii;  comp.  Ezra  i-vi  with  Neh. 
ii-vi).  (11)  Violence  and  strife  go  about  on  the 
walls  of  a  city,  when  they  are  openly  practiced, 
even  by  those  whose  especial  duty  it  is  to  defend 
and  protect  men  (Ps.  lv:io). 

WANDERING,  THE  (wdn'der-Ing). 

(1)  The  Plain  Bahah.  In  our  office  of 
tracing  the  steps  of  the  Israelites  from  Goshen  to 
Palestine,  we  have  conducted  them  across  the 
Red  Sea  to  their  first  great  station  on  its  eastern 
bank,  and  thence  onward  along  the  shore  and 
over  the  cliffs  of  that  sea  till,  following  them  up 
Wady  Hebron,  we  placed  and  left  them  before 
Mount  Horeb,  in  the  capacious  plain  Rahah, 
which,  having  its  widest  part  in  the  immediate 
front  of  that  immense  mass  of  rock,  extends  as  if 
with  two  arms,  one  towards  the  northwest,  the 
other  towards  the  northeast.  (See  Exodus,  The; 
Exodus,  Geography  of  the.) 

A  belief  prevailed  that  there  was  no  spot  in 
the  Sinaitic  district  on  which  the  people  of  Israel 
might  assemble.  Dr.  Robinson  has  shown  that 
this  opinion  is  incorrect,  and  that  in  all  probabil- 
ity the  plain  er  Rahah,  over  which  Mount  Horeb 
impends,  is  the  spot  where  the  congregation  of 
Israel  were  assembled.  *We  were  surprised,'  says 
he,  'as  well  as  gratified  to  find  here  in  the  inmost 
recesses  of  these  dark  granite  cliffs,  this  fine  plain 
spread  out  before  the  mountain,  and  I  know  not 
where  I  have  felt  a  thrill  of  stronger  emotion 
than  when,  in  first  crossing  the  plain,  the  dark 
precipices  of  Horeb  rising  in  solemn  grandeur 
before  us,  we  became  aware  of  the  entire  adapt- 
edness  of  the  scene  to  the  purposes  for  which  it 
was  chosen  by  the  great  Hebrew  legislator.' 

(2)  The  Station  Taberah.  After  having 
been  about  a  year  in  the  midst  of  thjs  mountainous 
region,  the  Israelites  broke  up  their  encampment 
and  began  their  journey  in  the  order  of  their 
tribes,  Judah  leading  the  way  with  the  ark  of 
the  covenant,  under  the  guidance  of  the  direct- 
ing cloud  (Num.  ix:i5,  sq.;  x:ii,  sq.).  They 
proceeded  down  Wady  Seikh,  having  the  wilder- 
ness of  Paran  before  them,  in  a  northwesterly 
direction;  but  having  come  to  a  gorge  in  the 
mountains  they  struck  in  a  north-northeasterly 
direction  across  a  sandy  plain,  and  then  over  the 
Jebel  et-Tih,  and  came  down  ]Vady  Zulakah,  to 
the  station  Taberah.  It  took  the  army  three  days 
to  reach  this  station.  Whatever  name  the  place 
bore  before,  it  now  received  that  of  Taberah 
(fire),  from  a  supernatural  fire  with  which  mur- 
murers,  in  the  extreme  parts  of  the  camp,  were 
destroyed  as  a  punishment  for  their  gfuilt.  Here, 
too,  the  mixed  multitude  that  was  among  the 
Israelites  not  only  fell  a-lusting  themselves,  but 
also  excited  the  Hebrews  to  remember  Egyptian 
fish  and  vegetables  with  strong  desire,  and -to 
complain  of  the  divinely  supplied  manna.     The 


WANDERING.  THE 


1710 


WANDERING.  THE 


discontent  was  intense  and  widely  spread.  Moses 
became  aware  of  it,  and  forthwith  felt  his  spirit 
misgive  him.  He  brings  the  matter  before  Jeho- 
vah, and  receives  divine  aid  by  the  appointment 
of  seventy  elders  to  assist  him  in  the  important 
and  perilous  office  of  governing  the  gross,  sensu- 
ous and  self-willed  myriads  whom  he  had  to  lead 
to  Canaan.  Moreover,  an  abundance  of  flesh 
meat  was  given  in  a  most  profuse  supply  of  quails. 
It  appears  that  there  were  now  six  hundred  thou- 
sand footmen  in  the  congregation. 

(3)  Kibroth-hattaavah.  The  next  station 
was  Kibroth-hattaavah,  near  which  there  are  fine 
springs  and  excellent  pasturage.  This  spot,  the 
name  of  which  signifies  'graves  of  lust,*  was  so 
denominated  from  a  plague  inflicted  on  the  people 
in  punishment  of  their  rebellious  disposition 
(Num.  xi:33;  i  Cor.  x;6). 

(4)  Hazeroth.  Thence  they  journeyed  to 
Hazeroth,  which  Robinson,  after  Burckhardt,  finds 
in  el-Hudhera,  where  is  a  fountain,  together  with 
palm  trees.  At  Hazeroth,  where  the  people  seem 
to  have  remained  a  short  time,  there  arose  a  family 
dissension  to  increase  the  difficulties  of  Moses. 
Aaron,  apparently  led  on  by  his  sister  Miriam, 
who  may  have  been  actuated  by  some  feminine 
pique  or  jealousy,  complained  of  Moses  on  the 
ground  that  he  had  married  a  Cushite,  that  is, 
an  Arab  wife,  and  the  malcontents  went  so  far 
as  to  set  up  their  own  claims  to  authority  as  not 
less  valid  than  those  of  Moses.  An  appeal  is 
made  to  Jehovah,  who  vindicates  Moses,  rebukes 
Aaron  and  punishes  Miriam  (Num.  xii). 

(5)  Kadesh.  *And  afterward  the  people  re- 
moved from  Hazeroth,  and  pitched  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Paran.'  at  Kadesh  (Num.  xii:i6;  xiii:26). 
Here  it  was  that  twelve  men  (spies)  were  sent 
into  Canaan  to  survey  the  country,  who  went  up 
from  the  wilderness  of  Zin  (Num.  xiii:2i)  to 
Hebron;  and  returning  after  forty  days  brought 
back  a  very  alarming  account  of  what  they  had 
seen.  It  is  evident  that  at  this  point  there  is  a 
great  blank  in  the  Scripture  narrative  of  the  wan- 
derings of  the  Israelites.  They  were  ordered  to 
turn  back  into  the  desert  "by  the  way  of  the  Red 
Sea."  In  this  wilderness  they  wandered  eight- 
and-tbirty  years,  but  little  can  be  set  forth  re- 
specting the  course  of  their  march.  The  next 
notice  of  the  Israelites  is,  that  in  the  first  month 
they  came  into  the  desert  of  Zin  and  abode  again 
at  Kadesh ;  here  Miriam  dies ;  Moses  and  Aaron 
bring  water  from  the  rock ;  a  passage  is  demanded 
through  the  land  of  Edom,  and  refused;  and 
they  then  journeyed  from  Kadesh  to  Mount  Hor, 
where  Aaron  dies  in  the  fortieth  year  of  the  de- 
parture from  Egypt,  in  the  first  day  of  the  fifth 
month,  corresponding  to  a  part  of  Augfust  and 
September.  Here,  then,  between  August  of  the 
second  year  and  August  of  the  fortieth  year,  we 
have  an  interval  of  thirty-eight  years  of  wander- 
ing in  the  desert. 

In  this  way  the  Scriptural  account  of  the  jour- 
neyings  of  the  Israelites  becomes  perfectly  har- 
monious and  intelligible.  The  eighteen  stations 
mentioned  only  in  the  general  list  in  the  book  of 
Numbers  as  preceding  the  arrival  at  Kadesh,  are 
then  apparently  to  be  referred  to  this  eight-and- 
thirty  years  of  wandering,  during  which  the  peo- 
ple at  last  approached  Ezion-geber,  and  afterwards 
returned  northwards  a  second  time  to  Kadesh,  in 
the  hope  of  passing  directly  through  the  land  of 
Edom.  Their  wanderings  extended,  doubtless, 
over  the  western  desert;  although  the  stations 
named  are  probably  only  those  headquarters  where 
the  tabernacle  was  pitched,  and  where  Moses  and 
the  elders  and  priests  encamped  while  the  main 


body  of  the  people  was  scattered  in  various  direc- 
tions. 

Where,  then,  was  Kadesh?  Clearly,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Palestine.  We  agree  with  Robinson  and 
Raumer  in  placing  it  nearly  at  the  top  of  the  Wady 
Arabah,  where,  indeed,  it  is  fixed  by  Scripture, 
for  in  Num.  xx:i6  we  read,  *Kadesh,  a  city  in 
the  uttermost  of  thy  (Edom)  border.'  The  pre- 
cise spot  it  may  be  difficult  to  ascertain,  but  here, 
in  the  wilderness  of  Zin,  which  lay  in  the  more 
comprehensive  district  of  Paran,  is  Kadesh  to  be 
placed. 

The  stations  over  which  the  Israelites  passed 
are  set  down  in  Num.  xxxiii  :i8,  sq,  (comp.  Deut. 
x:6,  7),  and  little  beyond  the  bare  record  can  be 
given.  Only  it  seems  extraordinary,  and  is  much 
to  be  regretted,  that  for  so  long  a  period  as  eight- 
and-thirty  years  our  information  should  be  so 
exceedingljr  small.  Raumer,  indeed,  makes  an 
effort  (Beitrage,  p.  ii)  to  fix  the  direction  in 
which  some  of  the  stations  lay  to  each  other,  but 
we  cannot  find  satisfaction  in  his  efforts,  and  do 
not,  therefore,  bring  them  before  the  reader. 

There  are  a  few  events  which  must  be  recorded 
in  order  to  preserve,  in  a  measure,  the  uniformity 
of  the  narrative  designed  to  trace  the  passage  erf 
the  Hebrews  from  the  land  of  bondage  to  the 
Promised  Land. 

When  we  begin  to  take  up  the  thread  of  the 
story  at  the  second  visit  to  Kadesh,  we  find  time 
had,  in  the  interval,  been  busy  at  its  destructive 
work,  and  we  thus  gain  confirmation  of  the  view 
which  has  been  taken  of  such  second  visit.  No 
sooner  has  the  sacred  historian  told  us  of  the 
return  of  the  Israelites  to  Kadesh,  than  he  records 
the  death  and  burial  of  Miriam  and  has.  at  no 
great  distance  of  time,  to  narrate  that  of  Aaron 
and  Moses.  While  still  at  Kadesh  a  rising  against 
these  leaders  takes  place,  on  the  alleged  ground  of 
a  want  of  water. 

(6)  Meribah.  Water  is  produced  from  the 
rock  at  a  spot  called  hence  Meribah  (strife).  But 
Moses  and  Aaron  displeased  God  in  this  pro- 
ceeding, probably  because  they  distrusted  God's 
general  providence  and  applied  for  extraordinary 
resources.  On  account  of  this  displeasure  it  was 
announced  to  them  that  they  should  not  enter 
Canaan.  A  similar  transaction  has  been  already 
spoken  of  as  taking  place  in  Rephidim  (Exod. 
xviiri).  The  same  name,  Meribah,  was  occa- 
sioned in  that  as  in  this  matter.  Hence  it  has 
been  thought  that  we  have  here  two  versions  of 
the  same  story.  But  there  is  nothing  surprising, 
under  the  circumstances,  in  the  outbreak  of  dis- 
content for  want  of  water,  which  may  well  have 
happened  even  more  than  twice.  The  places  are 
different,  very  wide  apart;  the  time  is  different; 
and  there  is  also  the  great  variations  arising  out 
of  the  conduct  and  punishment  of  Moses  and 
Aaron.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  we  judge  the 
two  records  to  speak  of  different  transactions. 

(7)  The  Bdomites.  Relying  on  the  ties  of 
blood  (Gen.  xxxii:8),  Moses  sent  to  ask  of  the 
Edomites  a  passage  through  their  territory  into 
Canaan.  The  answer  was  a  refusal,  accompanied 
by  a  display  of  force.  The  Israelites,  therefore, 
were  compelled  to  turn  their  faces  southward, 
and,  making  a  turn  round  the  end  of  the  Elanitic 
Gulf,  reached  Mount  Hor,  near  Perta,  on  the  top 
of  which  Aaron  died. 

(8)  Serpent  of  Brass.  Finding  the  country 
bad  for  traveling,  and  their  food  unpleasant,  Israel 
again  broke  out  into  rebellious  discontent,  and  was 
punished  by  fiery  serpents,  which  bit  the  people, 
many  of  whom  died,  when  a  remedy  was  pro- 
vided in  a  serpent  of  brass  set  on  a  pole  (Num. 


WAR 


1711 


WAR 


xxi:8,  sq.).  Still  going  northward,  and  probably 
pursuing  the  caravan  route  from  Damascus,  they 
at  length  reached  the  valley  of  Zared  (the  brook), 
which  may  be  the  present  Wady  Kerek,  that  runs 
from  the  east  into  the  Dead  Sea.  Hence  they  're- 
moved and  pitched  on  the  other  side  of  Arnon, 
which  is  in  the  border  of  Moab,  between  Moab 
and  the  Amoritcs'  (Num.  xxirij).  Beer  (the 
well)  was  the  next  station,  where,  finding  a  plenti- 
ful supply  of  water,  and  being  rejoiced  at  the 
prospect  of  the  speedy  termination  of  their  jour- 
ney, the  people  indulged  in  music  and  song,  sing- 
ing *the  song  of  the  well'  (Num.  xxi:i7,  i8). 

(9)  The  AmoriteB.  The  Amorites  being  re- 
quested, refused  to  give  Israel  a  passage  through 
their  borders,  and  so  the  nation  -was  again  com- 
pelled to  proceed  still  in  a  northerly  course.  At 
length,  having  beaten  the  Amorites,  and  Og,  king 
of  Bashan,  they  reached  the  Jordan,  and  pitched 
their  tents  at  a  spot  which  lay  opposite  Jericho. 

(10)  Balak  and  Balaam.  Here  Balak,  king 
of  the  Moabites,  alarmed  at  their  numbers  and 
their  successful  prowess,  invited  Balaam  to  curse 
Israel,  in  the  hope  of  being  thus  aided  to  over- 
come them  and  drive  them  out.  The  intended 
curse  proved  a  blessing  in  the  prophet's  mouth. 
While  here  the  people  gave  way  to  the  idolatrous 
practices  of  the  Moabites,  when  a  terrible  pun- 
ishment was  inflicted,  partly  by  a  plague  wnich 
took  oflF  twenty- four  thousand,  and  partly  by  the 
avenging  sword. 

(11)  Census.  Moses,  being  commanded  to  take 
the  sum  of  the  children  of  Israel,  from  twenty 
years  upwards,  found  they  amounted  to  six  hun- 
dred thousand  seven  hundred  and  thirty,  among 
whom  there  was  not  a  man  of  them  whom  Moses 
and  Aaron  numbered  in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai 
(Num.  xxvi:47,  64). 

(12)  Moses  Views  the  Land.  Moses  is  now 
directed  to  ascend  Abarim,  to  Mount  Nebo,  in 
the  land  of  Moab,  over  against  Jericho,  in  order 
that  he  might  survey  the  land  which  he  was  not 
to  enter  on  account  of  his  having  rebelled  against 
(k)d's  commandment  in  the  desert  of  Zin  (Num. 
xxvii:i2;  Deut.  xxxii:49).  Conformably  with 
the  divine  command,  Moses  went  up  from  the 
plains  of  Moab  unto  the  mountain  of  Nebo,  to 
the  top  of  Pisgah,  and  there  he  died,  at  the 
age  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  years:  *His  ey€ 
was  not  dim,  nor  his  natural  force  abated'  (Deut. 
xxxiv). 

(13)  The  End.  Under  Joshua,  the  successor  of 
Moses,  the  Hebrews  were  forthwith  led  across  the 
Jordan,  and  established  in  the  Land  of  Promise. 
Thus  a  journey,  which  they  might  have  per- 
formed in  a  few  months,  they  spent  forty  years 
in  accomplishing,  bringing  on  themselves  unspeak- 
able toil  and  trouble,  and  in  the  end,  death,  as  a 
punishment  for  their  gross  and  sensual  appetites, 
and  their  unbending  indocility  to  the  divine  will 
(Num.  xiv:23;  xxvi:65).  Joshua,  however,  gained 
thereby  a  great  advantage;  inasmuch  as  it  was 
with  an  entirely  new  generation  that  he  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  civil  and  religious  institutions 
of  the  Mosaic  polity  in  Palestine.  This  advan- 
tage assigns  the  reason  w^y  so  long  a  period  of 
years  was  spent  in  the  wilderness. 

J.  R.  B. 

WAB  (war),  the  translation  of  several  Hebrew 
and  Greek  words:  Heb.  •^??  t'?,  mtZ-kAaw-mav/, 
fighting:  ^?V,  tsaw'baw\  or  •^?3V,  tseb-aw-av/ » 
to  make  war;  used  also  for  the  sacred  service  of 
the  Levites  (Num.  iv:23);  ^^?,  law'kham\  literally 


to  consume:  Gr.  r6\€/ios,   porem-os,  a  conflict: 
arpareiiu,  strat-yoo'o,  to  make  a  military  expedition, 

(1)  Preparation  of  Hebrews  in  Egypt.  The 
Hebrew  nation,  so  long  as  it  continued  in  Egyptian 
bondage,  might  be  regarded  as  unacquainted  with 
military  affairs,  since  a  jealous  government  would 
scarcely  permit  so  numerous  and  dense  a  popula- 
tion as  the  pastoral  families  of  Israel,  which  re- 
tained their  seat  in  Goshen,  certainly  were,  to  be 
in  possession  of  the  means  of  resistance  to  author- 
ity ;  but,  placed  as  this  portion  of  the  people  was, 
with  the  wanderers  of  the  wilderness  to  the  south, 
and  the  mountain  robbers  of  Edom  to  the  east, 
some  kind  of  defense  must  have  been  provided  to 
protect  its  cattle,  and  in  a  measure  to  cover  lower 
Egypt  itself  from  foreign  inroads.  Probably  the 
laboring  population,  scattered  as  bondsmen  through 
the  Delta,  were  alone  destitute  of  weapons,  while 
the  shepherds  had  the  same  kind  of  defensive 
arms  which  are  still  in  use,  and  allowed  to  all 
classes  in  eastern  countries,  whatever  be  their  con- 
dition. The  mixed  state  of  their  social  position 
appears  to  be  countenanced  by  the  fact  that,  when 
suddenly  permitted  to  depart,  the  whole  organiza- 
tion required  for  the  movement  of  such  a  multi- 
tude was  clearly  in  force ;  yet  not  a  word  is  said 
about  physical  means^to  resist  the  pursuing  Egyp- 
tians, although  at  a  subsequent  period  it  does  not 
appear  that  they  were  wanting  to  invade  Pales- 
tine, but  that  special  causes  prevented  them  from 
being  immediately  resorted  to.  The  Israelites  were, 
therefore,  partly  armed;  they  had  their  bows  and 
arrows,  clubs  and  darts,  wicker  or  ox-hide  shields, 
and  helmets  (caps)  of  skins,  or  of  woven  rushes, 
made  somewhat  like  our  beehives. 

(2)  Equipment.  At  the  time  of  the  departure 
of  Israel,  horses  were  not  yet  abundant  in  Egypt, 
for  the  pursuing  armv  had  only  six  hundred  char- 
iots, and  the  shepherd  people  were  even  prohibited 
from  breeding  or  possessing  them.  The  Hebrews 
were  enjoined  to  trust,  under  Divine  protection,  to 
the  energies  of  infantry  alone,  their  future  coun- 
try being  chiefly  within  the  basin  of  high  moun- 
tains, and  the  march  thither  over  a  district  of 
Arabia  where  to  this  day  horses  are  not  in  use. 
We  may  infer  that  the  inspired  lawgiver  rejected 
horses  because  they  were  already  known  to  be  less 
flt  for  defense  at  home  than  for  distant  expeditions 
of  conquest,  in  which  it  was  not  intended  that  the 
chosen  people  should  engage. 

(3)  Assyria  and  Persia.  There  are,  however, 
indications  in  their  military  transactions,  from  the 
time  Assyrian  and  Persian  conquerors  pressed 
upon  the  Israelite  states,  and  still  more  after  the 
captivity,  which  show  the  influence  of  Asiatic  mil- 
itary ideas,  according  to  which  the  masses  do  not 
act  with  ordered  unity,  but  trust  to  the  more  ad- 
venturous in  the  van  to  decide  the  fate  of  battle. 
Later  still,  under  the  Maccabees,  the  systematic 
discipline  of  Macedonian  importation  can  be  ob- 
served, even  though  in  Asia  the  Greek  method  of 
training,  founded  on  mathematical  principles,  had 
never  been  fully  complied  with,  or  had  been  modi- 
fied by  the  existence  of  new  circumstances  and 
new  elements  of  destruction ;  such,  for  example,  as 
the  use  of  great  bodies  of  light  cavalry,  showering 
millions  of  arrows  upon  their  enemies,  and  fij'ht- 
ing  elephants  introduced  by  the  Ptolemies. 

(4)  Bome.  But  all  these  practices  became 
again  modified  in  Western  Asia  when  Roman  do- 
minion bad  superseded  the  Greek  kingdoms.  Even 
the  Jews,  as  is  evident  from  Josephus,  modeled 
their  military  force  on  the  imperial  plan ;  their  in- 
fantry became  armed,  and  was  maneuvered  in  ac- 
cordance with  that  system  which  everywhere  gave 
victory  by  means  of  the  firmness  and  mobility 


WAR 


1712 


WAR 


which  it  imparted.  The  masses  were  composed  of 
cohorts  or  their  equivalents,  consisting  of  cen- 
turiae  and  decuriae,  or  subdivisions  into  hundreds, 
fifties,  and  tens,  similar  to  modern  battalions, 
companies,  and  squads ;  and  the  commanders  were 
of  like  grades  and  numbers.  Thus  the  people  of 
Israel,  and  the  nations  around  them,  cannot  be 
accurately  considered,  in  a  military  view,  without 
taking  into  account  the  successive  changes  here 
noticed;  for  they  had  the  same  influence  which 
military  innovations  had  in  Europe  between  the 
eras  of  Charlemagne  and  the  Emperor  Charles 
V,  including  the  use  of  cannon — ^that  invention  for 
a  long  time  making  no  greater  alteration  in  the 
constitution  of  armies  than  the  perfection  of  war 
machines  produced  upon  the  military  institutions 
of  antiquity. 

(5)  Israel's  Army.  The  army  of  Israel  was 
chiefly  composed  of  infantry,  formed  into  a 
trained  body  of  spearmen,  and,  in  greater  num- 
bers, of  slingers  and  archers,  with  horses  and 
chariots  in  small  proportion,  excepting  during  the 
periods  when  the  kingdom  extended  over  the 
desert  to  the  Red  Sea.  The  irregulars  were  drawn 
from  the  families  and  tribes,  particularly  Ephraim 
and  Benjamin,  but  the  heavy  armed  derived  their 
chief  strength  from  Judah,  and  were,  it  appears, 
collected  by  a  kind  of  conscription,  by  tribes,  like 
the  earlier  Roman  armies ;  not  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  selected  officers,  but  by  genealogists 
of  each  tribe,  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
princes.  Of  those  returned  on  the  rolls,  a  pro- 
portion greater  or  less  was  selected,  according  to 
the  exigency  of  the  time ;  and  the  whole  male  pop- 
ulation might  be  called  out  on  extraordinary  oc- 
casions. When  kings  had  rendered  the  system  of 
government  better  organized,  there  was  an  officer 
denominated  hashoter,  a  sort  of  muster-master, 
who  had  returns  of  the  effective  force,  or  number 
of  soldiers  ready  for  service,  but  who  was  subor- 
dinate to  the  hasopher,  or  scribe,  a  kind  of  secre- 
tary of  state.  These  officers,  or  the  shoterim, 
struck  out,  or  excused  from  service — first,  those 
who  had  built  a  house  without  having  yet  in- 
habited it ;  second,  those  who  had  planted  an  olive 
or  vineyard,  and  had  not  tasted  the  fruit — which 
gave  leave  of  absence  for  five  years;  third,  those 
who  were  betrothed,  or  had  been  married  less 
than  one  year;  fourth,  the  faint-hearted,  which 
may  mean  the  constitutionally  delicate,  rather  than 
the  cowardly. 

(6)  Formation.  The  levies  were  drilled  to 
march  in  ranks  (i  Chron.  xii:38).  and  in  column 
by  fives  (chamushim)  abreast  (Exod.  xiii:i8); 
hence  it  may  be  inferred  that  they  borrowed  from 
the  Egyptian  system  a  decimal  formation,  two 
fifties  in  each  division  making  a  solid  square, 
equal  in  rank  and  file;  for  twice  ten  in  rank  and 
five  in  file  being  told  off  by  right  hand  and  left 
hand  files,  a  command  to  the  left  hand  files  to  face 
about  and  march  six  or  eight  paces  to  the  rear, 
then  to  front  and  take  one  step  to  the  right,  would 
make  the  hundred  a  solid  square,  with  only  the 
additional  distance  between  the  right  hand  or  un- 
moved files  necessary  to  use  the  shield  and  spear 
without  hindrance;  while  the  depth  being  again 
reduced  to  five  files,  they  could  face  to  the  right  or 
left,  and  march  firmly  in  column,  passing  every 
kind  of  ground  without  breaking  or  lengthening 
their  order. 

With  centuries  thus  arranged  in  masses,  both 
movable  and  solid,  a  front  of  battle  could  be 
formed  in  simple  decimal  progression  to  a  thou- 
sand, ten  thousand,  and  to  an  army  at  all  times 
formidable  by  its  depth,  and  by  the  facility  it 
^ftorded  for  the  light  troops,  chariots  of  war,  and 


cavalry,  to  rally  behind  and  to  issue  from  thence 
to  the  front.  Archers  and  slingers  could  ply  their 
missiles  from  the  rear  which  would  be  more  cer- 
tain to  reach  an  enemy  in  close  conflict  than  was 
to  be  found  the  case  with  the  Greek  phalanx,  be- 
cause from  the  great  depth  of  that  body  missiles 
from  behind  were  liable  to  fall  among  its  own 
front  ranks.  These  divisions  were  commanded, 
it  seems,  by  ketsinitn,  officers  in  charge  of  one 
thousand,  who,  in  the  first  ages,  may  have  been  the 
heads  of  houses,  but  in  the  time  of  the  kings  were 
appointed  by  the  crown,  and  had  a  seat  in  the 
councils  of  war;  but  the  commander  of  the  host, 
sar  hat'tzaha,  such  as  Joab,  Abner,  Benaiah,  etc., 
was  either  the  judge,  or  under  the  judge  or  king, 
the  supreme  head  of  the  army,  and  one  of  the 
highest  officers  in  the  state.  He,  as  well  as  the 
king,  had  an  armor-bearer,  whose  duty  was  not 
only  to  bear  his  shield,  spear,  or  bow,  and  to  carry 
orders,  but,  above  all,  to  be  at  the  chiefs  side  in 
the  hour  of  battle  (Judg.  ix:S4;  i  Sam.  xiv:6; 
xxxi:4,  5).  Beside  the  royal  guards,  there  was, 
as  early  at  least  as  the  time  of  David,  a  select 
troop  of  heroes,  who  appear  to  have  had  an  insti- 
tution very  similar  in  principle  to  our  modern 
orders  of  knighthood. 

In  military  operations,  such  as  marches  in  quest 
of,  or  in  the  presence  of  an  enemy,  and  in  order  of 
battle,  the  forces  were  formed  into  three  divisions, 
each  commanded  by  a  chief  captain  or  commander 
of  a  corps,  or  third  part,  shelish,  as  was  also  the 
case  with  other  armies  of  the  East ;  these  consti- 
tuted the  center,  and  right  and  left  wing,  and  dur- 
ing a  march  formed  the  van,  center  and  rear. 

(7)  Battle  Cry.  The  war  cry  of  the  Hebrews 
was  not  intonated  by  the  ensign  bearers,  as  in  the 
West,  but  by  a  Levite;  for  priests  had  likewise 
charge  of  the  trumpets,  and  the  sounding  of  sig- 
nals; and  one  of  them,  called  *the  anointed  for 
war/  who  is  said  to  have  had  the  charge  of  ani- 
mating the  army  to  action  by  an  oration,  may  have 
been  appointed  to  utter  the  cry  of  battle  (Deut. 
XX  :2).  It  was  a  mere  shout  (i  Sam.  xvii:2o), 
or,  as  in  later  2Lgts, //a/ie/ujaA  /  whWe  the  so-called 
mottoes  of  the  central  banners  of  the  four  great 
sides  of  the  square  of  Judah,  Reuben,  Ephraim, 
and  Dan,  were  more  likely  the  battle-songs  which 
each  of  the  fronts  of  the  mighty  army  had  sung 
on  commencing  the  march  or  advancing  to  do 
battle. 

(8)  Conduct  of  the  Battle.  Before  an  en- 
gagement the  Hebrew  soldiers  were  spared  fatigue 
as  much  as  possible,  and  food  was  distributed  to 
them;  their  arms  were  enjoined  to  be  in  the  best 
order,  and  they  formed  a  line,  as  before  described, 
of  solid  squares  of  hundreds,  each  square  being 
ten  deep,  and  as  many  in  breadth,  with  sufficient 
intervals  between  the  files  to  allow  of  facility  in 
the  movements,  the  management  of  the  arms,  and 
the  passage  to  the  front  or  rear  of  slingers  and 
archers.  These  last  occupied  posts  according  to 
circumstances,  on  the  flanks,  or  in  advance,  but 
in  the  heat  of  battle  were  sheltered  behind  the 
squares  of  spearmen;  the  slingers  were  always 
stationed  in  the  rear,  until  they  were  ordered  for- 
ward to  cover  the  front,  impede  a  hostile  ap- 
proach, or  commence  an  engagement  somewhat  m 
the  manner  of  modern  skirmishes.  Meantime  the 
king,  or  his  representative,  appeared  clad  in  holy 
ornaments,  hadri  kodesh  (in  our  version  rendered 
*the  beauties  of  holiness,'  Ps.  ex  :3 ;  2  Chron.  xx : 
21 ),  and  proceeded  to  make  the  final  dispositions 
for  battle,  in  the  middle  of  his  chosen  braves,  and 
attended  by  priests,  who,  by  their  exhortations, 
animated  the  ranks  within  hearing,  while  the 
trumpets  waited  to  sound  the  signal.    It  was  now, 


WAR 


1713 


WASHING  OF  FEET 


with  the  enemy  at  hand,  we  may  suppose,  that  the 
slingers  would  be  ordered  to  pass  forward  be- 
tween the  intervals  of  the  line,  and,  opening  their 
order,  would  let  fly  their  stone  or  leaden  missiles, 
until,  by  the  gradual  approach  of  the  opposing 
fronts,  they  would  be  hemmed  in  and  recalled  to 
the  rear,  or  ordered  to  take  an  appropriate  posi- 
tion. Then  was  the  time  when  the  trumpet-bearing 
priests  received  command  to  sound  the  charge, 
and  when  the  shout  of  battle  burst  forth  from  the 
ranks.  The  signal  being  given,  the  heavy  infantry 
would  press  forward  under  cover  of  their  shields, 
with  the  rotnach  protruded  direct  upon  the  front 
of  the  enemy ;  the  rear  ranks  might  then,  when  so 
armed,  cast  their  darts,  and  the  archers,  behind 
them  all,  shoot  high,  so  as  to  pitch  their  arrows 
over  the  lines  before  them,  into  the  dense  masses 
of  the  enemy  beyond.  If  the  opposing  force  broke 
through  the  line,  we  may  imagine  a  body  of 
charioteers  reserve,  rushing  from  their  post,  and 
charging  in  among  the  disjointed  ranks  of  the 
enemy,  before  they  could  reconstruct  their  order ; 
or  wheeling  round  a  flank,  fall  upon  the  rear ;  or 
being  encountered  by  a  simitar  maneuver,  and 
perhaps  repulsed  or  rescued  by  Hebrew  cavalry. 
The  icing,  meanwhile,  surrounded  by  his  princes, 
posted  close  to  the  rear  of  his  line  of  battle,  and 
in  the  middle  of  showered  missiles,  would  watch 
the  enemy  and  strive  to  remedy  every  disorder. 
Thus  it  was  that  several  of  the  sovereigns  of 
Judah  were  slain  (2  Chron.  xviii:33;  xxxv:23), 
and  that  such  an  enormous  waste  of  human  life 
took  place ;  for  the  two  hostile  lines  of  masses,  at 
least  ten  in  depth,  advancing  under  the  confidence 
of  breastplate  and  shield,  when  once  engaged 
hand  to  hand,  encountered  difficulties  of  no  ordi- 
nary nature  in  endeavoring  to  retreat;  because 
the  hindermost  ranks  not  being  exposed  person- 
ally to  the  first  slaughter,  would  not,  and  the 
foremost  could  not,  fall  back;  neither  could  the 
commanders  disengage  the  line  without  a  cer- 
tainty of  being  routed.  The  fate  of  the  day  was 
therefore  no  longer  within  the  control  of  the 
chief,  and  nothing  but  obstinate  valor  was  left  to 
decide  the  victory. 

(9)  Ambush.  Sometimes  a  part  of  the  army 
was  posted  in  ambush,  but  this  maneuver  was 
most  commonly  practiced  against  the  garrisons  of 
cities  (Josh.  viii:i2;  Judg.  xx:38).  In  the  case 
of  Abraham  (Gen.  xiv:is),  when  he  led  a  small 
body  of  his  own  people,  suddenly  collected,  and, 
falhng  upon  the  cruard  of  the  captives,  released 
them,  and  recovered  the  booty,  it  was  a  surprise, 
not  an  ambush;  nor  is  it  necessary  to  suppose 
that  he  fell  in  with  the  main  army  of  the  enemy. 
At  a  later  period  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  He- 
brews formed  their  armies,  in  imitation  of  the 
Romans,  into  more  than  one  line  of  masses,  and 
modeled  their  military  institutions  as  near  as 
possible  upon  the  same  system.  (See  Arms, 
Armor;  Encampment;  Engine;  Fort,  Fortifi- 
cations, ETC.;  Standards.)  C.  H.  S. 

Figurative,  (i)  War  is  a  figure  of  our  con- 
test with  death  (Eccles.  viii:8).  (2)  In  the  song 
of  Moses,  Jehovah  is  declared  to  be  "a  man  of 
war''  (Exod.  xv:3),  one  who  knows  how  to  make 
war,  and  possesses  the  power  to  destroy  his  foes. 
(3)  The  war  in  heaven  between  Michael  and  his 
angels,  and  the  dragon  and  his  angels,  is  the 
struggle  in  the  Christian  church,  by  the  opposi- 
tion made  to  Jesus  Christ  and  his  agents.  Minis- 
ters carry  on  this  warfare,  not  by  carnal  weapons, 
as  swords,  etc.,  but  by  the  faithful  and  diligent 
preaching  of  the  gospel,  and  earnest  prayer  for 
the  success  of  it  (Rev.  xii:7;  2  Cor.  x:4;  i  Tim. 
1:18).  (4)  The  violent  and  irreconcilable  struggle 
108 


in  the  souls  of  believers,  and  their  striving  against 
the  temptations  of  Satan,  are  called  a  war  or  war- 
fare (Rom.  vii:23;  i  Pet.  ii:ii;  Eph.  yi:ii,  12). 
War  illustrates  the  malignity  of  the  wicked  (Ps. 
lv;2i),  and  between  antichrist  and  the  church 
( Rev.  xi  :7 ;  xiii  :4,  7) . 

WABE  (wdr),  (Gr.^wXil(r<r«,/?<?-/a5'^<7,Lukeviii: 
27),  past  tense  of  wear.  "  I  am  his  firstborn  son, 
that  was  the  last  that  ware  the  imperial  diadem  of 
Rome.** — Shakespeare. 

WABFABE  (war'fAr),  (Gr.  arpareUL,  strat-i'aht 
I  Cor.  ix:7),  military  service,  figurative  of  apostolic 
career. 

WABS  of  the  LOBB.    See  Scripture. 

WASHING  (wdsh'Ing).    See  Ablution. 

WASHING  OF  FEET  (wSsh'tng  dv  fet),  the 
custom  of  washing  the  feet,  held  in  ancient  times, 
a  place  among  the  duties  of  hospitality,  being  re- 
garded as  a  mark  of  respect  to  the  guest,  and  a 
token  of  humble  and  affectionate  attention  on  the 
part  of  the  entertainer.  It  had  its  origin  in  cir- 
cumstances for  the  most  part  peculiar  to  the  East. 

(1)  In  the  East.  In  general,  in  warm  Oriental 
climes,  cleanliness  is  of  the  highest  consequence, 
particularly  as  a  safeguard  against  the  leprosy. 
The  East  knows  nothing  of  the  factitious  distinc- 
tions which  prevail  in  these  countries  between 
sanitary  regulations  and  religious  duties;  but  the 
one,  as  much  as  the  other,  is  considered  a  part  of 
that  great  system  of  obligations  under  which  man 
lies  towards  God.  What,  therefore,  the  health 
demands,  religion  is  at  hand  to  sanction.  Clean- 
liness is  in  consequence  not  next  to  godliness, 
but  a  part  of  godliness  itself.  As  in  this  Orien- 
tal view  may  be  found  the  origin  and  reason  of 
much  of  what  the  Mosaic  law  lays  down  touching 
cleanness  and  uncleanness,  so  the  practice  of  feet 
washing  in  particular,  which  considerations  of 
purity  and  personal  propriety  recommended,  was 
adopted  by  hospitality  and  sanctioned  by  religion. 

(2)  Origin.  In  temperate  climes  bathing  is  far 
too  much  neglected;  but  in  the  East  the  heat  of 
the  atmosphere  and  the  dryness  of  the  soil  would 
render  ablution  of  the  body  peculiarly  desirable, 
and  make  feet  washing  no  less  grateful  than  salu- 
tary to  the  weary  traveler.  The  foot,  too,  was  less 
protected  than  with  us.  In  the  earliest  ages  it 
probably  had  no  covering ;  and  the  sandal  worn  in 
later  times  was  little  else  than  the  sole  of  our 
shoe  bound  under  the  foot.  Even  this  defense, 
however,  was  ordinarily  laid  aside  on  entering  a 
house,  in  which  the  inmates 'were  either  barefoot 
or  wore  nothing  but  slippers. 

(3)  Old  Testament  Beferences.  The  washing 
of  the  feet  is  among  the  most  ancient,  as  well  as 
the  most  obligatory,  of  the  rites  of  Eastern  hospi- 
tality. From  Gen.  xviii:4;  xix:2,  it  appears  to 
have  existed  as  early  as  the  days  of  the  patriarch 
Abraham.  In  Gen.  xxiv:32,  also,  'Abraham's 
servant'  is  provided  with  water  to  wash  his  feet, 
and  the  men's  feet  that  were  with  him.  The  same 
custom  is  mentioned  in  Judg.  xix:2i.  From  i 
Sam.  XXV  :4i,  it  appears  that  the  rite  was  some- 
times performed  by  servants  and  sons,  as  their 
appropriate  duty,  regarded  as  of  a  humble  char- 
acter. Hence,  in  addition  to  its  being  a  token  of 
affectionate  regard,  it  was  a  sign  of  humility. 

(4)  In  the  New  Testament.  The  most  re- 
markable instance  is  found  in  the  13th  chapter  of 
John's  Gospel,  where  our  Savior  is  represented  as 
washing  the  feet  of  his  disciples,  with  whom  he 
had  taken  supper.  Minute  particulars  arc  given  in 
the  sacred  narrative,  which  should  be  carefully 
studied,   as  presenting  a  true  Oriental  picture. 


WASHPOT  n 

From  verse  12,  sq.,  it  is  clear  tfaat  the  act  was  of 
a  symbolical  nature;  designed  to  teach,  a  fortiori, 

brotherly  humility  and  good-will.  Ii  was  specially 
customary  in  the  days  of  our  Lord  to  wash  before 
eating  (Matt,  xv-.s;  Luke  xi:38}. 

(S)  Usage  In  the  Earl;  Chtirch.  The  union 
of  affectionate  attention  and  lowly  service  is  found 
indicated  by  feet  washing  In  I  Tim.  v;iO,  where, 
among  ihe  signs  of  the  widows  tliat  were  to  be 
honored — supported,  that  is,  at  the  expense  of  the 
church — this  is  given,  if  any  one  'have  washed  the 
saints'  feet.' 

Feet  washing  ifiedihvium)  became,  as  might 
be  expected,  a  part  of  the  observances  practiced 
in  the  early  Christian  church.  It  is  still  practiced 
as  a  religious  rite  by  the  Dunkkrs  (which  see). 

WABHFOX  (w&h'p6i),  (Heb.  "'P,  see  ran/', 
Ps.  Ix:8 ;  cviiirg),  a  vessel  to  wash  in. 

WATCH.  1.  (Heb.  "^S?,  show-mar'),  denot- 
ing 'to  cut  into,' thence  'to  impress  on  the  mind,' 
'to  observe,'  'to  watch;'  the  original  meaning  of 
which  is  'to  look  out,"  thence  'to  watch;'  as  in 
English  'to  keep  a  look  out'  is  a  nautical  phrase 
for  'towa,tch.' 

Watching  must  have  been  coeval  with  danger, 
and  danger  arose  as  soon  as  man  became  tne 
enem^of  man.orhad  to  guard  against  the atta<^s 
of  wild  animals.  Accordingly  we  find  traces  of 
the  practice  of  watching  in  early  portions  of  the 
Hebrew  annals.  Watching  must  have  been  carriel 
to  some  degree  of  completeness  in  Egypt,  lor  we 
learn  from  Exod,  xiv:i4  that  the  practice  had,  at 
thetimeof  the  Exodus,  caused  the  night  to  be  di- 
vided into  different  watches  or  portions, mention 
being  made  of  the  'morning  watch.'  Compare  i 
Sam.  xiiii.  In  the  days  of  the  Judges  (vii:i9), 
we  find  the  'middle  watch'  mentioned .  (See  Luke 
xii:jS}.  At  a  later  period  Isaiah  plainly  mtimates 
(xxi:5,6)  that  there, was  a  watch  tower  in  Jeru- 
salem and  that  it  was  customary  on  extraordinary 
"  '     5ct  a  watchman.    Watchmen  were, 


4  WATER 

the  setting  to  the  rising  of  the  sun,  the  ancient 
Jews  divided  into  three  equal  parts  of  four  hours 
each.  But  the  Romans,  imitating  the  Greeks,  di- 
vided the  night  into  four  watches  {vigiliti),  and 
the  Jews,  from  the  time  Ihey  came  under  subjec- 
tion to  the  Romans,  following  this  Roman  custom, 
also  divided  the  night  into  four  watches,  each  of 
which  consisted  of  three  hours ;  these  four  periods 
Mark  (xiii:j5)  has  distinguished  by  the  terms 
evening,  midnighl,  cock  crowing,  and  morning. 
The  terms  by  which  the  old  Hebrew  division  of 
the  night  was  characterized  are:  (i)  the  first 
watch,  beginning  of  the  watches  (Lam.  ii  iig)  ; 
(2)  'the  middle  watch'  (Judg.  vii:io);  (3)  'the 
morning  watch'  (i  Sam.  xiiii).  'The  first  ex- 
tended from  sunset  to  our  ten  o'clock,  the  second 
from  ten  at  night  till  two  in  the  morning,  and 
the  third  from  that  hour  til!  sunrise  (Ideler, 
Chro»oL  i,  486).  J.  R.  B. 

8.  SAaw-iad'  (Heb.  112$,  to  ie  a/erf)  is  to  be 
wakeful,  and  so  watchful,  either  for  good  (Jer. 
xxxi:28;  li:i2)  or  evil  (Is.  xxix:20). 

3.  Koos-to-dee' ak  (Gr,  xovirruJIa),  a  Roman 
sentry,  one  of  the  soldiers  who  guarded  the  tomb 
of  our  Lord   (Matt.  xxvii:65,  66). 

4.  Gray-gor-ek' o  (Gr.  7WYo>>;«)  means  to  keep 
annate,  lo  ivatch,  and  so  lake  heed  lest  through 
carelessness  some  great  calamity  suddenly  over- 
lake  one  (Matt.  xxiv:42;  xxv:i3;  Mark  xiii:35; 
Rev.  xvl;is),  or  lest  one  be  led  to  forsake  Christ 
(Matt.  xxvi:4i;  Mark  xiv:38),  or  fall  into  sin 
(I  Thess.  v:6;  i  Cor.  xvinj;  1  Pet  v:8;  Rev. 
iii:2,  sq.).  To  "watch"  (Col.  iv:2)  is  to  employ 
the  greatest  care. 

B.  Nay'fo  (Gr.  «}^,  to  abstain  from  wine,  be 
sober,  is  used  in  the  New  Testament  figuratively, 
to  be  calm  and  colUcUd  in  spirit;  to  be  temperate, 
dispassionate,  circumspect  (i  'Thess.  v:6,  8;  a 
Tim.  iv:s;  i  Pet.  1 113;  v:8),  (Barnes'  Bib.  Cyc; 
Strong's  Concord.) 

VATBB  (wa'tSr),  (Heb.  °*?,  tnah'yim).  No  one 
can  read  far  in  the  sacred  Scriptures  whhout  be- 
ing reminded  of  the  vast  importance  of  water  to 
the  Hebrews  in  Palestine,  and  indeed  in  every 
country  to  which  their  history  introduces  us;  and 
■;   particularljr   in   the   deserts   in  which  they 


however,  ev 

ployed  in  themetropolis, and  their  post' 

gates  (j  Sam.xviii;»4,a5.;  3  Kings  ixiiyetj.;  rs. 

C3[xvii:i ;   Prov.  viii:34),  where  they  gave  signals 

and  information,  either  by  their  voice  or  with  the 

aid  of  a  trumpet  (Jer.  vi:i7;  Ezek.  xxxiii;6).    At 

night  watchmen  were  accustomed  to  perambulate 

the  dty  (Cant.  111:3;  v:7).    In  the  New  Testa- 

nient  we  find  mention  made  of  the  second,  the 

third,  and  the  fourth  watch  (Luke  xii:38;  Matt. 

xiv:25).     The  space  of  the  natural  night,  from 


The  natural  waters  have  already  been  disposed 
of  in  the  articles  Palestine  and  Rived  ;  and  in 
CiSTEBN  and  Jerusalem  (which  see)  notice  has 
been  taken  of  some  artificial  collections.  It  now 
remains  to  complete  the  subject,  under  the  present 
head,  by  the  addition  of  such  details  as  may  not 
have  been  comprehended  under  the  articles  re- 
ferred to. 

(1)  Supply.  It  has  been  shown  thai  the  ab- 
sence of  small  rivers,  through  the  want  of  rain 
in  summer,  renders  the  people  of  the  settled  coun- 
try, as  well  as  of  the  deserts,  entirely  dependent 
upon  the  water  derived  from  wells,  and  that  pre- 
served in  cisterns  and  reservoirs,  during  the  sum- 
mer and  autumn ;  and  gives  an  importance  un- 
known in  our  humid  climate  to  the  limited  supply 
thus  secured. 

(2)  Solomon's  Pools.  With  respect  to  reser- 
voirs, the  articles  to  which  reference  has  been 
made,  will  supply  all  the  information  necessary, 
except  that  we  may  avail  ourselves  of  this  oppor- 
tunity of  noticing  the  Pools  of  Solomon,  near 
Bethlehem. 

Of  the  pools  3  very  good  description  is  given 
by  Dr.  Wilde  (Narrative,  ii,  420) :  'At  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  valley  we  arrived  et  three  enormous 


WATER  11 

tanks,  stink  in  the  side  of  a  sloping  S">und,  and 
which  from  time  immemorial  have  been  consid- 
ered to  be  the  workmanship  of  Solomon;  and 
certainly  they  are  well  worthy  of  the  man  to 
whom  tradition  has  assigned  their  construction. 
These  reservoirs  are  each  upon  a  distinct  level, 
one  above  the  other,  and  are  capable  of  holding  an 
immense  body  of  water.  They  are  so  constructed, 
l>oth  by  conduits  leading  directly  from  one  an- 
other, and  by  what  may  be  termed  anastomosing 
branches,  that  when  the  water  in  the  upper  one 
has  reached  to  a  certain  height,  the  surplus  flows 
off  into  the  one  below  it,  and  so  on  into  the  third. 
These  passages  were  obstructed  and  the  whole  of 
the  cisterns  were  out  of  repair  when  we  visited 
them,  so  that  there  was  hardly  any  water  in  the 
lowest,  while  the  tipper  one  was  nearly  full  of 
good  pure  water.  Small  aqueducts  lead  from 
each  of  these  cisterns  to  a  main  one  that  conducts 
the  water  to  Jerusalem.  They  are  all  lined  with  a 
thick  layer  of  hard  whitish  cement,  and  a  flight 
of  steps  leads  to  the  bottom  of  each,  similar  to 
some  of  those  in  the  holy  city.  Where  the  lowest 
cistern  joins  the  valley  of  Etham  it  h  formed  by 
an  embankment  of  earth,  and  has  a  sluice  to  draw 
ofl^  the  water  occasionally.  A  short  distance  from 
the  upper  pool  I  descended  into  a  narrow  stone 
chamber,  through  which  the  water  passes  from 
the  neighboring  spring  on  its  course  to  the  cis- 
terns. 

'On  our  return  to  the  city  we  followed  the  trade 
of  the  aqueduct  as  far  as  Bethlehem,  and  after- 
wards crossed  it  in  several  places  on  the  road.  It 
is  very  small,  but  the  water  runs  in  it  with  con- 
siderable rapidity,  as  we  could  perceive  by  the 
open  places  left  in  it  here  and  there.  From  the 
very  tortuous  course  that  this  conduit  takes  tn 
following  the  different  sinuosities  of  the  ground, 
being  sometimes  above  and  somelim:s  beneath  the 
surface,  it  is  difficult  to  persuade  oneself  that  it 
does  not  run  up  hill,  as  many  have  supposed. 
Finally,  it  crosses  over  the  vaUey  of  Rephaim,  on 
a  series  of  arches,  to  the  twrth  of  the  lower  pod 
of  Gihon,  and  winding  round  the  southern  horn  o( 
Zion,  is  lost  to  view  in  the  ruins  of  the  city.  It 
very  probably  suf^lied  the  pool  of  Bethesda,  after 
having  traversed  a  coui?e  of  certainly  not  less 
than  thirteen  to  fifteen  miles.'    (See  Jerusalem.) 

(3)  Wella.  With  respect  to  wells,  their  im- 
portance is  very  great,  especially  in  the  desert, 
where  the  means  of  forming  them  are  deficient, 
as  well  as  the  supply  of  labor  necessary  for  such 
undertakings,  which,  after  all,  are  not  always  re- 
warded by  the  discovery  of  a  supply  ol  water. 
Hence  in  such  situations,  and  indeed  in  the  set- 
tled countries  also,  the  wells  are  of  the  utmost 
value,  and  the  water  in  most  cases  is  very  frufially 
used  (Num.  xx:t?-i9;  Deut.  ii:6;  Job  xxii:?). 
We  are  not,  however,  to  seek  an  explanation 
of  the  contests  about  wells  which  we  find  in  the 
histories  of  Abraham  and  Isaac  (Gen.  xxi  :25,  31 ; 
xxvi:iS-22)  merely  in  the  value  of  the  well  itself, 
but  in  the  apprehension  of  the  Philistines  that  by 
the  formation  of  such  wells  the  patriarchs  would 
be  understood  to  create  a  lien  on  the  lands  in 
which  they  lay,  and  would  acquire  an  indefeasible 
right  of  occupation,  or  rather  of  possession ;  and 
it  might  seem  to  them  inconvenient  that  so  power- 
ful a  clan  should  acquire  such  a  right  tn  the  soil 
of  so  small  a  territory  as  that  which  belonged  to 
them.  Hence  their  care,  when  Abraham  after- 
wards left  their  part  of  the  countiy,  to  fiM  up  the 
wells  which  he  had  digged ;  and  hence,  also,  the 
renewal  and  more  bitter  strife  with  Isaac  when 
he,  on  arriving  there,  proceeded  to  dear  out  those 
wells  and  to  dig  new  ones  himself. 


IS  WATERPOT 

FIgaratltW.  (i)  Jesus  Christ,  hia  Spirit,  and 
gosp^  ordinances  are  likened  to  waters,  ttill 
waters,  and  streams,  living  water,  or  water  of  life 
(Rev.  xxii:!?;  Ps.  xxiiiia;  Is.  xxxiii:2i,  and 
xxxv:6;  Ezek.  xlvii:i-ii).  (2)  The  waters  ol 
divine  truths  and  ordinances  are  made  bitter  when 
corrupted  with  error  and  superstition  (Rev.  viii: 
II)-  (3)  Whatever  tends  to  comfort  is  called 
waters;  the  delight  which  people  enjoy  in  the  mar- 
riage state  is  called  waters,  and  running  or  fresh 
waters;  more  truly  delightful  than  illicit  pleasures 
which  are  stolen  waters  (Prov.  v:is,  and  ix;i7). 
(4)  Multitudes  of  men,  as  armies  and  persecutors, 
are  likened  to  waters  (Rev.  xvii  :I5 ;  Is.  viii  7,  and 
xvii;i2;  Ps.  cxxiv:5),  (S)  Men  are  as  water 
spilt  on  the  ground;  when  once  dead,  they  cannot, 
without  a  miracle,  be  restored  to  life  (2  Sam. 
xiv:i4).  (6)  Wicked  men  are  swift  as  the  waters. 
and  melt  away  as  the  waters;  they  are  not  to  be 
depended  upon  (Job  xxiviiS;  Ps.  Iviii:7).  (7) 
Job's  enemies  came  in  as  a  wide  breaking  in  of 
waters;  in  great  numbers,  and  with  mighty  forces 
to  harass  and  overwhelm  (Job  xxx  :I4}.  (8> 
Counsel  in  the  heart  of  man  is  OS  deep  waters; 
serious  thoughts  and  purposes  are  pure  ana 
seltied,  and  hard  to  come  at  (Prov.  xx:5).  (g) 
The  words  of  a  man's  mouth  are  as  deep  waters, 
and  the  wellspring  of  wisdom  as  a  Hawing  brook; 
good  instructions  are  mysterious,  and  refreshing 
to  men's  souls  (Prov.  xviii:^).  (10)  Judgment 
runs  down  as  waters,  and  righteousness  as  a 
miehly  stream,  when  there  is  great  uprightness 
and  equity  in  judgment;  equity  and  holiness 
everywhere  practiced,  and  iniquity  made  ashamed 
to  show  itself  (Amos  v:24).  (11)  Wafer  occa- 
sionally is  used  for  tears  (Jer.  ix:l.  7);  hence, 
figuratively,  trouble  and  misfortune  (Lam.  iii;S4; 
Ps  Ixixn;  cxix:i36;  cxxiv  14,  5)-  (12)  fValer 
js  put  for  children  or  posterity  (Num.  xxiv:?;  Is. 
xlviiiri);  for  clouds  (Ps,  civ:3). 

WATEBGOURBB  (wa'ter-kSrs).  See  CON- 
DUIT. 

WATEB  OF  JEALOUSY  (Num.  v;ii-3i].  See 
Adultery. 

WATER   OF   SEPARATION    or  WATER 
OF  UNCLEAN" 
son  defiled  by  ci 

WATEBPOT  (wa'ter-pdl),  (Or.  M^,  Aood- 
ree'ak).  The  custom  of  washing  the  feel  neces- 
sitated the  use  of  a  large  amount  of  water  on 
festive  occasions.  Hence,  in  John  ii  ;6  there  is 
mention  made  of  six  stone  waterpots  which  held 
about  twenty-five  gallons  apiece.  The  waterpot 
of  the  woman  of  Samaria  (John  iv;28)  was  much 


SMMWMupOta. 


WATERSPOUT 


1716 


WEDGE 


WATEBSPOTJT  (water  spout),  (Heo.  ^II^V,  tsin- 
noor*,  hollow),  a  fall  of  water  from  the  clouds,  as 
a  river  bursts  over  a  precipice,  a  cataract. 

To  these  heavy  waterspouts  overwhelming  and 
terrifying  afflictions  are  compared  (Ps.  xrii:7). 
Waterspout  is  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  of  2  Sam. 
v:8,  "gutter;"  R.  V.  "water  course,"  meaning  a 
spout  for  conducting  waters. 

WAVE  OFFEBING  ( wSv'df 'fer-fag ),  (Heb. 
np^^  ten-oo-faw't  a  waving  before  Jehovah). 

The  Scripture  for  this  oflFering  will  be  found  in 
Exod.  xxix:24.  27;  Lev.  vii  :30,  34;  viii:27;  ix: 
21;  x:i4,  15;  xxiii:io,  15,  20;  Num.  vi:2o;  xviii: 
II,  18,  26-29.    (See  Festivals;  First  Fruits.) 

WAX,  WAXEN(Gr.'yi?p^«f«,^^«y-^<«'>^<'»Heb. 
viii:i3),togrow.  "Beholde  ye  lilies  of  the  feeld, 
how  thei  waxen." — WycliflFe. 

WAYFABING  ( Heb.  "^^J,  aw-rakh'.  Judg. 
xix:i7;  Is.  xxxiii:8),  traveling. 

WAYMABKS  (wa' marks'),  (Heb.  p'^V,  tsee- 
yoon\  conspicuous),  pillars  to  indicate  the  road  to 
the  returning  exiles  (Jer.  xxxi:2i). 

WEALTH  (wSlth),  Is  used  in  the  A.  V.  in  some 
passages  (Ezra  ix:i2;  Esth.  x:3;  i  Cor.  x:24)  in  the 
sense  of  weal  or  welfare. 

^ITEALTHY  (wglth'J),  (Heb.  •^31,  rev-aw-yaw'^ 

Ten  xlix:3i),  prosperous,  at  ease;  in  Ps.  Ixvi:i2  it 
nas  a  similar  meaning. 

WEAN,  WEANIKG  (jwen.  wCn'ing).  See 
Children. 

WEAPONS  (wSp'fins).    See  Arms,  Armor. 

WEASEL  (we'z1),.(Heb.  "^^^  kho'Ud). 

The  ViverridcB  and  Mustelida  appear,  both  an- 
ciently and  among  ourselves,  collected  into  a  kind 
of  group,  under  an  impression  that  they  belong  to 
the  feline  family ;  hence  we,  like  the  ancients,  still 
use  the  words  civet  cat,  tree  cat.  polecat,  etc. ;  and, 
in  reality,  a  considerable  number  of  the  species 
have  partially  retractile  claws,  the  pupils  of  the 
eyes  being  contractile  like  those  of  cats,  of  which 
they  even  bear  the  spotted  and  streaked  liveries. 
All  such  naturally  have  arboreal  habits,  and  from 
their  low  lengthy  forms  are  no  less  disposed  to 
burrow;  but  many  of  them  are  excellent  swim- 
mers. One  of  these  species,  allied  to,  if  not  the 
same  as,  genetta  barbara,  is  the  Thela  ^/an,  by 
Bochart  described  as  having  'various  colors,  and 
as  being  spotted  like  a  pard.  There  are  besides, 
in  the  same  region,  the  nimse,  ferret  or  polecat 
(Putorius  vulgaris),  for  these  two  are  not  specific- 
ally distinct;  fert-el-heiU,  the  weasel  {tnusUla 
vulgaris  Africana\  differing  from  ours  chiefly  in 
its  superior  size  and  darker  colors.  A  paradox^ 
urus,  identical  with  or  nearly  allied  to  P.  typus, 
occurs  in  Arabia;  for  it  seems  these  animals  are 
found  wherever  there  are  palmifertB,  the  date-palm 
in  ijarticular  being  a  favorite  residence  of  the 
species.  Two  or  three  varieties,  or  perhaps 
species,  of  nems  occur  in  Egypt  solely;  for  the 
name  is  again  generical  in  the  Arabian  dialects, 
and  denotes  the  ichneumon.  Arabia  proper  has 
several  other  animals,  not  clearly  distinguished, 
though  belonging  to  the  families  here  noticed.  The 
term  weasel  is  probably  the  best  translation  of 
the  word  kho'-led  (Lev.  xi:29).    (See  Cat.) 

C.  H.  S. 

WEAVING  (wSv'Yng\  is  too  necessary  an  art 
not  to  have  existed  in  the  early  periods  of  the 
world. 

It  appears,  indeed,  to  have  in  all  nations  come 
into  existence  with  the  first  dawnings  of  civiliza- 


tion. The  Egyptians  had,  as  might  be  expected, 
already  made  considerable  progress  therein  when 
the  Israelites  tarried  among  them;  and  in  this, 
as  well  as  in  many  other  arts  of  life,  they  became 
the  instructors  of  that  people. 

(1)  Materials.  Textures  of  cotton  and  of  flax 
were  woven  by  them;  whence  we  read  of  the 
'vestures  of  fine  linen'  with  which  Pharaoh  ar- 
rayed Joseph  (Gen.  xli:42);  terms  which  show 
that  the  art  of  fabricating  cloth  had  been  success- 
fully cultivated.  Indeed  Egypt  was  Celebrated 
among  the  Hebrews  for  its  manufacturing  skill. 
Thus  Isaiah  (xixig)  speaks  of  'them  that  work 
in  fine  flax,  and  them  that  weave  net-works.*  That 
these  fabrics  displayed  taste  as  well  as  skill,  may 
be  inferred  from  Ezekiel  xxvii :?,  'Fine  linen  witn 
broidered  work  from  Egypt'  So  in  Prov.  vii:  16, 
*I  have  decked  my  couch  with  coverings  of  tapes- 
try, with  fine  linen  of  Egypt.'  If,  however,  the 
Hebrews  learnt  the  art  of  weaving  in  Egypt,  they 
appear  to  have  made  progress  therein  from  their 
own  resources,  even  before  they  entered  Palestine ; 
for  having  before  them  the  prospect  of  a  national 
establishment  in  that  land,  they  would  naturally 
turn  their  attention  to  the  arts  of  life,  and  had 
leisure,  as  well  as  occasion,  during  their  sojourn 
of  forty  years  in  the  wilderness,  for  practising 
those  arts;  and  certainly  we  cannot  but  under- 
stand the  words  of  Moses  to  imply  that  the  skill 
spoken  of  in  Exod.  xxxv  :35,  sq,,  came  from  a  He- 
brew, and  not  a  foreign  impulse. 

(2)  By  Whom  Done.  Among  the  Israelites, 
weaving,  together  with  spinning,  was  for  the  most 
part  in  the  hands  of  women  (Prov.  xxxi:i3,  19)  ; 
nor  did  persons  of  rank  and  distinction  consider 
the  occupation  mean  (Exod.  xxxv  .-25;  2  Kin|^s 
xxiii  7).  But  as  in  Egypt  males  exclusively,  so  m 
Palestine  men  conjointly  with  women,  wove 
(Exod.  xxxv:35).  From  i  Chron.  iv:2i,  it  may 
be  inferred,  that  there  was  in  Israel  a  class  of 
master  manufacturers.  The  loom,  as  was  gener- 
ally the  case  in  the  ancient  world,  was  high,  re- 
quiring the  weaver  to  stand  at  his  employment. 

Connected  with  the  loom,  are  (i)  the  shuttle 
(Job  vii:6)  ;  (2)  the  weaver's  beam  (i  Sam.  xvii: 
7;  2  Sam.  xxi:i9);  (3)  a  weaver's  pin  (Judg. 
xvi:i4).  The  decree  of  skill  to  which  the  He- 
brews attained,  it  is  difficult  to  measure;  probably, 
as  Egypt  and  Babylon  already  supplied  the  finer 
specimens  of  workmanship,  the  Hebrews  would 
content  themselves  with  a  secondary  degree  of 
excellence ;  but  many  passages  conduce  to  prove 
that  art  presided  over  their  weaving,  as  well  as 
that  the  employment  was  very  common  (Lev.  xiii : 
48;  Judg.  xvi:i3;  Is.  xxxviii:i2). 

(3)  Products  of  tlie  Loom.  The  stuffs  which 
they  wove  were  of  linen,  flax,  and  wool.  Among 
the  later  must  be  reckoned  those  of  camels'  and 
goats'  hair,  which  were  used  by  the  poor  for 
clothing,  and  for  mourning  (Exod.  xxvi:7;  xxxv: 
6;  Matt.  iii:4).  Garments  woven  in  one  piece 
throughout  so  as  to  need  no  making  were  held  in 
high  repute;  whence  the  Jews  have  a  tradition 
that  no  needle  was  employed  on  the  clothing  of 
the  high-priest,  each  piece  of  which  was  of  one 
continuous  texture.  This  notion  throws  light  on 
the  language  used  by  John  xix:23,  'the  coat  was 
without  seam,' — words  that  are  explained  by  those 
which  follow,  and  which  Wetstein  regards  as  a 
gloss — 'woven  from  the  top  throughout.' 

J.  R  B. 
WEB.    See  Spider;  Weaving. 

WEDDING  (wSd'dYng).    See  Marriage. 
WEDGE  (Heb.  ^^^?.  lash' on),  used  in  the  He- 
brew only,  and  is  translated  wedge  in  only  two 


WEEK 


1717 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


places  (Josh.  vii:2i,  24).  The  same  word  is 
more  properly  translated  tongue  in  almost  one 
hundred  other  places  (Gen.  x:5;  Ps.  vig,  etc.). 
Understanding  that  it  was  a  tongue  of  gold  in- 
stead of  a  "wedge"  taken  by  Achan,  will  ma- 
terially lessen  our  idea  as  to  the  amount. 

WEEK  (wek),  (Heb.  ^^^,  shawboo'ah:  Gr. 
adfifiarop,  sab' bat-on). 

The  division  of  time  into  portions  of  seven  days 
found  among  many  different  nations  which  cannot 
have  adopted  it  from  one  another — such  as  the 
Chinese,  Peruvians,  etc. — is  by  some  referred  back 
to  the  order  of  the  creation,  and  by  others  to  the 
"seven  planets,"  the  principal  fact  in  ancient  as- 
tronomy. 

Besides  weeks  of  seven  days,  which  were  ren- 
dered from  one  Sabbath  to  another,  the  Jews  had 
a  w^eek  of  years,  or  seven  years,  and  a  week  of 
seven  times  seven  years,  which  brought  in  the 
fiftieth  or  jubilee  year.  (See  Time,  Divisions  of; 
Sabbath.) 

WEEKS,  FEAST  OF  (w8ks,  fest  dv).  See 
Festivals;  Pentecost. 

WEIGHT  (wat).  Among  the  terms  employed 
in  the  original  Scriptures  are  the  following : 

1.  Eh' ben  (Heb.  13?),  a  stone,  a  weight  of  a  bal- 
ance. The  Orientals  often  made  use  of  stones  for 
weights  (Lev.  xix:36;  Deut.  xxv:i5;  etc.). 

2.  Mish'kawV  (Heb.   ^i?^,     weighing,    Ezra 

viii:34).  It  is  used  for  the  weight  numerically 
(Gen.  xxiv:22;  Lev.  xix:35;  Num.  vii:i3,  etc.). 

8.  Peh'les  (HeK^^S),  Prov.  xviiii;  "balance," 

(Is.  xl:i2),  a  steelyard. 

4.  In  the  New  Testament  "weight"  is  mentioned 
only  once  in  its  literal  sense,  and  is  the  rendering 
of  Gr.  raXai^ioIof  (tal-an-tee-ah'-yos) ,  talentlike 
in  weight  (Rev.  xvi:2i).  The  Israelites  were 
commanded  to  have  "just  weights"  (Lev.  xix: 
36;  Deut.  XXV :  15;  Prov.  xx:io,  23),  which  is  a 
condemnation  of  the  habit  of  carrying  two  sets  of 
weights.  The  prophet  Micah  (vi:ii)  denounces 
"the  bag  of  deceitful  weights,  referring  to  the 
stone  or  lead  Weights  which  were  carried  m  a  bag. 

Figurative.  ( i )  Job,  in  speaking  of  the  fixed 
laws  ordained  by  Jehovah  for  the  duration  of  the 
world,  says:  "He  appointed  the  weight  ior  the 
winds"  (xxviii:25),  i.  e.,  the  measure  of  its  force 
or  feebleness.  (2)  To  "eat  bread  by  weight" 
(Ezek.  iv:io,  16)  denotes  extreme  poverty  or 
scarcity  of  food.  (3)  A  weight  of  glory,  of  which 
Paul  speaks  (2  Cor.  iv:i7),  is  opposed  to  the 
lightness  of  the  evils  of  this  life.  The  troubles  wp 
endure  are  really  of  no  more  weight  than  a  feather, 
or  of  no  weight  at  all,  if  compared  to  the  weight 
or  intenseness  of  that  glory,  which  shall  be  here- 
after a  compensation  for  them.  In  addition  to 
this,  it  is  probable  the  Apostle  had  in  view  the 
double  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word  kabSd,  which 
signifies  not  only  weight,  but  ^lory;  glory,  that  is, 
splendor,  in  this  world  the  lightest  thing  in  na- 
ture ;  but  in  the  other  world  it  may  be  real,  at  once 
substantial  and  radiant.  (4)  The  author  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (xii:i)  urges  his  readers 
to  "lay  aside  every  weight,**  (Gr.  67fo»»  ^^^' 
kos).  This  word  means  anything  prominent,  an 
encumbrance ;  it  is  used  fi^ratively  for  whatever 
disposition  (as  worldly-mindedness,  indifference 
or  sensuality)  bows  the  soul  down  to  the  ground, 
and  consequently  hinders  it  in  running  its  spir- 
itual race. 

WEIGHTS    AND    MEASX7BES    (wats   ^nd 
mizh'ftrs).    This  is  a  subject  on  which  our  knowl- 


edge is  by  no  means  complete  and  satisfactory,  as 
the  notices  respecting  it  which  the  Bible  supplies 
are  fragmentary  and  scattered. 

I.  MEASURES  OF  WEIGHT.  Gold  and  sil- 
ver were  used  by  the  Hebrews  as  standards  of 
value  which  were  indicated  by  weights.  The  Jew- 
ish rabbis  estimated  weights  according  to  the 
number  of  grains  of  barley,  taken  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  ear,  to  which  they  were  equivalent.  The 
weights  used  by  the  Israelites  were  as  follows : 

(1)  Talent   (Heb.  "»??,   kik-kawr',   circle;  Gr. 

T6,\avT0¥t  tafan-ton,  a  balance),  the  name  given  to 
this  weight,  perhaps,  from  its  having  been  taken 
as  "a  round  number"  or  sum  total.  It  was  the 
largest  weight  among  the  Hebrews,  being  used  for 
metals,  whether  goldf  (i  Kings  ix:i4;  x:io,  etc.), 
silver  (2  Kings  v:22),  lead  (Zech.  v;7),  bronze 
(Exod.  xxxviii:29),  or  iron  (i  Chron.  xxix:7). 
The  talent  was  used  by  various  nations  and  dif- 
fered considerably. 

The  Hebrew  system  had  two  talents  for  the 
precious  metals  in  the  relation  of  2  to  i.  The 
gold  talent,  apparently  not  used  elsewhere,  con- 
tained 100  manehs,  each  of  which  contained  again 
100  shekels,  there  being  thus  10,000  of  these  units, 
weighing  about  132  grains  each  in  the  talent. 

The  silver  talent,  also  known  as  the  iCginetan, 
contained  3,000  shekels,  weighing  about  220  grains 
each.  One  gold  talent  appears  to  have  been  equal 
to  twenty-four  of  these.  The  reason  for  making 
the  talent  of  gold  twice  that  of  silver  was  prol^ 
ably  merely  for  the  sake  of  distinction. 

The  gold  talent  contained  100  manehs  and  10^- 
000  shekels. 

The  silver  talent  contained  3,000  shekels,  6,000 
bekas  and  60,000  gerahs. 

The  copper  talent  probably  contained  1,500 
shekels. 

(2)  Shekel  (Heb.  ^ijf ,  sheh'kei,  weight),  equal 

to  twenty  gerahs  (Ezek.  xlv:i2),  or  ten  penny- 
weights English.  Although  in  very  early  times 
there  may  have  been  but  one  shekel  (Gen.  xxiii: 
15).  it  appears  certain  that  from  the  period  of  the 
Exodus  there  were  at  least  two  shekels— one  used 
in  all  ordinary  transactions  (Exod.  xxxviii:29; 
Josh,  vii  :2i ;  2  Kings  vii  :i ;  Amos  viii^,  etc.)  ;  the 
other  used  in  the  payment  of  vows,  offerings,  and 
other  religious  purposes  (Exod.  xxx:i3;  Lev.  v: 
15;  Num.  iii:47),  and  called  the  "shekel  of  the 
sanctuary."  The  theory  of  Hebrew  coinage  as 
propounded  by  Rev.  W.  L.  Bevan,  in  Smith's  Bib. 
Diet.,  is  as  follows: 

Gold.  .  .  Shekel  or  Daric  fforeisn)  lag  grains. 
Silver.   .  Shekel  s»o,  Half-shekel  iia 
Copper .  Half  (-shekel)  064,  Quarter  (-shekel)  133, 
(Sixth-shekel)  88. 

(8)  Kaneh  (Heb.  ^t^,  maw-neh^  a  portion),  the 

original  of  the  Latin  moneta  and  the  English 
word  money,  occurs  in  i  Kings  x:i7.  Ezra  11:69, 
Neh.  vii 71,  72  only;  rendered  "pound"  in  Ezek. 
xlv:i2;  A.  V.  maneh.  In  this  latter  passage  Eze- 
kiel  seems  to  speak  of  a  maneh  of  fifty  or  sixty 
shekels:  "And  the  shekel  (shall  be)  twenty  ge- 
rahs; twenty  shekels,  five  and  twenty  shekels, 
fifteen  shekels  shall  be  your  maneh'*  (xlv;i2). 
The  ordinary  text  of  the  LXX  gives  a  series  of 
small  sums  ais  the  Hebrew,  though  differing  in 
the  numbers,  but  the  Alexandrian  and  Vatican 
MSS.  have  fifty  for  fifteen.  The  meaning  would 
be,  either  that  there  were  to  be  three  manehs,  re- 
spectively containing  twenty,  twenty-five,  and 
fifteen  shekels,  or  the  like,  or  else  that  a  sum  is 
intended  by  these  numbers  (20-f-25-|-l5)=6o,  or 
possibly  50.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  this 
is  a  prophetical  passage. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


1718 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


There  were  a  hundred  shekels  of  gold  in  a  gold 
maneh. 

(4)  Bekali  (Heb.   ^|3,  beh'kah),  from  a   root 

signifying  to  divide,  a  fraction,  only  mentioned 
twice  (Gen.  xxiv:22;  Exod.  xxxviii:26).  In  the 
latter  passage  it  is  said  to  equal  one  half  a  sacred 
shekel.  It  was  the  weight  in  silver  which  was 
paid  for  each  Israelite  numbered  (Exod.  xxxviii: 
26),  and  was  equal  to  the  tribute  or  didrachm 
(Matt.  xvii:24). 

(5)  Gerali  (Heb.  ^1^,  gay-raw\  kernel,  a  bean 

or  grain),  the  smallest  of  the  Hebrew  weights 
and  the  equivalent  of  the  twentieth  part  of  the 
sacred  shekel  (Exod.  xxx;i3;  Lev.  xxvii:25; 
Num.  iii:47;  xviii:i6;  Ezek.  xlv:i2). 

(6)  Dram  or  Drachm  (Heb.  Pl^  ad-ar-kone', 

I  Chron.  xxix.7;  Ezra  viii:27;  l^'^H-.  dar-kem-ane^ ^ 

Ezra  ii:69;  Neh.  vii:70,  etc.),  thought  by  some  to 
be  identical  with  each  other  and  with  the  Persian 
daric.  Others  conclude  from  i  Chron.  xxix:7  that 
the  adarkone  was  less  than  three  tenths  of  a 
shekel.  (See  Table  of  Weights,  page  42,  Appen- 
dix.) 

II.  MEASURES  OF  VALUE.  Commerce,  in 
its  most  primitive  state,  is  a  mere  bartering,  one 
kind  of  goods  being  exchanged  for  another.  The 
next  stage  in  commercial  development  is  the  in- 
vention of  a  common  means  of  exchange,  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  precious  metals — gold  and  sil- 
ver— as  standards  of  value,  the  employment  of 
money. 

1.  Uncoined  fionep.  This  money,  however, 
was  not  coined.  It  was  simply  the  metal  itself, 
kept  in  ingots,  rings,  etc.,  and  used  according  to 
its  weight,  when,  in  the  period  before  tne  Captiv- 
ity, the  Ol-d  Testament,  as  before  noticed,  speaks 
of  money — ^pieces  of  gold  and  silver,  shekels,  mina, 
talent,  etc. — a  certain  weight  of  precious  metal  is 
meant  thereby,  and  nothing  more. 

2.  Coined  Money.  Coined  money  does  not 
appear  among  the  Jews  until  after  the  Captivity, 
but  then  we  meet  successively  with  Persian,  Greek, 
Syrian,  Roman,  and  national  Jewish  coins.  The 
first  Jewish  coins  were  struck  by  Simon  Macca- 
bxus,  who,  about  B.  C  139  obtained  permission  to 
coin  money  from  the  Syrian  king  Antiochus  VII. 
Shekels,  half-shekels,  etc.,  of  gold,  silver,  and  cop- 
per were  struck,  showing  on  one  side  a  vase,  per- 
haps representing  a  pot  of  manna,  and  on  the 
other  side  an  almond  branch  with  three  flowers, 
perhaps  representing  Aaron's  staff.  After  this 
time  coins  were  struck  by  the  Asmonaean  princes, 
the  Idumaean  kings,  during  the  first  revolt  under 
Eleazar,  and  during  the  second  under  Barcoche- 
bas ;  and  besides  these  national  Jewish  coins,  for- 
tign  coins  of  Persian,  Greek,  and  Roman  make 
circulated  in  great  multitude  in  Palestine.  Of 
these  latter  the  following  are  mentioned  in  the 
Bible: 

(1)  Bekali  (Heb.  ^|23,  beh^kah,  a  halO,  a  Jewish 

weight  of  a  half  shekel's  value^  (Exod.  xxxviii :26). 
As  a  coin  it  may  have  been  issued  at  any  time 
from  Alexander  until  the  earlier  period  of  the 
Maccabees.     (See  Shekel,  below,  in  this  article.) 

(2)  Brass  (Heb.  ^t^f,  nekh-o'sheth^  copper 

(Ezek.  xvi:a6.  A.  V.  "filthiness") .  In  the  ex- 
pression, "Because  thy  fillhiness  is  poured  out," 
nekh'O'sheth  probably  means  brass  or  copper  in 
the  general  sense  of  money.  These  bronze  or  cop- 
per coins  were  worth,  according  to  weight  and  size, 
a  whole,  a  half,  and  a  quarter  gerah.    In  Matt. 


x:9  (Gr.  x«^^i  khal'kos\  rendered  "money"  in 
Mark  vi:8;  xii:4i),  "brass"  is  used  apparently  of  a 
small  Roman  or  Greek  copper  coin,  ol  about  the 
value  of  a  portion  of  a  farthing,  one  half  cent. 

(3)  Denarius.    See  Penny,  below. 

(4)  Didrachm.    See  Didrachma. 

(5)  Dram  (Heb.  l^l^i?,  ad-ar-kone'^  i  Chron. 
xxix:7;    Ezra    viii:27;     T^?*?!!,  dar-kem-one*,  Ezra 

ii:69;  Neh.  vii  70-72)  is  usually  thought  to  mean 
the  daric  of  the  Persians,  and  seems  to  be  etymo- 
logical ly  connected  with  the  Greek  drachma.  The 
gold  dram  was  worth  about  five  dollars  and  fifty 
cents. 

(6)  Farthing.  Two  names  of  coins  in  the  New 
Testament  are  rendered  in  the  A.  V.  by  this  word, 
(l)  (Gr.  Kodparrrit,  kod-ran' tctce ;  Lat.  quadrans, 
Matt.  v:26;  Mark  xii:42),  a  coin  current  in  Pal- 
estine in  the  time  of  our  Lord.  It  was  equivalent 
to  two  lepta  (A.  V.  "mites").  Its  value  was  about 
3.8  mills.  (2)  (Gr.  dtradpiop,  as-sar' ee-on ;  Matt. 
x:29;  Luke  xii:6),  properly  a  small  as,  assarium, 
but  in  the  time  of  our  Lord  used  as  the  Greek 
equivalent  of  the  Latin  as.  Its  value  is  estimated 
at  three-fourths  of  a  penny  English  money,  or  one 
and  a  half  cents  of  ours. 

(7)  Fourth  Part  of  a  Shekel  (Heb.  3?3^,  r^Jk'- 

bah,  fourth,  i  Sam.  ix:8),  the  money  which 
SauPs  servant  gave  to  Samuel  as  a  present.  It 
was  the  fourth  of  a  shekel.     (See  Shekel,  below.) 

(8)  Gerah  (Heb.  ^^K^'ay-raw',  a  kernel,  Exod. 

XXX 131;  Lev.  xxvii:25;  Num.  iii:47;  xviii:i6; 
Ezek.  xlv:i2),  the  smallest  weight  and  also  the 
smallest  piece  of  money  among  the  Hebrews.  It 
represented  the  twentieth  part  of  a  shekel,  and 
was  worth  about  three  cents. 

(0)  Gold.  Gold  was  circulated  by  weight  among 
the  Hebrews  (i  Chron.  xxviii:i4).  The  Roman 
imperial  aureus,  which  passed  for  twenty-five  de- 
narii, about  22s.  sterling,  or  $5.50,  circulated  in 
New  Testament  times. 

(10)  Half  a  Shekel.    See  Bekah,  above. 

(11)  Mite  (Gr.  Xerr^r,  lep-fon',  Mark  xii:42; 
Luke  xii:59;  xxi:2),  a  coin  current  in  Palestine 
in  the  time  of  our  Lord.  It  seems  in  Palestine  to 
have  been  the  smallest  piece  of  money.  The  mite 
(Mark  xii:42)  was  half  of  the  above-mentioned 
farthing,  or  about  two  mills  of  our  currency. 

(13)  Penny  (Gr.  Sfjpdpiow,  day-nar' ee-on.  Matt. 
xviii;28;  xx:2,  9,  13;  xxiirig;  Mark  vi:37;  xii: 
15 ;  xiv  :5 ;  Luke  vii  :4i ;  x  :35 ;  xx  :24 ;  John  vi  7 ; 
xii:5;  Rev.  vi:6).  This  was  a  Roman  silver  coin 
equal  to  an  Attic  drachma,  or  about  sixteen 
American  cents.  "Shilling"  would  be  a  more  cor- 
rect translation. 

(13)  Piece  of  Money.  This  expression  repre- 
sents two  kinds  of  money  in  the  Old  Testament; 
{a)Kesitah    (Heb.   •'^^^?l?,   kes-ee-taw',   weighed. 

Gen.  xxxiiiriS,  19).  "The  kesitah  was  a  weighed 
piece  of  metal,  and  to  judge  from  Gen.  xxiii:i6, 
Job  xliirii,  of  considerably  higher  value  than  the 
shekel;  not  an  unstamped  piece  of  silver  of  the 
value  of  a  lamb,  as  supposed  by  the  old  interpret- 
ers (Keil.  Arch,  ii,  24).  (6)  The  stater  or  piece 
of  money  (Matt.  xvii:27),  a  Greek  or  Roman  sil- 
ver coin  (a  shekel  in  weight),  in  value  over  fifty 
cents.  The  stater,  or  coined  shekel,  of  the  Jews 
is  often  found  in  the  cabinets  of  antiquaries  at 
the  present  day. 

(14)  Piece  of  Silver  (Heb.  V^,  rats),  perhaps 
pieces  of  uncoined  silver  are  meant  (Ps.  Ixviii  :3o). 
Two  words  in  the  New  Testament  are  translated 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


1719 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


by  "piece  of  silver."  In  Luke  (xv  :8,  9)  "pieces" 
is  the  rendering  of  the  Gr.  dpaxM^>  drakh-may' 
(see  Dram,  above)  ;  "pieces"  is  the  translation  of 
Gr.  iipnf^piov,  ar-goo' ree-on  (Msiit.  xxviris;  xxvii: 
3f  5»  6,  9),  in  the  account  of  the  betrayal  of  Qirist 
for  "thirty  pieces  of  silver."  These  are  often 
taken  to  be  denarii,  but  on  insufficient  ground. 

(15)  Pound  (Gr.  fim,  mnah,  Luke  xix:i3-25), 
a  value  mentioned  in  the  parable  of  the  Ten 
Pounds,  as  is  the  talent  in  Matt,  xxv:  14-30. 
Probably  a  Greek  pound  is  intended,  a  weight 
used  as  a  money  of  account,  of  which  sixty  went 
to  the  talent,  the  weight  depending  upon  the 
weight  of  the  talent.  Its  value  was  about  sixteen 
dollars  and  fifty  cents  to  seventeen  dollars  and 
sixty  cents. 

(16)  Shekel    (Heb.     ^1?^,    sheh' kel,    weight). 

The  shekel  was  properly  a  certain  weight,  and 
the  shekel  weight  of  silver  was  the  unit  of  value 
through  the  whole  age  of  Hebrew  history  down  to 
the  Babylonian  captivity.  Smith,  O.  T.  Hist.,  p. 
695,  gives  the  value  of  the  gold  shekel  as  one 
pound  two  shillings,  about  five  dollars  and  fifty 
cents ;  the  silver  as  three  shillings,  about  seventy- 
five  cents.  Of  copper,  we  have  parts  of  the  cop- 
per shekel — the  half,  the  quarter,  the  sixth.  The 
entire  shekel  has  not  been  found. 

(17)  SUverling  (Heb.  ^.?,  JkeA'sef),  i.  e.  silver, 

as  elsewhere  rendered,  a  word  used  only  once  in 
the  A.  V.  (Is.  vii:23),  for  a  piece  of  silver.  (See 
Piece  of  Silver,  above.) 

(18)  Stater.     See  Piece  of  Money  (&),  above. 

(10)  Talent   (Heb.   "'J?,   kik-kawr' ,  a    circle; 

Gr.  TdXoFToi',  ial'an-ton,  a  balance),  was  the  larg- 
est weight  among  the  Hebrews,  being  used  for 
metals,  whether  gold,  silver,  etc.  According  to 
Smith  (O.  T.  Hist.  p.  395),  a  talent  of  gold  was 
worth  in  English  money,  ii  1,000,  or  about  $55,000; 
of  silver,  £450,  or  $2,250.  In  the  New  Testament 
this  word  is  used  (a)  in  the  parable  of  the  un- 
merciful servant  (Matt,  xviii  :23-25)  ;  {b)  in  the 
parable  of  the  talents  (Matt,  xxv  .14-30).  At  this 
time  the  Attic  talent  circulated  in  Palestine;  60 
min<e  and  6,000  drachm(e  were  equivalent  to  a 
talent.  It  was  consequently  worth  about  £200,  or 
$1,000. 

(20)  Third  Part  of  a  Shekel  (Num.  ^-.^2), 
about  tenpence  halfpenny  English,  or  twenty-one 
cents. 

(21)  Tribute  Money.    See  Tribute. 

(See  Tables  of  Money,  page  43.  Appendix.) 

III.  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH.  The  He- 
brews, like  all  other  ancient  nations,  took  the 
standard  of  their  measures  of  length  from  the 
human  body.  They  made  use,  however,  only  of 
the  finger,  the  han(l  and  the  arm,  not  of  the  foot. 

(1)  Pinger  or  Digit  (Heb.^3^^»  ets-bah'),  the 

smallest  measure  among  the  Hebrews,  and  equal 
to  the  breadth  of  the  human  finger.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  solid  parts  of  Solomon's  pillars  was 
measured  by  fingers  (Jer.  lii:2i). 

(2)  Handbreadth    (Heb.    "^?,    Uhjakh,   2 

(Thron.   iv:5;    Ps.   xxxixrs;  "S^,    to'fakh,  Exod. 

xxxvii:i2;  i  Kings  vii:26),  was  four  digits,  or 
the  breadth  of  the  four  fingers — from  three  to 
three  and  a  half  inches. 

(3)  Span  (Heb.  ^vv,  zeh'reth  :  only  in  Lam.  ii: 

20, '^?9,   tip-pookh'),   this  expresses  the  distance 

across  the  hand  from  the  extremity  of  the  thumb 
to  the  extremity  of  the  little  finger,  when  they  are 


stretched  as  far  apart  as  possible,  say  nine  to  ten 
inches. 

(4)  Cubit    (Heb.   ^W,   am-maw' :    Gr.    myx^J, 

pay'khoos,  the  forearm),  an  important  and  con- 
stant measure  among  the  Hebrews  (Exod.  xxv: 
10,  sq.;  I  Kings  vii:24,  sq.;  Ezek.  xl:5,  etc.),  and 
other  ancient  nations.  It  was  the  distance  from 
the  elbow  to  the  extremity  of  the  middle  finger,  or 
about  eighteen  inches.  The  different  expressions 
used  in  the  Old  Testament  about  this  measure — 
such  as  "after  the  cubit  of  a  man**  (Deut.  iii.ii ; 
"after  the  first  measure"  (2  (Thron.  iii  -.3) ;  "a 
great  cubit"  (Ezek.  xlt  :8) — show  that  it  varied. 

(5)  Pace  (Heb.  "'5¥,   tsah'ad,  2   Sam.  vi:i3), 

a  step,  and  so  translated  elsewhere.  It  would  be 
about  thirty-six  inches  and  thus  correspond  to  the 
English  yard. 

(6)  Measuring  Beed    (Heb.    •"'^S,    kaw-neh', 

reed),  properly  the  calamus,  or  sweet  cane.  It 
was  used  as  a  measure  (Ezek.  xl:3,  5;  xlii:i5, 
16).  Its  length  was  six  times  a  cubit  plus  a 
handbreadth  (Ezek.  xl  :$)  or  from  ten  to  eleven 
feet.  The  measuring-line  (Zech.  ii:i)  was  a 
hundred  and  forty-six  feet. 

(7)  Furlong  (Gr.  (TTdbiov,  stad'ee-on,  estab- 
lished), and  so  a  stated  distance  (Luke  xxiv:i3; 
John  vi:i9:  Rev.  xiv:2o).  This  was  a  Greek 
measure,  and  nearly  the  same  as  at  present — viz., 
one-eighth  of  a  mile,  or  forty  rods. 

(8)  Mile  (Gr.  idKiov,  mil' -ee-on) y  mentioned 
only  once  (Matt.  v:4i),  belonged  to  the  Roman 
system  of  measurement,  as  stadium  to  the  Greek. 
The  Roman  mile  was  one  thousand  six  hundred 
and  twelve  yards.  The  Jewish  mile  was  longer 
or  shorter,  in  accordance  with  the  longer  or 
shorter  pace  in  use  in  the  various  parts  of  the 
country. 

(9)  Sabbath  Day's  Journey  (Gr.  (rapfidrov  6d6s, 
sab-bat* 00  hod-os'.  Acts  i:i2),  was  about  seven- 
eighths  of  a  mile,  and  the  term  denoted  the  dis- 
tance which  Jewish  tradition  said  one  might  travel 
without  a  violation  of  the  law  (Exod.  xvi:29). 
It  is  supposed  that  this  distance  extended  first 
from  the  Tabernacle  to  the  remotest  section  of 
the  camp,  and  afterward  from  the  Temple  to  the 
remotest  parts  of  the  holy  city. 

(10)  A  Little  Way  (Heb.VT)?'?  ^^^^l  kab'raht 

haw-aw'rets.  Gen.  xxxv:i6;  xlviii:7;  2  Kings  v: 
19).  The  expression  appears  to  indicate  some 
definite  distance,  but  we  are  unable  to  state  with 
precision  what  that  distance  was.  The  Syriac 
and  Persian  versions  render  the  term  by  parasan^, 
a  well-known  Persian  measure,  generally  esti- 
mated at  30  stades  (Herod.  ii:6:  v:53),  or  from 
^j4  to  4  English  miles,  but  sometimes  at  a  larger 
amount,  even  up  to  60  stades  (Strab.  xi:5i8). 
The  only  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  the  Bible 
is  that  the  cibrath  did  not  exceed  and  probably 
equaled  the  distance  between  Bethlehem  and 
RacheFs  burial  place,  which  is  traditionally  identi- 
fied with  a  spot  lyi  miles  north  of  the  t®wn. 

(11)  Day's   Journey   (Heb.  ='^  ^^\  deh'rek 

yome).  This  was  the  most  usual  method  of  cal- 
culating distances  in  traveling  (Gen.  xxx:36; 
xxxi:23;  Exod.  iii:  18;  v:3;  Num.  x:33;  xi  :3i ; 
xxxiiirS;  Deut.  i:2;  i  Kings  xix:4;  2  Kings  iii:9; 
Jonah  iii:3;  i  Mace.  v:24:  vii:45;  Tobit  vi:i), 
though  but  one  instance  of  it  occurs  in  the  New 
Testament  (Luke  ii:44).  It  probably  indicated 
no  certain  distance,  but  was  taken  to  be  the  or- 
dinary distance  which  a  person  in  the  East  travels 
on  foot,  or  on  horseback  or  camel,  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  a  journey.     The  ordinary  day's  journey 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  17 

among  the  Jews  was  30  miles;  but  when  they 
traveled  in  companies  only  10  miles.  (See  Table 
OF  Measures  of  Length,  page  42,  Appendix.) 

(19)  KetoTard  (Heb.  ^^?,  mid-daw',  exten- 
sion), a  general  term  for  measure. 

IV.  MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY.  These  in- 
cluded liquid  and  dry  measures.  In  some  cases 
they  were  used  both  ways. 

i.  Liquid  M'tmns.  <1)  Z-ogr  (Heb.  A 
lohg,  boUow,  Lev.  xiv:io,  etc.),  originally  signi- 
fied a  basin.  The  rabbins  reckoned  it  equal  to 
six  hen's  eggs,  their  contents  being  measured  by 
the  amount  of  water  they  displaced,  thus  making 
it  the  one-twelfth  of  a  kin. 

(2)  Hin  (Heb.  ^"^',  heen,  of  Egyptian  origin, 
Exod.  xxix:40;  xxx:24;  Num.  xv  :4,  J,  g;  Ezek. 
iv:ll,  etc.),  containing  twelve  logs  and  holding 
one- sixth  bath,   nearly  six  pints. 

(8)  Bath  (Heb.  ^-,  balA,  measured),  the 
largest  of  the  liquid  measures;  first  mentioned  in 
I  Kings  vii:36;  equal  to  the  ephah,  and  so  to  the 
one-tenth  homer  (Ezek.  xlv:ii).  We  gather  from 
Josephus  {Antiq.  iii:8,  3)  that  the  bath  contained 
six  bins.  Its  capacity  would  thus  be  about  seven 
and  a  half  gallons.  (See  Table  of  Lifiuio  Meas- 
ures, page  42,  Appendix.) 

2,  Urg  Mtaaurea.  (1)  Handftil  (Heb.  Y^P' 
ko'mcti.  Lev.  iiia;  v:i2),  probably  never  brought 


»  WELL 

The  homer  contained  ten  ephahs  (Ezek.  xlv:ii), 
nearly  eight  bushels.  The  half  homer  was  known 
as  UA'lAei  (Heb.  ^?,Hos.ili:2).  (See Table  or 
Dry  MEAStmss,  page  41,  Appendix.) 


1.  Be-ayr"  (Heb;  "^S?,  a  pit),  something  dug,  and 


18,  etc.).  __ 

2.  Mak-yavm'  (Heb.  Vi^),  a  fountain,  as  in  Ps. 
Ixxxiv  :6. 

J.  Ah'yin  (Heb.  X-^,  an  eye),  a  fountain; 
whether  so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  the  eye, 
or,  vice  versa,  the  eye,  from  its  resemblance  lo  a 
fountain,  may  be  doubtful  (Gen.  xxiv:i3,  16; 
xlix:23;'Neh.  ii:i3);  a  living  spring. 

4.  Bore  (Heb.  113,  i  Sam.  Kix:a2;  2  Sam.  iil: 
26;  xxiii;i5,   16;  I  Chron.  xi:i7,  18), 

5.  Freh'ar  (Or.  ^p^op,  hole,  John  iv;ll,  12),  a 
pit  dug.  and  thus  distinguished  from  a  living 
spring. 

0.  Bay-gay'  (Gr.  rirrf,  gushing),  a  fountain 
gushing  from  a  spring  (John  iv:6,  14;  3  Pet  ii; 
17).     (Mc.  &  Str.  Cyc) 


(2)  Cab  (Heb.  312,  kah,  hollow,  or  concave,) 
mentioned  only  in  2  Kings  vi:2s),  was,  according 
to  the  rabbins,  equal  to  one-Sixth  seah.  (See 
Seah  below.) 

(3)  Omar  (Heb.  ""P^,  o'w/-).  This  is  men- 
tioned only  in  Exod.  xvi;  16-36.  The  same  meas- 
ure is  elsewhere  termed  issirSn,  as  being  the  tenth 
part  of  an  ephah  (comp.  Exod.  xvi  136),  whence 
in  the  A.  V.  "tenth  deaf"  (Lev.  xiv:io;  xxiii:i3; 
Num.  xv:4,  etc.).  The  word  omer  implies  a 
heap,  and  secondarily  a  sheaf. 

(4)  S«ali  (Heb.'"^P,  seh-a-af.  measure;  A.  V. 
measure.  Gen,  xviii:6;  I  Sam.  xxvitS;  2  Kings 
vii:i6,  18;  ephah,  Judg.  vi:i9).  The  ordinary 
measure  for  household  purposes.  Jahn  (Arch,, 
114)  thinks  that  it  was  merely  the  Hebrew  name 
for  ephah.  According  to  the  rabbins,  it  was 
equal  to  one-third  ephah.  and  was,  perhaps,  identi- 
cal with  A.  V.  "measure"  (*'^?,  skaw-leesh'.  Is. 
xlriz).  The  Greek  equivalent  occurs  in  Matt. 
xiii:33;  Luke  xiii:2i. 

(5)  Ephah  (Heb.  ^I».  ay-faw').  a  word  of 
Egyptian  origin,  and  of  frequent  recurrence  in  the 
Bible  (Exod.  xvi:36;  Lev.  v:ii;  viiao;  Num.  v: 
15;  xxviii:s;  Judg.  vi:ig:  Ruth  iiii?;  i  Sam.  i: 
24;  xvii:i7;  Ezek.  xlviii,  13;  x!vi:5,  7.  11,  14). 
It  contained  ten  omers.  about  three  pecks  and 
three  pints,  and  was  equivalent  in  capacity  to  the 
liquid  measure,  baih.  According  lo  Josephus 
(Anliq.  viii,  2,  9),  the  ephah  contained  seventy-two 


t  (Heb.  ^'5".  kho'mer),  is  a  vrord 
meaning  heap  (Lev.  xxvii:i6;  Num.  xi;32;  Is.  v; 
10;  Eiek.  xlv:i3).  It  is  elsewhere  termed  13, 
kore,  A.  V.  measure,  from  the  circular  vessel  in 
which  it  was  measured  (i  Kings  iv:22;  v:ii;  2 
Chron.  ii:io;  xxvii:s;  Ezra  vii:22;  Eiek.  xlv: 
14).    The  Greek  equivalent  occurs  in  Luke  xvi  7. 


Well  and  BnckslMjlfl^ 

(1)  Zmportancs.  Wells  were  very  essentia!  in 
a  dry  and  hot  country  like  Palestine,  and  were 
generally  provided  at  each  place  of  pasturage  with 
a  great  outlay  of  labor.  They  were  deep  (John 
iv  :ii),  and  difficult  both  to  dig  and  preserve,  and 
hence  were  a  valuable  part  of  the  husbandman's 
property  (Num.  xx:i7-i9j.  They  were  some- 
times owned  in  common  (Gen.  xxix:2,  3). 

(2)  Protection.  To  protect  them  from  the  sand 
and  from  being  used  by  others,  they  were  cov- 
ered, usually  with  a  stone,  and  surronnded  with 
a  low  Tvall  (Gen.  xxix  12,  8).  To  stop  them  up 
was,  and  slill  is,  regarded  as  an  act  of  hostility 
(Gen.  xxvi  :i5),  and  to  invade  the  right  of  prop- 
erty in  them  was  often  the  cause  of  sharp  con- 
tention (Gen.  xxi;25). 

(3)  Drawing  Water.  It  appears  in  Scripture 
that  the  wells  were  sometimes  owned  by  a  number 
of  persons  in  common,  and  that  flocks  were 
brought  to  them  for  watering  on  appointed  days, 
in  an  order  previously  arranged.  A  well  was  often 
covered  witn  a  great  stone,  which,  being  removed, 
the  person  descended  some  steps  to  the  surface  of 
the  water,  and  on  his  return  poured  into  a  trough 
that  which  he  had  brought  up  (Gen.  xxiv:ii-i6; 
xxix:3-io;  Exod.  ii:i6;  Judg.  v:ii).  There  is,  in 
fict,  no  intimation  of  any  other  way  of  drawinfr 
water  from  wells  in  Scripture.  But  as  this  could 
only  be  applicable  in  cases  where  the  well  was  not 
deep,  we  must  assume  that  they  had  the  use  of 
those  contrivances  which  are  still  employed  in  the 
East,  and  son»e  of  which  are  known  from  the 
Egyptian  monuments  to  have  been  very  ancient. 
This  conclusion  js  the  more  probable  as  the  we)!* 


WELL  OF  JACOB  171 

in  Palestine  are  mostly  deep  (Prov.  xxis;  John 
iv:ll).  Jacob's  well  near  Shechem  is  said  to  be  120 
feet  deep,  with  only  fifteen  feet  of  water  in  it 
(Maundreli,  Journey,  March  24)  ;  and  the  labor 
of  drawing  from  so  deep  a  well  probably  origi- 
nated the  first  reluctance  of  the  woman  of  Sama- 
ria to  draw  water  for  Jesus :  'Sir,  thou  hast  noth- 
ing to  draw  with,  and  the  well  is  deep.'  From  this 
deeper  kind  of  well  the  water  is  drawn  by  hand 
in  a  leathern  bucket  not  too  heavy,  sometimes  by 
a  windlass,  but  oftener,  when  the  water  is  only 
of  moderate  depth,  by  the  shadoof,  which  is  the 
most  common  and  simple  of  all  the  machines  used 
in  the  East  for  raising  water,  whether  from  wells, 
reservoirs,  or  rivers.  It  consists  of  a  tapering 
lever  unequally  'balanced  upon  an  upright  body 
variously  constructed,  and  from  (he  smaller  end 
of  which  is  suspended  the  bucket  by  a  rope.  This, 
when  lowered  into  the  well,  is  raised  full  of  water 
by  the  weight  of  the  heavier  end.  By  this  con- 
trivance the  manual  power  is  applied  in  lowering 
the  bucket  into  the  well,  for  it  rises  easily,  and  it 
is  only  necessary  to  regulate  the  ascent.  This 
machine  is  in  use  under  slight  modifications  from 
the  Baltic  to  the  Yellow  Sea,  and  was  so  from  the 
most  remote  ages  to  the  present  day.  The  speci- 
men in  the  annexed  woodcut  occurs  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Jaffa.  The  water  of  wells,  as  well  as 
of  fountains,  was  by  the  Hebrews  called  'living 
water,'  translated  'running  water,'  and  was  highly 
esteemed  (Lev.  xiv;5;  Num.  xx.i?).  It  was  thus 
distinguished  from  the  water  preserved  in  cisterns 
and  reservoirs.     (See  Fountains.} 

Figurative.  (l)  Wells  furnished  an  appropri- 
ate emblem  of  rich  blessings  (Jer.  ii:i3;  xvii:i,i). 
(2)  Wells  are  metaphorically  used  of  God  as  the 
source  of  salvation  (Is.  xii;3;  comp.  Jer.  iiiij; 
John  iv:io);  (3)  of  the  mouth  of  the  righteous 
(Prov.  x:ii)  ;  (4)  of  wisdom  and  understanding 
in  a  man  (xvi  :22 ;  xviii  :4) :  (s)  of  drinking  from 
one's  domestic  happiness  (v:is)  :  (6)  false  teach- 
ers are  "wells  without  water;"  they  promise  men 
much  instruction,  edification,  and  comfort;  and  yet 
can  afford  nothing  but  fleshly  errors,  corrupt  ex- 
amples and  enticements  (2  Pet.  ii:i7). 

WELI.  OF  JACOB  (wSl  6v  ja'kob).  See 
Shechem, 

WSLIiSFBINa    (wil-sprlng).    See   FOUNTAIN. 

WKN  (w6n),  a.festeriiig  sore  (Lev.  xxii:22), 

WSNCH  (wSnch),  ( Heb.  '^'T??,  shif-khaiu\ 
2  Sam.  xvii:i7),  a  maid  or  servant,  generally  of 
low  virtue. 

WXST  (wSst),  (Heb.  1^!*,  awiAt^re',  behind; 
^',  yawm,  the  sea;  ^^sS  "13^  ^^  hask-shth'- 
mesh,  the  going  down  of  the  sun;  ^??S,  mah-ar' 
awi',  evening). 

The  Semite,  in  speaking  of  the  quarters  of  the 
heavens,  etc.,  supposes  his  face  turned  towards 
the  east,  so  that  the  east  is  before  him,  strictly 
what  is  before,  or  in  front ;  the  south  on  his  right 
hand,  strictly  what  lies  to  the  right ;  the  north  on 
his  left  hand,  the  left  side;  and  the  west  behind 
him,  literally  the  hinder  side ;  and  the  various 
words  employed  to  designate  the  quarter  of  the 
heavens  have  literally  the  signification  mentioned. 
J.  F.  D. 

WHAIiE  (hwal),  (Heb.  T-"?,  /an,  and  T*^.  tan. 
«^«n';  Sept.  and  Matt.  xii:40,  jitt*',  whalel,  occurs 
in  several  places  of  the  Old  Testament  (Gen.  i:2i ; 
Job  vii:i2)  and  once  in  the  New  Testament, 

In  the  passages  where  scales  and  feet  are  men- 
tioned as  belonging  to  tan,  commentators  have 


1  WHEAT 

shown  that  the  crocodile  is  intended,  which  then 
is  synonymous  with  the  leviathan ;  and  they  have 
endeavored  also  to  demonstrate,  where  tanneen 
draw  the  dugs  to  suckle  their  young,  that  seals 
are  meant,  although  cetacea  nourish  theirs  in  a 
similar  manner.  It  may  be  doubted  whether,  in 
most  of  the  cases,  the  poetical  diction  points  ab- 
solutely to  any  specific  animal,  particularly  as 
there  is'  more  force  and  grandeur  in  a  generalized 
and  collective  image  of  the  huge  monsters  of  the 
deep,  not  inappropriately  so  called,  than  in  the 
resiriction  to  any  one  species,  since  all  are  in 
Gen.  i  ;z6  made  collectively  subservient  to  the 
supremacy  of  man.  But  criticism  is  still  more 
inappropriate  when,  not  contented  with  pointing 
to  some  assumed  species,  it  attempts  to  rationalize 
miraculous  events  by  such  arguments :  as  in  the 
case  of  Jonah,  where  the  fact  of  whales  having  a 
small  gullet,  and  not  being  found  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, is  adduced  to  prove  that  the  hOge  fish  dag 
was  not  a  cetacean,  but  a  shark  (Jonah  i;i7 ). 
It  may  be  observed,  besides,  of  cetaceous  ani- 
mals, thai  though  less  frequent  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean than  in  the  ocean,  they  are  far  from  being 
unknown  there.  C.  H.  S. 

WHEAT  (hwEi),  (Heb.  ^^,khit'tawh"\,<xz\i.n 
in  various  passages  of  Scripture,  as  enumerated 
by  Celsius  (Gen.  xxx;i4;  Exod,  ix:!!;  xxxiv;22; 
Deut,viii:8;Judg.  villi;  yv:i;  Ruth.  ii:23;  I  Sam. 
vi;i3;xii:i7;xvii:28;  I  Kingsv:li;  I  Chron.  xxi:20, 
23;  a  Chron,  ii:i5;xxvii:5;  Jobxxxi:40;  Ps.  Ixxxi:i6; 
cxlvii:i4;  Cant,  vii:2;  Is.  xxviii:25;  Jer.  xii:i3;  xli;8; 
Ezek.  iv^;  xxvii:!?;  xlv:i3;  and  Joel  i:il). 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  word  so  ren- 
dered has  this  signification.  Grains  of  wheat  have 
been  found  in  Egyptian  tombs,  showing  its  use  in 
remotest  antiquity.  Wheat  having  been  one  of 
the  earliest   cultivated  grains,  is  most  probably 


EgypiiflO  Wheat. 

of  Asiatic  origin,  as  no  doubt  Asia  was  the  earliest 
civilized,  as  well  as  the  first  peopled,  country.  As 
both  wheat  and  barley  are  cultivated  in  the  plains 
of  India  in  the  winter  months,  where  none  of  the 
species  of  these  genera  are  indigenous,  it  is  proba- 
ble thai  both  have  been  introduced  into  India  from 
the  north;  that  is,  from  the  Persian,  and  perhaps 
from  the  Tartarian  region,  where  these  and  other 
species  of  barley  are  most  successfully  and  abun- 
dantly cultivated.  Different  species  of  wheat  were 
no  doubt  cultivated  by  the  ancients,  as  Trilicum 
compositum  in  Egypt,  T.  aslixmm,  T.  hibemum  in 


WHEEL 


1722 


WIDOW 


Syria,  etc.;  but  both  barley  and  wheat  are  too 
well  known  to  require  further  illustration  in  this 
place.  J.  F.  R. 

Figurative,  (i)  Jesus  Christ  is  compared  to  a 
"corn  of  wheat;"  he  brings  forth  to  men  pleasant 
fruits  of  righteousness  and  blessings  in  conse- 
quence of  his  death  and  resurrection  (John  xii: 
24).  (2)  The  saints  are  called  "wheat"  to  mark 
their  solidity,  usefulness  and  good  fruit,  accepta- 
ble to  God  through  Jesus  Christ  (Matt.  iii:i2). 
(3)  The  word  of  God  is  likened  to  "wheat;"  how 
sweet,  substantial,  and  nourishing  is  the  fullness 
of  Jesus  therein  included  and  communicated  to 
our  souJ  I  (Jer.  xxiii  :28).  (4)  To  be  **fed  with 
the  finest  of  the  wheat"  is  to  possess  great  happi- 
ness and  comfort  (Ps.  Ixxxi:i6).  (5)  The  Jews 
"sowed  wheat"  and  "reaped  thorns;"  when  their 
apparently  well-planned  schemes  of  alliance  with 
Egypt  and  the  nations  around,  and  the  like,  did 
but,  in  the  issue,  increase  their  vexation  and  mis- 
ery (Jer.  xii:  13). 

WHEEL  (hwel).    1.  (Heb.  *i3^,^'^^),  a  potter's 

wheel,  which  must  have  been  known  in  Egypt 
before  the  time  of  Joseph  (Jer.  xviii:3). 

2.  (Heb.  1?  '^,  o-fawn\  revolving),  a  wheel  in 

its  ordinary  sense  (Exod.  xiv:2S;  i  Kings  vii:30- 
Zy,  Is.  v:28;  xxviii:27,  28;  Ezek.  i:i5-2i;  iii:i3; 
x:2-i9;  xi:22:  Nahum  iii:2). 

8.  (Heb.  ^^X  gai'gar,  revolving),  also  trans- 
lated wheel  (Ps.  Ixxxiii:i3;  Is.  v:28;  xxviii:28; 
Jer.  xlvii  :3 ;  Ezek.  x  :2,  13 ;  Dan.  vii  19)  ;  called  "a 
rolling  thing"  (Is.  xvii:i3),  which  was  probably 
a  thistle.    (See  Cart;  Chariot;  Wagon.) 

Figurative,  (i)  The  wheels  mentioned  as  seen 
in  vision  by  Ezekiel  (i:i5,  sq.;  x  12-19)  seem  to 
have  served  to  put  the  chariot  in  motion.  "Al- 
though the  throne  of  (jod  is  not  now  expressly 
represented  and  designated  as  a  chariot  throne,  yet 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  wheels  which  Eze- 
kiel sees  under  the  throne  beside  the  cherubim, 
are  intended  to  indicate  the  possibility  and  ease 
with  which  the  throne  can  be  moved  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  four  quarters  of  the  heavens"  (Keil, 
Com.,  in  loc.)  They  may  either  denote  the  mys- 
terious providence  of  God,  executed  by  the  min- 
istration of  angels,  or  the  various  churches  of 
(Thrist,  mysteriously  united  into  one,  and  actu- 
ated by  the  same  spirit,  as  gospel  ministers  are 
(Ezek.  i:io).  (2)  God  makes  men  "like awheel" 
when  he  suddenly  turns,  by  his  providence,  their 
high  honor,  power,  and  prosperity,  into  debase- 
ment, distress  (Ps.  Ixxxiii:i3).  (3)  A  most  fe- 
licitous explanation  of  the  vision  of  Ezekiel  of 
the  wheel  within  a  wheel  (i:i6)  is  the  human  in- 
strumentality working  in  conjunction  with,  yet 
within  divine  providences. 


WHELP  (hw81p),  (Heb.  ]3,  bane,  offspring;  or 
,  Job  iv:ii;    xxviiiio; 
xxxiii:22;  Jer.  li:38;  Ezek.  xix:2,  3,  5;  Nah.  ii:i2). 


^%  ^ore, 


_       \ —        —  *f»       » f  •• »  9      i^ n  F      — 

[ob  iv:ii;    xxviiiio;  Gen.  xIix.-q;  Deut. 


The  cubs  of  a  bear  (2  Sam.  xvii:8;  Prov.  xvii: 
12 ;  Hos.  xiii  :8)  are  not  indicated  by  the  Hebrew 
word. 

WHETHER  (Gr.  rtt,  //>,  Matt.  xxi:3i),  which 
of  the  two?  "Whether  of  them  twayne  did  the 
will  of  the  father  ?  "— Tyn. 

WHIRLWIND  (hwerl'wYnd).  The  four  He- 
brew words  translated  in  A  V.  "whirlwind"  denote 
a  great  storm  or  tempest  rather  than  a  wind  revolv- 
ing on  its  own  axis.    The  two  terms  generally  used 

are  soo-fav/  (Heb.  •"'?^^),  from  a  root  meaning  to 
snatch  away^  and  signifying  a  sweei^ing,  desolating 
blast  (Job  xxi:i8;  xxxvii:9;  Is.  xxi;i;  Hos,  viii:7, 


etc.);  and  saw-ar'  (^S9»  to  toss),  indicating  the  same 

thing,  but  more  with  reference  to  its  vehement, 
agitating  motion  (2  Kings  ii:i,  li;  Job  xl:6;  Is.  xl: 

24,  etc.).  Of  the  other  two,  roo'akh  (^\  Exek.  i:4) 
should  be  rendered  simply  wind;  and  the  other, 
saw'arC^^*  Ps.  lviii:9;  Dan.  xi:4o),  has  reference 
to  the  feeling  of  alarm  or  iiorror  arising  from 
storms  of  a  more  terrific  nature. 

Figurative.  {i)*A  whirlwind  out  of  the  norM 

(Ezek.  i:4)  denotes  the  invasion  from  Babylon. 
Another  word  is  also  translated  *whirlwind,[  and 
properly  so,  and  it  occurs  in  Job  xxxviiig;  Is. 
xxi:i.  It  is  used  as  a  simile  for  complete  and 
sudden  destruction  (Prov.  1:27);  and  for  the 
most  rapid  motion,  'wheels  of  war  chariots  like  a 
whirlwind'  (Is.  v:28;  Jer.  iv:i3).  (2)  Total  de* 
feat  is  often  compared  to  *chaff  scattered  by  a 
whirlwind'  (Is.  xvii:i3;  Is.  Ixvi:i5).  (3)  The 
phrase  Uo  reap  the  whirlwind'  denotes  useless 
labor  (Hos.  viii:7).  (4)  *The  day  of  the 
whirlwind,'  signifies  destruction  by  war  (Amos. 
i:i4).  (5)  *The  Lord  hath  his  way  in  the 
whirlTvind,'  is  probably  an  allusion  to  Sinai 
(Nahum  i:3).  (6)  A  beautiful  comparison  oc- 
curs in  Prov.  x;25:  *As  the  whirlwind  passeth, 
so  is  the  wicked  no  more;  hut  the  righteous  is 
an   everlasting   foundation'    (See   Winds.) 

WHITEB  (Gr.  xoytdoy,  kan-ee-ah'o.  Matt,  xxiii: 
27;  Mark  ix:3),  made  white,  whitened. 

WHOSE  (hor).    (See  Harlot.) 

WIDOW  (Heb.  •"^9/S,a/-»«aa/-«a«/',  bereaved; 
Gr.  H-fiP^  khay'rah,  deficient,  as  of  a  husband). 

(1)  Ancient  and  Mosaic  Beg^ulations.  More 
than  two  hundred  years  before  the  giving  of  the 
law,  a  widow  whose  husband  had  left  her  childless 
married  his  younger  unmarried  brother,  to  obtain 
children  to  heir  the  property  or  name  of  the  de- 
ceased; so  Tamar  married  the  two  elder  sons  of 
Judah,  and  had  the  third  promised  to  her  (Gen. 
xxxviii).  Under  the  Mosaic  law  this  was  ex- 
pressly enjoined  (Deut.  xxv:5,  6,  etc.);  or  the 
"nearest  kinsman"  might  do  it  (Ruth  iv).  As  to 
have  children  was  esteemed  a  great  honor,  espe- 
cially in  a  nation  whence  the  Messiah  was  expected, 
widowhood  in  such  as  were  not  past  the  age  ol 
child-bearing,  as  well  as  barrenness,  was  reckoned 
a  great  shame  and  reproach  (Is.  iv:i;  liv:4).  It 
was  presumed  any  young  woman  of  character 
would  certainly  find  a  husband,  either  in  the  fam- 
ily of  her  deceased  husband,  or  some  other.  The 
"widows"  of  kings,  however,  continued  in  their 
widowhood,  and  were  the  property,  though  not  al- 
ways wives,  of  the  successor;  and  to  ask  any  of 
them  in  marriage  was  considered  as  indirectly 
claiming  the  kingdom  (i  Kings  ii:i3,  14).  As 
widows  are  too  often  overlooked  by  men,  (jod  has 
claimed  a  peculiar  concern  with  them  as  their 
husband,  supporter  and  judge  (Ps.  lxviii:5,  and 
cxlvi:9).  He  charged  the  Hebrews  to  take  par- 
ticular care  of  them,  and  of  fatherless  children 
(Deut.  xiv:29),  and  has  threatened  a  terrible  pun- 
ishment against  such  as  oppress  and  injure  them 
(Ps.  xciv:6;  Mai.  iii:5). 

(2)  New  Testament  Usage.  Under  the  Gos- 
pel, the  church  is  to  provide  for  those  that  are 
widows  indeed;  i.  e.,  widows  of  a  good  character, 
humble,  and  liberal  when  able,  and  now  grown 
old  and  truly  destitute;  but  younger  widows  are 
advised  to  marry  (i  Tim.  v:3-io).  To  show  kind- 
ncss  to  widows  is  a  branch  of  the  true  religion 
(Job  xxix:i3;  James  i:27). 

Figurative.  To  mark  their  desolation  and 
privation  of  all  joy,  honor  and  comfort,  Jerusa- 


WIFE 


1723 


WINDS 


lem  and  Babylon  are  likened  to  widows  (Lam. 
i  :i ;  Is.  xlvii  :8)  ;  and  often  the  leaving  wives  wid- 
ows imports  being  cut  off  by  the  sword,  or  by 
some  untimely  death  (Lam.  vis;  Ezek.  xxii:25). 
Widowhood  and  loss  of  children  came  upon  Baby- 
Ion  in  one  day;  suddenly  she  lost  Belshazzar,  and 
her  rulers,  and  dignity ;  and  had  vast  numbers  of 
her  inhabitants  slain  by  Cyrus  (Is.  xlvii  :9), 

WIFE.    See  Marriage;  Woman. 

WILDEBNESS  (wTrder-nSs).    See  Deserts. 

WILDEBNESS   OF  WAKDEBINGS.     See 

Wandering,  The. 

WILL.  1.  (Gr.  ^Aca,  M^/V,  Mark  vi:25;  Rom. 
ix:i6),  to  wish  or  desire.  "He  sent  into  the  city  to 
his  frienOs,  to  wi//  them  to  come  unto  him." — 
Plutarch. 

2.  In  the  sense  of  a  testamentary  writing,  the 
word  tvill  does  not  occur  in  Scripture,  and,  with 
respect  to  landed  property,  such  a  disposition  must 
have  been  very  limited,  on  account  of  the  right 
of  redemption  and  general  re-entry  in  the  jubilee 
year.  With  respect  to  houses  in  walled  towns, 
such  difficulties  did  not  exist,  and  it  is  apparent, 
from  2  Sam.  xvii  :23 ;  2  Kings  xx  :i ;  Is.  xxxviii  :i, 
that  property  of  this  kind  was  bequeathed  by  will. 
Under  a  system  of  inheritance  like  that  of  the 
Jews,  the  scope  for  bequest  in  respect  of  land  was 
limited  by  the  right  of  redemption  and  general 
re-entry  in  the  jubilee  year.  Testaments  do  not 
occur  till  the  time  of  the  later  Jews  (comp.  Gal. 
iii:i5;  Heb.  ix:i7).  As  to  houses  in  walled 
towns,  the  case  was  different,  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  they  were  frequently  bequeathed  by 
will  (Lev.  XXV  :3o).  Two  instances  are  recorded 
in  the  Old  Testament  under  the  law,  of  testamen- 
tary disposition  (2  Sam.  xvii:23;  2  Kings  xx:i; 
Is.  xxxviii  :i). 

WILLOWS  (wn'ldz),(Heb.  0^5^?,  aw-raw-beem'. 
only  in  plural). 

This  is  undoubtedly  the  correct  rendering  of 
the  above  Hebrew  term,  as  is  proved  by  the  old 
versions  and  the  kindred  Arabic  gharab  (Lev. 
xxiii  :40 ;  Job  xl  :22 ;  Is.  xliv  :4 ;  Ps.  cxxxvii  :2 ;  Is. 
XV  :7).  The  willow  is  a  familiar  tree,  often  re- 
ferred to  in  the  Bible,  which  flourishes  best  in 
marshy  ground  and  on  the  borders  of  water- 
courses. Several  species  ^ow  in  Palestine.  The 
beautiful  weeping  willow  is  also  called  the  Baby- 
lonian willow,  in  allusion  to  Ps.  cxxxvii  :2;  and, 
as  this  tree  flourishes  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphra- 
tes, the  name  is  otherwise  appropriate.  Before 
the  Captivity  the  willow  was  an  emblem  of  joy 
(Lev.  xxiii  :4o),  but  afterward,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  the  psalm  mentioned  above,  it  ceased  to 
be  associated  with  the  palm,  and,  like  the  cypress, 
became  significant  of  sorrow. 

The  oleander  of  our  conservatories  is  indige- 
nous in  the  Holy  Land,  and  fringes  many  of  its 
waters  with  living  green,  the  lower  Jordan,  how- 
ever, being  too  warm  for  it.  Sometimes  it  grows 
to  such  size  that  travelers  encamp  under  its  shade. 
On  the  western  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  it  is 
especially  abundant,  as  the  poet  Keble  beautifully 
sings : 

"Where  (knnesaret's  wave 

Delights  the  flowers  to  lave. 
That  o'er  her  western  slope  breathe  air*  of  balm. 

All  through  the  summer's  night 

Those  blossoms,  red  and  bright, 
Spread  their  soft  breasts,  unheeding,  to  the  breeze. 

Like  hermits  watching  still 

Around  the  sacred  hill. 
Where  erst  our  Savior  watch'd  upon  his  knees." 


As  the  oleander  resembles  the  willow  in  leaf, 
general  appearance,  and  love  of  water,  it  may  be 
sometimes  referred  to  under  that  name.  Dean 
Stanley  has  suggested  that  it  may  be  the  tree 
"planted  by  the  rivers  of  water,"  mentioned  in 
Ps.  i  .'3.  But  the  oleander  was  a  wild  shrub,  and 
was  not  planted.  The  palm  meets  the  conditions 
better  (Schaff's  Bib,  Cyc).  

WILLOWS,  THE  B&OOK  OF  THE  (wn'16z, 

the  brook  6v  thS),  (Heb.  D'3?£Q  ^W.  nakh'alhaw 
ar-aw-beem'). 

A  stream  mentioned  by  Isaiah  (xv.7)  in  his 
dirge  over  Moab.  His  language  implies  that  it  is 
one  of  the  boundaries  of  the  country.  Some  au- 
thorities read  "the  desert  stream"  (as  Hitzig,  Mau- 
rer,  Ewald,  and  Knobel),  and  identify  it  with  the 
Wady-el'Ahsy.  Should,  however,  the  Nachal-ha- 
Arabim  be  rendered  "the  willow-torrent" — which 
has  the  support  of  Gesenius  (Jesaia)  and  Pusey 
(Comm.  on  Amos,  vi:i4) — then  it  is  worthy  of 
remark  that  the  name  fVady  Su/sdf,  "Willow 
Wady,"  is  still  attached  to  a  part  of  the  main 
branch  of  the  ravine  which  descends  from  Kerak 
to  the  north  end  of  the  peninsula  of  the  Dead 
Sea  (Irby).  Either  of  these  positions  would  agfree 
with  the  requirements  of  either  passage. 

WILL-WOBSHIP  (Gr.  ^Xo9pn<ncefa,  eth-ei- 
oth-race-ki' aht  Col.  ii  :23),  piety,  sanctimony.  Wy- 
cliffe  "chosen  holiness;"  Cranmer,  "superstition;" 
Geneva, "  voluntarie  worshiping." 

WIMPLE  (wTm'p'l).  {nth.^^l^^.mit-pakh'athl 

supposed  by  some  to  mean  a  broad,  full  mantle  or 
shawl,  like  the  veil  which  Ruth  had  (Ruth  iii:i5), 
and  by  others  a  veil,  coif,  or  hood  (Is.  iii:22). 
"For  sne  had  layd  her  moumfull  stole  aside,  and 
widow-like  sad  wimple  throwne  away,** — Spenser 
Farie  Queene^    (See  Veil.) 

WINDOW  (wfa'dd),  (Eccl.  xiirj;  Judg.  v:28; 
Prov.  vii:6).    See  House. 

WINDS  (wrnds).  The  Hebrew  word  signifies 
air  in  motion  generally,  as  breath,  wind,  etc.  The 
Hebrews  speak  only  of  four  winds;  and  so  Jo- 
sephus  (Antiq,  viii.  3,  5).  This  phrase  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  four  quarters  of  the  world  (Ezek. 
xxxvii:9;  2  Esdras  xiiirs),  the  several  points  of 
the  compass,  as  we  should  say  (Dan.  viii:8). 

1.  The  north  wind,  or,  as  it  was  usually  called 
"the  north,"  was  naturally  the  coldest  of  the  four 
(Ecclus.  xliii:2o),  and  its  presence  is  hence  in- 
voked as  favorable  to  vegetation  in  Cant.  iv:i6. 
It  blows  chiefly  in  October,  and  brings  dry  cold 
(Job  xxxvii:9).  It  is  described  in  Prov.  xxv:23 
as  bringing  rain;  in  this  case  we  must  understand 
the  northwest  wind. 

• 

2.  The  east  wind,  Q'^'^U'O'^'J,  dptfuts   piros,  ven- 

tus  urens,  spiritus  vehemens,  ventus  auster.  The 
burning  wind,  ardor,  cestus,  ventus  urens.  Both 
forms  denote  the  natural  phenomenon  (Gen.  xli: 
6,  23;  Job  xxxviii  :24;  Ps.  xlviii;7;  lxxviii:26; 
Jonah  iv:8).  Considerable  indefiniteness  attends 
the  use  of  these  words.  Dr.  Shaw  remarks  that 
every  wind  is  called  by  the  Orientals  an  east 
wind,  which  blows  from  any  point  of  the  compass 
between  the  east  and  north,  and  between  the  east 
and  south  {Travels,  p.  285).  Accordingly  the 
Sept.  often  understands  this  word  to  mean  the 
south,  as  in  Exod.  x:i3,  xiv:2i  (see  Bochart, 
Hierazoicon,  pt.  ii.  lib.  i.  cap.  15).  If  the  east 
wind  happens  to  blow  a  few  days  in  Palestine  dur- 
ing the  months  of  May,  June,  July,  and  August,  it 
occasions  great  destruction  to  the  vines  and 
harvests  on  the  land,  and  also  to  the  vessels  at  sea 
on  the  Mediterranean  (Hos.  xiiins;  Job  xv:2; 
Ezek.  xvii:  10;  xix:i2;  xxvii :26;  Ps.  ciii:i6).    In 


WINDS 


1724 


WINE 


Jonah  iv  :8,  the  phrase  occurs,  a  still  or  sultry  east 
wind.  For  testimonies  to  the  destructiveness  of 
this  wind  in  Egypt  and  Arabia,  see  Niebuhr 
{Beschretb.  von  Arabien,  p.  8)  ;  Thevenot  {Voy- 
ages, pt.  i.  liv.  ii.  c:34).  It  is  accordingly  often 
used  to  denote  any  pernicious  wind,  as  in  Ps. 
xlviii:7,  where  it  is  rendered  by  the  Septuagint, 
the  strong  wind;  the  Vulgate,  spiritus  vehemens, 

3.  South  wind  (Job  xxxvii:i7),  IQ^P  (Ps.  Ixxviii: 

26),  ventus  Africus  (Luke  xii:55;  Acts  xxvii:i3). 
(See  South.) 

4.  West  wind,  wind  from  the  sea.  The  west 
and  southwest  winds  reach  Palestine  loaded  with 
moisture  gathered  from  the  Mediterranean,  and 
are  hence  expressively  termed  by  the  Arabs  "the 
fathers  of  the  rain."  Westerly  winds  prevail  in 
Palestine  from  November  to  February,  and,  damp 
from  the  sea,  drop  their  moisture  and  cause  the 
winter  rains. 

5.  In  addition  to  the  four  regular  winds,  we 
have  notice  in  the  Bible  of  the  local  scnialls  (Mark 
iv:37;  Luke  viii:23)  to  which  the  Sea  of  Gen- 
esaret  was  liable.  In  the  narrative  of  St.  Paul's 
voyage  we  meet  with  the  Greek  term  lips  (X/^) 
to  describe  the  southwest  wind;  the  Latin  carus  or 
caurus  (x^po«)i  the  northwest  wind  (Acts  xxvii: 
12)  ;  and  euroclydon,  a  wind  of  very  violent  char- 
acter coming  from  east-northeast  (ver.  14). 

6.  Wind  is  mentioned  as  a  natural  phenomenon 
(Job  xxi  :i8 ;  xxx  .-15,  22 ;  xxxvii  :2i ;  rs.  i  14 ;  ciii : 
16;  Prov.  xxx:4;  Eccles.  i:6;  xi:4;  Is.  vii:2; 
xvii:i3;  Jer.  x:i3;  li:i6;  Amos  iv:i3).  It  is 
poetically  ascribed  to  the  immediate  agency  of  God 
(Ps.  cxxxv:7;  cxlvii:i8;  comp.  Baruch  vi:6i). 
In  the  New  Testament  it  occurs  in  Matt.  xi:7; 
xiv:24;  Mark  iv:39;  John  iii:8;  Acts  xxvii  14. 

7.  The  wind  occurs  as  the  medium  of  the  di- 
vine interposition  or  agency  (Gen.  viii:i;  Exod. 
XV  :io;  Num.  xi  131 ;  i  Kmgs  xviii  145 ;  xix  :ii ;  Job 
i:i9;  Is.  xi:i5;  Jonah  i:4).  In  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  wind  was  supernaturally  employed  at 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  like  the  'sound*  and  *fire' 
(Acts  ii:2).  (See  Spirit).  To  this  class  of  in- 
stances we  refer  Gen.  i  :2,  *and  the  Spirit  of  (jod 
moved  upon  the  face  of  the  waters.*  Along  with 
Patrick  and  Rosenmiiller,  we  construe  the  phrase, 
'a  wind  of  God,*  a  wind  employed  as  the  medium 
of  divine  agency. 

Figurative.  The  word  wind  is  used  metaphor- 
ically in  the  following  instances :  ( i )  'The  wings 
of  the  wind'  denote  the  most  rapid  motion 
Sam.  xxiiiii).  (2)  Anjrthing  light  or  trifling  is 
caUed  wind  (Job  vii:7;  Is.  xli:29;  Ps.  Ixxviii: 
39;  comp.  Eph.  iv:i4;  Eccles.  v:i6).  (3)  Violent 
yet  empty  speech  is  called  *a  strong  wind/  or  a 
mere  tempest  of  words  (Job  viii:2).  (4)  *Vain 
knowledge*  is  called  knowledge  of  wind  (Job  xv: 
2).  (5)  *Vain  words,*  words  of  wind  (xvi:2). 
Many  expressive  phrases  are  formed  with  this 
word,  (o)  *To  inherit  the  wind!  denotes  extreme 
disappointment  (Prov.  xi:29).  (7)  'To  hide  the 
wind,*  impossibility  (xxvii:  16).  (8)  To  labor  for 
the  wind,  to  labor  in  vain  (Eccles.  v  :i6).  (9)  *To 
bring  forth  zvind/  great  patience  and  pains  for  no 
purpose  (Is.  xxvi:i8;  comp.  Hos.  viii:7;  xii:i). 
(10)  'To  become  wind,'  to  result  in  nothingness 
(Jer.  v  :i3).  (11)  'The  four  tvinds*  denote  the  four 
quarters  of  the  globe  (Ezek.  xxxvii  :9).  (12)  'To 
scatter  to  all  winds,'  to  disperse  completely  (Ezek. 
v:io;  xii:i4;  xvii:2i).  (13)  *To  cause  to  come 
from  all  winds,*  to  restore  completely  (xxxvii  :9). 
(14)  'The  wind  hath  bound  her  upon  her  wings,* 
means  deportation  into  a  far  country  (Hos.  iv: 
19)-  (15)  'To  sow  the  wind  and  reap  the  whirl- 
wind/ unwise  labor  and  a  fruitless  result  (viii  17) . 
(16)  'To  feed  on  the  wind/  to  pursue  delusory 


schemes  (xii:i).  (17)  'To  walk  in  wind/  to  live 
and  act  in  vain  (Micah  iiiii).  (18)  'To  observe 
the  wind/  to  be  over  cautious    (Ecc)es.  xi:4). 

(19)  'To  zvinnow  with  every  wind/  to  be  credu- 
lous, apt  to  receive  impressions    (Eccles.  v:9). 

(20)  Disai)pointment,  after  hig[h  promise  or 
pretension,  is  'as  wind  without  ratn*  (Prov.  xxv : 
14).  (21)  The  desperate  speeches  of  an  afflicted 
person  are  compared  to  wind  (Job  vi:26).  (22) 
Empires  are  represented  as  havtng  wings,  and  'the 
wind  in  their  wings'  denotes  the  rapidity  of  their 
conquests  (Zech.  v:9).  (23)  The  zvind  is  often 
used  as  the  symbol  or  emblem  of  calamities  (Is. 
xxxii:2;  xli:i6;  lvii:i3;  lxiv:6).  (24)  Destruc- 
tion by  the  (Thaldxan  army  (Jer.  iv:ii,  12;  comp. 
Wisd.  iv:4;  v:23;  xi:2o).  (25)  'The  windy 
storm*  (Ps.  lv:8)  denotes  Absalom  and  his  party. 
(26)  The  wind  is  the  frequent  emblem  of  the  di- 
vine chastisements  (Is.  xxvii  :8;  Jer.  xxii:22;  li:i, 
etc.  (27)  Beautiful  expressions  occur:  Is.  xxvii: 
8,  'He  stayeth  his  rough  wind  in  the  day  of  the 
east  wind;*  that  is,  God  doth  not  aggravate  the 
misfortunes  of  mankind  by  his  chastisements;  to 
'make  a  weight  for  the  winds'  (Job  xxviii:25). 
(28)  The  east  wind  is  used  for  pernicious  speech, 
a  storm  of  words  (Job  xv:2).  (29)  For  calami- 
ties, especially  by  war  (Is.  xx.vii:8;  Jer.  xviii:  17; 
Ezek.  xvii:io;  xix:  12;  xxvii :26;  Hos.  xiii:i5). 
In  this  latter  passage  the  east  wind  denotes  Shal- 
maneser,  king  of  Assyria;  in  Ezek.  xxvii  :26,  it  de- 
notes the  CThaldaeans.  Tyre  is  there  represented 
under  the  beautiful  allegory  of  a  ship  towed  into 
deep  waters,  and  then  destroyed  by  an  east  wind. 
A  very  similar  representation  is  given  by  Horace 
(Carm.  i.  14).  (30)  The  east  wind  denotes  di- 
vine judgment  (Job  xxvii  :2i).  (31)  'Striving 
of  the  four  winds/  is  great  political  commotions 
(Dan.  vii:2).  (32)  To  'hold  the  four  winds/ 
is  by  irresistible  power  to  secure  peace  (Rev. 
yii:i).  (33)  'To  be  divided  to  the  four  winds' 
implies  utter  dispersion  (Dan.  xi:4;  Jer.  xlix: 
32;  Ezek.  v:io,  12;  xvii:io).  (34)  So  also 
the  phrase,  from  the  four  winds  (Matt.  xxiv:3i) 
means  from  all  parts  of  the  world  (Mark  xiii:27). 

WINE.  No  fewer  than  thirteen  distinct  He- 
brew and  Greek  terms  are  translated  by  the  word 
'wine.' 

1.  Heb.  n,  yah* y in  (Gr.  oTwj,  wine)  occurs  in 

one  hundred  and  forty-one  instances;  twenty-one 

times  in  connection  with  "'J^,  shay-kawr*,    (See 

Drink,  Strong.)  Its  root  was  probably  p%  ya- 
van  or  yanah,  the  primary  idea  of  both  being 
that  of  turbidness,  or  boiling  up,  so  characteristic 
of  the  appearance  of  the  grape  juice  as  it  rushes 
foaming  into  the  wine-vat.  Yah'yin,  in  Bible  use. 
is  a  very  general  term,  including  every  species  of 
wine  made  from  grapes,  though  in  later  ages  it 
became  extended  in  its  application  to  wine  made 
from  other  substances. 

(a)  It  is  frequently  used  in  the  same  compre- 
hensive sense  as  the  vinum  of  the  Latins.  Cato 
{De  Re  Rustica,  cxlvii)  speaks  of  the  hanging 
wine  (vinum  pendens).  So  in  Num.  yi:4, yah'yin 
stands  for  vine — ^the  grape  vine.  In  Deut.  xxviii: 
39,  it  is  ranked  among  things  to  be  sucked,  gath- 
ered or  eaten.  In  Is.  xvi:io,  it  is  used  for  the 
grapes  to  be  trodden.  In  Is.  lv:i,  it  probably 
signifies  thick  grape  sirup,  or  honey  (see  Is.  vii: 
22).  The  word  sirup,  it  may  be  here  remarked, 
is  derived  from  an  Oriental  term  for  wine;  hence, 
in  Turkey,  shirab^ee  signifies  'wint  seller*  (see 
Turkey  and  the  Turks,  p.  197).  This  species  of 
wine  is  still  called  *  honey '  in  the  East,  and  it  is 
by  the  prophet  appropriately  connected  with  milk, 
as  a  thmg  to  be  eaten.    Yah'yin  is  also  used  for 


WINE 


1726 


WINE 


'grapes/  or  for  *wine  in  the  cluster/  in  Jer.  xl:io, 
12;  xlviii:33;  ^nd  probably  also  in  Deut.  xiv:26. 
In  this  sense  Josephus  (De  Bell,  Jud,  vii)  cm- 
ploys  the  Greek  equivalent  when  he  enumerates 
among  the  stores  in  the  fortress  of  Massada,  Hour, 
wine  and  oil,  and  adds  that  the  Romans  found 
the  remains  of  these  fruits  uncorrupted. 

(b)  YaWyin  signifies  also  'the  blood  of  the 
grape'  freshly  expressed,  as  in  Gen.  xlix:i2 
(comp.  with  Is.  lxiii:i-3),  reference  being  there 
had  to  the  juice  of  the  claret  grape — 'His  eyes 
shall  be  more  beautiful  than  wine,*and  his  teeth 
whiter  than  milk.'  In  this  sense  yah'yin  denoted 
what  the  Greeks  specifically  called  gleukos  (sweet 
wine),  the  term  used  by  Josephus  in  speaking  of 
the  gfrape  juice  expressed  into  Pharaoh's  cup 
(Gen.  xl:ii).  In  Cant.  v:i  (compared  with  vii: 
9),  it  seems  to  refer  to  a  sweet  innocent  wine  of 
this  sort,  which  might  be  drunk  abundantly.  In 
Ps.  civ:i5,  as  illustrated  by  Judg.  ix:i3;  Exod. 
xxii:29,  yah'yin  probably  designates  the  first 
'droppings'  or  tears  of  the  gathered  grapes,  which 
were  to  be  offered  fresh — without  'delay.* 

(c)  In  Prov.  ix:2,  5,  yah'yin  refers  to  a  boiled 
wine,  or  sirup,  the  thickness  of  which  rendered 
it  necessary  to  mingle  water  with  it  previously  to 
drinking.  Wine  preserved  in  this  way  was  some- 
times introduced  into  the  offerings  for  the  use  of 
the  priests  (Num.  xviii:i2,  30). 

(d)  Yah'yin  also  comprehends  a  mixed  wine  of 
a  very  different  character;  a  wine  made  strong 
and  inebriating  by  the  addition  of  drugs,  such  as 
myrrh,  mandragora,  and  opiates.  Thus  the  drunk- 
ard is  properly  described  (Prov.  xxiii:3o)  as  one 
'that  seeketh  mixed  wine/  and  is  'mighty  to 
minele  strong  drink*  (Is.  v:22).  And  hence  the 
Psalmist  took  that  highly  poetical  and  sublime 
image  of  the  cup  of  God*s  wrath,  called  by  Isaiah 
(li:i7)  'the  cup  of  trembling/  causing  intoxication 
and  stupefaction  (see  Chappelow*s  note  on  Hariri 
p.  33) ;  containing,  as  St.  John  (Rev.  xiv:io)  ex- 
presses in  Greek,  this  Hebrew  idea  with  the  utmost 
precision,  though  with  a  seeming  contradiction  in 
terms,  kekerasmenon  akraton,  the  mixed  unmixed 
wine,  merum  mixtum*  {Comment,  on  Is.  i:22). 

{e)  YaWyin  also  includes  every  species  of  fer- 
mented grape  wine  and  is  a  general  term  for  'all 
sorts  of  wine*  (Neh.  v:i8). 

2.  Aw-sees^Yith.^^^^t  occurs  in  fiy^  texts  only 

(Cant.  viii:2;  Is.  xlix:26;  Joel  1:5;  iii:i8;  Amos 
ix:i3).  The  name  is  derived  from  awsas,  *to 
tread  down,*  and  denotes  the  expressed  juice  of 
the  grape  or  other  fruit.  By  the  Greeks  it  is 
called  gleukos,  sweet;  by  the  Latins  mustum,  from 
the  Hebrew,  'fresh,*  'sweet,*  'pure/ 

3.  So'beh  (Heb.  ^?^,  to  drink  freely),  be- 
cause the  inspissated  wine  which  it  denoted  was 
enticing,  and  might  be  freely  drunk  when  mingled 
with  water.  The  term  occurs  but  thrice,  probably 
because  this  sort  of  wine  is  often  expressed  by 
the  general  term  'yah'yin,'  or  by  'debhash,'  (See 
Honey.) 

The  three  texts  in  which  so'beh  occurs  answer 
to  the  preceding  description  of  it.  In  Is.  1:22, 
we  read — 'Thy  silver  is  become  dross,  thy  so'beh 
(or  boiled  wine,  is  become)  a  thin  wine  mingled 
with  water.'  Professor  Stuart  justly  observes, 
that  mahool,  'here  rendered  mixed,  means  cut, 
cut  round,  circumcised.'  Varro  uses  a  phrase 
exactly  parallel,  applying  to  wine  of  the  second 
pressing  the  term  'circumcised  wine,'  which,  being 
mixed  with  water,  yields  lora,  the  drink  of  the 
laborer  in  winter  (Pe  Re  Rust.  i.  54).  Hence  the 
force  of  the  text  is  this:    'Thy  silver  is  become 


like  dross;  thy  so'beh  (the  rich  drink  of  thy  no- 
bles) is  become  like  mahool,  even  as  circumcised 
wine  mixed  with  water,  common  lora,  the  drink 
of  a  peasant.*  Rabbi  D.  Kimchi  has  this  com- 
ment, 'The  current  coin  was  adulterated  With 
brass,  tin,  and  other  metals,  and  yet  circulated  as 
good  money.  The  wine  also  was  adulterated  >yith 
water  in  the  taverns,  and  sold,  notwithstanding, 
for  pure  wine.* 

In  Hos.  iv:i8,  it  is  said,  'Their  so'beh  is  sour/ 
As  this  wine  was  valued  for  its  sweetness,  it  was 
of  course  spoiled  by  acquiring  acidity.  But  inspis- 
sated wines  are  peculiarly  liable  to  this  degen- 
eracy. 'Defrutum/  says  Columella,  'however  care- 
fully made,  is  liable  to  grow  acid'  (xii:2o). 

Nahum  i:io,  referring  to  the  enemies  of  Jeho- 
vah, we  should  read  as  follows :  'Like  thorns  they 
are  woven  together,  and  like  their  boiled  wine  the 
drunkard  shall  be  devoured  (even),  as  stubble 
fully  dry,* — the  first  metaphor  referring  to  thorns 
heaped  up  together  for  fuel;  the  second  to  the 
burning  of  the  so'beh  in  the  syr  or  caldron  from 
neglect,  and  the  third  to  the  combustion  of  stub- 
ble (comp.  Ezek.  xxiv:6-i4). 

4.  Kheh'mer  (Heb.  "^^0,  occurs  twice  as  a  de- 
scriptive; but  in  Is.  xxvii:2,  where  it  is  applied 
to  the  vineyard,  some  copies  read  'fruitful.*  Kheh'' 
mer  and  khah'mer  are  derived  from  the  verb 
kham-a/,  'to  foam,*  'boil  up,*  'froth,*  or  'ferment* 
(the  latter  term  signifying  no  more  originally  than 
the  former),  and  are  used  in  reference  to  waters 
and  to  the  waves,  as  well  as  to  leaven,  wine,  etc. 
In  Deut.  xxxii:i4,  kheh'mer  is  applied  to  'the 
blood  of  the  grape,* — as  expressive  of  the  juice 
fresh  and  foaming  from  the  vat,  in  its  pure  but 
turbid  state;  and  we  perceive  no  reason  for  re- 
sorting to  the  very  secondary  sense  of  'red  wine.' 
Khawmar,  the  verb  in  Ps.  lxxv:8,  is  applied  to 
pure  wine,  unmixed  wine  filled  with  mixture, 
which  exactly  answers  to  the  phrase  of  St.  John, 
'the  mixed  unmixed'   (Rev.  xivrio). 

6.  Chamra,  a  word  for  wine  used  by  the  prophet 
Daniel  (v  :i,  2,  4,  23),  and  cheh'mar,  by  Ezra  (vi : 
9;  vii:22),  are  Chaldee  terms.  Cheh'mar  we  re- 
gard as  used  for  pure  wine,  in  its  fresh,  foaming 
condition;  but  chamra  may  have  denoted  some 
rich  and  royal  drink,  made  strong  by  the  addition 
of  drugs.  Such,  probably,  was  the  wine  which 
Belshazzar,  with  his  lords,  wives,  and  concubines, 
drank  in  the  holy  vessels,  and  which  Daniel  would 
not  touch. — The  compilers  of  the  Talmud  consid- 
ered khamra  as  a  'sweet  wine.'  It  is  a  question, 
'What  is  Carcenamf  Rabbi  Abhoo  explains  that 
khamroa  (vinum  dulce)  is  so  called,  which  is 
brought  hither  from  Asia.' 

6.  Meh'sek  (Heb.  ^99),  once  translated  'mixture, 

(Ps.  lxxv:8),  once  'mixed  wine*  (Prov.  xxiii: 
30),  and  once  'the  drink  offering^  (Is.  lxv:ii), 
is  derived  from  masach,  'to  mingle;'  whence 
miscere  and  mix.  In  the  first  text  four  terms 
occur  which  are  elsewhere  all  rendered  'wine* — 
viz.,  yah'yin,  kheh'mar,  meh'sek,  skemdrim.  It 
should  be  read — 'There  is  a  cup  in  the  hand  of 
Jehovah,  and  the  unmixed  (or  pure^  wine  is  full 
of  mixture;  and  he  poureth  out  this,  but  all  the 
wicked  of  the  earth  shall  wring  and  suck  out  the 
dregs  of  it.'  An  inebriating  and  disgusting  mix- 
ture seems  to  be  denoted  here. 

The  second  text  refers  to  drugged  wine ;  either 
pure  wine  made  inebriating,  or  fermented  wine 
made  stronger  by  the  addition  of  spices  and  drugs. 
This  custom  has  prevailed  from  the  earliest  ages, 
and  is  still  extant  in  the  East. 

In  the  third  text  the  idol  worshipers  are  really 
said  to  'fill  out  a  mixture  to  Meni ;  the  heathenish 


WINE 


1726 


WINE  PRESS 


custom  of  pouring  out  mixed  wine  to  their  gods 
being  contrasted  with  the  worshipers  of  Jehovah 
on  his  *holy  mountain/  who  were  enjoinea  not  to 
delay  the  presentation  of  their  first  fruits  and 
liquors,  but  to  pour  out  'the  pure  blood  of  the 
grape'  as  their  drink  offering.  When  designed  for 
the  use  of  the  priests,  however,  boiled  wine,  as 
we  have  seen,  was  sometimes  presented. 

Though,  in  the  three  texts  we  have  examined, 
mehsek  refers  to  some  reprobated  or  offensive 
mixture,  we  must  not  therefore  conclude  that  all 
mixed  wine  was  pernicious  or  improper.  We 
have  already  seen  that  there  were  two  very  oppo- 
site purposes  sought  by  the  mixture  of  drinks ;  one 
mixture  was  for  the  purpose  of  sensuality,  the 
other  for  that  of  sobriety  or  use.  While  the 
wicked  sought  out  a  drugged  mixture  (Prov. 
xxiii;3o),  and  was  'mighty  to  mingle  sweet  drink* 
(Is.  v:22),  Wisdom,  on  the  contrary,  'mingled 
her  wine'  with  water,  or  with  milk  (Prov.  ix:2, 
5),  merely  to  dilute  it  and  make  it  properly  drink- 
able. Of  the  latter  mixture  Wisdom  invites  the 
people  to  drink  freely ;  but  on  the  use  of  the  for- 
mer an  emphatic  woe  is  pronounced. 

7.  Shaykawr'  (Heb.  "^J?),  'sweet  drink,'  once 

translated  'strong  wine*  (Num.  xxviii:7).  It 
seems  to  have  formed  an  independent  subject  of 
offering.  1   , 

8.  Tee-roshe'  (Heb.  tflvn)  'vintage  fruit.' 

9.  Sheh-maw-reem*  (Heb.^^l?*^), '  preserves/or 

'jellies,*  derived  from  the  verb  shamar,  'to  pre- 
serve.' It  is  translated  'wines  on  the  lees,*  in  Is. 
XXV  :6 ;  but  in  the  three  other  passages  in  which  it 
occurs,  by  'dregs'  or  'lees'  alone.  Dregs  of  wine, 
however,  can  form  no  part  of  a  delicious  feast; 
while  in  the  East  various  species  of  'preserves* 
are  highly  esteemed. 

10.  Ash-ee-shaw'  (Heb.  •"'^^8),  once  translated 

•flagon*  only;  in  three  passages  'flagon  of  wine;' 
and  once  'flagon'  with  grapes  joined  to  it  in  the 
original,  as  noticed  in  the  margin  (Hos.  iii:i). 
The  Sept.  renders  it  in  four  different  ways,  yiz. 
laganon  apo  tagdnou,  *a  cake  from  the  frying-pan' 
(2  Sam.  vi:i9);  in  another  part,  which  narrates 
the  same  fact,  amoritan  arton,  *  a.  sweet  cake  of 
fine  flour  and  honey'  (i  Chron.  xvi:3)  ;  pemmata 
meta  staphidos,  *a  cake  made  with  raisins'  (Hos. 
iii:i),  'raisins'  here  corresponding  to  'grapes'  in 
the  Hebrew;  and  by  one  copy  amurios^  'sweet 
cakes*  (Cant,  ii  :5) ;  but  in  others  murtos,  'un- 
guents.' 

11.  Kho'mets(lith.  Y^";  Gr.  «oi;  see  Leaven), 

rendered  'vinegar'  (1.  e.,  sick  or  sour  wine)  in  the 
common  version.  The  modern  Jews  still  employ 
this  phrase  to  denote  wine  spoiled  by  acidity.  It 
seems,  however,  in  its  general  use,  to  have  sig- 
nified anciently  a  thin  acidulated  beverage,*  as  well 
as  to  comprehend  'vinegar,'  in  the  modern  sense 
of  the  word.  In  Ruth  ii:i4,  it  is  named  as  the 
drink  of  the  reapers  of  Boaz,  and  probably  corre- 
sponded to  the  posca  (from  post-escam)  given  to 
the  Roman  legions.  A  very  small  wine,  called 
pesca  and  sera  (from  seor,  'sour'),  is  still  used 
by  the  harvesters  in  Italy  and  the  Peninsula.  This 
term  is  employed  by  the  Psalmist  in  Ixix  :2i,  'They 
gave  me  also  gall  for  my  meat;  and  in  my  thirst 
they  gave  me  vinegar  to  drink,* — a  prediction 
actually  fulfilled  at  the  Crucifixion  of  the  Messiah. 
Thus  the  6^s  mingled  with  gall  (Matt.  xxvii:34) 
is  the  same  as  the  otvos  mingled  with  myrrh 
(Mark  xv:23),  a  bitter  substance  (Rosh). 

13.  Oynos  (Gr.  oTwj),  the  Greek  generic  term 
lor  wine,  from  the  Hebrew  yah'yin.    It  compre- 


hended new  wine  (oIms  p^os),  luscious  wine 
(y\tvKot)y  pure  or  unmingled  wine  (djcparoi^), 
and  a  thin  sour  wine  (A^>t).  The  adjective  i*^ 
distinguished  ofwj  from  «-aXcu6t,  old  wine  (Matt. 
ix:i7;  Mark  ii:22;  Luke  v:37).  Florentinus,  in 
the  Geoponica,  counsels  the  husbandman  often 
to  taste  both  his  old  and  new  wine,  so  that 
the  slightest  sign  of  acidity  might  be  detected 
at  its  commencement  (lib.  vii,  cap.  7).  In  Luke 
v:37-8,  'No  man  putteth  neos  oinos  into  old  bot- 
tles, else  the  neos  oinos  will  burst  the  bottles  and 
be  spilled,  and  the  bottles  shall  perish;  but  neos 
oinos  must  be  put  into  new  bottles,  and  both  are 
preserved,' — ^the  allusion  is  to  the  large  skin  bot- 
tles of  the  East,  into  which  the  fresh  grape-juice 
(mustum  or  gleukos)  was  frequently  put  for  pres- 
ervation.    (See  Bottles.) 

13.  Glyoo'kos  (Gr.  rXtiJjcot),  must^  in  common 
usage,  'sweet'  or  'new  wine.'  It  only  occurs  once 
in  the  New  Testament  (Acts  ii:i3). 

Besides  the  various  kinds  we  have  considered, 
two  other  wines  are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  which 
derive  their  name  from  the  locality  of  their 
growth. 

14.  The  Wine  of  H^hon.  We  have  no  intima- 
tion of  the  character  of  this  wine;  but  as  the 
pleasant  smell  of  the  grapes  is  noticed  in  Cant. 
ii:i3,  we  may  infer  that  the  wine  also  had  a 
fragrant  scent.  It  has  been  generally  regarded 
as  the  Chalybonium  vinum  of  the  ancients,  and 
was  sold  at  the  marts  of  Tyre  (Ezek.  xxvii:i8). 
As  Judah  and  Israel  supplied  this  celebrated  mart 
with  'wheat  of  Minnith  and  Pannag,  and  debhash, 
and  oil,  and  balm,'  so  the  Syrian  wine  of  Helbon, 
as  the  choicest  of  the  country,  being  carried  to 
Damascus,  would  find  its  way  hence  to  Tyre,  and, 
through  the  Tyrians,  become  known  to  the  Greeks 
and  Romans. 

15.  The  Wine  of  Lebanon  is  remarked  as  fa- 
mous for  its  fragrant  scent  (Hos.  xiv:7).  We 
understand  'grapes'  to  be  meant  here,  but  some  of 
the  wine  made  from  them  might  also  be  odorifer- 
ous. The  twenty  thousand  bottles  of  wine  which 
Solomon  supplied  to  Hiram  for  the  laborers  in 
Lebanon  (2  Chron.  ii:io),  was  probably  a  thin 
weak  drink,  a  species  of  ojfos,  sour  wine,  or 
khomets,  a  common  drink  in  Syria.         F.  R.  L. 

Figurative,  (i)  Wine  of  violence  is  thdit  which 
is  procured  by  oppression  and  robbery  (Prov. 
iv:i7).  (2)  Wine  of  the  condemned  is  that  which 
is  taken  from,  or  procured  at  the  expense  of  per- 
sons unjustly  condemned  (Amos  ii:8).  (3)  The 
outward  comforts  of  a  land  are  called  zvine  as 
these  refresh  and  strengthen  the  inhabitants  (Jer. 
xlyiii:33;  Hos.  iinp);  and  their  wine  is  mixed 
with  water  when  their  rulers,  customs,  ordi- 
nances, and  best  people  are  much  corrupted 
and  weakened  (Is.  i:22).  (4)  The  wine  with 
which  Babylon  made  the  nations  drunk  was  the 
judgments  of  Ck>d  executed  by  the  Chaldeans, 
or  the  idolatry  and  superstition  into  which  they 
seduced  them  (Jer.  li;7;  Rev.  xvii:2).  (5)  Wine 
is  figurative  of  the  blood  of  Christ  (Matt,  xxvi : 
27-29)  ;  (6)  of  the  blessings  of  the  Gospel  (Prov. 
ix:2,  5;  Is.  XXV  :6;  lv:i).  (7)  God's  judgments 
on  men,  which  stupify  and  madden  them,  are 
called  wine;  and  red  or  strong  wine;  wine  mixed 
with  spices ;  zvine  without  mixture  of  water ;  and 
zvine  of  astonishment  (Jer.  xxv:i5;  Ps.  lx:3,  and 
lxxv:8;  Rev.  xivrio). 

WINE  FBESS  (Heb.  ^^g-alA,  an  upper  vat; 
Heb.  ^K,  yeh'keb,  trough;  Heb.  ^^^^  poo-raw', 
crushing). 

An  excavation  (probably  rectangular)  was  made 
in  the  rock,  or  was  formed  in  the  ground  and 


WINE  PRESS  11 

lined  with  mason  work,  in  which  to  crush  the 
grapes.  This  was  the  press  (.gath),  and  another 
cavity,  arranged  to  catch  Ihe  juice,  was  the  fat  or 
vat.  Ancient  excavations  of  this  kind  remain  in 
Palestine,  and  one  of  them  is  thus  described  by 
Robinson  with  his  usual  accuracy:  ''Advantage 
had  been  taken  of  a  ledge  of  rock;  on  the  upper 
side  a  shallow  vat  had  been  dug  out,  eight  feet 
square  and  fifteen  inches  deep.  Two  feel  lower 
down  a  not  tie]  smaller  vat  was  excavated,  four 
feet  square  by  three  feet  deep.  The  grapes  were 
trodden  in  the  shallow  upper  vat,  and  the  juice 
drawn  ofT  by  a  hole  at  the  bottom  (still  remain- 
ing) into  the  lower  vat."  Both  these  vats  are  re- 
ferred to  in  Joel  iii  :i3.  By  the  larger  or  upper  re- 
ceptacle Gideon  threshed  wheat  for  the  sake  of 
concealment  (Judg.  vi;n).  Such  rock  presses  as 
these  are  still  used  in  some  parts  of  Syria. 

Travelers  tell  us  that  the  first  vintage  usually 
begins  in  the  latter  part  of  August ;  that  they 
often  see  the  black  grapes  spread  on  ihe  ground 
in  beds,  exposed  to  the  sun  to  dry  for  raisins, 
while  at  a  little  distance,  one  or  two,  and  some- 
times as  many  as  live,  men  are  seen,  with  feet  and 
legs  bare,  treading  the  fruit  in  a  kind  of  cistern  or 


through  which  the  expressed  juice  runs  into  a 
vessel  beneath  (Is.  Ixiii:3;  Ha^.  ii  :l6).  The 
treaders  sang  and  shouted  (Is.  xvi:io),  while  the 
red  blood  of  the  grapes  flowed  around  them  and 
thoroughly  stained  their  flesh  and  garments  (Jer. 
xxv:30:  xlviii:33:  Lam.  1:15;  Rev.  xix:i3-i5). 
(Schaflf.  Bib.  Did.)     (See  Vat.) 

Figurative,  (1)  The  destruction  of  a  nation 
or  army,  or  Christ's  destroying  his  enemies  in  the 
wine  press  of  his  wrath,  is  likened  to  a  vintage, 
in  which  sometimes  there  are  gleanings  left,  a 
small  remnant  spared ;  and  sometimes  the  poor  re- 
mains are  gleaned,  and  put  into  the  basket;  i.  e. 
are  destroyed,  or  carried  captive  (Is.  Ixiii:i-4; 
Rev.  xiv:i8-20;  Zech.  x\:x;  Lam.  i:i5;  Is.  xxiv: 
13;  Jer.  virg,  and  xlix:9:  (Dbad,  5;  Judg.  viti:2). 
(3)  The  Chaldeans  are  called  grape-gatherers, 
since  they  crushed  the  nations,  as  in  a  vnne  press, 
and  carried  them  out  of  their  own  lands  (Jer. 
3clix:9).  (3)  The  vision  of  John  (Rev.  xix:i3. 
Jf.),  i>  evidently  based  upon  Is.  Ixiii  :i-6.     (4) 


n  WINTER  HOUSE 

Severe  oppression  is  forcibly  illustrated  in  Job 
xxiv:9-i2,  where  serfs  are  said  to  "tread  wine 
presses  and  suffer  thirst." 

WING  ( Heb.  generally  1;^,  kem-nawf.  ex- 
tremiiy;  Gr.  wripvi,  pier'oox,  feather). 

Hence,  those  feathery  members  of  fowls,  where- 
with they  fly  in  the  air  (Job  xxxix  ;I3).  The  He- 
brews gave  the  name  of  a  "wing"  to  anything 
that  resembled  it,  as:  (1)  The  skirl  of  a  garment 

(Ruth  iii:g;  Jer.  ii;34).  (2)  The  outside  or  end 
of  a  country  (Job  xxxviii:i3;  Is.  xxiv;i6).  (3) 
The  battlement  of  a  house  1  hence  perhaps  the  part 
of  the  (cmple  our  Savior  stood  upon  is  called  a  pin- 
nacle or  "wing"  (Malt.  iv:5)-  (4)  The  spreading 
and  warming  rays  of  the  sun  (Mai.  iv:2).  (5) 
The  sails  of  ships,  or  the  shadows  of  high  moun- 
tains (Is.  xviii:i).  (6)  An  army  spread  out  like 
wings  (Is.  viii:8),  and  so  the  "wing  of  abomina- 
tion" may  denote  the  Roman  armies  who  ren- 
dered Judata  a  desolation  (Dan.  ix:27).  (7)  The 
motions  of  the  wind  (Ps.  xviii:io). 

Ftguratlve.  (1)  As  the  wings  and  feathers  of 
tnrds  are  instruments  of  their  fligtit,  and  of  hid- 
ing, protecting,  and  cherishing  their  young,  so 
wings  and  feathers,  when  ascribed  to  God  or 
Christ,  denote  his  speed  to  deliver  his  people 
(Ruth  ii:i2:  Ps.  xvii:8,  and  xci:4;  Matt,  xxiiir 
37).  (2)  Wings  ascribed  to  cherubim,  seraphim, 
and  living  creatures,  signify  the  readiness  and 
activity  of  angels  and  ministers  in  the  service  of 
G06  (Is.  vi;  Ezek.  i  and  x).  (3)  The  saints' 
wings  are  their  faith,  love,  hope,  holy  affections, 
and  heavenly  meditation,  by  which  they  mount  up 
towards  their  Savior,  and  things  above  (Is,  xl: 
31).  (4)  The  tvio  wings  of  a  great  eagle,  given 
to  the  true  church  for  flying  with  into  the  wilder- 
ness, may  denote  God's  special  assistance  (Rev. 
xii:i4).  (5)  "The  wings  of  the  wind"  (2  Sam. 
xxii:ii;  Ps.  xviii:io),and  "of  the  morning"  (Ps. 
cxxxix  :9)  are  expressive  of  the  swiftness  with 
which  the  winds  and  Ihe  morning  move  onward. 
(6)  The  wings  of  the  sun  (Mai.  iv  :2)  are  the  rays 
by  which  it  is  surrounded.  As  the  rays  of  the  sun 
spread  light  and  warmth  over  the  earth,  for  the 
benefit  of  plants  and  living  creatures,  so  will  the 
Sun  of  Righteousness  bring  healing  for  all  the 
hurts  inflicted  by  sin.  (7)  Jehovah  says  that  he 
has  borne  his  people  on  eagles' wings  (Exod.xix; 
4:  Dent.  xxxii:li),  i.e., he  had  brought  them  out 
of  Egypt  with  strong  and  loving  care.  Theeagle 
watches  over  its  young  in  the  most  careful  man- 
ner, flying  under  them  when  it  leads  them  from 
the  nest,  lest  they  should  fall  upon  the  rocks  and 
be  destroyed. 

WINK  AT  (Gr.  iwtpdau,,  hoop-er-H-do.  Acts  xvii : 
30),  to  connive  at  or  countenance.  Literally,  to 
close  the  eyes,  (kid  never  actually  countenanced 
false  worship,  htit  made  allowance  for  ignorance 

WINN0WIN0(wrn'n6.rng).    See  Achiculture. 

WINTEE.  1.  (Heb.  1'7,  khaw-raf,  to  be 
winter,  Is.  xviii  :6) ,  from  a  root  signifying  the  crop 
or  harvest  gathered ;  hence,  autumn  and  winter. 

2-  (Heb.  usually'!"'^,  kho'ref,  strictly  aulumn; 
Gr.  xcf^i'i  khi-tnone',  the  rainy  season).  In  Pal- 
estine winter  includes  part  of  aulumn  and  the  sea- 
sons of  seedtime  and  cold,  extending  from  the  be- 
ginning of  September  to  the  'icginning  of  March 
((Jen.  viii:22;  Ps.  Ixxivu?;  Zech.  xiv:8;  Mall. 
xxiv:ao).     (See   Palestine.) 

WINTEB  HOUSE   (Heb.  ']T',  khaWef). 

In  Canaan  many  persons  had  their  warmer 
houses  for  the  winter  season,  as  well  as  their  ■ 


WISDOM 


1728 


WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON 


cooler  ones  for  the  summer  ( Jer.  xxxvi  122 ;  Amos 
iii:i5),  or  the  passages  may  denote  that  the  lower 
portion  of  the  house  was  called  the  **winter  house," 
as  was  also  the  inner  apartment,  while  the  outer 
and  upper  ones  were  called  the  "summer  house." 

WISDOM.  This  word  is  given  as  follows  in  the 
Hebrew  and  Greek  languages: 

1.  Khok-maw'  (Heb.  •^??7),  has  the  special 
meaning  of  dexterity,  skill  in  an  art. 

2.  Bee 'flaw'  (Heb. '^^'*2),  understanding, 

8.  ToO'Shee-yatx/  (Heb.  "^t- ^)»  properly  up- 
rightness^ 

4.  Saw-kaV  (Heb.  ^3?),  to  he  prudent,  circutn- 
^ect;  (Gr,  vo<pla,so/-ee'aA  and  iPp6i^ff is,  fron'ay'Sis). 

It  denotes: 

(i)  Prudence  and  discretion  to  perceive  what  is 
fit  or  unfit  to  be  done,  with  respect  to  time,  place, 
maimer,  instruments,  or  end,  of  an  action  (Eccles. 

ii:i3). 

(2)  Knowledge  of  sciences:  so  Moses  was 
learned  in  all  the  "wisdom  of  the  Egyptians" 
(Acts  vii:22). 

(3)  Quickness  of  invention  and  dexterity  with 
such  "wisdom" ;  Bezaleel  and  Aholiab  were  quali- 
fied to  fashion  the  things  of  the  Tabernacle 
(Exod.  xxxi:2,  5). 

(4)  Craftiness  in  carrying  on  projects;  such  was 
the  wisdom  of  Pharaoh  in  oppressing  the  Hebrews 
(Exod.  i:io).  The  last  three  are  called  the  "wis- 
dom of  this  world"  (i  Cor.  ii:6). 

(5)  Natural  instinct  and  sagacity;  thus  the  os- 
trich is  made  "without  wisdom"  (Job  xxxix:i7). 

(6)  True  godliness,  wherein  one  being  taught 
of  God  to  know  his  will  seeks  what  is  proper, 
shuns  what  is  improper,  and  studies  to  perform 
every  duty  in  the  proper  season  thereof  (Ps.  xc: 
12;  Job  xxviii:28)  ;  this  wisdom  is  "from  above," 
is  a  special  gift  of  God  (James  i:i7). 

(7)  The  "wisdom  of  God  in  the  hand  of  Ezra," 
was  either  the  law  of  God,  which  he  studied  the 
knowledge  of,  or  his  knowledge  of  it  (Ezra  vii: 
25).  The  "wisdom"  that  Solomon  had,  implied 
knowledge  of  sciences,  and  sagacity  and  prudence 
for  government  (i  Kings  iii:9,  12).  In  the  "wis- 
donv'  of  God,  the  world  "by  wisdom"  knew  not 
God ;  God  wisely  so  ordered  it  that  neither  by  the 
discoveries  of  (jod  in  the  works  of  creation  and 
providence,  nor  by  all  their  philosophy,  did  the 
pagan  nations  attam  to  the  true  and  savmg  knowl- 
edge of  (jod  (i  Cor.  i:2i). 

WISDOM  OF   JESUS,    SON   OF  SIRACH 

(wJz'dum  5v  jfe'ziis.  s6n  6v  si'rak),  (Gr.  loif>Ui  'IvroO 
tfloO  Zetpdx;  Lat.  Ecc/esiasticus);  {see  AvocRYPH A), 
one  of  the  books  of  the  second  canon  (See  Deu- 
TERO-CANONiCAL  BooKS),  consists  of  a  collection 
of  moral  sentences  after  the  manner  of  the  Prov- 
erbs of  Solomon  (i  ix,  xxiv,  comp.  with  Prov. 
l-ix). 

The  work  is  arranged  upon  no  systematic  plan, 
but  abounds  in  directions  relating  to  religion  and 
human  conduct.  Wisdom  is  represented  here,  as 
in  Proverbs,  as  the  source  of  human  happiness, 
and  the  same  views  of  human  life,  founded  on 
the  belief  of  a  recompense,  pervade  the  instruc- 
tions of  this  book  also,  wherein,  however,  a  more 
matured  reflection  is  perceptible  (De  Wette's 
Einleitung),  It  is  in  fact  the  composition  of  a 
philosopher  who  had  deepiy  studied  the  fortunes 
and  manners  of  mankind,  and  did  not  hesitate  to 
avail  himself  of  the  philosophy  of  older  moralists 
(Prov.  xii  :8-xiii  :23 ;  xv:ii-20;  xvi:26-xvii  :2o; 
XIX  :6-i7 ;  xxiii  :i6-27 ; xvi  :i-i8 ;  xxx  :i-i3 ;  xxxvii : 
27 ;  xxxviii  :i5, 24-xxxix  :ii ;  etc.).    It  abounds  in 


grace,  wisdom,  and  spirit,  although  sometimes 
more  particular  in  inculcating;  principles  of  polite- 
ness than  those  of  virtue  (Cellerier,  Introd.  a  la 
Lecture  des  Liv,  Saints).  It  is  not  unfrequently 
marked  by  considerable  beauty  and  elegance  of 
expression,  occasionally  rising  to  the  sublimest 
heights  of  human  eloquence  (Christ.  Remenu- 
brancer,  vol.  ix).  It  has  been  observed  of  it  by 
Addison  (see  Home's  Introd.,  vol.  iv)  that  *it 
would  be  regarded  by  our  modern  wits  as  one  of 
the  most  shming  tracts  of  morality  that  are  ex- 
tant, if  it  appeared  under  the  name  of  a  Confucius 
or  of  any  celebrated  Grecian  philosopher.' 

The  original  of  the  book  was  Hebrew.  It  is  not 
easily  determined,  but  according  to  the  most  prob- 
able hypothesis  the  author  lived  B.  C.  180,  and 
the  translator,  who  was  his  grandson,  B.  C.  130. 

The  author  callswhimself  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach,  of 
Jerusalem,  but  we  know  nothing  further  of  him. 

Allusions  to  this  book  have  been  supposed  to 
be  not  unfrequently  discernible  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Compare,  especially,  Ecclus.  xxxiii:i3; 
Rom.  ix:2i;  xi:i9;  Luke  xii:i9,  20;  v:ii;  James 
i:i9,  etc.;  xxiv:i7,  18;  Matt.  xi:28,  29;  John  iv.13, 
14;  vi:35,  etc.  W.  W. 

WISDOM  OF  SOLOMON  (wTz'd&m  dv  sdro- 
men),  (Gr.  'Lo4>la  laXoft^brros,  sof-ee'a  sai-ch-mon' tos, 
Apocrypha),  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  deutero- 
canonical  books. 

(1)  The  Author.  The  anonymous  author  per- 
sonates King  Solomon,  whom  he  introduces  as 
speaking;  but  from  the  citations  (according  to 
the  Septuagint)  of  the  prophets  Isaiah  and  Jere- 
miah, it  may  be  inferred  that  the  writer  had  no 
intention  of  giving  it  to  be  understood  that  it  was 
written  by  Solomon ;  but  that  he  only  followed  a 
common  custom  of  Greek  and  other  writers,  in 
employing  the  name  of  this  distinguished  royal 
penman.  It  is  divided  into  two,  or,  according  to 
some,  into  three  parts.  The  first  six  chapters 
contain  encomiums  on  wisdom,  which  all,  and  es- 
pecially kings,  are  admonished  to  acquire,  as  the 
true  security  against  present  evils,  and  as  leading 
to  future  glory  and  immortality,  while  a  contrary 
course  tends  to  misery  here,  and  still  greater  mis- 
ery hereafter.  In  chapters  vii  and  viii  Solomon  is 
introduced,  teaching  how  wisdom  is  to  be  ac- 
quired ;  in  chapter  x  is  given  his  prayer  fof  this 
inestimable  gift.  Chapters  x-xix  contam  historical 
examples,  drawn  from  the  Old  Testament,  show- 
ing the  happiness  which  had  resulted  from  the 
pursuit  of  wisdom,  and  the  fatal  consequences  of 
sin,  especially  the  sin  of  idolatry.  The  book  con- 
cludes with  divers  pious  and  philosophical  obser- 
vations. From  the  author's  invectives  against  un- 
believing and  oppressive  rulers,  as  well  as  his 
strongly  marked  nationality,  it  has  been  inferred 
that  some  special  object  may  have  given  occasion 
for  the  work.  Jahn  (on  the  subject  cited)  and 
De  Wette  (on  the  same  subject)  both  defend  the 
unity  of  the  book  against  some  who  have  en- 
deavored to  show,  from  the  variety  in  the  style 
and  subjects,  that  it  was  the  composition  of  more 
than  one  author. 

(2)  The  Book  of  Wisdom  has  been  always  'ad- 
mired for  the  sublime  ideas  which  it  contains  of 
the  perfections  of  God,  and  for  the  excellent 
moral  tendency  of  its  precepts*  (Home's  Introd.). 
Its  style,  observes  F'ishop  Lowth.  after  Calmet, 
'is  unequal,  often  pompous  and  turgid,  as  well  as 
tedious  and  diffuse,  and  abounds  in  epithets  di- 
rectly contrary  to  the  practices  of  the  Hebrews: 
it  is,  however,  sometimes  temperate,  poetical,  and 
sublime.  Calmet  supposes  that  the  author  had 
read  the  works  of  the  Greek  poets  and  philoso- 
phers. 


WISE 


1729 


WITCHCRAFT 


(3)  Langua^  of  Wisdom.  Although  there 
have  not  been  wanting  individuals  who  have  con- 
tended for  a  Hebrew,  Syriac,  or  Chaldee  original, 
thtre  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  was  written  in 
Greek. 

Nothing  is  known  with  certainty  respecting  the 
author.  All  that  can  be  concluded  with  any  de- 
gree of  probability  is  that  the  author  was  an 
Alexandrian  Jew  who  lived  after  the  trans- 
planting of  the  Greek  philosophy  into  Egypt,  and 
who  seems  to  refer  to  the  oppressions  of  the  later 
Ptolemies.  Jahn  (Introd,)  conceives  that  the 
book  was  written  at  the  close  of  the  first,  or  be- 
ginning of  the  second  century  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.  Some  have  supposed  that  Wisdom  is 
cited  in  the  New  Testament  (comp.  iii:7  with 
Matt.  xiii^3;  ii:i8;  Matt  xxvii:43;  xiii:i;  Rom. 
i:20;  ix:i3,  v:i8,  19;  vii:26;  Rom.  xi:34;  Epb. 
vi:i3,  14,  17;  Heb.  1:3). 

(4)  Versions.  There  are  three  ancient  versions 
extant — ^the^  Syriac,  Arabic,  and  Latin.  Jerome 
did  not  revise  the  Latin.     (See  Vulgate.) 

W.  W. 
WISE  (Gr.  ofhtas,  ho&toce^  Matt.  1:18),  on  this 
wise,  in  this  way,  like  this. 

WISE  MEN  (wiz  m«n),  (Matt.  ii:i).    See  Magi. 

WISH  (wfsh),  (Gr.  d^x^A^a^  yoo* khom-ahee.  Acts 
xxvii:29),  to  earnestly  long  for;  much  more  em- 
phatic than  the  ordinary  use  of  the  word. 

WIST  (wfat),  identical  with  "knew."  (Exod.  xvl: 
15;  Acts  xii:9;  xxiii:5.) 

WIT  (wft),  from  the  A.  V.  witan,Xo  know  (Gen. 
xxiv:2i;  Ex.  ii:4).  Hence  "to  do  to  wit"  is  "to 
cause  you  to  know."  (2  Cor.  viii:i.) 

WrrOH  (wXch),  (Heb.  H^?,  kaw-shaf,  Deut 
xviii:io),  wizard,  sorcerer.    See  Witchcraft. 
WITOHOBAFT  (wfch'krAft),  (Heb.  O?!?.,  keh'- 

sem,  lot;  ^'V^^ , yid-deh-o-nee' ,  a  knowing  one). 

The  term  occurs  in  2.  Kings  ix  :22 ;  Is.  xlvii  :9^ 
12;  Mic.  v:i2;  Nahum  iii:4.  In  the  Apocry^a 
'witchcraft,'  'sorcery;'  veneficium,  Wisd.  xii:4; 
xviii:i3;  and  in  the  New  Testament,  Gal.  v:2o; 
Rev.  ix  :2i ;  xviii  123. 

(1)  Mythological  Idea.  The  precise  idea,  if 
any,  now  associated  with  the  word  'witch,'  but, 
however,  devoutly  entertained  by  nearly  the  whole 
nation  in  the  time  of  our  translators,  is  that 
of  a  female  who,  by  the  agency  of  Satan,  or, 
rather,  of  a  familiar  spirit  or  gnome  appointed  by 
Satan  to  attend  on  her,  performs  operations  be- 
yond the  powers  of  humanity,  in  consequence  of 
her  compact  with  Satan,  written  in  her  own  blood, 
by  which  she  resigns  herself  to  him  forever. 
Among  other  advantages  resulting  to  her  from 
this  engagement,  is  the  power  of  transforming 
herself  into  any  shape  she  pleases;  which  was, 
however,  generally  that  of  a  hare;  transporting 
herself  through  the  air  on  a  broomstick,  sailing 
'on  the  sea  in  a  sieve,'  gliding  through  a  keyhole, 
inflictin^^  diseases,  etc.,  upon  mankind  or  cattle. 
The  belief  in  the  existence  of  such  persons  cannot 
be  traced  higher  than  the  middle  ages,  and  was 
probably  denved  from  the  wild  and  gloomy  my- 
tholop;y  of  the  northern  nations,  amongst  whom 
the  Fatal  Sisters,  and  other  impersonations  of  de- 
structive agency  in  a  female  form,  were  prominent 
articles  of  the  popular  creed. 

(2)  The  Hebrew  Conception.  A  very  differ- 
ent idea  was  conveyed  by  the  Hebrew  word,  which 
probably  denotes  a  sorceress  or  magician,  who 
pretended  to  discover,  and  even  to  direct,  the 
ejects  ascribed  to  the  operation  of  the  elements, 

100 


conjunctions  of  the  stars,  the  influence  of  lucky 
and  unlucky  days,  the  power  of  invisible  spirits, 
and  of  the  inferior  deities  (Graves*  Lectures  on 
the  Pentateuch,  pp.  109,  no,  Dublin,  1829).  Sir 
Walter  Scott  well  observes  that  'the  sorcery  or 
witchcraft  of  the  Old  Testament  resolves  itself 
into  a  trafficking  with  idols  and  asking  counsel 
of  ialse  deities,  or,  in  other  words,  into  idolatry' 
(Letters  on  Demonology  and  Witchcraft,  London, 
1830,  Let.  2).  Accordmgly,  sorcery  is  in  Scrip- 
ture uniformly  associated  with  idolatry  (Deut 
xviii  :9- 14;  2  Kings  ix:22;  2  Chron.  xxxiii:5,  6, 
etc.;  Gal.  v:20;  Rev.  xxi:8).  The  modern  idea 
of  witchcraft,  as  involving  the  assistance  of  Satan, 
is  inconsistent  with  Scripture,  where,  as  in  the  in-> 
stance  of  Job,  Satan  is  represented  as  powerless 
till  God  gave  him  a  limited  commission ;  and  when 
'Satan  desired  to  sift  Peter  as  wheat,'  no  refer- 
ence is  made  to  the  intervention  of  a  witch.  Nor 
do  the  actual  references  to  magic  in  Scripture 
involve  its  reality.  The  mischiefs  resulting  from 
the  pretension,  under  the  theocracy,  to  an  art 
which  involved  idolatry,  justified  the  statute  which 
denounced  it  with  death;  though  instead  of  the 
unexampled  phrase,  'thou  shalt  not  suffer  to  live,* 
Michaelis  conjectures  'shall  not  be'  (Exod.*  xxii: 
18),  which  also  better  suits  the  parallel,  'There 
shall  not  be  found  among  you,  etc.,  a  witch'  (Deut 
xviii:  10).  Indeed,  as  'we  know  that  an  idol  is 
nothing  in  the  world,  and  that  there  is  none  other 
gods  but  one'  (i  Cor.  viii:4),  we  must  believe  all 
pretensions  to  traffic  with  the  one,  or  ask  counsel 
of  the  other,  to  be  equally  vain.  Upon  the  same 
principle  of  suppressing  idolatry,  however,  the 
prophets  of  Baal  also  were  destroyed,  and  not  be^ 
cause  Baal  had  any  real  existence,  or  because  they 
could  avail  anything  by  their  invocations. 

(8)  The  Witch  of  Endor,  as  she  is  commonly 
but  improperly  called,  belongs  to  another  class  of 
pretenders  to  supernatural  powers  (see  Divina- 
tion). She  was  a  necromancer,  or  one  of  those 
persons  who  pretended  to  call  up  the  spirits  of 
the  dead  to  converse  with  the  living  (see  Is.  viii: 
19;  xxix:4;  lxv:3).  It  is  related  as  the  last  and 
crowning  act  of  Saul's  rebellion  against  God  that 
he  consulted  'a  woman  who  had  a  familiar  spirif 
(i  Sam.  xxviii:7),  literally  'a  mistress  of  the  Ob,' 
— an  act  forbidden  by  the  divine  law  (Lev.  xx:6), 
which  sentenced  the  pretenders  to  such  a  power  to 
death  (verse  27),  and  which  law  Saul  himself  had 
recently  enforced  (i  Sam.  xxviii:3,  9),  because, 
it  is  supposed,  thev  had  freely  predicted  his  ap- 
proaching ruin;  although  after  the  well-known 
prophecies  of  Samuel  to  that  effect,  the  disasters 
Saul  had  already  encountered,  and  the  growing 
influence  of  David,  there  'needed  no  ghost  to 
come  from  the  grave  to  tell  them  this.'  Various 
explanations  of  this  story  have  been  offered.  It 
has  been  attempted  to  resolve  the  whole  into  im- 
posture and  collusion^  Saul,  who  was  naturally  a 
weak  and  excitable  man,  had  become,  Uirough  a 
lon^  series  of  vexations  and  anxieties,  absolutely 
'delirious,'  as  Patrick  observes:  'he  was  afraid 
and  his  heart  greatly  trembled,'  says  the  sacred 
writer.  In  this  state  of  mind,  and  upon  the  very 
eve  of  his  last  battle,  he  commissions  his  own 
servants  to  seek  him  a  woman  that  had  a  familiar 
spirit,  and,  attended  by  two  of  them,  he  comes  to 
her  'by  night,'  the  most  favorable  time  for  imposi- 
tion. He  converses  with  her  sdone,  his  two  at- 
tendants, whether  his  secret  enemies  or  real 
friends,  being  absent,  somewhere,  yet  however, 
close  at  hand.  Might  not  one  of  these,  or  80c»e 
one  else,  have  agreed  with  the  woman  to  personate 
Samuel  in  another  room?  for  it  appears  that 
Saul,  though  he  spdce  with,  did  not  see  the  ghost 
(verses  13,  14)  :  who,  it  should  be  observed,  told 


WITCHCRAFT 


1730 


WITNESS 


him  nothin|f  but  what  his  own  attendants  could 
have  told  him,  with  the  exception  of  those  words, 
'to-morrow  shalt  thou  and  thy  sons  be  with  me' 
(verse  19)  ;  to  which,  however,  it  is  replied,  that 
Saul's  death  did  not  occur  upon  the  morrow,  and 
that  the  word  so  translated  is  sufficiently  ambiti- 
ous, for  though  the  Hebrew  phrase  means  to- 
morrow' in  some  passaj^es,  it  means  the  future, 
indefinitely,  in  others  (Exod.  xiii:i4,  and  see  the 
margin;  Josh.  iv;6,  21 ;  comp.  Matt  vi:34).  It  is 
further  urged,  that  her  'crying  with  a  loud  voice,* 
and  her  telling  Saul,  at  the  same  tkne,  that  she 
knew  him,  were  the  well-timed  arts  of  the  sor- 
ceress, intended  to  magnify  her  pretended  skill. 
It  is,  however,  objected  against  this,  or  any  other 
hypothesis  of  collusion,  that  the  sacred  writer  not 
only  represents  the  Pythoness  as  affirming^  but 
also  himself  affirms,  that  she  saw  Samuel,  and 
that  Samuel  s^oke  to  Saul ;  nor  does  he  drop  the 
least  hint  that  it  was  not  the  real  Samuel  of  whom 
he  was  speaking.  The  same  objections  apply 
equally  to  the  theory  of  ventriloquism,  which  has 
been  grounded  upon  the  word  used  by  the  Sept, 
engastriunthos,  meaning  ventriloquist.  Others 
have  given  a  literal  interpretation  of  the  story, 
and  have  maintained  that  Samuel  actually  ap- 
peared to  Saul.  The  same  view  is  taken  in  the 
additions  to  the  Sept.  in  i  Chron.  x:i3,  'and  Sam- 
uel the  prophet  replied  to  him;'  and  in  Ecclus. 
xlvi:9,  20,  it  is  said,  'and  after  his  death  Samuel 
prophesied,  and  showed  the  king  his  end/  etc. 
Such  also  is  the  view  Josephus  takes  (Anttq.  vi: 
14,  3,  4,  where  he  bestows  a  labored  eulogiimi 
upon  the  woman).  It  is,  however,  objected,  that 
the  actual  appearance  of  Samuel  is  inconsistent 
with  all  we  are  taught  by  revelation  concerning 
the  state  of  the  dead ;  involves  the  possibility  of  a 
spirit  or  soul  assuming  a  corporeal  shape,  con- 
versing audibly,  etc.;  and  further,  that  it  is  in- 
credible that  God  would  submit  the  departed  sotils 
of  his  servants  to  be  summoned  back  to  earth,  by 
rites  either  utterly  futile  or  else  deriving  their 
efficacy  from  the  co-operation  of  Satan.  So  Ter- 
tullian  argues  (De  Antmd,csLp.  Ivii),  and  many 
other  of  the  ancients.  Others  have  supposed  that 
the  woman  induced  Satan  or  some  evil  spirit  to, 
personate  Samuel.  But  this  theoiy,  beside  other 
difficulties,  attributes  nothing  less  than  miraculous 
power  to  the  devil ;  for  it  supposes  the  apparition 
of  a  spiritual  and  incorporeal  being,  and  that  Satan 
can  assume  the  appearance  of  any  one  he  pleases. 
Others  have  maintained  another  interpretation, 
that  the  whole  account  is  the  narrative  of  a 
miracle,  a  divine  representation  or  impression, 
partly  upon  the  senses  of  Saul,  and  partly  upon 
those  of  tht  woman,  and  intended  for  the  rebuke 
and  punishment  of  Saul.  It  is  urged  that  God 
interposed  with  a  miracle  previously  to  the  use 
of  any  magical  formulae,  as  he  did  when  the  king 
of  Moab  had  recoiirse  to  sorceries  to  overrule  the 
mind  of  Balaam,  so  that  he  was  compelled  to  bless 
those  whom  Balak  wanted  him  to  curse  (Num. 
xxiii).  Of  the  same  nature  of  divine  representa- 
tion or  vision,  we  think,  was  the  reproof  adminis- 
tered to  Elijah,  at  Mount  Horeb,  when  'a  great 
and  strong  wind  rent  the  mountains,  and  brake  in 
pieces  the  rocks  before  the  Lord,'  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  'an  earthquake,'  etc.  (i  Kings  xix:ii, 
etc).  Of  the  same  nature,  also,  was  the  Tempta- 
tion of  our  Lord  (see  the  article,  and  other  in- 
stances of  divine  vision  not  expresslv  specified  as 
such,  in  Bishop  Law's  Theory  of  Religion,  pp.  85, 
86,  London,  1820).  Farmer  is  of  opinion  that  the 
suppression  of  the  word  'himself  (verse  14),  and 
the  introduction  of  the  word  'when'  (verse  12), 
are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  prejudices  of  our  trans- 
lators. 


(4)  Inaccuracies  of  Translation.  If  they  do 
not  betray  a  bias  on  their  minds,  these  instances 
support  the  general  remark  of  Bishop  Lowth,  upon 
the  English  translation,  'that  in  respect  of  the 
sense,  and  accuracy  of  interpretation,  the  improve- 
ments of  which  it  is  capable  are  great  and  num- 
berless' (Preliminary  Dissertation  to  Isaiah,  ad 
finem).  Some  other  mistranslations  occur  in  ref- 
erence to  this  subject  In  i  Sam.  xv:23,  'rebellion 
is  as  the  sin  of  withcraft,'  should  bc^  of  'divina- 
tion.* In  Deut  xviii  :io,  the  Hebrew  word  does  not 
mean  'witch,'  but,  being  masculine,  'a  sorcerer.' 
In  Acts  viii:9,  the  translation  is  exceedingly  apt 
to  mislead  the  mere  English  reader,  f.  e.,  'Simon 
had  been  pursuing  magic,  and  perplexing  (or  as- 
tonishing) the  people.*  In  Gal.  iii:i,  'Foolish 
Galatians,'  'who  hath  fascinated  you?'  (For  the 
use  of  the  words  Baskania  and  pharmakeia  in 
magic  amon^  the  Greeks,  see  'Poiier*s  j4rc/ueo/o£ia 
Gr<Bca,  yol.  1,  ch.  xviii,  p.  356,  etc.,  Lond.,  1775.) 
It  is  considered  by  some,  that  the  word  'witch- 
craft' is  used  metaphorically,  for  the  allurements 
of  pleasure  (Nah.  iii:4;  Rev.  xviii  223),  and  that 
the  'sorcerers'  mentioned  in  ch.  xxi:8,  may  mean 
sophisticators  of  the  truth.  The  kindred  word 
pharmasso  is  used  by  metonymy,  as  signifyinfi^  'to 
charm,'  'to  persuade  by  flattery,  etc.  (Plato,  Sym- 
(OS,  sec.  17),  'to  give  a  temper  to  metals'  (Odyss. 
>x:393).  The  last  named  theory  concerning  the 
narrative  of  Samuel's  appearance  to  Saul  is  main- 
tained, with  much  learning  and  ingenuity,  by 
Hugh  Farmer  (Dissertation  on  Miracles,  p.  472, 
etc.,  Lond.,  I77i).  It  is  adopted  by  Dr,  Waterland 
(Sermons,  vol.  ii,  p.  267),  and  Dr.  Delaney  in  his 
Life  of  David;  but  is  combated  by  Dr.  Chandler 
with  objections,  which  are,  however,  answered  or 
obviated  by  Farmer.  On  the  general  subject  see 
Michaelis'  Laws  of  Moses,  by  Dr.  A.  Smith,  Lon- 
don, 1814,  vol.  iv,  pp.  83-03;  Banier's  History  of 
MyiAo/ogy,  lib.  iv;  Winer'is  Biblisches  Real-vVdr^ 
terbuch,  art.  'Zauberci.'  J.  F.  D. 

WTTHAIi  (wfth-al'J,  (Gr.  4^,  Aam'ak.  Col.  iv:3) 
also  in  connection  with.  It  denotes  close  relation- 
ship. 

WITHDRAWN  (wtth-drawn*),  (Heb.  ^'^i,  naw 

dakh\  Deut.  xiii:i3),  drawn  away;  always  transitive 
mA.V.     * 

WITHS  (wTtbs),  a  band  of  pliable  twigs  (as 
of  the  willow  or  osier  kind),  twisted  closely  to- 
gether while  green,  and  used  instead  of  ropes. 
The  marginal  reading  of  Judg.  xvi:7  is  "small 
cords." 

WITNESS  (wyt'nSss),  (Heb.  "^,  ayd,  to  tes- 
tify). It  is  intended  in  the  present  article  to  notice 
some  of  the  leading  and  peculiar  senses  of  this 
voluminous  word,  u)  It  occurs  first  in  the  sense 
of  a  person  who  deposes  to  the  occurrence  of  any 
fact,  a  witness  of  any  event.  Used  thus  it  is  found 
in  Exod.  xxiii  :i;  Lev.  v:i;  Num.  v:i3;  xxxv:30 
(comp.  Deut  xvii:6;  xixiis;  Matt,  xviii  :i6;  2 
Cor.  xiiin;  Prov.  xiv:5;  xxiv:28;  Matt  xxvi: 
65;  Acts  vi:i3;  i  Tim.  vrip;  Heb.  x:28).  (2)  It  is 
applied,  generally,  to  a  person  who  certifies,  or  is 
able  to  certify,  to  any  fact  which  has  come  under 
his  cognizance  (Josh.  xxiv:22:  Is.  viii:2;  Luke 
xxiv:48;  Acts  i:8,  22;  i  Thess.  ii:io;  i  Tim.  vi: 
12;  2  Tim.  ii:2;  i  Pet  v:i).  So  in  allusion  to 
those  who  witness  the  public  games  (Heb.  xii:i). 
They  are  also  applied  to  any  one  who  testifies  to 
the  world  what  God  reveals  through  him  (Rev. 
xi:3).  In  the  latter  sense  the  CJreek  word  is  ap- 
plied to  our  Lord  (Rev.  i  :s ;  iii  :i4).  (3)  It  is  fur- 
ther used  in  the  ecclesiastical  sense  of  martyr. 
Both  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  words  are  also  ap- 
plied to  God  (Gen.  xxxi:5o;  I  Sara.  xii:5;  Jen 


WITNESS  OF  THE  SPIRIT 


1731 


WOLF 


xUi:5;  Rom.  l:g;  Phil.  i:8;  i  Thess.  ii:s).  (4)  It 
is  applied  to  inammate  things  (Gen.  xxxi:52;  Ps. 
Ixxxix  .-37) .  (5)  It  denotes  the  testimony  to  the 
truth  of  anything  generally  (John  1:7,  19;  xix: 
35)  ;  that  of  a  poet  (Titus  i  .13).  (6)  In  Rev.  i  :g, 
it  denotes  the  constant  profession  of  (Hiristianity, 
or  testimony  to  the  truth  of  the  (jospel  (comp.  i  :2 ; 
vi:9).  (7)  In  i  Tim.  iii:7,  Ptarturian  kaldn  means  a 
good  character  (comp.  3  John,  verse  12;  Ecclus. 
xxxi  :24 ;  Joseph.  Antiq,  vi  :io,  i).  (8)  In  Ps.  xix  7, 
The  testimony  of  the  Lord  is  sure,*  probably  sig- 
nifies the  ordinances,  institutions,  etc.  (comp.  cxix : 
22,  24,  etc.).  The  words,  'He  that  believcth  m 
the  Son  of  God  hath  the  witness  in  himself  (i 
Jolm  v:io),  are  easily  understood  by  explaining 
the  word  ekei,  hath,  by  'receives/  or  'retains.'  The 
Hebrew  word,  with  marturion,  occurs  in  the  sense 
of  monument,  evidence,  etc.  ((}en.  xxi:30;  xxxi: 
44;  Deut.  iv:4$;  xxxi:26;  Josh.  xxii:27;  Ruth, 
iv:7;  Matt.  viii:4;  Mark  vi:ii;  Luke  xxi:i3; 
James  v:3). 

The  supernatural  means  whereby  the  deficiency 
of  witnesses  was  compensated  under  the  theocracy 
have  been  already  considered  under  the  articles 
Adultery,  Trial  of;  Urim  and  Thummim.  For 
the  punishment  of  false  witness  and  the  suppress 
sion  of  evidence,  see  Punishments.  For  the  torms 
of  adjuration  (2  Chron.  xviii:i5),  see  Adjura- 
tion. Opinions  differ  as  to  what  is  meant  by  'the 
faithful  witness  in  heaven*  (Ps.  Ixxxix  137).  Some 
suppose  it  to  mean  the  moon  (comp.  Ps.  Ixxii  :5, 
7;  Jer.  xxxi  135,  36;  xxxiii:20,  21;  Ecclus.  xliii: 
6)  ;  others,  the  rainbow  (Gien.  ix:i2-i7). 

The  witness  or  testimony  itself  borne  to  any 
fact  is  expressed  b3r  mar  tuna;  testimonium.  They 
are  used  of  judicial  testimony  (Prov.  xxv:i8; 
Mark  xiv:s6,^9).  J.  F.  D. 

WITNESS  OF  THE  SPIBIT. 

The  Holy  Spirit  was  promised  to  the  ^isciples 
as  "the  Comforter,**  which  is  more  fully  ex- 
plained by  St.  Paul  by  the  phrase  "the  Spirit  of 
adoption;"  so  that  it  is  through  bim  that  we  re- 
ceive a  direct  inward  testimony  to  our  personal 
forgiveness  and  acceptance  through  Christ,  and 
are  filled  with  peace  and  consolation.  John  Wes- 
ley thus  treats  of  this  important  doctjane : 

"But  what  is  the  witness  of  the  Spirit?  The 
original  word,  marturia,  may  be  rendered  either, 
as  it  is  in  several  places,  the  witness,  or,  less 
ambiguously^  the  testimony  or  the  record:  so  iC 
is  rendered  m  our  translation:  'This  is  the  rec- 
ord,' the  testtmonv,  the  sum  of  what  Crod  testifies 
in  all  the  inspired  writings,  'that  Crod  hath  given 
unto  us  eternal  life,  and  this  life  is  in  his  Son' 
(i  John  v:ii).  The  testimony  now  under  consid- 
eration is  given  by  the  Spirit  of  God  to  and  with 
our  spirit.  He  is  the  person  testifying.  What  he 
testifies  to  us  is,  'that  we  are  the  children  of  (xod.* 
The  immediate  result  of  this  testimony  is,  'the 
fruit  of  the  Spirit ;  namely,  'love,  joy,  peace,  long- 
suffering,  gentleness,  goodness.'  And  without 
these,  the  testimony  itself  cannot  continue.  For  it 
is  inevitably  destroyed,  not  only  by  the  commissiofi 
of  any  outward  sin,  or  the  onussion  of  known 
duty,  but  by  giving  way  to  any  inward  sin;  in  a 
word,  by  whatever  grieves  the  Holy  Spirit  oi 
God/* 

John  Calvin,  on  Romans  viii:i6,  says:  "St.  Paul 
means  that  the  Spirit  of  (jod  gives  such  a  testi- 
mony to  us,  that  he  being  our  f^ide  and  teacher, 
our  spirit  concludes  our  adoption  of  God  toM>e 
certain.  For  our  own  mind,  of  itself,  independent 
of  the  preceding  testimony  of  the  Spirit  [nisi 
prceunte  Spiritits  testimonio]  could  not  produce 
this  persuasion  in  us.  For  while  the  Spirit  wit- 
nesses that  we  are  the  sons  of  God,  he  at  the  same 


time  inspires  this  confidence  into  our  minds,  that 
we  are  bold  to  call  God  our  Father."  The  witness 
of  our  own  spirit  must  be  distinguished  from  the 
witness  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  On  this  point  Mr. 
Wesley  says:  "The  apostle  states  that  *Ye  have 
received,  not  the  spirit  of  bondage,  but  the  Spirit 
of  adoption,  whereby  we  cry,  Abba,  Father.*  It 
follows,  'The  Spirit  itself  beareth  witness  with 
our  spirit  that  we  are  the  children  of  (Jod.*  This 
is  further  explained  by  the  parallel  text  (Gal.  iv: 
6)  :  'Because  ye  are  sons,  Giod  hath  sent  forth  the 
Spirit  of  his  Son  into  your  hearts,  crying,  Abba, 
Father.*  Is  not  this  something  immediate  and  di- 
rect, not  the  result  of  reflection  or  argumentation? 
Does  not  this  Spirit  cry,  'Abba,  Father,*  in  our 
hearts  the  moment  it  is  given?  antecedently  to  any 
reflection  upon  our  sincerity,  yea,  to  any  reason- 
ing whatsoever?  And  is  not  this  the  plain,  nat- 
ural sense  of  the  words,  which  strikes  any  one  as 
soon  as  he  hears  them?  All  these  texts,  then,  in 
their  most  obvious  meaning,  describe  a  direct  tes- 
timony of  the  Spirit.  That  the  testimony  of  the 
Spirit  of  God  must,  in  the  very  nature  of  thin^, 
be  antecedent  to  the  testimony  of  our  own  spirit, 
may  appear  from  this  single  consideration:  We 
must  be  holy  in  heart  and  life  before  we  can  be 
conscious  that  we  are  so.  But  we  must  love  God 
before  we  can  be  holy  at  all,  this  being  the  root  of 
all  holiness.  Now,  we  cannot  love  Crod  till  we 
know  he  loves  us :  *We  love  him,  because  he  first 
loved  us.*  And  we  cannot  know  his  love  to  us  till 
his  Spirit  witnesses  it  to  our  spirit.  Since,  there- 
fore, the  testimony  of  his  Spirit  must  precede  the 
love  of  God  and  all  holiness,  of  conseouence  it 
must  precede  our  consciousness  thereof. 

"This  direct  and  distinct  witness  of  tfie  SfMrit  is 
frequently  merged  into  and  confused  with  the  wit- 
ness of  our  own  spirit,  as  notably  by  Dr.  Chal- 
mers (Lectures  on  Rom,^  p,  202),  where  he  re- 
duces the  work  of  the  Spint  to  the  ffraving  'uiK>n 
us  the  lineaments  of  a  living  episUe  of  Jesus  Christ, 
and  tells  us  in  the  epistle  of  a  written  revelation 
what  these  Kneaments  are.'  But  jAns  is  in  oppo- 
sition to  a  fair  exegesis  of  Rom.  viii:i6^  where  the 
idea  of  two  joint  yet  distinct  testimonies  appear." 
(A.  McCurdy,  Barnes,  Bib.  Diet.), 

WrmX&LY  (wTt'tifng-iy),  (Heh.  ^3^,  sotv- 
kaJ\  Gen.  xlviii:i4),  knowingly,  understandingly. 

WITTY  (wYt'ty),  (Heb.''^l?r?,  mez-im-maw',  Prov. 

viii:i2).  The  word  originally  meant  not  a 
humorous  or  particularly  bright  expression,  but 
skill,  ingenuity,  cunning. 

WIZABB  (wYz'erd).    See  Divination. 

WOE  WO&TH  (wO  wArth),  (Heb.  ^,  haw),  an 

expression  of  despair,  (Ezek.  xxx:2),  equivalent  to 
••woe  be,*'«.^.,  to  the  day  of  which  the  prophet 
speaks.  tVorth^  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  means 
"to  be"  or  "become,"  like  wercGn  in  German. 

WOLF  (wulf),  (Heb.  2^,  seh-abe* ;  Arab,  xeeb : 
Coptic,  ounch\  a  fierce  carnivorous  animal,  very 
nearly  allied  to  the  dog,  and  so  well  known  in 
the  West  as  to  require  no  particular  description* 
excepting  as  regards  the  identity  of  the  speaes  in 
Palestine,  which  although  often  asserted,  is  by  no 
means  established ;  for  no  professed  zoologist  has 
obtained  the  animal  in  Syria,  while  other^  travelers 
only  pretend  to  have  seen  it.  Unquestionably  a 
true  wolf,  or  a  wild  canine  with  very  similar  man- 
ners, was  not  infrequent  in  that  country  during  the 
earlier  ages  of  the  world,  and  even  down  to  the 
commencement  of  our  era.  The  prophets,  as  well 
as  the  Messiah,  allude  to  it  in  explicit  language. 
At  this  day  the  true  wolf  is  still  abundant  in  Asia 


WOMAN  !■ 

Minor,  as  well  as  in  the  {corges  of  Cilicia,  and 
from  the  traveling  disposition  of  the  species, 
wolves  may  be  expected  to  reside  in  the  forests  of 
Libanus;  but  there  is  no  satisfactory  evidence  that 
this  is  at  present  the  case.  It  may  be,  as  there 
■re  no  forests  to  the  south  of  Libanus,  that  these 
ravenous  beasts,  who  never  willingly  range  at  a 
distance  from  cover,  have  forsaken  the  more  open 
country. 

riguratibm.  (i)  The  Chaldeans  and  the  Jew- 
ish rulers  are  likened  to  evening  ivolvei,  to  mark 
their  insatiable  avarice,  and  readiness  to  destroy 
every  one  that  comes  in  the  way  (Jer.  v:6;  Hab. 
i:8;  Zeph.  iii:3).  (2)  The  tribe  of  Benjamin 
ravened  as  a  wolf;  their  warriors  were  fierce; 
twice  twenty-five  thousand  of  them  put  about 
three  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  of  the  Other 
tribes  to  flight  near  Gibeah,  and  the  remnant  of 
them  seized  the  young  women  of  Shiloh  (Judg. 
XX  and  xxi).  (3)  Isaiah  (xi:6;  lxv:25)  foreteirs 
the  peaceful  reign  of  the  Messiah  under  the  meta- 
phor of  a  wolf  dwelling  wilh  a  lamb,  (4)  Cruel 
persecutors  are  compared  with  wolves  (Matt,  x: 
16;  Acts  xx:29). 

False  teachers  are  wolves  (Matt,  viiiis).  The 
devil  is  a  wolf  (John  x:i2). 

'WOKAN  (wdom'an).  (Heb.  ^t'f,isAsAaw').h 
the  feminine  of  "^V,  ish,  as  among  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans vira  (found  still  in  virago)  from  vir;  like 
our  own  term  woman,  the  Hebrew  is  used  of  mar- 
ried and  unmarried  females. 

The  derivation  of  the  word  thus  shows  that  ac- 
cording to  the  conception  of  the  ancient  Israelites 
woman  was  man  in  a  modified  form — one  of  the 
same  race,  the  same  genus,  as  man;  a  kind  vA  fe- 
male man.  How  slightly  modified  that  form  is, 
bow  little  in  original  structure  woman  differs  from 
man,  physiology  has  made  abundantly  dear. 

(1>  Unity  with  Han.  Different  in  make  as  man 
and  woman  are,  they  differ  still  more  in  character; 
and  yet  the  great  features  of  their  hearts  and 
minds  so  closely  resemble  each  other  that  it  re- 
quires no  depth  of  vision  to  see  that  these  twain 
are  one.  This  most  important  fact  is  character- 
istically set  forth  in  the  Bible  in  the  account  given 
of  the  formation  of  woman  out  of  one  of  Adam's 
ribs  (Gen.  ii:3i-24).  Those  who  have  been 
pleased  to  make  free  with  this  simple  narrative, 
may  well  be  required  to  show  how  a  rude  age 
could  more  effectually  have  been  taught  the  es- 
sential unity  of  man  and  woman — a  unity  of  nature 
which  demands,  and  is  perfected  only  in.  a  unity 
of  soul.  The  conception  of  the  biblical  writer  goes 
b^ond  even  this,  but  does  not  extend  farther  than 
science  and  experience  unite  to  justify.  There 
was  solid  reason  why  it  was  not  good  for  Adam 
'to  be  alone.'  Without  a  hekicneet  he  would  have 
been  an  imperfect  being.  The  genus  homo  con- 
sists of  man  and  woman.  Both  are  necessary  to 
the  idea  of  man.  The  one  supplements  the  quali- 
ties of  the  other.  They  are  not  two,  hut  one  flesh, 
and  as  one  body  so  one  soul. 

The  entire  aim.  then,  of  the  narrative  in  Genesis 
was,  by  setting  forth  certain  great  physical  facts, 
to  show  the  essential  unity  of  man  and  woman,  yet 
the  dependence  of  the  latter  on  the  former ;  and 
so  to  encourage  and  foster  the  tenderest  and  most 
considerate  love  between  the  two,  founded  on  the 
peculiar  qualities  of  each — pre-eminence,  strenfjth, 
mtelleclual  power,  and  wisdom  on  the  one  side; 
reliance,  softness,  p-ace,  and  beauty  on  the  other— 
and  at  the  same  lime  to  teach  that  the  one  set  of 
excellencies  lose  all  their  worth  unless  existing  in 
the  possession  of  the  other. 


WOMAN 


(2)  Tii«  Jewisli  Bellgion  uid  1 

will  at  once  be  seen  that  under  the  influence  of  a 
religion  at  the  bottom  of  which  lay  those  ideas 
concerning  the  relations  of  the  sexes  one  to  an- 
other, slavery  on  the  part  of  the  woman  was  im- 
possible. This  fact  is  the  more  noticeable  and  it 
speaks  the  more  loudly  in  favor  of  the  divine 
origin  of  the  religion  of  the  Bible,  because  the 
East  has  in  all  times,  down  to  the  present  day, 
kept  woman  everywhere,  save  in  those  places  in 
which  Judaism  and  Christianity  have  prevailed,  in 
a  stale  of  low,  even  if  in  some  cases  gilded,  bond- 
age, making  her  the  mere  toy,  plaything  and  in- 
strument 01  man. 

The  singular  beauty  of  the  Hebrew  women  and 
the  natural  warmth  of  their  affections  have  con- 
spired to  throw  gems  of  domestic  loveliness  over 
the  pages  of  the  Bible.  In  no  history  can  there  be 
found  an  equal  number  of  charming  female  por- 
traits. From  Hagar  down  to  Mary  and  Manha, 
the' Bible  presents  pictures  of  womanly  beauty  that 
are  unsurpassed  and  rarely  paralleled.  But  we 
should  very  imperfectly  represent  in  these  general 
remarks  the  formative  influence  of  the  female 
character  as  seen  in  the  Bible,  did  not  we  refer 
these  amiaUe  traits  of  character  to  the  original 
conceptions  of  which  we  have  spoken,  and  to  the 
pure  and  lofty  religious  ideas  which  the  Biblical 
books  in  general  present.  If  woman  there  appears 
as  the  companion  and  friend  of  man,  she  owes  her 
elevation  in  the  main  to  the  religion  of  Moses  and 
to  that  of  Jesus.  The  first  system — as  a  prepara- 
tory one~-did  not  and  could  not  complete  the 
emancipation  of  woman. 


Jewiih  yonnc  Lady  in  Full  Dreii. 

(3)  OlirUrtlanlty  and  Woman.  There  was, 
however,  needed  the  finishing  touch  which  the 
Great  Teacher  put  lo  the  Mosaic  view  of  the  re- 
lations between  the  sexes.  Recogniiingthe  funda- 
mental truths  which  were  as  old  as  the  creation  of 
man.  Jesus  proceeded  to  restrain  the  much-abused 
facility  of  divorce.  leaving  only  one  cause  why  the 
marriage-bond  should  be  broken,  and  at  the  same 
time  teaching  that  as  the  origin  of  wedlock  was 
divine,  so  its  severance  ou^ht  not  to  be  the  work 
of  man.  Still  further — bnnging  to  hear  on  the 
domestic  ties  his  own  doctrine  of  immortality,  he 
made  the  bond  coexistent  with  the  undying  SOt^ 
only  teaching  that  the  ciginection  would  be  i^ 


WOMAN  17. 

fined  with  the  refinement  of  our  affections  and  our 
liberation  from  these  tenements  of  clay  in  which 
we  no«  dwell  {Matt  v.si;  xix;3,  sq.;  xxii:24, 
sq.).  With  views  so  elevated  as  these,  and  with 
affectiODS  of  the  tenderest  benignity,  the  Savior 
may  well  have  won  the  warm  and  gentle  hearts 
of  Jewish  women.  Accordingly,  the  purest  and 
richest  human  light  that  lies  on  the  pages  of  the 
New  Testament  comes  from  the  band  of  bigh- 
minded,  faithful,  and  affectionate  women  who  are 
found  in  connection  with  Christ  from  his  cradle  to 
his  cross,  his  tomb,  and  his  resurrection.  These 
ennobling  influences  have  operated  on  society  with 

Sual  benefit  and  power.  From  the  days  of  Paul's 
ieient  feminine  coworkers  and  St.  John's  "elect 
lady,"  woman  in  Christian  lands  has  steadily  ad' 
vanced  in  the  higher  life  of  p  '  '   ' 


__i  help   fitting  for  man"  that   she   stands 

bravely  by  his  side  in  all  God's  work  in  the  world, 
whether  it  be  among  the  poor,  the  sorrowing  and 
the  fallen  of  the  home  land,  or  spreading  the 
blessed  gospel  in  far  distant  countries.  Indeed,  in 
our  day  scarcely  any  reform  or  philanlhropical  un- 
dertakmg  is  planned  or  carried  out  without  the  in- 
spiration and  co-operation  of  woman.  America 
has  her  Harriet  Beecher  Slowe,  her  Frances  Wil- 
lard,  her  Clara  Barton ;  England,  her  Florence 
Nif^tingale  and  her  Lady  Henry  Somerset.  Even 
from  the  circles  of  great  wealth  and  fashion,  many 
noble  women  like  Helen  Gould  are  stepping 
forth  to  devote  their  time  and  money  to  phi- 
lanthropy. Besides  all  these  world-famed  leaders 
of  thought  and  action,  there  are  thousands  of 
lesser  lights,  humble,  faithful  workers,  who,  as 
deaconesses  in  the  church,  as  nurses  in  the  hos- 
pitals, as  teachers  in  the  schools  and — last,  but 
highest  of  all — as  mothers  in  the  home,  arc  ad- 
vancing the  kingdom  of  Christ  and  upholding 
truth,  purity,  temperance  and  justice.        J.  R.  B. 

(4)  Fr«edom  and  Smploymffnts.  Women  ap- 
pear to  have  enjoyed  considerably  more  freedom 
among  the  Jews  than  is  now  allowed  them  in 
western  Asia,  although  in  other  respects  their  con- 
dition and  employments  seem  to  have  been  not 
dissimilar.  The  employments  of  the  women  were 
very  various,  and  sufficiently  engrossing.  In  the 
earlier,  or  patriarchal  state  of  society,  the  daugh- 
ters of  men  of  substance  tended  their  fathers' 
flocks  {Gen.  xxixrg;  Exod.  ii;l6).  In  ordinary 
circumstances,  the  first  lal>or  of  the  day   was  to 

¥ind  com  and  bake  bread,  as  already  noticed, 
he  other  cares  of  the  family  occupied  the  rest 
of  the  day.  The  women  of  the  peasantry  and  of 
the  poor  consumed  much  time  in  collecting  fuel, 
and  in  going  to  the  wells  for  water.  The  wells 
were  usually  outside  the  towns,  and  the  labor  of 
drawing  water  from  them  was  by  no  means  con- 
fined to  poor  women.  This  was  usually,  but  not 
always,  the  labor  of  the  evening;  and  the  water 
was  carried  in  earthen  vessels  borne  upon  the 
shoulder  {Gen.  xxiv:is-zo;  John  iv:?,  28). 
Working  with  the  needle  also  occupied  mucl.  of 
their  time,  as  it  would  seem  that  not  only  their 
own  clothes  but  those  of  the  men  were  made  by 
the  women.  Some  of  the  needlework  was  very 
fine,  aTid  much  valued  {Exod.  xxvi:36;  xxviii:39: 

iudg.  vrjo;  Ps.  xlv;i4).  The  women  appear  to 
ave  spun  the  yarn  for  all  the  cloth  that  was  in 
use  {Exod.  xxxv:2S;  Prov.  xxxiiig)  ;  and  much 
of  the  weaving  seems  also  to  have  been  executed 
by  them  (Judg.  xvi:i3,  14;  Prov.  xxxi:33).  The 
tapestries,  for  bed -cove  rings,  mentioned  in  the 
last-cited  text,  were  probably  produced  in  the 
loom,  and  appear  to  have  been  much  valued  {Prov. 
vii:i6). 
(6)  Dtmi.    We  have  no  certain  information  re- 


3  WOMAN 

garding  tlw  dress  of  the  women  among  the  poorci 
classes ;  but  it  was  probably  coarse  and  simple,  and 
not  materially  different  from  that  which  we  now 
sec  among  the  Bedouin  women,  and  the  female 
peasantry  of  Syria.  This  consists  of  drawers, 
and  a-  long  a-nd  loose  gown  of  coarse  blue  linen, 
with  some  ornamental  bordering  wrought  with  the 
needle,  in  another  color,  about  the  neck  and 
bosom.    The  head  is  covered  with  a  kind  of  tnr- 


Jawjth  IfitToa  In  Full  Dren. 

ban,  connected  with  which,  behind,  is  a  veil,  which 
covers  the  neck,  back,  and  bosom  (see  Veil).  We 
may  presume,  with  still  greater  certainty,  that 
women  of  superior  condition  wore,  over  their 
inner  dress,  a  frock  or  tunic  like  that  of  the  men, 
but  more  closely  fitting  the  person,  with  a  girdle 
formed  by  an  unfolded  kerchief.  Their  head- 
dress was  a  kind  of  turban,  with  different  sorts  of 
veils  and  wrappers  used  under  various  drcum- 


Nosa  JewdL 

stances.  The  hair  was  worn  long,  and,  as  now, 
was  braided  into  numerous  tresses,  with  trinkets 
and  ribands  {1  Cor.  xi:is;  i  Tim.  iirg;  i  Pet 
iii:3).  With  the  headdress  the  principal  orna- 
ments  appear  to  have  been  coniKcted,  such  as  a 
jewel  for  the  forehead,  and  rows  of  pearls  {Cant 
1:10;  Eiek.  xvi:i2).  Earrings  were  also  worn 
(Is.  iii:30;  Ezek.  xvi:i3),  as  well  as  a  nose 
jewel,  consisting,  no  doubt,  as  now,  either  of  a 


WOMAN 


1734 


WORLD,  END  OF  THE 


ri^g  inserted  in  the  cartilage  of  the  nose,  or  an 
ornament  like  a  button  attached  to  it  The  nose- 
jeM'cl  was  of  gold  or  silver,  and  sometimes  set 
with  jewels  (Gen.  xxiv:47;  Is.  iii:2i).  brace- 
lets were  also  generally  worn  (Is.  iiiiig;  Ezek. 
xvi:ii),  and  anklets,  which,  as  now,  were  firoba- 
bly  more  like  fetters  than  ornaments  (Is.  iii:i6. 
20).  The  Jewish  women  possessed  the  art  of 
staining  their  eyelids  black,  for  effect  and  expres- 
sion (2  Kings  ix:3o;  Jer.  iv:3o;  Ezek.  xxiii:4o)*; 
and  it  is  more  than  probable  that  they  had  the 
present  practice  of  staining  the  nails,  and  the 
palms  of  their  hands  and  soles  of  their  feet,  of  an 
iron-rust  color,  by  means  of  a  paste  made  from 
the  plant  called  henna  (Lawsonia  inermis).  This 
plant  appears  to  be  mentioned  in  (3ant  i:i4,  and 
Its  present  use  is  probably  referred  to  in  Deut 
xxi:i2. 

The  customs  concerning  marriage,  and  the  cir- 
cumstances which  the  relation  of  wife  and  mother 
involved,  have  been  described  in  the  article  Mar- 
riage. 

(6)  The  Family.  The  Israelites  eagerly  de- 
sired children,  and  especially  sons.  Hence  the 
messenger  who  first  brought  to  the  father  the 
news  that  a  son  was  born  was  was  well  rewarded 
(Job  iii:3;  Jer.  xx:i5).  The  event  was  cele- 
brated with  music ;  and  the  father,  when  the  child 
was  presented  to  him,  pressed  it  to  his  bosom,  by 
which  act  he  was  understood  to  acknowledge  it 
as  his  own.  On  the  eighth  day  from  the  birjh  the 
child  was  circumcised  (Gen.  xvii  :io)  ;  at  which 
time  also  a  name  was  given  to  it  (Luke  i:59)* 
The  firstborn  son  was  highly  esteemed,  and  had 
many  distinguishing  privileges.  He  had  a  double 
portion  of  the  estate  (Deut.  xxi  iiy) ;  he  exer- 
cised a  sort  of  parental  authority  over  his  younger 
brothers  (Gen,  xxv:23,  etc.;  xxvii:29;  Exod.  xii: 
29;  2  Chron.  xxi  13)  ;  and  before  the  institution  of 
the  Levitical  priesthood  he  acted  as  the  priest  of 
the  family  (Num.  iii:i2,  13;  viii:i8).  The  pa- 
triarchs exercised  the  power  of  taking  these  priv- 
ileges from  the  firstborn,  and  giving  them  to  any 
other  son,  or  of  distributing  them  among  differ- 
ent sons;  but  this  practice  was  overruled  by  the 
Mosaical  law  (Deut.  xxi:i5-i7). 

(7)  Belations  of  Mother  and  Child.     The 

child  continued  about  three  years  at  the  breast 
of  the  mother,  and  a  great  festival  was  given 
at  the  weaning  (Gen.  xxi:8;  i  Sam.  i  122-24). 
He  remained  two  years  longer  in  charge  of  the 
women;  after  which  he  was  taken  under  the 
especial  care  of  the  father,  with  a  view  to  his 
proper  training  (Deut.  vi:20-25;  xi:i9).  It  ap- 
pears that  those  who  wished  for  their  sons  better 
instruction  than  they  were  themselves  able  or  will- 
ing to  give,  employed  a  private  teacher,  or  else 
sent  them  to  a  priest  or  Levite,  who  had  perhaps 
several  others  under  his  care.  The  principal  oi>- 
ject  was  that  they  should  be  well  acquainted  witi? 
the  law  of  Moses ;  and  reading  and  writing  were 
taught  in  subservience  to  this  leading  object. 

The  authority  of  a  father  was  very  great  among 
the  Israelites,  and  extended  not  only  to  his  sons, 
but  to  his  grandsons — indeed  to  all  who  were  de- 
scended from  him.  His  power  had  no  recognized 
limit,  and  even  if  he  put  his  son  or  ^andson  to 
death,  there  was,  at  first,  no  law  by  which  he  could 
be  brought  to  account  (Gen.  xxi:i4;  xxxviii:24). 
But  Moses  circumscribed  this  power  by  ordering 
that  when  a  father  judged  his  son  worthy  of 
death,  he  should  bring  him  before  the  public  tri- 
bunals. If,  however,  he  had  struck  or  cursed  his 
father  or  mother,  or  was  refractory  or  disobe^ 
dient,  he  was  still  Hable  to  capital  punishment 
(Exod.  xxi:i5,  17;  Lev.  xxig;  Deut.  xxi:i8-2i). 


WORD.     See  Addenda. 

WOBXFELLOW  ( wdrk'fSri6),  (Gr.  ovwepyAt, 
soon'er'gos\  Kom.  xvi:2i),  a  fellow-workman,  as 
our  modem  term,  coadjutor. 

WOBU),  END  OF  THE  (Gr.  ^rrikaa 
al¥ib¥,  soon-UTi-ah  ah-ee-nohn*).  The  end  of  the 
world  is  referred  to  several  times  by  our  Lord, 
as  recorded  in  Matt.  xiii:3o,  40,  49  1  xxi v  13; 
xxxiii:20.  The  meaning  of  the  words  so  trans- 
lated is  more  or  less  obscure.  By  many  it  is 
claimed  that  the  word  ah-ee-nohn*  should  be  trans- 
lated age,  instead  of  world,  and  that  there  is  ref- 
erence only  to  the  end  of  that  era  or  of  the  Jewish 
dispensation.  It  is,  however,  generally  acknowl- 
edged that  at  least  a  part  of  the  reply  of  Jesus  to 
the  disciples  (Matt,  xxiv)  refers  to  a  later  event 
than  the  end  of  Jewish  dlominion  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  to  which  bis  prophecy  clearly 
alludes.  This  later  event  can  be  none  other  than 
the  second  advent  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and 
the  end  of  sinful  conditions  then  and  now  preva- 
lent upon  the  earth. 

End  of  the  world,  day  of  judgment,  and  second 
coming  of  Christ  are  referred  to  co-ordinately  in 
the  New  Testament  Many  believe  that  the  sec- 
ond coming  of  Christ  will  be  immediately  followed 
by  the  end  of  the  world  and  the  commencement 
of  the  last  judgment.  By  the  end  of  the  world  is 
meant  the  termination  of  earthly  conditions  as 
they  now  obtain,  and  the  fulfillment  of  the  proph- 
ecy of  John  (Rev.  x:i-6)  closing  with  the  declara- 
tion of  the  angel  'that  time  should  be  no  longer.' 
The  chief  importance  of  this  event  lies  neither  in 
the  theological  nor  philosophical  theories  concern" 
ing  it,  nor  in  the  scientific  facts  affecting  the  phys- 
ical phenomena  which  may  produce  or  attend  the 
consummation  of  human  affairs,  but  rather  in  the 
final  disposition  of  individuals  and  of  the  race. 
Still  it  IS  a  fact  which  should  be  unchallenged 
that  the  Scriptures  foretell  a  great  conflagration 
which  is  to  destroy  or  purify  the  earth.  It  is 
called  'the  great  and  dreadful  day  of  the  Lord' 
(Mai.  iv).  The  words  of  the  Apostle  (2  Pet  iii: 
10-12)  are  unmistakable,  and  any  attempt  to  ex- 
plain them  figuratively  must  prove  fruitless,  for 
he  places  the  event  in  distinct  antithesis  with  the 
literal  destruction  of  the  world  by  water.  In  the 
same  connection  he  also  foretells  the  coming  of 
unbelievers  who  should  say,  'Where  is  the  prom- 
ise of  his  coming?'  and  then  proceed  to  argrue, 
even  as  many  do  now,  that  the  course  of  nature 
has  been  regular  from  the  Creation,  and  it  will 
ever  continue  so,  dependent  upon  well-known  and 
unchanging  laws.  Paul  refers  to  the  suddenness 
with  which  it  shall  come  (i  Thess.  v:3),  and 
warns  against  unpreparedness. 

Since  the  general  judgment  is  the  great  event 
related  to  the  end  of  the  world  which  commands 
the  attention  of  evtrv  one,  it  demands  specific 
treatment  here  as  follows:  (a)  God  has  deter- 
mined a  definite  time  in  which  this  event  shall  take 
place  (Acts  xvii:3i)  ;  (b)  it  will  follow  the  com- 
ing of  Clirist  in  the  glory  of  his  Father  (Matt, 
xvi  127)  ;  (c)  every  man  will  be  rewarded  accord- 
ing to  his  own  works  (Matt.  xvi:27;  Rom.  ii:6)  ; 
(d)  Clirist  himself  will  be  the  Judge  (Matt,  xxv: 
31)  ;  (e)  all  men  shall  stand  in  the  judgment  be- 
'  fore  him  (Rom.  xiv.-io;  Matt  xxv:32);  (f)  it 
will  be  a  time  of  distinct  and  final  separation  of 
the  good  from  the  evil  (Matt,  xxv  :32-46) .  Scrip- 
ture statements  concerning  the  Judgment  abound, 
but  some  of  the  most  specific  have  been  cited. 
The  person  who  is  justified  before  God  need  fear 
no  ill  from  either  the  Judgment  or  the  end  of  the 
world.  To  the  evil  doer  the  very  thought  should 
bring  consternation  leading  to  repentance.  The 
exaltation  of  Christ,  who  is  our  Redeemer,  by 


WORM 


1735 


WRITING 


whom  our  souls  have  been  ransomed  from  eternal 
misery,  must  be  to  every  loyal  disciple  of  his  an 
event  of  transcendent  joy.  Then,  too,  it  will  be 
the  time  of  full,  perfect,  and  eternal  reunion  with 
our  loved  friends  and  the  entrance  into  our  final 
reward.  It  is  wise  to  make  due  preparation  for 
the  last  accounting  which  all  must  make  (i  Pet. 
iv:i7,  i8). 

WOBM  (wdrm).     The  only  worms  alluded  to 

in  Scripture  are  the  larva  of  insects,  as  ^  sawce 

(Is.  li:8),  the  grub  of  the  moth;  ^Y\,rim-maw\ 

maggots  bred  in  decaying  vegetable  and  animal 
substances  (Exod.  xvi:24;  Job  vii:5,  etc.),  and 
t6ld*im,  also  maggots  similar  to  the  last.  T6lS^  and 
t$ld*ath,  from  the  same  root,  refer  to  the  cochineal 
insect.  Earthworms  are  not  mentioned  in  the 
Bible.  The  worms  which  devoured  Herod  (Acts 
xii:23)  were  probably  also  maggots^  bred  in  a 
wound  or  sore.    (Barnes,  Bib.  Diet,) 

WOBMWOOD  (warm'w56d).  (Heb.  ^i^X  iah- 

an-aw').  At  least  five  species  of  this  plant  {Arte^ 
misia)  are  found  in  the  Holy  Land,  and  are  dis- 
tinguished for  intense  bitterness.  Hence  this  word 
is  often  joined  with  or  used  in  the  same  sense  as 
"gall"  and  "hemlock,"  to  denote  what  is  offensive 
and  nauseous  (Deut.  xxix:i8;  Prov.  v:4;  Amos 
v:7;  vi:i2).  To  be  obliged  to  use  it  as  food  ex- 
presses the  extreme  of  suffering  (Jer.  ix  :i5 ;  xxiii : 
15;  Lam.  iii:i5,  19). 

Figurative.  (Gr.  d\pipeo9,  ap'sin-thos,  a  type  of 
bitterness  or  calamity.) 

WOBMWOOD,  STAB  OF  (wfirm'wdbd.  st&r 
6v),  (Rev.  viii:ii),  the  Apocalyptic  appellation 
for  the  national  demon  of  fegypt,  set  forth  in  the 
vision  of  Patmos  as  a  luminous  idol  presiding 
over  'the  third  part  of  the  waters.'  The  vocation 
of  this  star  was  to  destroy  by  poison,  not  by  fire, 
sword,  or  famine. 

Figurative.  St.  John  seems  to  employ  this  sym- 
bol  of  Egyptian  poison  and  bitterness  as  the  pro- 
totjrpe  of  a  great  Anti-Christian  Power,  which 
would  poison  and  embitter  the  pure  waters  of 
Christian  life  and  doctrine,  converting  them  into 
'wormwood,'  mitzraim  being  a  figure  of  apostasy 
and  rebellion.  F.  K.  L. 

WOBSHIF  (wAr'shtp).  The  translation  in  the 
A.  V.  of  the  following  Hebrew  and  Greek  words: 

Shaw-kha'co'  (Heb.  '"^r^,  to   bowdown);  seg-eed' 

(Heb.  "I**??,  to  fall  down);  awtsab'  (Heb.  3??,  to 

carve,  labor) ;  pros-hoo-neh'o  (Gr.  vpofficvpiu),  prop- 
erly to  Jdiss  the  hand  to  {toward) ;  seb'om-ahee  (Gr. 
ffipofuii),  to  revere  a  deity, 

1.  Worship  may  thus  be  respect  shown  to  a  per- 
son (Luke  xiv:io;  R.  V.  glory). 

2.  Worship  of  God  is  an  act  of  religion,  which 
consists  in  paying  a  due  respect,  veneration  and 
homage  to  the  Deity,  from  a  sense  of  his  great- 
ness, of  benefits  already  received  and  under  a 
certain  expectation  of  reward  (Matt.  xiv:33;  xv: 
25 ;  Rev.  xiv  7)  ;  man  is  forbidden  to  worship 
anyone  but  (jod  (Exod.  xxxiv:i4;  Matt,  iv.io; 
Acts  x:25,  sq.;  Rev.  xix:io).    (See  Church.) 

3.  In  the  New  Testament  worship  often  means 
homage,  reverence  (Matt,  xvig;  Mark  vii:7;  Acts 
xviii:i3;  xix:27). 

4.  Proselytes  of  the  gate  are  called  "men  that 
worship  God"  (ct^yAvJi  rh¥  GcAv,  Acts  xvi:i4;  xviii: 
7),  or  simply  ••  devout  persons"  (roit  c€^iUvoit, 

Actsxvii:!?;. 

6.  Eth-el'Oth-race'ki'ah  {i$€>io$priirK€la,  volun- 
tary worship),  f.  e.,  worship  which  one  devises 
and  prescribes  for  himself,  contrary  to  the  con- 


tents and  nature  of  the  faith  which  ought  to  be 
directed  to  Christ;  said  of  the  misdirected  zeal 
and  practices  of  ascetics  (Col.  ii:23).  (Barnes, 
Bib.  Diet.) 

WOBSHIFEB  (wdr'ship-er),  m  Acts  xix:3S. 
should  be  "temple  keeper,"  a  term  applied  to 
cities  devoted  to  the  worship)  of  some  special  idol, 
as  Ephesus  was  to  that  of  Diana. 

WOBTHY  (Gr.  d^ios,  ax'ee-os,  Luke  xii^S), 
suitable,  meritorious,  deserving. 

WOBTHTBS  (war'tMz),  (Heb.  ^^  ad-deer", 
large),  /.  e.  men  of  power  (Nab.  ii:5). 

WOT,  WOTTETH  (w6t.  w6t'«th),  (Heb.  W^ 

yaw'dah'),  indicative  present  of  the  old  veib  **Xo 
wit"  I.  e.  "to  know"  (Gen.  xxxlx:8). 

WOTTLD  (w56d),  (Heb.  ^^^^,  akh-al-ak'ee),  an 

exclamation,  as  ••  Would  God! "  "  Would  to  Godf* 
••  O,  if  God  would  grant!"  "  I  wish  to  GodK*  (Exod. 

xvi:3). 

WBATHS  (raths),  (Gr.  evfiM,  thoo-mos'tpsLSSioa). 
In  the  list  of  probable  evils  to  be  shunned  (2  Cor. 
xii:2o)  is  "wraths."  Thoo-mos'  and  or-guy*  (Gr. 
6py^)  are  often  in  juxtaposition  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Rom.  ii:8;  Eph. iv:3i;  Col.iii:8;  Rev.xix:i5). 

It  would  appear  that  thoo-mos'  is  the  more  tur- 
bulent commotion,  the  "boiling  agitation  of  the 
feelings,  either  presently  to  subside  and  disappear, 
or  else  to  settle  down  into  or-gay ,  wherein  is  more 
of  an  abiding  and  settled  habit  of  the  mind  ('tVa 
ffiv^/^ra^a'),w>ith  the  purpose  of  revenge"  (Trench, 
i,  pp.  178,  179). 

WBEST  (Heb.  •'*?^,  naw-taw\  Exod.  xxiii:2), 

to  pervert,  to  twrst,  to  turn  by  force  to  a  wrong 
sense  or  purpose:  so  words  are  wrested  (2  Pet. 
iii:i6;  Ps.  lvi:5).  Judgment  is  wrested  when  un- 
just sentences  are  given  for  or  against  men  (Exod. 
xxiii  :6). 

WBESTUNQ  (rSst'Ung).    See  Games. 

WBINKLE  (rin'kn),  (Heb.  ^51?,  kawmaf).  a 

blemish  of  the  person,  or  a  sign  of  approaching 
age  (Job  xvi:8).  St.  Paul  speaks  figuratively  (Eplu 
v:27)  of  the  Church  as  a  bride  "  not  having  a  spot 
or  wrinkle  "  (Gr.  ^vrl%,  hroO'tece'\  It  denotes  the 
continued  youth  and  attractiveness  of  the  Church. 

WBITING  (nt'fag),  (Heb.  ^pD   kaw-thab',  to 

grave;  *^S?,  saw-far',  to  inscribe;  ^??P,  mik-tawb\ 
characters  in  writing;  Gr.  ypd<l>ia,graf'o,  to  grave). 
After  the  gift  of  language  (which  was  indis- 
pensable to  rational  creatures),  it  would  seem  that 
writing  was  the  most  highly  beneficial  and  im- 
portant boon  which  could  be  conferred  on  men 
possessed  of  intellect  and  understanding,  who 
from  their  circumstances  must  divide  and  spread 
over  the  whole  earth,  and  yet  be  forced  from 
various  necessities  to  maintain  intercourse  with 
each  other.  Even  in  the  first  ages  of  the  world 
writing  was  requisite  not  only  to  preserve  unim- 
paired the  knowledge  of  God,  but  to  transmit  and 
receive  accurate  intelligence  from  the  scattered 
communities,  and  to  convey  to  posterity  events 
which  were  destined  to  act  upon  all  time. 

(1)  Antiquity.  It  is  evident  from  the  allusions 
made  to  the  subject  in  the  sacred  Scriptures  that 
the  knowledge  of  ivriting  was  possessed  by  the 
human  family  at  a  very  early  period.  In  the  fifth 
chapter  of  (Genesis  it  is  said.  This  is  the  book  of 
generations.'  If  there  had  been  merely  a  tradi- 
tionary recollection  of  'the  ^nerations  of  Adam,' 
preserved  only  by  transmission  from  one  memory 


WRITING  IT 

to  another  for  more  than  a  thousand  years,  the 
term  book  would  have  been  most  inapplicable,  and 
could  not  have  been  used  in  the  book  of  Job,  which 
is  considered  by  some  to  be  the  most  ancient  writ- 
ten document  extant  (chap,  xix  123,  24),  it  is  said, 
'Oh,  that  my  words  were  now  written,  Oh,  that 
they  were  printed  in  a  book!  that  they  were 
graven  with  an  iron  pen!'  Also  Job  xxxi;3S, 
'mine  adversary  had  ■tvrillen  a  book,'     Such  ex- 

Csssions  could  not  have  been  used,  and  would 
ve  had  no  meaning,  if  the  art  of  writing  had 
been  unknown ;  nor  could  there  have  been  such 
terms  as  book  and  pen  if  the  things  themselves  bad 

Before  the  law  was  given  by  God  to  Moses,  he 
had  been  commanded  to  write  the  important  trans- 
actions which  occurred  during  the  progress  of  the 
Israelites  from  Egypt  to  Canaan;  for  in  Exod. 
xvii:i4,  it  is  recorded,  'And  the  Lord  said  unto 
Moses,  write  this  for  a  memorial  in  a  bocJc.'  An 
account  of  the  discomfiture  of  the  Amalekites  is 
the  first  thing  said  to  have  been  written  by  Moses. 
This  baltle  was  fought  ere  the  people  left  Rephi- 
dim  (Exod.  xvti:i3),  from  whence  ihey  departed 
into  the  wilderness  of  Sinai  (Exod.  xix;2)  ;  and, 
therefore,  that  writing  was  drawn  y)  before  the 
events  on  the  mount  took  place.  "The  law  was 
'written  by  the  finger  of  God'  (Exod.  xxxi:i8), 
B.C.  1401,  and  since  [hat  time  there  is  no  question 
as  to  the  existence  of  the  art  of  writing.  The 
commandments  were  written  on  two  tables  of 
stone  (Exod.  xxxiv;i);  but  immediately  after- 
wards, when  Moses  was  interceding  with  God  for 
the  sinning  idolaters,  he  says,  'Blot  me  out  of  thy 
book  which  thou  hast  written'  (Exod.  xxxii:33). 
If  writing  in  alphabetical  characters  had  been  seen 
by  Moses  for  the  first  time  on  the  'tables  of  stone,' 
he  could  not  from  these  have  had  the  faintest  oon- 
ception  of  a  book,  which  is  a  thing  composed  of 
leaves  or  rolls,  and  of  which  the  stones  or  slates 
could  have  given  him  no  idea. 

Forty  years  after  the  law  was  written  the  Israel- 
ites took  possession  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  where 
the  'cities  were  walled  and  very  great'  (Num.  xiii : 
28).  Amongst  other  places  which  were  conquered 
was  one  calkd  by  them  Debir,  but  whose  orig'inal 
name  was  Kirjath-sepher,  or  the  City  of  Books, 
or  Kirjatb-sannah.  the  City  of  Letters  (Josh,  xv : 
•19;  Judg.  I:ii).  The  Canaaniies  could  not  have 
gained  their  knowledge  of  letters  or  of  books  from 
Iht  Hebrews,  with  whom  they  were  entirely  unac- 
quainted or  at  war,  and  must,  therefore,  have  de- 
rived them  from  other  sources.  The  Canaanites 
beinc  the  descendants  of  Canaan,  a  son  of  Ham, 


Parelmiaiit,  Cue,  and  RoUft 


8  WRITING 

had  probably  preserved  and  cultivated  die  same 
arts  and  sciences  which  Mlsraim,  another  son  of 
Ham,  carried  into  Egypt  (Gen.  x;6). 

'The  Book  of  Jasher'  (Josh.  x:i3),  is  men- 
tioned by  Joshua,  but  whether  as  a  chronicle  of 
the  past  or  present  is  uncertain, 

(2)  fioolu.  Books  and  writing  must  have  been 
familiar  to  Moses,  'who  was  learned  in  all  the 
wisdom  of  the  Egyptians'  (Acts  vii:22),  for  at 
the  time  of  his  birth  that  people  had  arrived  at  a 
high  pitch  of  civilization ;  and  now  that  the  mys- 
terious hieroglyphics  can  be  deciphered,  it  has  been 
found  that  from  the  earliest  era  Egypt  possessed 
a  knowledge  of  writing,  and  that  many  of  the  in- 
scriptions were  written  before  the  Exodus  of  the 
Hebrews. 

(3)  IiOttttrtL  Letters  are  generally  allowed  to 
have  been  introduced  into  Europe  from  Phoenicia, 
and  to  have  been  brought  from  thence  by  Cadmus 
into  Greece,  about  fifteen  centuries  before  Christ, 
which  time  coinckles  with  the  eighteenth  Egyptian 
dynasty ;  but  while  none  may  deny  such  to  have 
been  the  origin  of  European  alphabetical  charac- 
ters, it  does  not  prove  the  Phcenieians  to  have  been 
the  inventors  of  writing.  That  people  occupied 
Ph<Enicia  in  vep-  early  times  after  the  Deluge, 
and  if  the  patriarch  and  his  sons  possessed  tne 
knowledge  of  letters,  their  posterity  would  doubt- 
less preserve  the  remembrance  and  practice  of 
such  an  invaluable  bequest,  which  would  be  con- 
veyed by  their  colonists  into  Greece  and  Africa. 
In  the  New  World  it  was  found  that  the  Peru- 
vians had  no  system  of  writing,  while  the  Mexi- 
cans had  made  great  advances  in  hieroglyph ical 
paintings.  The  Aitecs,  who  preceded  the  Mex- 
icans, had  attained  much  proficiency  in  the  art, 
such  as  was  adequate  to  the  wants  of  a  people  in 
an  imperfect  state  of  civilisation. 

(4)  Writing  Materials.  Various  have  been  the 
materials  and  implements  used  for  writing.  As 
was   before  observed,  paper   *  '  ' 


tables  of  itone  on  which  the  Commandments  were 
written  (Exod,  xxxiv:l).  After  that  time  the 
Jews  used  rolls  of  ikins  for  their  .sacred  writings. 
They  also  engraved  writing  upon  gems  or  gold 
plates  (Exod,  xxxix:3o). 

Before  the  discovery  of  paper  the  Chinese  wrote 
upon  thin  boards  with  a  sharp  tool.  Reeds  and 
canes  are  still  used  as  writing  implements  among 
the  Tartars ;  and  the  Persians  and  other  Orientals 
write  for  temporary  purposes  on  leaves,  or  smooth 
sand,  or  the  bark  of  trees.  The  Arabs  in  ancient 
times  wrote  their  poetry  upon  the  shoulder 
blades  of  sheep. 

The  Greeks  occasionally  engraved  their 
laws  on  tables  of  brass.  Even  before  ihe 
days  of  Homer  table  books  were  used,  made 
of  wood,  cut  in  thin  slices,  which  were 
painted  and  polished,  and  the  pen  was  an 
iron  instrument  called  a  style.  In  later  times 
these  surfaces  were  waxed  over,  that  the 
writing  might  be  obliterated  for  further  use. 
Table  books  were  not  discontinued  (ill  the 
fourteenth  century  of  the  Oiristian  era. 

At  length  the  superior  preparations  of  pa- 
per, parchment,  and  vellum  became  general, 
and  superseded  other  materials  in  many,  and 
all  entirely  civilized,  ---'--- 


YANSHUPH 


1737 


YOK£ 


Y 


(yan'shtif),  (Hcb.  I*}-,  yan^ 

shoof.  twilight,   Lev.  xi:i8;   Deut.  xiv:i6.   Is. 
xxxiv:ii). 

In  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate  it  is  translated 
'Ibis,'  but  in  our  version  'Owl;'  which  last  Boch- 
art  supports,  deriving  the  name  from  ^'^^  nesh^ph, 
'twilight/  (See  Owl.)  Bochart  and  others,  who 
refer  the  name  to  a  species  of  owl,  appear  to 
disregard  two  other  names  ascribed  to  owls  m 
the  i6th  verse  of  the  same  chapter  of  Leviticus. 
If,  therefore,  an  owl  was  here  again  intended,  it 
would  have  been  placed  in  the  former  verse,  or 
near  to  it.  In  this  difficulty,  considering  that  the 
Seventy  were  not  entirely  without  some  grounds 
for  referring  the  Hebrew  Yanshuph  to  a  wader; 
that  the  older  commentators  took  it  for  a  species 
of  ardea ;  and  that  the  root  of  the  name  may  re- 
fer to  twilight,  indicating  a  crepuscular  bird ;  we 
are  inclined  to  select  the  night  heron,  as  the  only 
one  that  unites  these  several  qualities.  It  is  z 
bird  smaller  than  the  common  heron,  distin- 
guished by  two  or  three  white  plumes  hanging 
out  of  the  black-capped  nape  of  the  male.  In 
habit  it  is  partially  nocturnal.  The  Arabian 
Abou-onk,  if  not  the  identical,  is  a  close  con- 
gener of  the  species,  found  in  every  portion  of 
the  temperate  and  warmer  climates  of  the  earth: 
it  is  an  inhabitant  of  Syria,  and  altogether  is 
free  from  the  principal  objections  made  to  the 
ibis  and  the  owl.  The  Linmean  single  Ardea 
nycHcorax  is  now  t}rpical  of  a  genus  of  that 
name,  and  includes  several  species  of  night  herons. 
They  fly  abroad  at  dusk,  frequent  the  sea- 
shore, marshes  and  rivers,  feeding  on  mollusca, 
Crustacea,  and  worms,  and  have  a  cry  of  a  most 
disagreeable  nature.  This  bird  has  been  con- 
founded with  the  night  hawk,  which  is  a  goat- 
sucker (caprimulgus]^  not  a  hawk.         C.  H.  S. 

YABN  (yftm),  (Heb.  n3i?9,  mik-vay%  a  term 

found  I  Kings  x:28;  2  Chron.  i:i6,  and  translated 
"drove"  or  "troop"  in  the  R.  V. 

"And  the  king's  merchants  received  them  in 
droves,  each  drove  at  a  price."  This  comes  from 
considering  the  Hebrew  term  as  meaning  com- 
panv  or  troop.  The  translators  of  the  LXX  and 
Vulgate  have  regarded  the  Hebrew  word  mikvay 
as  the  name  of  a  place.  According  to  this  the 
translation  would  be,  "And  as  for  the  going  out 
of  horses  from  Egypt  and  Koa,"  etc 

(y«r),  (Heb.  ^^,  shawnaw*). 


Divisions.  The  Hebrew  year  consisted  of 
twelve  unequal  months,  which,  previously  to  the 
Exile,  were  lunar,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  He- 
brew names  of  the  moon,  which  signify  respect- 
ively a  month  (so  with  us  moon  from  month, 
German  mon J) ;  though  Credner,  relying  too 
much  on  hypothesis,  especially  on  the  assumption 
of  the  late  origin  of  the  Pentateuch,  has  endeav- 
ored to  show  that,  until  the  eighth  century  before 
Christ,  the  Israelites  reckoned  by  solar  years.  The 
twelve  solar  months  made  up  only  354  days,  con- 
stituting a  year  too  short  by  no  fewer  than  eleven 
days.  This  deficiency  would  have  soon  inverted 
the  year,  and  could  not  have  existed  even  for  a 
short  period  of  time  without  occasioning  derange- 
ments and  serious  inconvenience  to  the  Hebrews, 


whose  year  was  so  full  of  festivals.  At  an  early 
day  then  we  may  well  believe  a  remedy  was  pro- 
vided for  this  evil.  The  course  which  the  an- 
cients pursued  is  unknown,  but  Ideler  (ChronoL 
i.  490)  may  be  consulted  for  an  ingenious  con- 
jecture on  the  subject.  The  later  Jews  inter- 
calated a  month  every  two,  or  every  three  years, 
taking  care,  however,  to  avoid  making  the  seventh 
an  intercalated  year.  The  supplementary  month 
was  added  at  the  termination  of  the  sacred  year, 
the  twelfth  month  (February  and  March),  and 
as  this  month  bore  the  name  of  Adar,  so  the  in- 
terposed month  was  called  Veadar,  or  Adar  the 
Second.  The  year,  as  appears  from  the  ordinary 
reckoning  of  the  months  (Lev.  xxiii:34;  xxvig; 
Num.  ix:ii ;  2  Kings  xxv:8;  Jer.  xxxix:2;  comp. 
I  Mace.  iv:52,  x:2i),  began  with  the  month  Nisan 
(Esth.  iii:7),  agreeably  to  an  express  direction 
given  by  Moses  (Exod.  xii:2;  Num.  ix:i).  This 
commencement  is  generally  thought  to  be  that  of 
merely  the  ecclesiastical  year;  and  most  Jewish, 
and  many  Christian  authorities,  hold  that  the  civil 
year  originally  began,  as  now,  with  the  month 
Tisri.    (See  Time.) 

TOKE  (yOk),  (Heb.  bi»  oU,  or  fno-taw',  •**? '^t 
Is.  lviii:6, 9;  Jer.  xxvii:2;  xxviiirio,  12,13;  Ezek. 
xxx:i8),  the  bars  of  the  yoke;  TseWmed  (Heb.  ^%* 

yoke  of  oxen).  The  Greek  words  are  dsoo-gos* 
(jV76f,  yoke),  which  has  the  usual  meaning  of  yoke; 
and  dzyoo'^os(i>i(fyo$,  Luke  xiviig),  meaning  two 
draught  cattle  (horses,  mules,  or  oxen)  yoked 
togetner. 

The  yoke  was  much  lighter  than  ours,  and 
probably  much  larger,  so  that  the  cattle  stood  far- 
ther apart  and  the  plow  could  more  easily  be 
made  to  avoid  obstructions.  It  was  simply  a  stick 
laid  upon  the  necks  of  the  cattle,  to  which  it  was 
held  t^  thongs  instead  of  wooden  bows,  and  in  a 
similar  manner  it  was  attached  to  the  plow  beam. 
In  modern  Syria  wooden  pins  are  sometimes  used 
instead  of  thongs,  the  lower  ends  of  which  are 
held  by  a  parallel  stick  under  the  necks  of  the 


oxen. 


Figurative,  (i)  The  law  of  God  is  called  a 
yoke,  which  galls  the  unregenerate  man  as  it  binds 
him  to  his  duty:  but  as  received  in  Christ,  it  is 
easy  to  be  borne,  for  the  disciple  receives  strength 
from  Jesus :  men  with  pleasure  and  comfort  obey 
it;  and  it  is  much  easier  than  the  service  of  sin, 
the  slavery  of  the  broken  covenant,  or  the  bond- 
age of  the  ceremonial  law,  which  is  called  a  yoke, 
or  yoke  of  bondage,  as  the  service  required  by 
it  was  carnal  and  burdensome  (Matt.  xi:29,  30; 
Gal.  v:i).  (2)  Bondage  or  slavery  is  called  a 
yoke;  in  it  men  are  obliged  to  suffer  and  labor  in 
a  most  debased  manner  (Lev.  xxvi:i3;  Is.  ix: 
4,  and  X 127)  ;  (3)  and  a  yoke  of  iron,  to  express 
its  hard  and  painful  influence  (Deut.  xxviii:48). 
(4)  Affliction,  whether  penal  or  correctory,  is 
called  a  yoke;  it  distresses  men's  persons,  circum- 
stances, and  spirit;  and  it  is  the  yoke  of  trans- 
^ressions,  because  inflicted  on  their  account  (Lam. 
lii  :27,  and  1:14).  (5)  Marriage  is  called  a  yoke, 
as  persons  therein  joined  are  bound  to  serve  God, 
and  assist  one  another;  and  they  are  unequally 
yoked  when  they  are  different  in  their  religion, 
and  are  much  so  in  their  tempers  and  circum- 


YOKEFELLOW 


1738 


ZABDI 


stances  (2  Cor.  vi:i4).  (6)  Paul  calls  his  fel- 
low preachers  his  true  yokefellows^  as  they  la- 
bored in  the  same  service  of  Christ  as  he  did 
(Phil.  iv:3). 


Yoke  In  Use  in  Palestine. 

YOKEFELLOW  ( y5k-f«ri6'),  a  co-laborer  (l 
Cor.  vii:8;  Phil.  iv:3).    See  Yoke. 

YSOP  or  HYSSOP  (T-siip  6r  hfe'siSp). 

From  the  passages  in  which  esobh  and  hyssop 
are  mentioned  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
and  which  are  enumerated  in  the  article  Hyssop, 
the  author  infers  that  any  plant  answering  to  all 
that  was  required  should,  in  the  first  place,  be 
found  in  every  one  of  the  places  and  situations 
where  it  is  mentioned  as  existing  in  Scripture. 


Thus  it  should  be  found  in  Lower  Egypt  (Exod. 
xii:22)  ;  in  the  desert  of  Sinai  (Lev.  xiv:4,  6,  and 
52 ;  Num.  xix  :6,  18)  ;  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Jerusalem  (John  xix  129)  ;  secondly,  that  it  should 
be  a  plant  growing  on  walls  or  rocky  situations 
(i  Kings  iv:33);  and,  finally,  that  it  should  be 
possessed  of  some  cleansing  properties  (Ps.  li:7)  ; 
though  it  is  probable  that  in  this  passage  it  is  used 
in  a  figurative  sense.  It  should  also  be  large 
enough  to  yield  a  stick,  and  it  ought,  moreover* 
to  have  a  name  in  the  Arabic  or  cognate  lan- 
guages  similar  to  the  Hebrew  name. 

TSese  requirements  are  met  by  the  caper  plan^ 
which  has  an  Arabic  name,  asuf,  similar  to  the 
Hebrew  esob  or  esof,  as  it  is  found  in  Lower 
Egypt,  in  the  deserts  of  Sinai,  and  in  New  Jerusa- 
lem; as  it  grows  upon  rocks  and  walls,  was  al- 
ways supposed  to  be  possessed  of  cleansing  quali- 
ties, is  large  enough  to  yield  a  stick ;  and  as  its 
different  parts  used  to  be  preserved  in  vinegar, 
as  its  buds  now  are;  he  is  warranted,  from  the 
union  of  all  these  properties  in  this  plant,  corre- 
sponding so  closely  to  those  of  the  original  esof^ 
in  considering  it  as  proved  that  the  caper  plant  is 
the  hyssop  of  Scripture.  J.  F.  R. 


Z 


TAAWATiff  (zft'a-nft'im),  (Heb.  0''J52¥.  fsaA-an- 

an-neem'),  the  "plain,"  or  better  the  "oak"  by  Zaa- 
naim.  It  was  probably  a  sacred  tree  which  stood 
where  Heber,  tne  Kenite,  had  his  tent  when  Sisera 
took  refuge  with  him  (Judg.  iv:ii);  the  same  as 
Zaanannim  (Josh,  xix  133).  This  place  has  been 
identified  with  the  modem  Bessflm,  on  the  table- 
land, a  little  east  of  Tabor. 

ZAANAN  (z5'a-nan),  (Heb.  1^8?.  tsah-an-awn', 

place  of  flocks),  a  place  mentioned  by  Micah,  as 
amone  the  towns  of  the  Shephelah  (Mic.  i:ii). 
But  Keil  objects  to  its  identification  with  Zenan, 
"as  Zenan  was  in  the  plain,  and  Zaanan  was  most 
probably  to  the  north  of  Jerusalem." 

ZAANANNHC  (za'a-nlUi'nim),  (Josh.  xix:33). 
See  Zaanaim. 

ZAAVAN   (zdVv&n),  (Heb.  W,  Moh-av-awn', 

disquieted),  Horite  chief,  the  second  son  of  Ezer, 
the  son  of  Seir  (Gen.  xxxvi:27),  called  Zavan  (i 
Chron.  1:42).    (B.  C.  after  1927.) 

ZABAD  (za'b^),  (Heb.  "^^I,  zaTthbawif,  gift, 
present). 

1.  A  son  of  Nathan,  a  descendant  of  Ahlai, 
Sheshan's  daughter.  He  was  one  of  David's  war- 
riors from  -the  tribe  of  Judah  (i  Chron.  ii:36- 
37)  ;  called  "the  son  of  Ahlai"  (i  Chron.  xi:4i). 
(B.  C.  1046.)     (See  Jarha;  Sheshan.) 

2.  A  grandson  of  Ephraim,  who,  with  others 
of  the  family  was  killed  during  the  lifetime  of 
Ephraim,  by  the  men  of  Gath,  in  an  attempt  which 
the  Hebrews  seem  to  have  made  to  drive  off  their 
cattle  (i  Chron.  vii:2i).  (B.  C.  after  1875.) 
(See  Ephraim.) 

3.  Son  of  an  Ammonitess  named  Shimeatii, 
who,  in  conjunction  with  Jehozabad,  the  son  of  a 
Moabitess,  slew  King  Joash,  to  whom  they  were 
both  household  officers,  in  his  bed  (2  Kings  xii: 
21;  2  Chron.  xxiv:25,  26).  (B.  C.  about  797.) 
In  the  first  of  these  texts  he  is  called  Jozachar. 
The  sacred  historian  does  not  appear  to  record 
the  mongrel  parentage  of  these  men  as  suggest- 


ing a  reason  for  their  being  more  easily  led  to  this 
act,  but  as  indicating  the  sense  which  was  enter- 
tained of  the  enormity  of  Joash's  conduct,  that 
even  thev,  though  servants  to  the  king,  and  though 
only  half  Jews  by  birth,  were  led  to  conspire 
against  him  'for  the  blood  of  the  sons  of  Jehoiada 
the  priest.*  It  would  seem  that  their  murderous 
act  was  not  abhorred  by  the  people ;  for  Amaziah, 
the  son  of  Joash,  did  not  venture  to  call  them  to 
account  till  he  felt  himself  well  established  on  the 
throne,  when  they  were  both  put  to  d^ath  (a 
Kings  xiv  .-5,  6 ;  2  Chron.  xxv  13,  4) . 

4.  One  of  the  persons  who,  at  the  instance  of 
Ezra,  put  away  the  foreign  wives  they  had  taken 
after  the  return  from  captivity  (Ezra  ^127),    (B. 

C458.) 

5.  A  son  of  Hashum  who  also  divorced  his  wife 
after  the  captivity  (Ezra  x  133).     (B.  C.  458.) 

6.  One  of  the  sons  of  Nebo,  who  divorced  his 
wife  under  the  same  circumstances  as  the  two  pre- 
ceding (Ezra  x:43).     (B.  C.  458.) 

ZABBAI  (zab'bai),  (Heb.  ^^,  Mob-bah'ee,  per- 
haps  pure,  innocent). 

1.  A  descendant  of  Bebai,  who  divorced  his  for- 
eign wife  after  the  exile  (Ezra  x:28).  (B.  C 
458.) 

2.  Father  of  Baruch,  who  assisted  Nehemiah  in 
repairing  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii:2o). 
(B.  C.  before  446.)  Perhaps  the  same  as  Zaccai 
(Ezra  ii:9). 

ZABBXJB  (zab'bud),  (Heb.  '»'^2T^  sab-bood',  giy. 

en,  bestowed),  "son"  of  Bigyai  who  returned  from 
captivity  with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii:i4).    (B.  C.  458.) 

ZABDI  (zab'di),  (Heb.  *"'?1.  zab'dee\  Jehovah 
gave). 

1*  Son  of  Zerah,  the  son  of  Judah,  and  grand- 
father of  Achan  (Josh.  vii:i,  17,  18).  (B.  C.  be- 
fore 1618.) 

3.  A  Benjamite,  the  third  of  the  nine  sons  of 
Shimhi  (i  Chron.  viiirig).    (B.  C.  about  1170.) 

3.  A  man  from  Shepham  and  the  keeper  of  Da- 
vid's wines  and  vines  (i  C^ron.  xxvii  :27).  (B. 
C.  1043.) 


ZABDIEL 


1730 


ZADOK 


4.  Son  of  Asaph,  the  minstrel  and  grandfather 
of  Mattaniah  (Neh.  xi:i7) ;  called  Zaccur  (Neh. 
x:i2)  and  Zichri  (i  Chron.  ix:i5).  (B.  C.  before 
446.) 

ZABDIEL  (zab'di-el),  (Heb.  VK'^IDT.  zab-dee-ale', 
gift  of  God). 

!•  Father  of  the  Jashobeam  who  commanded 
the  first  division  of  David's  army  ( i  Chron.  xxvii : 
2).    (B.  C.  before  1046.) 

2.  Son  of  Haggedolim,  or  "one  of  the  great 
men/*  and  overseer  of  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
eig^t  of  the  captives  who  returned  from  captivity 
(Neh.  xi:i4).    (B.  C.  458.) 

ZABTJD  (za'bud),  (Heb.  '^^^  zawbood',  be- 
stowed). 

A  son  of  Nathan  the  prophet,  who  held  under 
Solomon  the  important  place  of  'king's  friend,' 
or  favorite  (i  Kings  iv:5),  which  Hushai  had 
held  under  David  ( i  Chron.  xxvii  :33 ;  2  Sam.  xv : 
37;  xvi:i6),  and  which  a  person  named  Elkanah 
held  under  Ahaz  (2  Chron.  xxviii:7).  Azariah 
another  son  of  Nathan,  was  'over  all  the  (house- 
hold) officers'  of  king  Solomon;  and  their  ad- 
vancement may  doubtless  be  ascribed  not  only  to 
the  young  king's  respect  for  the  venerable  prophet, 
who  had  been  his  instructor,  but  to  the  friend- 
ship he  had  contracted  with  his  sons  during  the 
course  of  education.  The  office,  or  rather  honor, 
of  'friend  of  the  king,'  we  find  in  all  the  despotic 
governments  of  the  East.  It  gives  high  power, 
without  the  public  responsibility  which  the  hold- 
ing of  a  regular  office  in  the  state  necessarily  im- 
poses. It  implies  the  possession  of  the  utmost 
confidence  of,  and  familiar  intercourse  with,  the 
monarch,  to  whose  person  'the  friend'  at  all  times 
has  access,  and  whose  influence  is  therefore  often 
far  greater,  even  in  matters  of  state,  than  that  of 
the  recognized  ministers  of  government. 

ZABT7L0N  (zab'u-lon),  (Matt.  iv:i3,  15;  Rev. 
vii:8).    See  Zebulun. 

ZACCAI  (zak'ka-l).  (Heb.  ^^1,  eak-kah'ee,  pure). 

The  seven  hundred  and  sixty  of  the  "sons"  of 
Zaccai  who  returned  from  captivity  with  Zerub- 
babel  (Ezra  iirg;  Neh.  vii:i4).  (B.  C.  before 
536.) 

ZACCELSUS  (zak-kS'us),  a  more  correct  form 
of  Zaccheus. 

ZACCHEXrS  (zak-ke'us),  (Heb.  *'^?I,  zak-kawhee  / 

Gr.  ZoKxaiof,  dzak'Chah'ee-os,  just),  a  superinten- 
dent of  taxes  at  Jericho. 

Having  heard  of  the  Redeemer,  he  felt  a  great 
desire  to  see  him  as  he  drew  near  that  place;  for 
which  purpose  he  climbed  up  into  a  sycamore-tree, 
because  he  was  little  of  stature.  Jesus,  pleased 
with  this  manifestation  of  his  eagerness,  and 
knowing  that  it  proceeded  from  a  heart  not  far 
from  the  kingdom  of  God,  saw  fit  to  honor  Zac- 
cheus by  becoming  his  guest.  This  offended  the 
self-righteous  Jews,  who  objected  that  'he  was 
gone  to  be  a  guest  with  a  man  that  is  a  sinner/ 
This  offensive  imputation  was  met  by  Zaccheus  in 
the  spirit  of  the  Mosaic  conception  of  goodness 
— 'The  half  of  my  goods  I  give  to  the  poor ;  and 
if  I  have  taken  anything  from  any  man  by  false 
accusation,  I  restore  him  fourfold,'  which  was 
more  than  the  law  required  (Num.  v:7).  He 
that  knew  the  heart  of  man  knew,  not  only  the 
truth  of  this  statement,  but  that  the  good  works 
of  Zaccheus  emanated  from  right  motives,  and 
therefore  terminated  the  conversation  with  the 
words,  'This  day  is  salvation  come  to  this  house, 
forasmuch  as  he  also  is  a  son  of  Abraham' — 


a^  declaration  which,  whether  Zaccheus  was  by 
birth  a  Jew  or  not,  signifies  that  he  had  the  same 
principle  of  faith  which  was  imputed  to  Abraham, 
the  father  of  the  faithful,  for  righteousness  (Luke 
xix:2,  sq.). 

Tradition  represents  Zaccheus  as  the  first  Chris- 
tian bishop  of  Caesarea.  J.  R.  B. 

ZACOHUB  (zak'kur),  (i  Chron.  iv:26).  See 
Zaccur,  7. 

ZACCTJB  (zak'kur).  (Heb.  ^^^l,  zak-koor' ,  mmd- 
ful). 

1.  A  Reubenite  spy,  father  of  Shammua  (Num. 
xiii:4).    (B.  C.  1618.) 

3.  A  Merarite  Levite  (i  Chron.  xxiv:27).  (B. 
C.  1043.) 

3.  Son  of  Asaph,  the  leader  of  the  third  course 
of  Levitical  musicians  ( i  Chron.  xxv  :2,  10) ; 
N«h.  xii:35).    (B.  C.  1043.) 

4.  Son  of  Imri  who  assisted  in  rebuilding  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii:2).     (B.  C.  446.) 

5.  A  Levite  who  signed  the  covenant  with 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  x:i2).    (B.  C.  410.) 

6.  A  Levite,  whose  son  Hanan,  Nehemiah  ap- 
pointed treasurer  of  the  storehouses  (Neh.  xiii: 
13).     (B.  C.  before  410.) 

7.  Father  of  Shimei  and  son  of  Hamuel  (i 
Chron.  iv:26;  A.  V.  Zacchur).  (B.  C.  1612.) 


(z^'a-rl'ah),  (2  Kings  xiv:29; 
xviii:2),  (another  form  of  Zechariah),  the  son  of 
Jeroboam  H,  the  last  of  the  house  of  Jehu,  and 
fourteenth  king  of  Israel. 

He  ascended  the  throne  upon  the  death  of  his 
father  (B.  C.  about  742).  He  reigned  only  six 
months,  being  slain  by  Shallum  (2  Kings  xv: 
8-10). 

ZAOHABIAS  (zak'a-ri'as).    See  Zechariah. 

ZACHEB  (za'ker),  (Heb.  "^JJ,  zeh'ker,  in  pause; 

"^Jl,  zaw'ker,  memorial),  one  of  the  sons  of  Jehiel, 

father  (or  founder)  of  Gibeon,  by  his  wife  Ma- 
achah  (i  Chron.  viii  131);  called  Zechariah  in  i 
Chron.  ix  137. 

ZADOK  (za'dok),  (Heb.  P'^"'?,  tsaW'doke\  just). 

/.  In  the  reign  of  David,  Zadok,  the  son  of 
Ahitub,  and  father  of  Ahimaaz  (i  (ihron.  vi:8), 
and  Ahimelech  were  the  priests   (2  Sam.  viii: 

17). 

(1)  Joins  David.  Zadok  and  the  Levites  were 
with  David  when,  after  the  middle  of  the  eleventh 
century  B.  C,  he  fled  from  Absalom;  but  the 
king  ordered  Zadok  to  carry  back  the  ark  of  God 
into  the  city  (2  Sam.  xv:24,  25,  2T,  29,  35,  36; 
xviii:i9,  22,  27).  The  kin^,  also,  considering 
Zadok  a  seer,  commanded  him  to  return  to  the 
city,  stating  that  he  would  wait  in  the  plain  of 
the  wilderness  until  he  should  receive  such  in- 
formation from  him  and  his  son  Ahimaaz,  and 
also  from  the  son  of  Abiathar,  as  might  induce 
him  to  remove  farther  away. 

(2)  His  Fidelity.  On  hearing  that  Ahithophel 
had  joined  Absalom,  David  requested  Hushai,  his 
friend,  to  feign  himself  to  be  also  one  of  the  con- 
spirators, and  to  inform  Zadok  and  Abiathar  of 
the  counsels  adopted  by  Absalom  and  his  rebel- 
lious confederates.  The  request  of  David  was 
complied  with,  and  the  plans  of  the  rebels  made 
known  to  David  by  the  instrumentality  of  Zadok 
and  the  others. 

After  Absalom  was  vanquished,  David  sent  to 
Zadok  and  Abiathar,  the  priests,  saying,  'Speak 
unto  the  elders  of  Judah,  Why  are  ye  the  last  to 
bring  the  king  back  to  his  house?'  etc.  (2  Sam. 
xix:ii;  xx:25).     When  Adonijah  attempted  to 


ZAHAM  17- 

succeed  to  ihe  throne,  Abialhar  countenanced  him, 
but  Zadok  was  not  called  to  the  feast  at  which  the 
conspirators  assembled.  King  David  sent  for 
Zadok  and  Nathan  the  prophet  to  appoint  Solo- 
mon king  (i  Kings  i;32-45), 

(3)  Beward.  Solomon  made  Zadok  priest  in 
the  place  of  Abiathar  as  a  reward  for  his  faith- 
fulness (i  Kings  ii:27,  35;  iv:3;  i  Chron.  xxix: 
22).  Zadok  ministered  before  the  tabernacle  at 
Gibeon  (1  Chron.  jLvi:39).     (B.  C  1023.) 

2,  In  1  Chron.  vi:l2,  and  Neh,  xi:ii.  another 
Zadok  is  mentioned,  the  father  of  whom  was  also 
called  Ahilub,  and  who  begat  Shallum.  This 
Zadok  descended  from  Zadok  (he  priest  in  the 
days  of  David  and  Solomon,  and  was  the  ancestor 
of  Ezra  the  scribe  (Ezra  vii:2).  We  learn  from 
Ezek.  xl:46;  xliiitig;  xliv:iS;  xlviii:ii,  that  the 
sons  of  Zadok  were  a  pre-eminent  sacerdotal  fam- 
ily. (B.  C  about  700.) 

3,  Zadok  was  also  the  name  of  the  father-in- 
law  of  Uzziah  and  the  grandfather  of  kingjotham, 
who  reigned  about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury before  Christ  (z  Kings  xv:33;  2  Chron. 
xxvii:i). 

4,  S.  Two  priests  of  the  name  of  Zadok  are 
mentioned  in  Neh.  iii  :4-29,  as  having  assisted  in 
rebuilding  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  about  B.  C 
445- 

6,  The  Zadok  mentioned  in  Neh.  x  :zi  as  havine 
sealed  the  covenant,  and  Zadok  the  scribe  named 
in  Neh.  xiii  :i3,  are  probably  the  same  who  helped 
to  build  the  wall.  C.  H.  F.  B. 

ZAHAM  (za'bam),  (Heb.  D™,  aaA'Aam,  loath- 
ing), the  third  and  last  of  the  sons  of  Rehoboam 
by  Abihail,  daughter  of  Eliab  (3  Chron.  xi:ig), 
B.C.973. 

ZAIK  (za'ir),  (Heb.  1^?Jt,  tsaweer",  small,  few), 
a  place  named  (2  Kings  vii::2itin  the  accountof 
Joram's  expedition  against  the  Edomites.  Zuwfira, 
near  the  Dead  Sea  on  the  road  to  Hebron  has 
been  proposed  as  its  site. 

ZAXr  or  BAIT  (za'it  or  sa'it),  (Heb.  "^J,  mah'- 
yiih),  is  universally  acknowledged  to  be  the  olive 

Though  the  olive  continues  to  be  much  culti- 
vated in  Syria,  it  is  yet  much  more  extensively 
so  in  the  south  of  Europe,  whence  the  rest  of 
the  world  is  chiefly  supplied  with  olive-oil. 

No  tree  is  more  frequently  mentioned  by  an- 
cient authors,  nor  was  anyone  more  highly  hon- 
ored by  ancient  nations.  By  the  Greeks  it  was 
dedicated  to  Minerva,  and  even  employed  in 
crowning  Jove,  Apollo,  and  Hercules,  as  well  as 
emperors,  philosophers,  and  orators  and  'quivis 
all*,  ceeteros  morlaUs  virlttle  ct  induslria  super- 
gresiL  olea  coronantur'  By  the  Romans  also  it 
was  highly  honored.  The  olive  is  one  of  the 
earliest  of  the  plants  specificaUy  mentioned  in  the 
Bible,  the  fig  being  the  first.  Thus,  in  Gen.  viii : 
II,  the  dove  is  described  as  bringing  the  olive- 
branch  to  Noah.  It  is  always  enumerated  among 
the  valued  trees  of  Palestine ;  which  Moses  de- 
scribes (Deut,  villi;  viii:8)  as  "a  land  of  oil- 
olive  and  honey'  (so  in  xxviii:40,  etc.);  and  (a 
Chron.  ii;io)  Solomon  gave  to  the  laborers  sent 
him  by  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  saooo  baths  of  oil. 
Besides  this,  immense  quantilies  must  have  been 
required  for  home  consumption,  as  it  was  ex- 
tensively used  as  an  article  of  diet,  for  burning  in 
lamps,  and  for  the  ritual  service.  The  olive  still 
continues  one  of  the  most  extensively  cultivated 
of  plants. 

Not  only  the  oHve-oil,  but  the  branches  of  the 
ttce  were  employed  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 


0  ZAMZUMMIMS 

The  wood  also  was  used  (i  Kings  vi  :23)  by  Solo- 
men  for  making  the  cherubim  (verses  31,  22), 
and  for  doors  and  posts  'for  the  entering  of  the 
oracle,'  the  former  of  which  were  carved  with 
cherubim,  and  palm-trees,  and  open  flowers.  The 
olive  being  an  evergreen  was  adduced  as  an  em- 


Olive  BcuichM  uul  OllTet. 

blem  of  prosperity  (Ps.  ]ii:8),  and  it  has  con- 
tinued, from  the  earliest  ages,  to  be  an  emblem 
of  peace  among  all  civilized  nations.  It  seems  to 
flourish  best  where  it  can  get  its  roots  into  the 
crevices  of  the  rock  (Deut.  xxxii:i3).  It  grows 
slowly,  lives  to  a  very  great  age.  and  still  bears 
fruit  when  the  trunk  is  Out  a  hollow  shell;  illus- 
trating Ps.  xcii:l4. 

J.  F.  R. 

ZAI.AFH  (za'laph).  (Heb.  I^V,  tsaw-lawf. 
bruise,  wound),  father  of  Hanun,  who  assisted  In 
rebuilding  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  after  the  cap- 
tivity (Neh.  iii  :3o),  B.  C.  before  446. 

ZAUEOIC  (lil'mon),  (Heb.  T^^^  tsal-mm^, 
shady). 

1.  An  Ahohite  and  one  of  David's  guards  (2 
Sam.  xxiii:38).  In  I  Chron.  xi:ig,  he  is  called 
Ilal 

2.  A  mountain  in  Samaria  near  to  Shechem 
(Judg.  ix;48).  Many  suppose  this  to  be  the  same 
with  the  Zaimon  of  Ps.  Ixviii:i4:  'where  the 
Almighty  scattered  kings  in  it  (the  land),  there 
was  snow  as  in  Zaimon;'  »'.  *.  the  fields  were 
whitened  with  the  bones  of  the  slain. 

ZAUEOHAH  (lal-mS'nab),  (Heb.  ^if^^Tt.  tsai- 
ma-navi',  shady),  the  name  of  a  desert  station  of 
the  Israelites  (Num.  xxxiii:4i,  42),  It  probably 
lay  west  of  Edom;  but  there  is  no  closer  identi- 
fication. 

ZALinnnrA  (lal-miln'nA),  (Heb.  ^^)'i,  tsa!- 
tHMm-naw',  deprived  of  shade),  one  of  the  Midian- 
itish  kings  slam  by  Gideon  (judg.  viii:5-2i;  Ps. 
Ixxxiliiii),  B.  C  1361.    (See  Zebah.) 

ZAHZUKBIXMS  (»ra-iam'mimi),(Heb.B^^ 
iam-ium-meem' ;  Sept.  Zi>x<wil',    MocAMiimiM'),  a 


ZANOAH 


1741 


ZEBAH 


race  of  giants  dwelling  anciently  in  the  territory 
afterwards  occupied  by  the  Ammonites,  but 
extinct  before  the  time  of  Moses  (Deut.  ii:2o).  It 
is  usually  held  that  they  were  identical  with  the 

ZUZIMS. 

ZANOAH  (za-nO'ah),  (Heb.  D^|,  Maw-no'akh. 
marsh,  bog). 

1*  One  of  the  towns  of  Judah  'in  the  valley^ 
(Josh.  XV  :34)  ;  inhabited  by  Judaeans  after  the 
■Captivity  (Neh.  xi:3o).  Its  mhabitants  rebuilt 
the  valley  gate  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii:i3).  The 
site  is  marked  by  the  town  Zanu'a  three  miles 
southeast  of  Beth-skemesh. 

2.  A  town  in  the  hill  country  of  Judah  (Josh. 
xv:56).  It  is  probably  identical  with  Zanoah 
founded  by  Jekuthiel  (i  Chron.  iv:i8).  Not 
identified  at  the  present  time. 

ZAPHNATH-PAANBAH  (z&ph'nath-p&'a-nC'- 

ah),  (Heb.  Oa?l  ^V^,tsof-nath'  pah-nay akh\  an 

Egyptian  name  given  by  Pharaoh  to  Joseph  in 
reference  to  his  public  office  (Gen.  xli:45j. 

Rosellini  {Mon,  Storici,  i,  185)  recogniizes  in 
the  words  the  Egyptian  Psotmfeneh,  'the  salva- 
tion/ or  savior  of  the  age/  which  corresponds 
nearly  enough  with  Jerome's  intepretation,  Sal' 
vator  mundi'  Gesenius  and  others  incline,  how- 
ever, rather  to  regard  its  Egyptian  form  as 
Psontmfeneh,  'sustainer  of  the  age/  or  of  life. 
"At  present  the  origin  of  the  first  syllable  is  still 
doubtful,  and  though  the  latter  part  of  the  name 
is  certainly  the  l^^tian  n'ti-pa-dnkh,  'of  the 
life/  it  is  difiicult  to  sav  in  which  of  its  different 
senses  Pa'dnkh  'the  life,'  is  employed."  (Sayce 
Higher  Crit,  and  the  Monuments,  o,  213.) 

ZAFHON    (zS'phon),   (Heb.   V^f,    tsawfom'. 

north),  a  town  of  Gad  in  the  Jordan  valley  (Josh. 
xiii:27).  It  is  probably  Tell  Ammete,  on  the  east 
side  of  the  nver  and  eight  miles  north  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Jabbok. 

ZABA  (z&'r&),  (Malt  1:3).    SeeZsRAH. 

ZATiAH  (zS'rah),  (C^en.  xxxviii:5o;  xlvi:l3).  See 
Zerah. 

ZAKKAH  (za're-ah),  (Neh.  xl:29).    See  ZoRAH. 

ZAREATHTTES  (z&'re-ath-Ites)»  (i  Qhron.  ii:53). 

See  ZORATHITES. 

ZATliyn  (z&'red),  (Num.  xxi:i2).    See  Zered. 
ZARBPHATH  (zSLrVpb&th),  (Heb.  ^1$,  tsaw 

ref-ath\  refinement).  The  place  is  now  known  as 
Sfiraf end,  fourteen  miles  noith  of  Tyre.  Extensive 
ruins  along  the  shore  mark  the  site  of  the  ancient 
city  (i  Kings  xviiiQ,  10). 

ZARBTAN  (zllr'e-Un),  (Heb.  V%,  tsawreth- 

awn\  cooling},  a  village  beneath  Jezreel,  named  in 
connection  with  the  crossing  of  the  Jordan  by  the 
Israelites  (Josh,  iii:  16;  i  Kings  iv:  12). 

The  bronze  work  for  Solomon's  Temple  was 
cast  in  the  marly  soil  between  this  place  and 
Succoth  (i  Kings  vii:46).  The  name  is  very 
likely  another  form  of  Zeredah.  Site  unknown. 

Z ABETH  -  SHAHAB  (za'reth-sha'har),  (Heb. 
•Jn^i?  ^^.,  tseh'reth  hash-shakh'ar.  splendor  of 

dawn),  a  city  of  \Reuben  on  a  mountain  overlook- 
ing a  valley  (JoJh.  xiiiiio).  It  has  been  identified 
with  Zara,  on  the  Wady  Zurka  Main. 

ZABHTTE  (zar'hlte),  (Heb.  *''?'?!,  lar-khe^^  a 

blanch  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  descended  from  his 
son  Zerah  (Num.  xxvi:2o;  Josh.  vii:i7;  i  Chron. 
xxvii:ii,  13),  and  also  the  patronymic  of  the  de- 
scendants of  Zerah,  son  of  Simeon  (Num.  xxvi:i3). 
ZAJtTANAH  (zAr'ta-nah),  a  place  mentioned 
in  I  Kings  iv:i2,  to  define  the  position  of  Beth- 


shean.     It   is   possibly   identical   with  Zaret.4^ 
(which  see). 

ZABTHAK  (zSr'than)»  (i  Kings  vfi:46).  See 
Zaretan. 

ZATTEU  (z&t'tbn),  (Neh.x:i4).    See  Zattu. 

ZATTXT  (z&t'tu),  (Heb.  «H  zattoo*,  lovely, 
pleasant). 

The  father  of  a  family  of  laymen  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii:8;  Neh.  vii:i3).  A  num- 
ber of  his  descendants  divorced  their  (jentile 
wives  (Ezra  x:27),  and  one  of  the  family  sealed 
the  covenant  with  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x:i4).  B.  C 
before  536. 

ZAVAN  (z&'van),  (i  Chron.  i:42).    See  Zaavan. 
ZAZA  (zfi'zi),  (Heb.  K}|,  Maw-zaw\  projection), 

one  of  the  sons  of  Jonathan,  a  descendant  of  Jerah- 
meel  of  Judah  (i  Chron.  ii:33),  B.  C.  after  1618. 

ZEALOTS  (zSrtits),  the  followers  of  Judas  the 
Gaulonite  or  Galilean.    See  Judas  or  Jude. 

Josephus  speaks  of  them  as  forming  the  'fourth 
sect  of  Jewish  philosophy,'  and  as  distinguished 
from  the  Pharisees  chiefly  by  a  quenchless  love 
of  liberty  and  a  contempt  of  death.  Their  leading 
tenet  was  the  unlawfulness  of  paying  tribute  to 
the  Romans,  as  being  a  violation  of  the  theocratic 
constitution.  This  principle,  which  they  main- 
tained by  force  of  arms  against  the  Roman  gov- 
ernment, was  soon  converted  into  a  pretext  for 
deeds  of  violence  against  their  own  countrymen; 
and  during  the  last  davs  of  the  Jewish  polity,  the 
Zealots  were  lawless  brigands  or  guerrillas,  the 
pest  and  terror  of  the  land.  After  the  death  of 
Judas,  and  of  his  two  sons,  Jacob  and  Simon 
(who  suffered  crucifixion),  they  were  headed  by 
Eleazar,  one  of  his  descendants,  and  were  often 
denominated  Sicarii,  from  the  use  of  a  weapon 
resembling  the  Roman  Sica  (Joseph.  Antiq.  xviii. 
i;  De  Bell.  Jud.  iv.  1-6;  vii.  8;  Lardner's 
Credibility,  pt  L  b.  i.  ch.  6^  9;  Kitto's  Palestine, 
pp.  741,  751 ).  J.  E.  R. 

ZEBADIAH  (z«b'a-drah)»  (Heb.  S^;»  JvA-o^ 
J^aw*,  gift  of  Jehovah). 

1*  A  son  of  Beriah,  a  Benjamite  (i  Chron.  viii: 
15).    (B.  C  about  1618.) 

2.  A  son  of  Elpaal,  a  Benjamite  (i  Chron. 
viii:i7).     (B.  C  about  1618.) 

3.  A  son  of  Jeroham  of  (jedor,  who  came  to 
David  at  Ziklag  (i  Chron.  xii:7).  (B.  C.  1054.) 

4.  A  son  of  Asahel,  Joab's  brother,  who  with 
his  father  commanded  the  fourth  division  of  Da- 
vid's army  (i  Chron.  xxvii:7).   (B.  C  1014.) 

5.  A  son  of  Michael,  of  the  "sons"  of  Shep- 
hatiah,  and  one  who  returned  from  the  Captivity 
with  Ezra  (Ezra  viii:8).    (B.  C.  459.) 

6.  A  priest  of  the  sons  of  Immer  (Ezra  x:2o), 
who  divorced  his  Ckntile  wife  whom  he  had  mar- 
ried after  the  Exile.     (B.  C.  458.) 

7.  A  Levite,  and  the  third  son  of  Meshelemiah, 
the  Korhite  (i  Chron.  xxvi:2).    (B.  C.  1043.) 

8.  A  Levite,  and  a  teacher  of  the  cities  of  Judah 
in  the  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  C^ron.  xvii:8). 
(B.  C  910.) 

9.  The  son  of  Ishmael  and  prince  of  the  house 
of  Judah  in  the  time  of  Jehoshaphat  and  who  as 
superintendent  of  the  Levites  had  to  decide  all 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  cases,  in  conjunction  with 
Amariah  (2  C^ron.  xix:ii).    (B.  C.  895.) 

ZEBAH  (ze'bah),  (Heb.  "31,  MeJk'dakJk,  sacri- 
fice), a  chief  of  the  Midianites,  whom  Gideon  dc  • 
feated  and  slew  (Judg.  viii:5-2i;  Ps.  lxxxiii:ii> 
(See  Gideon.)    (B.C.  1361.) 


ZEBAIM 


1742 


ZECHARIAH 


(ze-ba'im),  (Heb.  with    the   article 
0^3?n  hatS'tselhaW'yim\\)\^  gazelles)*  seems  to  be 

the  native  place  of  the  "sons"  of  Pochereth,  Solo- 
mon's slaves,  who  returned  from  captivity  with 
Zerubbabel  (Ezra  ii:57;  Neh.vii:59). 

ZEBEDEE  (zSb'e-dee),  (Gr.  Ze/3edaibt,  dselhed-ah'' 
yos,  for  the  Heb.  **??!,  zab'dee\  Jehovah's  gift),  hus- 
band of  Salome,  and  father  of  the  Apostles  James 
and  John  (Matt.  x:2;  xx:2o;  xxvi:37;  xxvii:56; 
Mark  \\\\vj\  x:35r  John  xxi:2),  A.  D.  26. 

He  was  the  owner  of  a  fishing  boat  on  the  lake 
of  Gennesaret,  and,  with  his  sons,  followed  the 
business  of  a  fisherman.  He  was  present,  mend- 
ing the  nets  with  them,  when  Jesus  called 
James  and  John  to  follow  him  (Matt,  iv  :2i ;  Mark 
i:i9;  Luke  v:io) ;  and  as  he  offered  no  obstacle 
to  their  obedience,  and  remained  alone  without 
murmuring  in  the  vessel,  it  is  supposed  that  he 
had  been  previously  a  disciple  of  Jonn  the  Baptist, 
and,  as  such,  knew  Jesus  to  be  the  Messiah.  At 
any  rate,  he  must  have  known  this  from  his  sons, 
who  were  certainly  disciples  of  the  Baptist.  It  is 
very  doubtful  whether  Zebedee  and  his  sons  were 
of  that  very  abject  condition  of  life  which  !*  usu- 
ally ascribed  to  them.  They  seem  to  have  been 
in  good  circumstances,  and  were  certainly  not 
poor.  Zebedee  was  the  owner  of  a  'ship,'  or  fish- 
ing smack,  as  we  should  call  it — ^and,  perhaps,  of 
more  than  one:  he  had  laborers  under  him  (Mark 
i  :2o) ;  his  wife  was  one  of  those  pious  women 
whom  the  Lord  allowed  'to  mitiister  unto  him  of 
their  substance;'  and  the  fact  that  Jesus  recom- 
mended his. mother  to  the  care  of  John,  implies 
that  he  had  the  means  of  providing  for  her;  while 
a  still  further  proof  that  Zebedee's  family  was  not 
altogether  mean  may  be  found,  perhaps,  in  the 
fact  that  John  was  personally  known  to  the  high' 
priest    (John  xviii:i6). 

ZEBINA  (ze-bl'ni),   (Heb.  ^r?I.  Methee-navf  ^ 

bought  or  sold),  a  "son"  of  Nebo,  who  divorced 
his  Gentile  wife  after  the  Captivity  (Ezra  x:43), 
B.  C.  458. 

ZEBOHM  (ze-boi'im),  (Gen.  xiv.*2»  8).    See  Ze- 

BOIM. 

ZEBOnC  (ze-bo'im),  (Heb.  with  the  artiole 
D^yi^Q,  hatS'tseb'(heem' ,  valley  of  the  wild  beasts). 

1.  A  valley  and  town  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 
(i  Sam.  xiii:i8);  a  cliff  over  the  Jordan  near 
Jericho  called  Shukh  cd-Duba,"lair  of  the  hyena," 
perhaps  marks  the  spot. 

2.  (Heb.  ^''^^?,  iS€b-o-eem\  gazelle),  a  city  in  the 

vale  of  Siddim,  destroyed  along  with  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah  (Gen.  x:i9;  xiv:2;  Deut.  xxix:23;  Hos. 
xi:8).  It  had  a  king  of  its  own,  Shemeber  (Gen. 
xiv:2, 8).  (See  Sodom.) 

3.  A  town  occupied  by  Benjamites  after  the 
Captivity  (Neh.  xi:34).  It  was  probably  near 
Lydda,  in  the  hill  country  bordering  Sharon. 

ZEBXJBAH  (ze-bO'dah),    (Heb.   •"'T^i  Meb-oo^ 

dav/ :  keri^  Hl'iSf,  given,  bestowed),  daughter  of 

Pediah,  the  wife  of  ][osiah,  and  mother  of  King  Je- 
hoiakim  (2  Kings  xxiii:36),  B.  C.  633. 

aEBTJL  (ze'bul),  (Heb.  ^^?,  eeb-oot,  habitaticm, 

chamber),  an  officer  whom  Abimelech  left  in  com- 
mand at  Shechem  in  his  own  absence;  and  who 
discharged  with  fidelity  and  discretion  the  diffi- 
cult task  of  closing  the  gates  of  the  city  against 
Gaal  and  the  men  who  went  out  to  fight  against 
Abimelech,  and  thus  assisted  in  his  defeat  (Judg. 
ix:3o-4i),  B.  C.  1319.    (See  Abimelech^ 


ZEBXJLONITE  (zgb'u-lon-lte),  (Heb.  ^i^^,  xeb- 

oo'lo-ne^)^  a  member  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulon 
(Judg.  xii:ii,  12);  "Zebulunitc"  (Num.  xxvi:27), 

ZEBXJLUN  (z«b'u-lfin),  (Heb.  ^p\  zeb-oo-loon'. 
habitation). 

i.  The  sixth  and  last  son  of  Jacob  by  Leah 
(Grcn,  XXX :  19,  seq,;  xxxv:23),  who,  in  the  order 
of  birth,  followed  his  brother  Issachar,with  whom, 
in  history,  as  in  the  promised  land,  he  was  closely 
connected  (Deut.  xxxiii:i8).    B.  C.  1914. 

(1)  Tribe.  Zebulun  was  the  founder  of  the  tribe 
which  bore  his  name  (Cren.  xlvi:i4),  and  which, 
while  yet  in  the  wilderness,  was  respectable  for 
nimibers  (Num.  i:3o;  xxvi;26).  Zebulun  obtained 
its  lot  in  north  Palestine  between  Naphtali  on  the 
north  and  Issachar  on  the  south,  while  Asher 
stretched  along  both  it  and  Naphtali  on  die  west 
(Josh.  xix:io,  sq,), 

(2)  Oeog^raphical  Location.  The  country  of 
the  Zebulonites  bordered  towards  the  east  on  the 
southwestern  side  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias,  and 
was  connected  with  the  Mediterranean  by  means 
of  Carmel  (Gen.  xlix:i3).  Cana  and  Nazareth 
were  in  its  borders,  and  it  was  the  scene  of  many 
of  Christ's  miracles.  Thus  was  fulfilled  the  proph- 
ecy of  Isaiah  (ix:i,  2;  comp.  Matt.  iv:i2-i6). 
It  is  also  noticed  in  the  visions  of  John  and 
Ezekiel  (Rev.  vii:8;  Ezek.  xlviii:26-33).  Its  in- 
habitants in  consequence  took  part  in  seafaring 
concerns  (Joseph.  Antiq.  v.  i.  22).  They  failed  to 
expel  all  the  native  race,  but  made  those  of  them, 
that  remained  tributaries  (Judg.  1:30).  One  of 
the  judges  of  Israel,  Elon,  was  a  Zebtdonite 
(Judg,  xii:ii). 

2.  A  city  lying  on  the  borders  of  Asher  also 
bore  the  name  of  Zebultm  (Josh.  xix:27). 

T  R.  B 

ZEBULXJiriTE  (zSb'a-liin4te),  (Num.'xxvi.*27). 
See  Zebulgnitb. 

ZEOHABIAH  (z^k-a-rl'ah),  (Heb.  ^'^5],  zek-ar^ 

yaw',  whom  Jehovah  remembers;  Septuagint  and 
New  Testament,  Zaxaplat,  Zacharias),  a  very 
common  name  among  the  Jews,  borne  by  the  foL 
lowing  persons  mentioned  in  Scripture,* 

1.  Son  of  Jeroboam  IL  and  fourtee«ith  Idng  of 
Icraei.  fit  %scendt&  tfec  throne  in  B.  C.  772,  and 
Teigned  six  months.  It  has  been  shown  in  the 
article  Israel,  that  from  undue  deference  to  a 
probably  corrupted  number,  which  ascribes  eleven 
years  to  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II,  chronologers 
have  found  it  necessary  to  suppose  anarchy  or  an 
interregnum  of  eleven  years,  during  which  his 
son  Zechariah  was  kept  from  the  throne.  But 
there  is  no  appearance  of  this  in  the  sacred  nar- 
rative, and  it  was  not  likely  to  follow  a  reign  so 
prosperous  as  Jeroboam's.  The  few  months  of 
Zechariah's  reigni  just  sufficed  to  evince  his  in- 
clination to  follow  the  bad  course  of  his  predeces- 
sors ;  and  he  was  then  slain  by  Shallum  (2  Kings 
xv:8-i2),  who  usurped  the  crown.  With  his  life 
ended  the  (j^^nasty  of  Jehu  (2  Kings  xiv:29). 

2.  The  high-priest  in  the  time  of  Joash,  king 
of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xxiv:2o).  (B.  C  838.)  He 
was  son,  or  perhaps  grandson,  of  Jehoiada  and 
Jehosheba;  the  latter  was  the  aunt  of  the  king, 
who  owed  to  her  his  crown,  as  he  did  his  educa- 
tion and  throne  to  her  husband.  (See  Joash.) 
Zechariah  could  not  bear  to  see  the  evil  courses 
into  which  the  monarch  eventually  fell,  and  by 
which  the  return  of  the  people  to  their  old 
idolatries  was  facilitated,  if  not  encouraged. 
Therefore,  when  the  people  were  assembled  at 
one  of  the  solemn  festivals,  he  took  the  oppor- 
tunity of  lifting  up  his  voice  against  the  grow* 


ZECHARIAH 


1743 


ZECHARIAH 


infif  corruptions.  This  was  in  the  presence  of  the 
king,  in  the  court  of  the  Temple.  The  people 
were  enraged  at  his  honest  boldness,  and  with 
the  connivance  of  the  king,  if  not  by  a  direct  in- 
timation from  him,  they  seized  the  pontiff,  and 
stoned  him  to  death,  even  in  that  holy  spot,  'be- 
tween the  Temple  and  the  altar.*  His  dying  cry 
was  not  that  of  the  first  Christian  martyr,  'Lord, 
lay  not  this  sin  to  their  charge*  (Acts  vii:6o), 
but  The  Lord  look  upon  it,  and  require  it*  (2 
Chron.  xxiv:20-22).  It  is  to  this  dreadful  affair 
that  our  Lord  alludes  in  Matt.  xxiii:35;  Luke 
xi:5i.  At  least,  this  is  the  opinion  of  the  best 
interpreters,  and  that  which  has  most  probability 
in  its  favor.  The  only  difficulty  arises  from  his 
bein^  called  the  son  of  Barachias,  and  not  of 
Jehoiada:  but  this  admits  of  two  explanations — 
either  that  Zechariah,  though  called  the  *son*  of 
Jehoiada  in  the  Old  Testament,  was  really  his 
grandson,  and  son  of  Barachias,  who  perhaps  died 
before  his  father;  or  else  that,  as  was  not  un- 
common among  the  Jews,  Jehoiada  had  two 
names,  anid  Jesus  called  him  by  that  by  which 
he  was  usually  distinguished  in  his  time,  when  the 
Jews  had  acquired  a  reluctance  to  pronounce  those 
names  which,  like  that  of  Jehoiada,  contained  the 
sacred  name  of  Jehovah.  (See  Doddridge,  Le 
Clerc,  Kuinoel,  Wetstein,  and  others,  on  Matt. 
xxiii;35.) 

3.  One  *who  had  understanding  in  the  visions 
of  God*  (2  Chron.  xxvi:5-7).  It  is  doubtful 
whether  this  eulogium  indicates  a  prophet,  or 
simply  describes  one  eminent  for  his  piety  and 
faith.  During  his  lifetime  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah, 
was  guided  by  his  counsels,  and  prospered:  but 
went  wrong  when  death  had  deprived  him  of  his 
wise  guidance.  Nothing  is  known  of  this  Zecha- 
riah*s  history.  (B.  C.  807.)  It  is  possible  that 
he  may  be  the  same  whose  daughter  became  the 
wife  of  Ahaz,  and  mother  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron. 
xxix:i). 

4.  Son  of  Jebcrechiah,  a  person  whom,  together 
with  Urijah  the  high-priest,  Isaiah  took  as  a 
legal  witness  of  his  marriage  with  'the  prophetess* 
(Is.  viii:2).  This  was  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  and 
the  choice  of  the  prophet  shows  that  Zechariah 
was  a  person  of  consequence.  Some  confound 
him  with  the  preceding;  but  the  distance  of  time 
will  not  admit  their  identity.  He  may,  however, 
have  been  the  descendant  of  Asaph,  named  in  2 
Chron.  xxix:i3.     (B.  C.  723.) 

5.  Chief  of  the  Reubenites  when  Tilgath-pil- 
neser  carried  the  Jews  into  captivity  (i  Chron. 
v:6).     (B.  C.  about  ja/q.) 

6.  Son  of  Meshelemiah,  or  Shelemiah,  a  Korhite 
porter  at  4he  north  gate  of  the  Tabernacle  under 
the  arrangement  established  by  David  (i  Chron. 
ix:2i).  (B.  C.  1043.)  He  seems  to  have  had  a 
reputation  for  wisdom  (i  Chron.  xxvi:2,  14). 

T.  Ninth  son  of  Jehiel,  father  or  founder  of 
Gibeon  (i  Chron.  ix  .-37).  (B.  C.  about  1618.) 
Called  Zacher  in  i  Chron.  viii  :3i. 

8.  One  of  the  second  order  of  Levites  appointed 
by  David  to  play  in  the  temple  band  (i  Chron. 
xv:i8,  20;  comp.  xvi:5).    (B.  C.  before  960.) 

0.  A  priest  who  performed  on  the  trumpet 
when  the  ark  was  moved  from  the  house  of  Obed- 
edom  (i  Chron.  xv:24).    (B.  C.  1043.) 

10.  Son  of  Jesiah,  or  Isshiah,  a  Kohathite 
Lwrite  and  ton  of  Uzziel  (i  Chron.  xxiv:25). 
(a  C.  1043.) 

*1.  A  Merarite  and  fourth  son  of  Hosah  (i 
Chron.  xxvi:ii).    (B.  C.  1043.) 

12.  A  Manassite,  the  father  of  Iddo,  who  was 
chief  of  his  tribe  in  the  time  of  David  (i  Chron. 
xxvii:2i).    (B.  C.  1014.) 


13.  The  third  of  the  five  princes  of  Judah  sent 
by  Jehoshaphat  to  instruct  the  people  in  the  law 
(2  Chron.  xvii:7).     (B.  C.  910.) 

14.  Son  of  Benaiah,  and  father  of  Jahaziel,  the 
Gershonite  ^«vite,  who  encouraged  the  army  of 
Jehoshaphat  against  the  Moabites  (2  Chron.  xx: 
14).    (B.  C.  before  912.) 

15.  Fourth  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  the  king  (2 
Chron.  xxi  :2) .    (B.C.  887. ) 

16.  Father  of  Abi,  or  Abijah,  mother  of  Heze- 
kiah (2  Chron.  xxix:i;  2  Kings  xviii:2).  (B. 
C.  before  726.) 

17.  Second  "son**  of -Asaph,  the  minstrel.  In 
the  time  of  Hezekiah  he  assisted  in  the  purifica- 
tion of  the  Temple  (2  Chron.  xxix:i3).  (B.  C. 
726.) 

18-  A  Kohathite  Levite,  who  was  overseer  of 
the  restitution  of  the  Temple  in  the  time  of  king 
Josiah  (2  Chron.  xxxiv:i2).     (B.  C.  628.) 

19.  One  of  the  three  rulers  of  the  Temple  in 
the  time  of  Josiah,  the  king  (2  Chron.  xxxv:8). 
(B.  C.  628.) 

20.  The  leader  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  the 
"sons**  of  Pharosh,  who  returned  with  Ezra  from 
captivity  (Ezra  viii  13).     (B.  C.  459.) 

21.  The  leader  of  twenty-eight  of  the  "sons" 
of  Bebai  who  returned  with  Ezra  from  Babylon 
(Ezra  viii  :ii).     (B  .C.  459.) 

22.  A  chief  of  the  people  whom  Ezra  called  to 
his  council  at  the  river  Ahava  before  the  return 
of  the  second  caravan  from  Babylon  (Ezra  viii: 
16).  He  stood  on  the  left  of  Ezra  when  he  ex- 
pounded the  law  to  the  people  (Neh.  viii  .-4).    (B. 

c.  459.) 

23.  A  member  of  the  family  of  Elam  who  di- 
vorced his  Gentile  wife  (Ezra  x:26).    B.  C.  458.) 

24.  Son  of  Amariah,  and  ancestor  of  Athaiah 
of  Judah  (Neh.  xi:4).    (B.  C.  before  536.) 

25.  Son  of  Shiloni  and  father  of  Joiarib, 
descendants  of  Perez  (Neh.  xi:5).  (B.  C.  before 
536.) 

26.  A  priest;  son  of  Pashur  and  forefather  of 
the  Adaiah,  who  was  conspicuous  in  Jerusalem 
after  the  (Captivity  (Neh.  xi:i2).  (B.  C.  much 
before  536.) 

27.  A  representative  of  the  priestly  family  of 
Iddo  in  the  time  of  Joiakim,  son  of  Jeshua  (Neh. 
xii:i6).  Probably  the  same  as  Zechariah  the 
prophet.    (B.  C.  536.) 

28.  A  priest,  son  of  Jonathan,  who  performed 
on  a  trumpet  at  the  dedication  of  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (Neh.  xii:35, 
41).     (B.  C.  446.) 

29.  The  father  of  John  the  Baptist  (Luke  i:5). 

30.  The  eleventh  m  order  of  the  minor  proph- 
ets, was  'the  son  of  Berechiah,  the  son  of  Iddo, 
the  prophet'  (Zech.  1:1,  7). 

Zechariah  seems  to  have  entered  upon  his  office 
in  early  youth  (Zech.  ii:4).  The  period  of  his 
introduction  to  it  is  specified  as  the  eighth  month 
of  the  second  year  of  Darius  (B.  C.  520),  a  very 
short  time  later  than  the  prophet  Haggai.  The 
mission  of  Zechariah  had  especial  reference  to  the 
affairs  of  the  nation  that  had  been  restored  to  its 
territory.  The  second  edict,  granting  permission 
to  rebuild  the  Templle,  had  been  issued,  and  the 
office  of  Zechariah  was  to  incite  the  flag^ng 
zeal  of  the  people,  in  order  that  the  auspicious 
period  might  be  a  season  of  religious  revival,  as 
well  as  of  ecclesiastical  reorganization;  and  that 
the  theocratic  spirit  might  resume  its  former  tone 
and  energy  in  the  breasts  of  all  who  were  en- 
gaged in  the  work  of  restoring  the  'holy  zvA 
beautiful  house,*  where  their  fathers  had  praised 
Jehovah.  The  prophet  assures  them  of  success 
in  the   work  of  re-erecting  the   sacred  edifice. 


ZECHARIAH,  BOOK  OP 


1744 


ZECHARIAH,  BOOK  OF 


despite  of  every  combination  against  them;  for 
Zerubbabel  'should  bring  forth  the  head  stone 
with  shouting,  Grace,  grace  unto  it* — comforts 
them  with  a  solemn  pledge  that,  amidst  fearful 
revolutions  and  conquests  by  which  other  nations 
were  to  be  swept  away,  they  should  remain  unin- 
jured; for,  says  Jehovah,  *He  that  toucheth  you 
toucheth  the  apple  of  mine  eye' — sketches  in  a  few 
vivid  touches  the  blessings  and  glory  of  the  ad- 
vent of  Messiah — imparts  consolation  to  those 
who  were  mourning  over  their  unworthiness,  and 
pronounces  a  heavy  doom  on  the  selfish  and  dis- 
obedient, and  on  such  as  in  a  remote  age,  imbibing 
their  spirit,  'should  fall  after  the  same  example 
of  unbelief/  The  pseudo-Epiphanius  records 
some  prodigies  wrought  by  Zechariah  in  the  land 
of  Chaldxa,  and  some  wondrous  oracles  which 
he  delivered ;  and  he  and  Dorotheus  both  agree  in 
declaring  that  the  prophet  died  in  Judaea  in  a  good 
old  age,  and  was  buried  beside  his  colleague  Hag- 
gai. 

ZEOHABIAH,  BOOK  OF. 

The  book  of  Zechariah  consists  of  four  general 
divisions:- 

(1)  IntroductioxL  The  introduction  or  inau- 
gural discourse  (ch.  i:i-6). 

(2)  A  Series  of  Nine  Visions,  extending  on- 
wards to  ch.  vii,  communicated  to  the  prophet  in 
the  third  month  after  his  installation.  These  vis- 
ions were: 

1.  A  rider  on  a  roan  horse  among  the  myrtle- 
trees,  with  his  equestrian  attendants,  who  report 
to  him  the  peace  of  the  world,  symbolizing  the 
fitness  of  the  time  for  the  fulfillment  of  the  prom- 
ises of  God,  his  people's  protector. 

2.  Four  horns,  S3rmbols  of  the  oppressive  ene- 
mies by  which  Judah  had  been  on  all  sides  sur- 
rounded, and  four  carpenters,  by  whom  these  horns 
are  broken,  emblems  of  the  destruction  of  these 
anti-theocratic  powers. 

3.  A  man  with  a  measuring  line  describing  a 
wider  circumference  for  the  site  of  Jerusalem,  as 
its  population  was  to  receive  a  vast  increase,  fore- 
showing that  many  more  Jews  would  return  from 
Babylon  and  join  their  countrymen,  and  indicat- 
ing the  conversion  of  heathen  nations  under  the 
Messiah,  when  out  of  Zion  should  go  forth  the 
law  and  the  word  of  the  Lord  from  Jerusalem. 

4.  The  high-priest  Joshua  before  the  angel  of 
the  Lord,  with  Satan  at  his  right  hand  to  oppose 
him.  The  sacerdotal  representative  of  the  peo- 
ple, clad  in  the  filthy  garments  in  Which  he  had 
returned  from  captivity,  seems  to  be  a  type  of  the 
guilt  and  degradation  of  his  country;  while  for- 
giveness and  restoration  are, the  blessings  which 
the  pontiff  symbolically  receives  from  Jehovah, 
when  he  is  reclad  in  holy  apparel  and  crowned 
with  a  spotless  turban,  the  vision  at  the  same  time 
stretching  into  far  futurity,  and  including 'the 
advent  of  Jehovah's  servant  the  Branch. 

5.  A  golden  lamp-stand  fed  from  two  ol^ve- 
trees,  one  growing  on  each  side,  an  image  of  the 
value  and  divine  glory  of  the  theocrrxy  as  now 
seen  in  the  restored  Jewish  church,  supported, 
not,  'by  might  nor  by  power,  but  by  the  Spirit  of 
Jehovah/  and  of  the  spiritual  development  of  the 
old  theocracy  in  the  Christian  church,  which  en- 
lightens the  world  through  the  continuous  influ- 
ence of  the  Holy  Ghost.  (Dr.  Stouard,  in  his 
Commentary  on  Zechariah,  without  foundation 
supposes  that  this  candlelabrum  had  twice  seven 
lamps,  seven  on  each  side,  emblematizing  the 
church  of  God  in  both  dispensations,  Jewish  and 
Christian.) 

6.  A  flying  roll,  the  breadth  of  the  temple- 


porch,  containing  on  its  one  side  curses  against 
the  ungodly,  and  on  its  other  anathemas  against 
the  immoral,  denoting  that  the  head  of  the  theoc- 
racy, the  Lord  of  the  Temple,  would  from  his 
place  punish  those  who  violated  either  the  first  or 
the  secoild  table  of  his  law  (Hengstenberg's 
Christ oL  ii,  45). 

7.  A  woman  in  an  ephah  (at  length  pressed 
down  into  it  by  a  sheet  of  lead  laid  over  its 
mouth),  borne  along  in  the  air  by  two  female  fig- 
ures with  storks'  wings,  representing  the  sin  and 
punishment  of  the  nation.  The  fury,  whose  name 
is  Wickedness,  is  repressed,  and  transported  to 
the  land  of  Shinar;  ».  e,  idolatry,  in  the  persons 
of  the  captive  Jews,  was  for  ever  removed  at 
that  period  from  the  Holy  Land,  and,  as  it  were, 
taken  to  Babylon,  the  home  of  image-worship 
(for  another  meaning,  see  Jahn's  Intrpduction, 
Turner's  translation,  p.  428). 

8.  Four  chariots  issuing  from  two  copper  moun- 
tains and  drawn  respectively  by  red,  black,  white, 
and  spotted  horses,  the  vehicles  of  the  four  winds 
of  heaven,  a  hieroglyph  of  the  swiftness  and  ex- 
tent of  divine  judgments  against  the  former  op- 
pressors of  the  covenant  people.  Judgments  seem 
issuing  from  (jod's  holy  habitation  in  the  midst  of 
the  'mountains  which  are  round  about  Jerusalem,' 
or  from  between  those  two  hills,  the  ravine  divid- 
ing which  forms  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  di- 
rectly under  the  temple  mountain, .  where  dwelt 
the  head  of  the  theocracy. 

9.  The  last  scene  is  not  properly  a  vision,  but 
an  oracle  in  connection  with  the  preceding  visions, 
and  in  reference  to  a  future  symbolical  act  to  be 
performed  by  the  prophet.  In  presence  of  a  de- 
portation of  Tews  from  Babylon,  the  prophet  was 
charged  to  place  a  crown  on  the  head  of  Joshua 
the  high-priest,  a  symbol  which,  whatever  was  its 
immediate  signiification,  was  designied  to  prefigure 
the  royal  and  sacerdotal  dignity  of  the  man  whose 
name  is  Branch,  who  should  sit  as  *a  priest  upon 
his  throne.'^ 

The  meaning  of  all  the  preceding  varied  images 
and  scenes  is  explained  to  the  prophet  by  an  at- 
tendant angelus  tnterpres,  angel  interpreter. 

(3)  A  Collection  of  Four  Oracles  delivered  at 
various  times  in  the  fourth  year  of  Darius,  and 
partly  occasioned  by  a  request  of  the  nations  to  be 
divinely  informed,  whether,  now  on  their  happy 
return  to  their  fatherland,  the  month  of  Jerusa- 
lem's overthrow  should  be  registered  in  their 
sacred  calendar  as  a  season  of  fasting  and  hu- 
miliation. The  prophet  declares  that  these  times 
should  in  future  afi;es  be  observed  as  festive  sol- 
emnities,  (ch.  i:7-vi:i5.) 

(4)  A  Variety  of  Prophecies.  The  8th,  9th, 
loth,  and  nth  chapters  contain  a  variety  of  proph- 
ecies unfolding  the  fortunes  of  the  people,  their 
safety  in  the  midst  of  Alexander's  expedition,  and 
their  victories  under  the  Maccalwean  chieftains, 
including  the  fate  of  many  of  the  surrounding  na- 
tions, Hadrach  ( Persia  )j  Damascus,  Tyre,  and 
Philistia. 

(5)  Ck)nclu8ian.  The  remaining  three  chap- 
ters graphically  portray  the  future  condition  of 
the  people,  especially  in  Messianic  times,  and  con- 
tain allusions  to  the  siege  of  the  city,  the  names 
of  the  escape  by  the  cleaving  of  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  with  a  symbol  of  twilight  breaking  into 
day,  and  living  water  issuing  from  Jerusalem, 
concluding  with  a  blissful  vision  of  the  enlarged 
prosperity  and  holiness  of  the  theocratic  metropo- 
lis, when  upon  the  bells  of  the  horses  shall  be 
inscribed  'holiness  unto  the  Lord.* 

(6)  Qenninenees.  Many  of  the  arguments 
against  the  genuineness  of  this  latter  portion  of 


ZECHARIAH,  BOOK  OF 


1745 


ZEDEKIAH 


Zechariah  rest  on  peculiar  interpretations  of  his 
language,  making  it  refer  to  events  that  happened 
prior  to  the  time  when  the  prophet  flourished. 
But  this  exegesis  is  not  in  all  points  correct.  Eph- 
raim  is  indeed  spoken  of,  though  that  kingdom 
was  overthrown  i86  years  before  the  return  of  the 
Jews  from  Babylon;  and  it  is  inferred  that  the 
author  of  such  oracles  must  have  lived  when 
Ephraim  was  an  independent  sovereignty.  It 
may  be  said,  in  reply,  that  vast  numbers  of  the 
ten  tribes  returned  with  their  brethren  of  Judah 
from  captivity;  and  we  find  (ch.  xiiri)  Israel  . 
used  as  a  name  for  all  the  tribes.  In  Malachi, 
too,  we  find  Israel  used  after  the  captivity  in  con- 
trast to  Jerusalem.  Zechariah  never  characterizes 
Ephraim  as  a  separate  political  confederation; 
nor,  as  Henderson  remarks,  *is  there  anything, 
but  the  contrary,  to  induce  the  conclusion  that 
a  king  reigned  in  Judah  in  the  days  of  the  au- 
thor.' The  predictions  in  this  latter  part,  supposed 
by  some  to  refer  to  past  events,  are  most  correctly 
interpreted  to  refer  to  the  Egyptian  expedition  of 
Alexander,  the  sufferings  of  the  Messiah,  and 
the  final  overthrow  of  Jerusalem.  The  prophets 
before  the  Babylonian  captivity  threatened  a  de- 
portation to  Babylon ;  Zechariah,  living  after  that 
event,  menaces  a  Roman  invasion  and  slavery. 
Little  force  can  be  placed  in  any  argument  based 
on  an  imagined  difference  of  style  in  the  former 
and  latter  chapters  of  this  prophecy.  The  intro- 
ductory notices  to  the  separate  oracles  recorded 
in  the  early  portion  of  the  book,  ere  either  not 
found  in  the  last  section,  or  are  very  different 
in  form  (comp.  i:i-7;  iv:8;  viig,  with  ix:i;  xi: 
4).  But  we  are  too  ignorant  of  many  circum- 
stances in  the  prophet's  history  to  speculate  on 
the  causes  of  such  change;  or  if  we  are  unable 
to  discover  any  aesthetical  or  religious  reasons  for 
the  alteration,  it  is  surely  rash  to  come  on  such 
grounds  to  a  decision  of  diversity  of  authorship. 
Introductory  formulae  as  different  as  those  in 
Zechariah  occur  in  other  books,  whose  sameness 
of  style  is  admitted  as  proof  of  identity  of  au- 
thorship, as  in  Amos,  where  the  application  of 
the  same  principles  of  criticism  would  'dismem- 
ber it,'  and  assign  its  composition  to  three  differ- 
ent authors.  Nor  is  the  difference  of  style  of  the 
former  and  latter  portions  of  Zechariah  greater 
than  the  different  topics  treated  would  lead  us  to 
expect.  The  difference  of  styles  is  not  very  strik- 
ing; and  such  difference  is  often  a  fallacious 
ground  of  judgment. 

(7)  Style.  The  language  of  Zechariah  has  not 
the  purity  and  freshness  of  a  former  age.  Some 
of  its  solecisms  are  noticed  by  De  Wette  (Einleit. 
sec.  249).  A  slight  tinge  of  Chaldaism  pervades 
the  composition.  The  symbols  with  which  he 
abounds  are  obscure,  and  their  prosaic  structure 
is  diffuse  and  unvaried.  The  rhythm  of  his  po- 
etry is  unequal,  and  its  parallelism  is  inharmo- 
nious and  disjointed.  His  language  has  in  many 
phrases  a  close  alliance  with  that  of  the  other 
prophets,  and  occasional  imitations  of  them,  es- 
pecially of  Ezekiel.  characterize  his  oracle.  He  is 
also  peculiar  in  his  introduction  of  spiritual  be- 
ings into  his  prophetic  scenes.  J.  E. 

(8)  Literature.  Hengstenberg's  Christology, 
Keith's  translation,  vol.  ii,  1839;  B.  Blaney,  New 
Translation  of  Zech.  Oxf.  1797;  W.  Newcome, 
Minor  Prophets,  1785;  Comment,  on  the  Vision 
of  Zechariah  the  Proph.,  by  John  Stouard,  D.  D., . 
1824;  Rabbi  David  Kimchi,  Comment,  on  the 
Proph,  of  Zech.,  translated,  with  Notes,  etc.,  by 
A.  McCaul,  A.  M.,  1837 ;  Henderson,  On  the  Minor 
Prophets,  1845;  Havernick,  Intr.  to  Old  Testa- 
ment, 1852;  Moore,  Commentary,  1866;  Wright, 

110 


Commentary,    1879;    Robinson,    Homilies,  1865: 
Keil,  Intr.  to  Old  Testament,  1868. 

ZEDAB  (ze'did),  (Heb.  "^^V,  tsed-awd',  moun- 
tain  side  or  steep  place). 

A  city  on  the  north  border  of  Israel,  as  prom- 
ised by  Moses  (Num.  xxxiv:8),  and  restored  by 
Ezekiel  (Ezek.  xlvii:i5).  Identified  with  Sudud, 
east  of  the  road  from  Damascus  to  Hums. 

ZEDEKIAH  (zgd'e-ki'ah).  (Heb.  •"^Jm?,  tsid- 
kee-yaw't  justice  of  Jehovah). 

i.  Son  of  Josiah,  the  twentieth  and  last  king 
of  Judah,  was,  in  place  of  his  brother,  Jehoiakim, 
set  on  the  throne  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  who 
changed  his  name  from  Mattaniah  to  that  by 
which  he  is  ordinarily  spoken  of  (2  Kings  xxiv: 
17,  18;  2  Chron.  xxxvi.ii),  B.  C.  598-588. 

(1)  Beign.  As  the  vassal  of  the  Babylonian 
monarch,  he  was  compelled  to  take  an  oath  of 
allegiance  to  him,  which,  however,  he  observed 
only  till  an  opportunity  offered  for  throwing  off 
his  yoke.  Success  in  such  an  undertaking  was 
not  likely  to  attend  his  efforts.  By  his  folly  and 
wickedness  he  brought  the  state  to  the  brink  of 
ruin.  Yet  the  danger  did  not  open  his  eyes.  In- 
stead of  looking  to  Jehovah,  he  threw  himself  for 
support  on  Egypt,  when  the  Chaldaean  came  into 
the  land  and  laid  siege  to  his  capital  ( Jer.  xxxvii : 
I,  3;  xxxiv:2i;  Ezek.  xvii:i5-2o).  The  siege  was 
begun  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  tenth  month  in  the 
ninth  year  of  his  reign.  For  a  year  and  a  half 
did  Jerusalem  effectually  withstand  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. At  the  end  of  that  time,  however,  the 
city  was  stormed  and  taken  (B.  C.  588),  when 
Zedekiah,  who  had  fled,  was  captured  on  the  road 
to  Jericho.  Judgment  was  speedily  executed :  his 
sons  were  slain  before  his  eyes,  and  he  himself 
was  deprived  of  sight  and  sent  in  chains  to  Baby- 
lon, where  he  died  in  prison  (2  Kings  xxiv  117, 
sq.;  xxvii,  sq.;  2  Chron.  xxxvirio,  sq,;  Jer. 
xxviii,  xxxiv,  xxxvii,  xxxviii,  xxxix,  Hi;  Ezek. 
xvii:i5).  J.  R.  B. 

(2)  Character.  His  heart  was  not  right  be- 
fore God,  and  therefore  was  he  left  without  di- 
vine succor.  Corrupt  and  weak,  he  gave  himself 
up  into  the  hands  of  his  nobles,  and  lent  an  ear  to 
false  prophets ;  while  the  faithful  lessons  of  Jere- 
miah were  unwelcome,  and  repaid  by  incar- 
ceration. Like  all  of  his  class,  he  was  unable  to 
follow  good,  and  became  the  slave  of  wicked  men, 
afraid  alike  of  his  own  nobility  and  of  his  foreign 
enemies. 

2.  Son  of  Chenaanah,  a  false  prophet  of  Sa- 
maria (i  Kings  xxii.ii)  who  put  iron  horns  on 
his  head,  and  sent  to  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  saying, 
"Thus  saith  the  Lord,  You  shall  beat  Syria,  and 
toss  it  up  into  the  air  with  these  horns."  The 
prophet  Micaiah,  son  of  Imlah,  being  sent  for, 
and  pronouncing  the  direct  contrary,  Zedekiah 
came  near  him,  and  giving  him  a  blow  on  the 
face,  said  to  him,  "Which  way  went  the  Spirit 
of  the  Lord  from  me,  to  do  thus  to  you?"  Mi- 
caiah answered,  "You  will  see  that,  when  you 
shall  be  obliged  to  hide  yourself  in  an  inward 
chamber."  It  is  not  said  what  became  of  Zede- 
kiah; but  all  the  prophecies  of  Micaiah  proved 
true  (2  Chron.  xviii:io).     (B.  C.  896.) 

J.  Son  of  Maaseiah,  a  false  prophet,  who  al- 
ways opposed  Jeremiah  (i  Chron.  iii:  16).  Against 
him,  and  Ahab,  son  of  Kolaiah,  the  prophet  pro- 
nounced a  terrible  curse  (Jer.  xxix  :2i,  22)  :  "Of 
them  shall  be  taken  up  a  curse  by  all  the  captivity 
of  Judah  which  are  in  Babylon,  saying.  The  Lord 
make  thee  like  Zedekiah,  and  like  Ahab,  whom 
the  king  of  Babylon  roasted  in  the  lire."  (B.  C. 
5fi6.) 


ZEEB 


1746 


ZEPHANIAH 


4m  Son  of  Jeconiah,  the  son  of  Jehoiakim,  king 
of  tudah  (i  Chron.  iii:i6).     (B.  C.  598.) 

5*  Son  of  Hananiah,  a  prince  of  Judah  who 
with  others  was  in  the  scribe's  chamber  when  the 
announcement  came  that  Baruch  had  delivered 
the  words  of  Jeremiah  to  the  people  ( Jer.  xxxvi : 
12).     (B.  C.  605.) 

6.  One  of  the  officials  who  sealed  the  covenant 
immediately  after  Nehemiah  (Neh.  x:i).  Called 
in  A.  V.  Zidkijah. 

ZEEB  (ze'eb),  (Heb.  3»J,  zeh-abe',  wolf),  one  of 

the  two  "princes"  of  Midian  in  the  great  invasion 
of  Israel  who  was  defeated  by  Gideon.  Zeeb  was 
slain  in  a  winepress,  which  later  bore  his  name. 
He  is  always  named  with  Oreb  (Judg.  vii:25; 
viii:3;  Ps  Ixxxiiiiii),  B.  C.  about  iioo. 

ZELAH  (ze'lah),  (Heb.  3?^?,  tseh4ah\  slope),  a 

city  of  Benjamin  (Josh.  xviii:28;  2  Sam.  xxi:i4}, 
where  Kish,  Saul's  father,  was  buried;  not  identi- 
fied. 

ZELEK  (ze'lek),  (Heb.   P^^,  iseh'Uk,  fissure). 

an  Ammonite,  and  one  of  David's  guard  (2  Sam. 
xxiii:37;  i  Chron.  xiijg),  B.  C.  1046. 

ZELOPHEHAD  (ze-lS'phe-had),  (Heb. '^ijP^T 

tsel'Of'khawd' ,  meaning  not  known),  son  of  He- 
pher,  a  descendant  of  Joseph  (Josh.  xvii:3),  who 
had  no  sons,  but  five  daughters  (B.  C.  before  161 8). 
These  came  to  Moses  and  Eleazar  when  now  at 
the  edge  of  the  promised  land,  to  lay  their  case 
before  them  for  adjudication.  Their  father  had 
died  in  the  wilderness,  leaving  no  male  child.  The 
daughters  thought  themselves  entitled  to  take 
their  father's  share  of  the  land.  Moses  on  this 
brought  their  cause  before  Jehovah,  who  ordered 
that  they  should  receive  their  father's  inheritance, 
taking  occasion  to  establish  the  general  rule :  *If 
a  man  die,  and  have  no  son,  then  ye  shall  cause 
his  inheritance  to  pass  unto  his  daughter,'  and 
failing  daughters,  to  his  next  of  kin  (Num.  xxvi: 
33;  xxviiii,  sq,).  J.  R.  B. 

ZELOTES  (ze-l5't5z),  (Gr.  ZijXwriJf,  dzay-h-tace' , 
a  partisan),  the  surname  of  Simon,  the  apostle 
(Luke  vi:i5;  Acts  i:i3},  called  Simon  the  Canaanite 
(Matt.  x:4;  Mark  iii:i8).  See  Meyer,  Com.  on 
Matt.  x:4. 

ZELZAH  (zgl'zah),   (Heb.  "?,^?,  tsel'tsakh\ 

clear  shade),  a  place  on  the  boundary  of  the  tribe 
of  Benjamin  (i  Sam.  x:2),  near  Rachel's  tomb. 
Site  not  known. 

ZEMAHAIM  (zSm'a-ra'im),  (Heb.  °rD^V.  tsem- 
aw-rahyint,  double  fleece). 

1.  A  town  of  Benjamin  (Josh.  xviii:22).  It  is 
probably  to  be  identified  with  Es-Sumrah,  be- 
tween Jerusalem  and  Jericho. 

2.  An  eminence  from  which  Abijah  addressed 
the  army  of  Israel  (2  Chron.  xiii:4).  It  was 
within  the  general  district  of  the  highlands  of 
Ephraim,  and  probably  lay  not  far  from  the  city 
of  Zemaraim. 

ZEMABITE,  THE  (zSm'a-nte,  the),  (Heb.  with 

the   article,  ^^V*?*?,  hats-tsem-aw-ree')^  a  tribe  of 

Canaan  (Gen.  x:i8;  i  Chron.  i:i6).  They  inhabited 
Simura,  or  Sumura,  now  Sumra,  on  the  coast  be- 
tween Tripolis  and  Arvad. 

ZEMEB  (ze'mer),  (Heb.  ^^l,  zeh^mer),  in  our 

version  of  Deut.  xiv:5  is  rendered  Chamois. 

All  critics  understand  zemer  to  be  a  clean  rumi- 
nant ;  but  it  is  plain  that  the  Mosaic  enumeration 
of  clean  animals  would  not  include  such  as  were 
totally  out  of  the  reach  of  the  Hebrew  people,  and 


at  best  only  known  to  them  from  specimens  seen 
in  Egypt,  consisting  of  presents  sent  from  Nubia, 
or  in  pictures  on  the  walls  of  temples.  The  only 
species  that  seems  to  answer  to  the  conditions 
required  is  a  wild  sheep,  still  not  uncommon 
in  the  Mokattam  rocks  near  Cairo,  found  in 
Sinai,  and  eastward  in  the  broken  ridges  of  stony 
Arabia. 

This  animal  is  frequently  represented  and  hiero- 
glyphically  named  on  Egyptian  monuments,  but 
we  question  if  the  denomination  itself  be  phonet- 
ically legible.  The  figures  in  color  leave  no  doubt 
that  it  is  the  same  as  the  Kebsch  of  the  modern 
Arabs,  and  a  species  or  a  variety  of  Ovis  Trage- 
laphus,  or  bearded  sheep,  lately  formed  into  a 
separate  group  by  Mr.  Blyth  under  the  name  of 
Amtnotragus  Barbatus.  It  is  a  fearless  climber, 
and  secure  on  its  feet,  among  the  sharpest  and 
most  elevated  ridges.  In  stature  the  animal  ex- 
ceeds a  large  domestic  sheep,  though  it  is  not 
more  bulky  of  body.  Instead  of  wool,  it  is  cov- 
ered with  close  fine  reddish  hair ;  from  the  throat 
to  the  breast,  and  on  the  upper  arms  above  the 
knees,  there  is  abundance  of  long,  loose  reddish 
hair,  forming  a  compact  protection  to  the  knees 
and  brisket,  and  indicatmg  that  the  habits  of 
the  species  require  extraordinary  defense  while 
sporting  among  the  most  rugged  cliffs ;  thus  mak- 
ing the  name  Zemer,  'one  that  springeth,'  if  that 
interpretation  be  trustworthy,  remarkably  correct. 
The  head  and  face  are  perfectly  sheep-like,  the 
eyes  are  bluish,  and  the  horns,  of  a  yellowish 
color,  are  set  on  as  in  sheep;  they  rise  obliquely, 
and  are  directed  backwards  and  outwards,  with 
the  points  bending  downwards.  The  tail,  about 
nine  inches  long,  is  heavy  and  round.  (See 
Sheep.)  C.  H.  S. 


(ze-ml'ra),  (Heb.  •^**9?,  zem-ee-raw\ 

song),  the  first  of  the  nine  sons  of  Becher,  the  son 
of  Benjamin  (i  Chron.  vii:8),  B.  C.  after  1874. 

ZEKAN  (ze'nan),  (Heb.  1i?,  tsen-awn'.  place 

of  flocks),  one  of  the  towns  of  Judah  in  the  district 
of  ShefSIah  (Josh.  xv:37),  supposed  to  be  the  same 
as  Zaanan  (Mic  i:ii).    Site  not  known. 

ZENAS  (ze'nas),  (Gr.  Zi^raj,  dzay^nas*,  Zeus 
given),  a  disciple  who  visited  Crete  with  Apollos, 
bearing  seemmgly  the  epistle  to  Titus,  in  which 
Paul  recommends  the  two  to  his  attentions  (Titus 
in:  1 3). 

He  is  called  'the  lawyer;'  and  as  his  name  is 
Greek,  it  seems  doubtful  whether  he  is  so  called 
as  being,  or  having  been  a  doctor  of  the  Jewish 
law,  or  as  being  a  pleader  at  the  Roman  tribunals. 
The  most  probable  opinion  is,  perhaps,  that  which 
makes  him  a  Hellenistic  Jew,  and  a  doctor  of  the 
Mosaical  law.    (A.  D.  about  59.) 

ZEPHANIAH  (zgph'a-ni'ah),  (Heb.  ^Vl^\  isef- 
an-yaw'). 

i.  The  ninth  in  order  of  the  minor  prophets, 
who  prophesied  against  Judah  and  Jerusalem  in 
the  time  of  King  Josiah  (Zeph.  i:i).  (B.  C. 
about  630.) 

(1)  ^ame.  The  name  of  this  prophet  has  been 
variously  explained.  Contrary  to  usual  custom 
the  pedigree  of  the  prophet  is  traced  back  for 
four  generations — 'the  son  of  Cushi,  the  son  of 
Gedaliah,  the  son  of  Amariah,  the  son  of  Hizkiah.' 
As  there  was  at  least  another  Zephaniah,  a  con- 
spicuous personage  at  the  time  of  the  Captivity, 
the  parentage  of  the  prophet  may  have  been  re- 
counted so  minutely  as  to  prevent  any  reader 
from  confounding  the  two  individuals.  The  Jews 
absurdly  reckon  that  here,  as  in  other  superscrip- 
tions, the  persons  recorded  as  a  prophet's  an- 


ZEPHANIAH 


1747 


ZEPHO 


cesters  were  themselves  endowed  with  the  pro- 
phetic spirit.  The  so-called  Epiphanius  {De  l^ttis 
Prophet,  cap.  xix)  asserts  that  Zephaniah  was 
of  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  of  the  hill  Sarabatha.  The 
existence  of  the  prophet  is  known  only  from  his 
oracles,  and  these  have  no  biographical  sketches; 
so  that  our  knowledge  of  this  man  of  God  com- 
prises only  the  fact  and  the  results  of  his  inspira- 
tion. It  may  be  safely  inferred,  however,  that  he 
labored  with  Josiah  in  the  pious  work  of  re-estab- 
lishing the  worship  of  Jehovah  in  the  land. 

(2)  Age.  It  is  recorded  (ch.  i.)  that  the  word 
of  the  Lord  came  to  him  'in  the  days  of  Josiah, 
the  son  of  Amon,  king  of  Judah.'  We  have  rea- 
son for  supposing  that  he  flourished  during  the 
earlier  portion  of  Josiah's  reign.  In  the  second 
chapter  (verses  13-15)  he  foretells  the  doom  of 
Nineveh,  and  the  fall  of  that  ancient  city  hap- 
pened about  the  eighteenth  year  of  Josiah.  In 
the  commencement  of  his  oracles  also,  he  de- 
nounces various  forms  of  idolatry,  and  specially 
the  remnant  of  Baal.  The  reformation  of  Josiah 
began  in  the  twelfth,  and  was  completed  in  the 
eighteenth  year  of  his  reign.  So  thorough  was 
his  extirpation  of  the  idolatrous  rites  and  hier- 
archy which  defiled  his  kingdom,  that  he  burnt 
down  the  groves,  dismissed  the  priesthood,  threw 
down  the  altars,  and  made  dust  of  the  images  of 
Baalim.  Zephaniah  must  have  prophesied  prior 
to  this  religious  revolution,  while  some  remains 
of  Baal  were  yet  secreted  in  the  land,  or  between 
the  twelfth  and  eighteenth  years  of  the  royal  re- 
former. So  Hitzig  (Die  12  Klein  Prophet.)  and 
Movers  (Chronik.  p.  234)  place  him;  while  Eich- 
horn,  Bertholdt,  and  Jaeger  incline  to  give  him 
a  somewhat  later  date.  At  all  events,  he  flour- 
ished between  the  years  B.  C.  642  and  B.  C.  611 ; 
and  the  portion  of  his  prophecy  which  refers  to 
the  destruction  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  must  have 
been  delivered  prior  to  the  year  B.  C.  625,  the 
year  in  which  Nineveh  fell  (Henderson,  On  the 
Minor  Prophets,  p.  326).  The  publication  of 
these  oracles  was,  therefore,  contemporary  with 
a  portion  of  those  of  Jeremiah,  for  the  word  of 
the  Lord  came  to  him  in  the  thirteenth  year  of 
the  reign  of  Josiah.  Indeed,  the  Jewish  tradition 
is,  that  Zephaniah  had  for  his  colleagues  Jere- 
miah and  the  prophetess  Huldah,  the  former  fix- 
ing his  sphere  of  labor  in  the  thoroughfares  and 
market  places,  the  latter  exercising  her  honorable 
vocation  in  the  college  in  Jerusalem  (Carpzov, 
Introd.  p.  410).  Koester  (Die  Propheten,  iii.) 
endeavors  to  prove  that  Zephaniah  was  posterior 
to  Habakkuk.  His  arguments  from  similarity  of 
idiction  are  very  trivial,  and  the  more  so  when  we 
reflect  that  all  circumstances  combine  in  induc- 
ing us  to  fix  the  period  of  Habakkuk  in  the  reign 
of  Jehoiakim  (Habakkuk),  immediately  before 
the  Chaldxan  invasion. 

2.  The  son  of  Maaseiah  (Jer.  xxi:i),  called  (2 
Kings  XXV :  18)  the  second  priest,  while  the  high- 
priest  Seraiah  performed  the  functions  of  the 
high-priesthood,  and  was  the  first  priest.  It  is 
thought  Zephaniah  was  his  deputy,  to  discharge 
the  duty  when  the  high-priest  was  sick,  or  when 
any  other  accident  hindered  him  irom  performing 
his  office.  After  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Chaldaeans,  Seraiah  and  Zephaniah  were  taken 
and  sent  to  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Riblah,  who  caused 
them  to  be  put  to  death  (Jer.  Hi  124,  27 ;  2  Kings 
XXV :  18,  21).  Zephaniah  was  sent  more  than  once 
by  Zedekiah  to  consult  Jeremiah.  (See  chap,  xxi: 
i;  xxxvii:3.)     (B.  C.  588.) 

J.  A  Kohathite  Levite,  son  of  Tahath  and  fa- 
ther of  Azariah,  ancestors  of  Samuel,  the  prophet 
(i  Chron.  vi:36) ;  called  Uriel  (i  Chron.  vi:24). 


4m  Father  o«   Josiah  (Zech.    vino),  and   Hen 
(Zech.  vi:i4).    (B.  C.  before  519.) 
ZEPHANIAH,  BOOK  OF. 

(1)  Contents.  The  book  consists  of  only  three 
chapters.  In  the  first,  the  sins  of  the  nation  are 
severely  reprimanded,  and  a  day  of  fearful  retri- 
bution is  menaced.  The  circuit  of  reference  is 
wider  in  the  second  chapter,  and  the  ungodly  and 
persecuting  states  in  the  neighborhood  of  Judea 
are  also  doomed;  but  in  the  third  section,  while 
the  prophet  inveighs  bitterly  against  Jerusalem 
and  her  magnates,  he  concludes  with  the  cheer- 
ing prospect  of  her  ultimate  settlement  and  bliss- 
ful theocratic  enjoyment. 

(2)  Style.  We  cannot  by  any  means  award  so 
low  a  character  to  Zephaniah's  style  as  is  done  by 
De  Wette  (Einleit.  sec.  245),  who  describes  it  as 
being  often  heavy  and  tedious.  It  has  not  the 
sustained  majesty  of  Isaiah,  or  the  sublime  and 
original  energy  of  Joel;  it  has  no  prominent 
feature  of  distinction;  yet  its  delineations  are 
graphic,  and  many  of  its  touches  are  bold  and 
striking.  For  example,  in  the  first  chapter  the 
prophet  groups  together  in  his  descriptions  of  the 
national  idolatry  several  characteristic  exhibitions 
of  its  forms  and  worship.  The  verses  are  not 
tame  and  prosaic  portraiture,  but  form  a  series 
of  vivid  sketches.  The  poet  seizes  on  the  more 
strange  peculiarities  of  the  heathen  worship^ut- 
tering  denunciations  on  the  remnant  of  Baal,  the 
worshipers  of  Chemarim — the  star-adorers,  the 
devotees  of  Malcham,  the  fanatics  who  clad  them- 
selves in  strange  apparel,  and  those  who  in  some 
superstitious  mummery  leapt  upon  the  threshold 
(Bochart,  Hier.  cap.  36).  Not  a  few  verses  oc- 
cur in  the  course  of  the  prophecy  which,  in  tone 
and  dignity,  are  not  unworthy  to  be  associated 
with  the  more  distinguished  effusions  of  the  He- 
brew bards. 

The  language  of  Zephaniah  is  pure:  it  has  not 
the  classic  ease  and  elegance  of  the  earlier  com- 
positions, but  it  lacks  the  degenerate  feebleness 
and  Aramaic  corruption  of  the  succeeding  era. 
Zephaniah  is  not  expressly  quoted  in  the  New 
Testament;  but  clauses  and  expressions  occur 
which  seem  to  have  been  formed  from  his 
prophecy  (Zeph.  iii  19;  Rom.  xv:6,  etc.).  He  was, 
in  fine,  as  Cyril  of  Alexandria  terms  him  (Pr^p- 
fat.  in  Soph,  tom  iii.),  *a  true  prophet,  and  filled 
with  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  bringing  his  oracles 
from  the  mouth  of  God.'  (Dr.  E.  Henderson, 
On  the  Twelve  Minor  Prophets,  1845 ;  Robinson, 
Homilies,  1865;  Intr.  to  Old  Testament,  Keil  and 
Havemick.)  J.  E. 

ZEPHATH  (zg'phath).  (Heb.  ^?V,  tsef-aih'.  bea- 

con,  watchtower),  a  Canaanitish  city,  afterwards 
called  Hormah  (Judg.  i:i7). 

The  ancient  designation  is  perhaps  retained  in 
the  modern  Sufah,  the  name  of  a  difficult  pass 
leading  up  from  the  Arabah  to  the  south  of  Ju- 
dah.  Another  place,  called  S'baita,  half  way  be- 
tween Kadesh-bamea  and  Beer-sheba  has  also 
claimed  attention. 

ZEPHATHAH  (zSph'a-thah),  (Heb.  ^?V,  tsef- 

aw' thaw,  vale  of  the  watchtower),  a  valley  near 
Mareshah  (2  Chron.  xiviio)^  where  Asa  fought 
with  Zerah  of  Ethiopia.  Perhaps  the  wady  Safieh, 
near  Beit  Jibrin,  ana  the  site  01  Mareshah. 

ZEFHI  (ze'phi),  (i  Chron.  1:36).    See  Zepho. 

ZEFHO  (zg'pho),  (Heb.  *^?,  tsef-o'  watchtower), 

a  son  of  Eliphas,  son  of  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi:ii^,  a 
"duke"  of  Edom  (Gen.  xxxvi:i5).  He  is  called 
Zephi  (I  Chron.  1:36),  B.  C.  after  1927. 


ZEPHON 


1748 


ZERUBBABEL 


ZEPHOH   (z6'phon),  (Helx  P^.    tsef-on^.    a 

looking  out),  the  son  of  Gad  (Num.  xxvi:i5),  and 
ancestor  of  the  Zephonites.   (B.  C.  1874.) 

ZEPHONITES,  THB  (zSpb'on-Ites),  (Heb.with 

the  article,  ''P  "^^i?,  hatS'tsef'<hne€^)t  a  branch  of  the 

tribe   of   Gad,  descended  from  Zephon  (Num. 
xxvi:i5). 

ZEB  (zer),  (Heb.  *^y,  isare,  flint),  a   fortified 

town,  not  identified*  of  the  allotment  of  Naphtali 
(Josh.  xix:35). 

ZEBAH  (ze'rah),  (Heb.  ^%  zek'rakk,  rismg). 

1.  The  king  of  Ethiopia,  or  Cush,  in  Arabia 
Petrea,  on  the  Red  sea,  and  bordering  on  Egypt 
(2  Chron.  xiv:9-i4),  came  to  attack  Asa,  king  of 
Judah,  with  an  army  of  a  millior  of  foot  (see 
Armies),  and  three  hundred  charii/ts  of  war.  Asa 
went  out  to  meet  him,  and  set  his  army  in  battle 
array  in  the  valley  of  Zephathah,  near  Mareshah. 
He  called  on  the  Lord,  who  cast  terror  and  con- 
sternation into  the  hearts  of  the  Ethiopians,  so  that 
they  ran  away.  Asa  and  his  army  pursued  them 
to  Gerar,  and  obtained  a  great  booty.  (B.  C. 
905.)  He  has  been  identified  with  Osorkon  II 
of  Egypt,  whose  invasion  occurred  in  the  twenty- 
fifth  year  of  Asa's  reign.  (Sayce,  Higher  Crit,  pp. 

363,  465). 

2.  A  (jershonite  Levite,  son  of  Iddo,  and  father 
of  Jeaterai  (i  Chron.  vi:2i,  41).    (B.  C.  before 

1043.) 

3.  A  son  of  Simeon  (i  Chron.  iv:24).  (B.  C. 
1874.)  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Zarhites  (Num. 
xxvi:i3):  called  Zohar  (Gen.  xlvi:io). 

4.  A  twin  son,  with  Pharec,  of  Judah  and 
Tamar  (Gen.  xxxviii:3o;  i  Chron.  ii:6;  Matt. 
i:3).  Progenitor  of  the  Zarhites  (Num.  xxvi: 
20);  EzRAHiTES  (i  Kings  iv:3i);  Izrahites  (l 
Chron.  xxvii:8,  ii).    (B.  C.  about  1895.) 

5.  Son  of  Reuel,  and  grandson  of  Esau  (Gen. 
xxxvi:i3;  i  Chron  i:37),  a  duke  of  Edom  (Gen. 
xxxvi:i7).  Jobab,  one  of  the  early  Edomitish 
kings,  perhaps  belonged  to  his  family  ((jen. 
xxxvi:33;  i  Chron.  i:44).     (B.  C.  after  1927.) 

ZEUAHTAH  (z«r'a-hl'ah),  (Heb.  ^T^^t,  Ber- 
akh-yaw\  Jehovah  has  risen). 

1.  A  priest,  son  of  Uzzi,  the  ancestor  of  Ezra  (i 
Chron.  vi  :6,  51 ;  Ezra  vii  14).    (B.  C.  about  457.) 

2.  Father  of  Elihoenai,  among  the  descendants 
of  Pahath  Moab  (Ezra  viii:4).      (B.  C.  before 

459.) 

ZEBED  (zg'red),  (Heb.  "'vJ,  zeh'red,  luxuriance, 
willow  brook). 

A  brook  or  torrent  which  takes  its  rise  in  the 
mountains  of  Moab,  and,  running  from  east  to 
west,  falls  into  the  Dead  Sea.  It  constitutes 
the  farthest  limit  in  the  wanderings  of  the  Israel- 
ites (Num.  xxi:i2;  Deut.  ii:i3,  14). 

It  may  be  either  the  Sail  Sa'ideh,  a  branch  of 
the  Arno,  or  the  upper  part  of  the  Wady  Kerek^ 

(zgr'e-d4),  (Heb.  ^T^,  tser-ay-daiv' , 


Eierced\  a  city  of  Manasseh,  near  Beth-shan  (i 
lings  xi:26;  2  thron.  iv:i7). 
This  is,  probably  through  an  erroneous  reading, 
the  Zererath  of  Judg.  vii  :22;  and,  perhaps,  the 
Zaretan  of  Josh.  iii:i6;  i  Kings  iv:i2;  vii:46. 
Conder  {Tent  Work  in  Palestine,  ii,  340)  identi- 
fies it  with  Surdah  two  and  a  half  miles  north- 
west of  Bethel. 

ZEBEDATHAH  (ze-i^d'a-thah),  (Heb.  ^V^, 

tser-ay-daw' thaWt  same  as  Zereda,  with  a  local 
ending  added),  the  place  of  Solomon's  brass  foun- 
dry (2  Chron.  iv:i7),  in  place  of  Zarthan. 


(z2r'e-rath),  (Heb.  •^^!!?.  iter-oy- 

raw')t  a.  place  in  the  course  of  the  Midianites  when 
they  were  routed  by  Gideon  (Judg.  vii:22).  Prob- 
ably the  same  as  Zarthan  and  Zereda. 

ZEBESH  (zS'resh),  (Heb.  ^%  zek'resh,  gold), 

the  wife  of  Haman  (Esth.  v:io,  14;  vi:i3),  and 
well  worthy  of  him,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  ad- 
vice she  gave  him  to  prepare  a  gibbet  and  ask  the 
king's  leave  to  hang  Mordecai  thereon.  (See  Ha- 
man; MoRDECAi.)    (B.  C.  474.) 

ZEBETH  (zS'reth),  (Heb.  ^^?,  tseh'reth,  splen- 
dor), the  first  mentioned  of  the  three  sons  of  Ashur, 
founder  of  Tekoa,  by  his  wife  Helah  ( i  Chron.  iv: 
7),  B.  C.  about  1612. 

ZEBI  (zg'rl),  (Heb.  ''I?,  Uer-ee',  balm),  the  sec- 
ond of  the  six  sons  of  Jeduthun,  and  a  Levitical 
harper  in  the  arrangement  instituted  by  David 
(i  Chron.  xxv:3);  probably  the  same  as  IzRl  (i 
Chron.  XXV :i  I). 

ZEBOB  (ze'rdr).  (Heb.  "^^'^V,  tser-or^^  a  patw 

tide),  son  of  Bechorath,and  father  of  Abiel,am«ng 
the  ancestors  of  Saul  (i  Sam.  ix:i),  B.  C.  about 
1230. 

ZEBT7AH  (ze-ru'ah).  (Heb.  ^^^\  tser-oo-aw^, 

leprous),  the  widowed  mother  of  Jeroboam  (x 
Kmgs  xi  :26),  B.  C.  973.  , 

ZEBX7BBABEL  (ze-riib'ba-b^l),  (Heb.  ^i^ 
zer-oob'baw'bef  ^  sown  in  Babylon). 

(1)  Name.  He  is  called  also  'Sheshbazzar, 
prince  of  Judah'  (Ezra  i:8).  He  was  the  son 
(comp.  I  Chron.  iii:i7)  of  Shealtiel  (Ezra  iii:3, 
8;  v:2;  Neh.  xii:i;  Hag.  i:i,  12,  14;  ii:2;  Matt 
i:i2;  Luke  iii:27)  of  the  royal  house  of  David 
(i  Chron.  iii:i9),  and  was  the  leader  of  the  first 
colony  of  Jews  that  returned  from  captivity  to 
their  native  land. 

(2)  Betums  from  Babylon.  Cyrus  committed 
to  his  care  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  Temple,  with 
which  he  returned  to  Jerusalem  (Ezra  i:ii).  He 
is  always  named  first,  as  being  chief  of  the  Jews 
that  returned  to  their  own  country  (Ezra  ii:2; 
iii:8;  v:2). 

(3)  BebuUds  the  Temple.  With  the  aid  of 
Joshua  and  his  body  of  priests,  Zerubbabel  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  Temple  (Ezra  iii:8,  9; 
Zech.  iv:9,  etc.),  beginning  with  the  altar  of 
burnt  offerings,  in  order  that  the  daily  services 
might  be  resumed  and  the  worship  of  the  Lord 
and  the  usual  sacrifices  restored. 

(4)  Hindrances.  The  Samaritans,  hofwever, 
having  been  offended  at  being  expressly  exJbluded 
from  a  share  in  the  land,  did  all  they  could  to 
hinder  the  work,  and  even  procured  from  the 
Persian  court  an  order  that  it  should  be  stopped 
(Ezra  iv:2,  3).  Accordingly,  everything  remained 
suspended  till  the  second  year  of  Darius  Hystaspis 
(A.  C.  521),  when  the  restoration  was  resumed 
and  carried  to  completion,  according  to  Josephus, 
owing  to  the  influence  of  Zerubbabel  with  the 
Persian  monarch  (Antiq,  xi.  3;  Ezra  v:2;  vi:22; 
Haggai  i:i-i4;  ii:i). 

(5)  Honored  Before  the  Lord.  When  the 
Lord  showed  the  prophet  Zechariah  .two  olive 
trees,  near  the  golden  candlestick  with  seven 
branches,  the  angel  sent  to  explain  this  vision 
informed  the  prophet  that  these  two  olive  trees, 
which  supplied  oil  to  the  great  candlestick,  were 
Zerubbabel,  the  prince,  and  Joshua,  the  high- 
priest,  son  of  Josedech. 

(6)  Children.  Scripture  says  nothing  of  the 
death  of  Zerubbabel,  but  it  informs  us  (i  Chron. 
iii:i9}  that  he  left  seven  sons  and  one  daughter. 


ZERUIAH 


1749 


ZIDON 


These  were  Meshullam,  Hananiah  and  Shelomith, 
their  sister;  Hashuba,  Ohel,  Berechiah,  Hasadiah 
and  Jushabhesed.  Matthew  (i:i3)  makes  the 
name  of  one  of  his  sons  to  be  Abiud,  and  Luke 
(iii:27)  makes  it  Rhesa.  Consequently,  one  of 
the  sons  of  Zerubbabel,  above  enumerated,  must 
have  had  more  than  one  name. 

ZEBUIAH   (z«r'u-l'ah),   (Heb.   ^V^^'^,   Uer-oo- 

yaw',  wounded),  daughter  of  Jesse,  sister  of  David 
(i  Chron.  ii:i6),  and  mother  of  Joab,  Abishai  and 
Asahei,  David's  three  great  generals  (2  Sam.  ii:i8; 
iii:39;  viii:i6;  xviip). 

In  2  Sam.  xvii  125  Abigail  is  called  the  daughter 
of  Nahash,  and  therefore  some  have  thought  that 
she  and  Zeruiah  were  only  stepsisters.  (B.  C. 
before  1046.) 

ZBTBAM  (zS'tham),  (Heb.  ^I»  zay-thawm'. 

olive  tree),  the  son  of  Laadan,  a  Gershonite  Levite, 
a  keeper  of  the  Temple  treasury  (i  Chron.  xxiii:8), 
B.  C.  1043. 

ZETHAK   (zS'than),   (Heb.  VX  zay'thawn\ 

olive),  a  Benjamite,  the  fifth  of  the-  sons  of  Bilhan 
(l  Chron.  vii:io),  B.  C.  about  10 14. 

ZBTHAB  (ze'thar),  (Heb.  "^1!,  zaythar'^  star), 

one  of  the  seven  eunuchs  of  Ahasuerus  who  were 
commanded  to  bring  Vashti  into  his  presence 
(Esth.i:io),  B.C.483. 

ZIA  (zi'4),  (Heb.  ?''!,  zee'ah,  motion),  a  chief 

Gadite  who  dwelt  in  Bashan  (i  Chron.  v:i3)»  B.  C. 
about  1014. 

ZIBA  (zi'bi),  (Heb.  ^r^»  tsee-baw'.  statue),  a 

servant  of  the  house  of  Saul,  of  whom  David 
inquired  if  there  was  anyone  left  of  the  house  of 
Saul  to  whom  the  monarch  might  show  favor 
(B.  C.  1044). 

Mephibosheth  was  in  consequence  found,  and 
was  assured  of  David's  friendship.  Ziba, 
who  was  at  the  head  of  a  large  family,  having 
fifteen  sons  and  twenty  slaves,  was  appointed  to 
till  the  land  for  the  prince,  and  generally  to 
constitute  his  household  and  do  him  service  (2 
Sam.  ix:2-io).  This  position  Ziba  employed  for 
his  master's  harm.  When  David  had  to  fly  from 
Jerusalem  in  consequence  of  the  rebellion  of  Ab- 
salom, Ziba  met  the  king  with  a  large  and  ac- 
ceptable present: — 'But  where  is  Mephibosheth?* 
asked  the  fugitive  monarch;  'in  Jerusalem,'  was 
the  answer;  'for  he  said,  To-day  shall  the  house 
of  Israel  restore  me  the  kingdom  of  my  father.' 
Enraged  at  this,  which  looked  like  ingratitude  as 
well  as  treachery,  David  thereupon  gave  to  the 
faithless  Ziba  all  the  property  of  Mephibosheth 
(2  Sam.  xvi:i,  sq.).  On  David's  return  to  his 
metropolis  an  explanation  took  place,  when  Me- 

Shibosheth  accused  Ziba  of  having  slandered 
im;  and  David,  apparently  not  being  perfectly 
satisfied  with  the  defense,  gave  his  final  award 
that  the  land  should  be  divided  between  the  mas- 
ter and  his  servant  (2  Sam.  xix:24,  ^Q-)- 

T    R    B 

ZIBEOH  (ztb'e-on),  (Heb.  1^^3¥,  tsib-one',  dyed), 

son  of  Seir,  phvlarch  or  head  of  the  Hivites. 
Though  he  is  called  a  Hivite,  he  is  probably  the 
same  as  Zibeon  the  Horite  (Gen.  xxxvi:20,  24,  29; 
I  Chron.  i:58,  40),  B.  C.  before  1963. 

ZIBIA  (ztb'i-4).  (Heh  K^!^,  tsib-yaw',  roe),  a 

Benjamite,  the  second  son  of  Shaharaim  by  his 
wife  Hodesh  (i  Chron.  viiirp),  B.  C.  after  1612. 

(ztb'i-ah),  (Heb.  •"'I??,  tsib-yaw',  roe), 


a  native  of   Beer-sheba,   and   mother  of   King 
Jehoash  (2  Kings  xii:i;  2  Chron.  xxiv:i). 


ZIOHBI  (zlk'ri),  (Heb.  ''T??,  zik-ree',  renowned). 

1*  An  Ephraimite,  probably  one  of  the  chiefs 
of  the  tribe,  and  one  of  the  generals  of  Pekah 
King  of  Israel  (B.  C.  about  734).  It  has  been 
supposed  that  he  took  advantage  of  the  victory 
of  this  monarch  over  the  army  of  Judah  to  pene- 
trate into  Jerusalem,  where  he  slew  one  of  the 
sons  of  Ahaz,  the  governor  of  the  palace,  and  the 
king's  chief  minister  or  favorite.  It  is  difficult 
without  this  supposition  to  explain  2  Chron. 
xxviii:7.  There  is  some  probability  in  the  con- 
jecture that  he  was  the  'Tabeal's  son'  whom 
Pekah  and  Rezin  designed  to  set  upon  the  throne 
of  Judah  (Is.  vii  :6).     (See  Tabeal.) 

2.  Third  son  of  Izhar,  the  son  of  Kohath  of 
the  tribe  of  Levi  (Exod  vi:2i).  (B.  C.  about 
1658.) 

3.  A  Benjamite,  and  second  son  of  Shimhi  (l 
Chron.  viiirip).    (B.  C.  about  1612.) 

4.  A  Benjamite,  the  fifth  son  of  Shashah  (l 
Chron.  viii:23).     (B.  C.  about  1612.) 

6.  A  Benjamite,  the  sixth  son  of  Jeroham  (l 
Chron.  viii:27).    (B.  C.  about  1612.) 

6.  A  "son"  of  Asaph,  and  father  of  Micah  (l 
Chron.  ix:i5);  called  Zabdi  (Neh.  xi:i7);  and 
Zaccur  (Neh.  xii:35). 

7.  A  descendant  of  Eliezer,  son  of  Moses,  and 
father  of  Shelomkh,  the  treasurer  (i  Chron.  xxvi: 
25).     (B.  C.  before  1043.) 

8.  Father  of  the  Eliezer  who  was  chief  of  the 
Reubenites  in  the  time  of  David  ( i  Chron.  xxvii : 
16).    (B.  C.  before  1043.) 

9.  Father  of  the  Elishaphat  who  with  Jehoiada 
conspired  to  make  Joash  king  (2  Chron.  xxiii: 
i).     (B.  C.  before  876.) 

10.  A  man  of  Judah,  and  father  of  the  Amasiah 
who  was  captain  in  Jehoshaphat's  army  (2  Chron. 
xvii:  16).    (B.  C.  909.) 

11.  Father  or  ancestor  of  Joel,  who  was  over- 
seer of  the  Benjamites  after  their  return  from 
Babylon  (Neh.  xiip).    (B.  C.  before  536.) 

12.  A  priest  of  the  family  of  Abijah,  in  the 
days  of  Joiakim,  the  high-priest,  the  son  of  Jeshua 
(Neh.  xii;i7).     (B-  C.  about  480.) 

ZTDDIM   (ztd'dim),  (Heb.   O'^^S^H    hats-isid- 

deem\  declivities),  a  fenced  city  in  Naphtali  (Josh. 
XIX  :35),  called  Kefar  Chittai  in  the  Talmud,  and 
hence  it  has  been  identified  with  Hattin,  about 
five  miles  noi  en  west  of  Tiberias. 

ZTDKUAH  (zid-kl'jah),  (Heb.  ^tI?!'^,  tsid-kee* 

yaw\  justice  of  JehovahJ,  one  of  a  family  of 
priests  who  signed  the  Covenant  of  Nehemiah 
(Neh.  x:i).    (See  Zedekiah,  6.) 

ZTDON  (zi'don  or  si'don),  (Heb.  ^^^*  Uee-don^. 
fishery). 

1.  The  eldest  son  of  (Danaan  (CJen.  x:is): 
called  SiDON  (i  Chron.  i:i3). 

2.  One  of  the  most  ancient  cities  in  Phoenicia. 
Justin  derives  the  name  from  the  Phoenician  word 
for  fish,  'piscem  Phcsnices  sidon  vocanf  (xviii: 
3)  ;  but  Josephus,  from  the  son  of  Canaan  {Antia, 
vi.  2).  It  had  a  very  comniodious  harbor,  which 
is  now  nearly  choked  up  with  sand  (Strabo,  xvi. 
P«  756;  Joseph.  Antiq.  xiv.  10.  6)  :  it  was  distant 
one  day's  journey  from  the  fountains  of  the  Jor- 
dan (Joseph.  Antiq.  v.  3.  i),  four  hundred  stadia 
from  Berytus,  and  two  hundred  stadia  from  Tyre 
(Strabo,  xvi.  pp.  756,  757). 

(1)  Old  Testament  Beferences.  It  was  sit- 
uated in  the  allotment  of  the  tribe  of  Asher,  but 
never  conquered  (Judg.  i:3i);  on  the  contrary, 
it  was  sometimes  a  formidable  enemy  (Judg.  x: 
12).    Even  in  Joshua's  time  it  was  called  Tsidon- 


ZIDONIANS 


1750 


ZIMRI 


Rabba,  or  Great  Zidon  (Josh.  xi:8).  It  was  noted 
in  very  early  times  for  its  extensive  traffic  (Is. 
xxiii:2;  Ezek.  xxvii:8)  and  manufactures,  par- 
ticularly glass  (Pliny,  v.  20;  Strabo,  xvi.  10).  It 
was  threatened  by  the  prophets  Joel  (iii:4).  and 
Jeremiah  (xxvii:3).  Frequent  reference  to  it  oc- 
curs in  Homer  Qliad,  vi,  290;  xviii  743;  Odyss, 
xiii.  285;  XV.  425).  The  best  vessels  in  the  fleet 
of  Xerxes  were  Sidonian  (Herodotus,  vii.  op, 
128).  Its  modem  name  is  Saide.  Its  traffic  is 
chiefly  confined  to  the  neighboring  towns;  the 
population  is  about  fifteen  thousand  (Mannert's 
Geographie,  vi.  i,  p.  291;  Pictorial  Bible,  notes 
on  Deut.  xxxiii.,  Josh.  xix.). 

Tyre  was  one  of  the  colonies — a  "virgin  daugh- 
ter," Is.  xxiii:i2— of  Zidon,  but  subsequently  be- 
came the  more  important  town.  The  two  names 
frequently  recur  together  as  denoting  not  only 
the  cities,  but  the  adjacent  country ;  but  the  name 
of  Zidon  alone  was  sometimes  used  to  denote 
the  Phoenicians  in  general  (Judg.  iii:3).  From 
Zidon  also  came  idolatrous  abominations  to  cor- 
rupt Israel  (i  Kings  xi:5,  33;  2  Kings  xxiii:i3). 
The  city  was  mentioned  frequently  in  prophetic 
threatenings,  but  with  much  less  severity  than 
Tyre  (Is.  xxiii:2,  4,  12;  Jer.  xxv:22;  xxvii:3; 
xlvii:4;  xxviii:2i,  22;  xxxii:3o;  Joel  iii:4;  Zech. 
ix:2). 

(2)  New  Testament  Beferences.  In  New 
Testament  times  Zidon  (called  "Sidon")  was  vis- 
ited by  Jesus  (Matt.xv:2i;  Markvii:24;  Lukeiv: 
26) ,  although  the  "coasts"  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  de- 
noted the  adjacent  region  as  well  as  the  cities 
themselves,  and  some  think  that  the  Savior  did 
not  enter  the  cities.  Hearers  from  among  those 
people  were  drawn  to  his  preaching  (Mark  iii:8', 
Luke  vi:i7;  comp.  Matt.  xi:22;  Luke  x:i4). 
Herod's  displeasure  with  this  region  is  noted 
(Acts  xii:2o).  The  apostle  Paul  touched  at  Zidon 
on  his  way  to  Rome,  and  visited  the  Christians 
there  (Acts  xxvii:3).     (See  Zidonians.) 

ZIDONIANS  (zt-d5'ni-anz),  (Heb.  O'^i^"'?,  tsee- 

do-neem').  The  inhabitants  of  Zidon,  (Ezek. 
xxxii:3o),  who  dwelt  at  one  of  the  extremities 
of  (Tanaan  (Gen.  xiip).  Jacob  makes  Zidon  the 
limit  of  Zebulun  (Gen.  xlix:i3);  but  in  Josh. 
xix:28,  29,  it  is  the  border  of  Asher.  The  Zido- 
nians were  not  driven  out  (Judg.  iii:3),  and  soon 
became  oppressors  of  Israel  (Judg.  x:i2). 

The  Zidonians  adored  Baal  (comp.  Ethbaal,  i 
Kin^s  xvi:3i)  and  Ashtoreth  (i  Kings  xi:5,  33; 
tf  Kmgs  xxiii:i3). 

Jezebel,  Ahab's  wife,  was  a  Zidonian  and  the 
daughter  of  one  of  the  kings  (i  Kings  xvi  131 ). 
The  fashion  of  taking  Zidonian  women  as  wives 
had  been  set  by  Solomon  (i  Kings  xi:i). 

Homer  makes  special  mention  of  the  skill  of 
the  Zidonian  workmen.  The  embroidered  robes 
of  Andromache,  the  silver  bowl  given  as  a  prize 
by  Achilles  at  the  games  in  honor  of  Patrocles, 
the  bowl  which  Menelaus  gave  Telemachus,  the 
purple  of  fierce  Achilles,  were  specimens  of 
Zidonian  handicraft.  Zidonian  ships  were  pres- 
ent at  the  siege  of  Troy,  and  Herodotus  de- 
clares that  the  Zidonian  ships  in  the  fleet  of 
Xerxes  were  the  best  and  the  most  renowned  of 
the  famous  armada.  Xerxes  sat  in  a  Zidonian 
ship,  and  the  king  of  Zidon  sat  near  to  him  in 
council.  Zidonians  assisted  in  the  work  of  build- 
ing the  Temple  (i  Chron.  xxii:4;  i  Kings  v:6; 
Ezek.  xxvii:o). 

ZtF  (zYf),  (Heb.   ?,  seev,  bloom),  ante-exilian 

name  of  the  second  Hebrew  month  (i  Kings  vi:i- 
37),  corresponding  with  our  April  and  May.  This, 
the  second  month  of  the  sacred,  was  the  eighth  of 


the  civil  year.  The  second  month  bore  also  the 
name  lyar,  J,  R.  B. 

ZTHA  (zl'hii).  (Heb.  ^Q%  isee-khaw\  dry, 
thirsty). 

1.  The  children  of  Ziha  were  a  family  •£ 
Nethinim  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from 
Babylon  (Ezra  ii:43;  Neh.  vii:46).    (B.  C.  before 

536.) 

2.  The  first  named  of  the  two  rulers  of  the 
Nethinim,  resident  at  Ophel,  after  the  captivity 
(Neh.  xi;2i).     (B.  C.  536.) 

ZIKLAG  (zlk'iag),  (Heb.  ^^|?¥,  tsik-lag*,  thirsty). 

A  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Simeon  (Josh. 
XV 131 ;  xix:5),  but  at  times  subject  to  the  Philis- 
tines of  Gath,  whose  king,  Achish,  bestowed  it 
upon  David  for  a  residence;  after  which  it  per- 
tained to  Judah  (i  Sam.  xxvii:6;  xxx:i,  14,  26; 
I  Chron.  iv  130 ;  Neh.  xi  128) . 

While  David  was  absent  with  his  men  to  join 
Achish,  Ziklag  was  burned  and  plundered  by  the 
Amalekites;  and  on  his  return,  after  receiving 
the  spoil  from  them  (i  Sam.  xxx:i),  he  remained 
here  till  called  to  assume  the  crown  after  the 
death  of  Saul  (2  Sam.  i:i).  It  was  during  his 
stay  in  this  place  that  he  was  joined  by  many 
considerable  and  valiant  persons,  whose  adhesion 
to  his  cause  was  of  much  importance  to  him,  and 
who  were  ever  after  held  in  high  esteem  in  his 
court  and  army.  It  is  not  identified  unless  it  be 
Zuheilikah,  a  ruin  eleven  miles  southeast  of  Gaza. 

ZTTiTiAH  (ztl'lah),  (Heb.  ^\^,  tsil-lanf.  shade), 

one  of  the  wives  of  Lamech,  and  mother  of  Tubal- 
Cam  ( Gen.  iv:i9,  22, 23).  B.  C. about  370a  (See 
Lamech.) 

ZILPAH  (zH'pah),  (Heb.  "|??,  zil-paw',  a  drop- 

Eing),  a  female  servant  of  Laban,  whom  he  gave  to 
,eah  on  her  marriage  with  Jacob  (Gen.  xxix:24), 
and  whom  Leah  eventually  induced  him  to  take 
as  a  concubine  wife;  in  which  capacity  she  became 
the  mother  of  Gad  and  Asher  (Gen.  xxx:9-i3; 
xxxv:26;  xxxvii:2;  xlvi:i8),  B.C.  19I9. 

ZILTHAI  (zU'thai),  (Heb.  ''Di'V,  tsU-hth-ah' ee. 
shady). 

1.  A  Benjamite  chief,  resident  of  Jerusalem,  and 
fifth  of  the  sons  of  Shiinhi  (i  Chron.  viii:20)-  B.  C. 
after  1612. 

2.  One  of  the  cai)tains  of  thousands  of  Manasseh 
who  came  to  David  at  Ziklag  (i  Chron.  xii:20), 
B.C.  1054. 

ZIMMAH  (zYm'mah),  (Heb.  ^\^  zim-maw', 
plan,  purpose). 

1.  A  (jershonite  Levite,  "son"  of  Jahath  (i 
Chron.  vi  :2o) :  probably  the  same  as  the  son  of 
Shimei  (i  Chron.  vi:42).    (B.  C.  after  1210.) 

2.  Another  Gershonite,  ancestor  of  Joah,  of  the 
time  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxix:i2).  (B.  C. 
before  726.)  At  an  earlier  period  we  find  the  same 
collocation  of  names  as  father  and  son  (i  Chron. 
vi:2o). 

ZIMRAN   (ztm'rin).  (Heb.  1???,   xim-rawn*. 

sung,  I.  e,,  celebrated  in  song),  a  son  of  Abraham 
by  Keturah,  and  the  name  of  an  Arabian  tribe 
descended  from  him  (Gen.  xxv:2;  i  Chron.  i:32). 
B.  C.  about  2020. 

This  name  may  perhaps  be  connected  with  the 
Zabram  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  as  a  city  with  a 
king  situated  between  Mecca  and  Medina. 

ZnCBI  (ztm'rl),  (Heb.  ^'Vfi,  zim-ree*.  musical), 

a  proper  name  in  the  Old  Testament. 

The  Septuagint  imitates  the  Hebrew  sound  by 
Zaftfipl,  zam-bree't  and  Josephus  {Antiq.  viii:i2,  $) 
by  ZaMpijf,  zam-ah'race. 


ZIN 


1751 


ZIPPORAH 


1.  A  son  of  Zerah,  who  was  a  son  of  Judah  by 
Tamar  (i  Chron.  ii:6).    (B.  C.  after  1874.) 

2.  The  name  of  the  Israelite  slain,  together 
with  the  Midianitish  woman,  in  Shittim,  by  Phinc- 
has.  He  was  the  son  of  Salu.  a  prince  of  a 
chief  house  among  the  Simeonites  (Num.  xxv: 
14).    (B.  C.  1171) 

3.  King  Saul  begat  Jonathan,  who  begat  Merib- 
baal,  who  begat  Micah,  who  begat  Ahaz,  who  be- 
gat Jehoadah,  whose  sons  were  Alemeth,  Azma- 
veth,  and  Zimri.  Zimri  begat  Moza,  etc.  (i  Chron. 
viii:36;  ix:42).    (B.  C.  about  945.) 

'4.  In  the  twenty-sixth  year  of  Asa,  king  of 
Judah,  Elah,  the  son  of  Baasha,  began  to  reign 
over  Israel  in  Tirzah.  After  he  had  reigned  two 
years,  Zimri,  the  captain  of  half  his  chanots,  con- 
spired against  him  when  he  was  in  Tirzah,  drunk, 
in  the  house  of  his  steward.  Zimri  went  in  and 
smote  and  killed  him,  and  reigned  in  his  stead, 
about  B.  C.  928;  and  he  slew  all  the  house  of 
Baasha,  so  that  no  male  was  left.  Zimri  reigned 
only  seven  days  at  Tirzah.  The  people  who  were 
encamped  at  Gibbethon,  which  belonged  to  the 
Philistines,  heard  that  Zimri  had  slain  the  king. 
They  made  Omri,  the  captain  of  the  host,  king 
over  Israel  in  the  camp.  Omri  besieged  Tirzah 
and  took  it.  Zimri,  seeing  that  the  city  was  taken, 
went  into  the  king's  palace,  set  it  on  fire,  and  per- 
ished in  it  for  his  sins  in  walking  in  the  way 
of  Jeroboam,  and  for  making  Israel  to  sin  (i 
Kings  xvi:i-20;  2  Kings  ix:3i). 

6.  The  kings  of  Zimri,  mentioned  in  Jer.  xxv: 
25,  seem  to  have  been  the  kings  of  the  Zimranites, 
the  descendants  of  Zimran,  son  of  Abraham  by 
Keturah  (Gen.  xxv:2;  i  Chron.  i:32;  Jer.  xxv: 
2S). 

6.  The  town  Zabram,  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  as 
situated  between  Mecca  and  Medina,  perhaps  had 
its  name  from  the  tribe  of  Zimran.     C.  H.  F.  B. 

ZIN(zTn),  (Heb.  ]f,  iseen,  a  crag),  a  desert  on  the 
south  of  Palestine,  and  westward  from  Idumea,  in 
which  was  situated  the  city  of  Kadesh-bamea 
(Num.  XX  :i;  xxvii:i4;  xxxiii:36;  Deut.  xxxii: 
51).  It  was  the  limit  of  Edom  on  the  west  and  of 
Judah  on  the  southeast  (Josh.  xv:i-3).  Its  local- 
ity is  therefore  fixed  by  the  considerations  which 
determine  the  site  of  Kadesh  to  the  western  part 
of  the  Arabah  south  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

ZINA  (zi'n4)',  (Heb.  ^T\  zee-naw',  probably 

abundance),  the  second  son  of  Shimei  (i  Chron. 
xxiii:io),  the  Gershonite.   B.  C.  1043.  ( See  Zizah  )• 

ZIOH  (zl'on),  (Heb.  ]1*¥,  tsee-yone',  sunny,  from 
♦^VtZ-J^w-^iw',  Ps,ii:6;  xlviii:2;  lxix:35;  lxxxiv:7; 

lxxxvii:2,  5;  xcix:  2;  cxlvii:i2;  cxlix:2;  Is.  i:8; 
iii:i6,  17;  viii:i8;  x:32;  xii:6;  xviii:7;  xxviii:i6, 
xxxi:4,  9;  xxxvii:22;  xl:9;  xli:27;  li:3,  11;  lix; 
20;  lxi:3;  Ixiviio;  Jer.  xxvi:i8  (so  Alex.);  Joel 
iii:i7,  21;  Obad.  17;  Zech.  ii:io;  ix:i3. 

(1)  Situation.  One  of  the  hills  on  which 
Jerusalem  was  built;  the  most  southwestern  and 
highest.  It  was  originally  a  Jebusite  fortress, 
which  David  captured  (2  Sam.  v  :7 ;  i  Chron.  xi : 
5;  Josh.  XV 163;  Judg.  i:2i).  Here  he  brought 
the  ark,  and  made  the  hill  sacred  (2  Sam.  vi:io- 
12)  :  the  ark  was  later  taken  to  Moriah  (i  Kings 
viii:i;  2  Chron.  iii:i;  v:2).  David's  palace  was 
erected  here,  and  he  and  fourteen  of  the  kings 
who  succeeded  him  were  buried  in  the  royal 
tomb  (i  Kings  ii:io;  xi:43;  xiv:3i).  As  Da- 
vid's palace  was  here  it  was  called  the  "city  of 
David"  (2  Chron.  v:2),  and  from  the  fact  that 
the  Tabernacle  was  pitched  on  the  hill  by  David 
it  was  called  the  "holy  hill,"  and  "the  hill  of  the 
Sanctuary"  (Ps.  ii:6). 


(2)  Name  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  frequently  used 
for  the  whole  of  the  city  (Is.  viii:i8;  x:24;  xxx: 
19;  xxxiii:i4;  Ps.  xlviii:2,  11,  12;  comp.  Rom. 
ix:33;  xi:26;  i  Pet.  ii:6;  Rev.  xiv:i),  and  the 
inhabitants  of  the  city  were  called  "sons  of  Zion" 
(Is.  i:27;  Zech.  ii:7,  10;  ix:9,  13;  Zeph.  iii:i4, 
16 ;  Joel  ii  123 ;  Matt,  xxi  :$ ;  John  xii  :is). 

Figurative.  Zion  is  used  as  the  representa- 
tive of  the  city  of  God,  the  spiritual  city  (Heb. 
xii:22,  28;  Gal.  iv:26;  Rev.  iii:i2;  xxi:2,  10). 

ZIOB  (zi'or),  (Heb.  1^?*?,  tsee-ore',  smallness),  a 
mountain  town  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv:54),  not  identified. 

ZIPH  (ziph),  (Heb.  ^\\  zeef,  a  flowing). 

1*  Eldest  son  of  Jehaleleel  (i  Chron.  iv:i6). 
(B.  C.  after  1618.) 

2.  The  name  of  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV 155);  and  of  a  desert  in  its  vicinity 
(i  Sam.  xxiii:i4,  15).  It  was  fortified  by  Reho- 
boam  (2  Chron.  xi  :8) .  It  is  mentioned  by  Jerome 
(Ononiast,  s.  v.),  but  had  not  been  since  noticed 
till  Dr.  Robinson  found  the  name  in  the  Tell 
Zif  (Hill  of  Zif),  which  occurs  about  four  miles 
and  a  half  southeast  from  Hebron,  and  is  a  round 
eminence  about  a  hundred  feet  high,  situated  in 
a  plain.  A  site  also  called  Zif  lies  about  ten 
minutes  east  of  this,  upon  a  low  hill  or  ridge  be- 
tween two  small  wadies,  which  commence  here 
and  run  towards  the  Dead  Sea.  There  is  now  lit- 
tle to  be  seen  besides  broken  walls  and  founda- 
tions, mostly  of  unhewn  stones,  but  indicative  of 
solidity. 

This  spot  was  the  scene  of  the  farewell  be- 
tween David  and  Jonathan,  the  sparing  of  Saul 
by  David,  and  the  relenting  of  Saul  ( i  Sam.  xxiii : 
19;  xxvi:i). 

3.  A  town  on  the  south  of  Judah  (Josh,  xv: 
24).    Site  not  known. 

ZIPHAH  (zi'phah),  (Heb.  ^n  zee-fav/,  fem- 
inine of  Ziph),  a  son  of  Jehaleleel  and  brother  of 
Ziph  (i  Chron^  iv:i6).    B.  C.  after  1618. 

ZIPHIMS,  THE  (ziph'ims),  (Heb.  OT?D,  haz- 
zee'feem%  inhabitants  of  Ziph  (Ps.  liv;  title). 

ZIPHION  (ziph'i-on).  (Heb.  T^"^ ^tsif'yone'\%OTi 
of  Gad  (Gen.  xlvi:i6).    (See  Zephon.) 

ZIPHITES,  THE  (ziph'ftes),  (Heb.  ^P*^'!!.  haz- 

zee-fee'),  inhabitants  of  Ziph  who  twice  told  Saul 
where  David  was  hiding. 

ZIFHBOH    (zrphron).    (Heb.  ^?.^  zif -rone*, 

fragrance),  a  point  in  the  north  boundary  of  the 
promised  lana,  in  Naphtali,  as  specified  bv  Moses 
(Num.  xxxiv:9).  It  occurs  between  Zeaad  and 
Hatsar-Enan. 

It  is  thought  by  Knobel  and  Wetstein  to  be 
preserved  in  the  ruins  of  Zif  ran,  fourteen  hours* 
journey  northeast  of  Damascus,  near  the  road 
from  Palmyra.  In  the  parallel  passage  (Ezek. 
xlvii:i6)  Hazar-hatticon  occurs  in  a  similar  con- 
nection. 

ZIFPOB  (zip'por),  (Heb.  nlB?,  tsip'pore\  a 
sparrow),  father  of  Balak,  the  Moabite  king.  He 
is  always  designated  as  "the  son  of  Zippor"  (Num. 
xxii:2,  4, 10, 10;  xxiii:i8;  Josh,  xxivig;  Judg.  xi:20. 
B.C.  before  11 70.  He  is  perhaps  identical  with 
the  king  of  Moab  mentioned  in  Num.  xxi:26. 

ZIPPOBAH  (zip-p5'rah),  (Heb.  ^?^¥,  tsip-po- 

raw\  little  bird),  one  of  the  seven  daughters  of 
Reuel  (comp.  Exod.  xviii),  priest  of  Midian,  who, 
in  consequence  of  aid  rendered  to  the  young 
women  when,  on  their  going  to  procure  water  for 
their  father's  flocks,  they  were  set  on  by  a  party  of 


ZtPPORIS  OR  SEPPHORIS  lit 

Bedouins,  was  given  to  Moses  in  marriage  (Exod. 
ii:i6,J7.,-xviii:2). 

A  son,  the  fruit  of  this  union,  remained  for 
some  time  after  his  birth  uncircumcised ;  but  an 
illness  into  which  Moses  fell  in  a  khan  when  on 
his  way  to  Pharaoh,  being  accounted  a  token  of 
the  divine  displeasure,  led  to  the  circumcision  of 
the  child,  when  Zipporah,  having,  it  appears,  re- 
luctantly yielded  to  the  ceremony,  exclaimed, 
'Surely  a  bloody  husband  thou  art  to  me'  (Exod. 
iv;25).  This  event  seems  to  have  caused  some 
alienation  of  feeling,  for  Moses  sent  his  wife  back 
to  her  father,  bjf  whom  she  is  again  brought  to 
her  husband  while  in  the  desert,  when  a  recon- 
ciliation took  place,  which  was  ratified  by  religious 
rites  (Exod.  xviii:i,  ly.}.     (See  Moses.) 

J.  R.  B. 

ZIFPOBZS  or  SEFFHOBIS  (zip'po-ris),  was, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  a  prin- 
cipal and  strongly  Torti lied  city  of  Galilee,  under 
latitude  32°  44'- 

Josephus  mentions  Sepphoris  frequently  as  the 
greatest  town  of  Galilee,  and  built  in  a  well-forti- 
fied situation.  (De  Bell.  Jud.  iii.  a;  Antiq.  xiii. 
21;  xvii:i2).  Sepphoris,  Jerusalem.  Jericho,  Ga- 
dara,  and  Amalhus  were  the  five  cities  in  which 
the  assemblies  of  the  Sanhedrim  were  held  {An- 
liq.  xiv:iQ).  In  this  passage  the  name  has  under- 
gone some  modification,  as  we  read  samphorii. 
After  Sepphoris  was  taken  by  Varus,  it  was 
made  the  chief  city  of  Galilee,  and  strongly  forti- 
fied by  Herod  Antipas  {Antiq.- xv'in.  3).  Herod 
Agrippa.  Junior,  obtained  Zipporis  as  a  present 
from  -the  emperor  Nero  (Joseph.  Vita). 

Before  this  period  Tiberias  was  considered  to 
be  the  first  city  in  Galilee.  Sepphoris  was  sur- 
rounded by  many  villages,  and  situated  near 
Mount  Asamon,  in  the  center  of  Galilee  {De 
Bell.  Jud.  ii.  23),  in  a  very  strong  and  secure 
situation  {De  Bell.  Jud.  iii.  i).  One  of  Ihe  small 
towns  near  Zipporis  was  called  Jeshenah  {Kid- 
dusehin,  ch.  iv,  5)  ;  another  was  called  K'zarah. 
Sepphoris  was  destroyed  A.  D.  339,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  rebellion  of  its  citizens. 

C.  H.  F.  B. 

ZITHKI  (zith'rl),  (Heb.  'T9,  sitk-rie',  Jeho- 
vah's protection),  one  of  the  sons  of  Uzziel,  and 
grandson  of  Kohath  (Exod.  vi:22).  In  Exod.  vi:2i 
"Zithri"  should  be  "Zichri,"  as  in  A,  V,  of  1611. 

ZIZ  (zU),  (Heb.  V?.  tseeh.  a  flower),  a  cliff  or 
pass  leading  up  from  the  Dead  Sea  towards  Jeru- 
salem, by  which  the  bands  of  the  Moabites  and 
Ammonites  advanced  against  Jehoshaphat  (2 
Chron.  xx:i6).  They  seem  to  have  come  round 
the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  along  the 
western  shore  as  far  as  En-gedi,  where  there  is  a 
pass  which  leads  out  northward  towards  Tekoa 
(Robinson,  Bihl.  Res.  ii.  215).  This  is  the  route 
which  is  taken  by  the  Arabs  in  their  marauding 
expeditions  at  the  present  day. 

ZIZA  (zt'za.)  (Heb.  ^^^  see-zatu',  abundance). 

1.  Son  of  Shiphi,  a  chief  of  the  Simeonites  in 
the  time  of  Hezekiah  (i  Chron.  iv:37).  (B.  C. 
about  725.) 

2.  A  son  of  Rehoboam  and  Maachah,  the  grand- 
daughter of  Absalom  (3  Chron.  xi:2o).  (B.  C. 
after  973.) 

ZIZAH  (il'iah),  (Heb.  ™,ff<(*-?aw',full  breast). 
second  son  of  Shimei,  a  Cer^honite  Levite  (l  Chron. 
xxiii:il);  called  Zina  in  i  Chron.  xxiji:i0. 

ZIZANION  (zi-zin'i-on).  (Or.  ZilUnor). 

This  word  occurs  in  Matt.  xiii:25,  and  several 
of  the  following  verses,  and  is  translated  weeds 
by  Luther,  and  tares  in  the  A.  V.;  but  it  is  not 


!  20AN 

found  in  any  Greek  author.  It  is  therefore  sup- 
posed that,  as  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  was  (as 
some  think)  first  written  in  Syro-Chaldaic,  the 
vernacular  name  of  some  particular  plant  was 
adopted,  and  thus  introduced  into  the  Greek  ver- 
sion. This  seems  to  be  confirmed  by  the  exist- 
ence of  a  plant  which  is  suitable  to  the  above 
passage,  and  of  which  the  Arabic  name  is  very 
similar  to  sisatiion.  Thus,  in  the  parable  of  the 
man  who  sowed  good  seed  in  his  field,  it  is  said, 
'But  while  men  slept,  his  enemy  came  and  sowed 
lares  among  the  wheat ;  when  the  blade  sprung 
up  and  brought  forth  fruit,  then  appeared  the 
tares  also.'  From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  wheat 
and  the  zizanion  must  have  had  considerable  re- 
semblance to  each  other  in  the  herbaceous  parts, 
which  could  hardly  be  the  case,  unless  they  were 
both  of  the  family  of  the  grasses.     That  such. 


Bearded  Darnel  {Letium  timmirMtum). 

indeed,  is  the  case,  is  evident  from  what  Volney 
says,  that  the  peasants  of  Palestine  and  Syria  do 
not  cleanse  away  the  seeds  of  weeds  from  their 
grain,  but  even  leave  that  called  Ziivan  by  the 
Arabs,  which  stuns  people  and  makes  them  giddy, 
as  he  himself  experienced.  The  Ziwan  of  theArabs 
is  concluded  to  be  our  Darnel,  the  ivraie  of  the 
French,  the  Lolium  lemulentum  of  botanists,  and 
is  well  suited  to  the  palate.  It  is  a  grass  often 
found  in  grain  fields,  resembling  the  wheat  until 
both  are  in  ear,  and  remarkable  as  one  of  the  very 
few  of  the  numerous  family  of  grasses  possessed 
of  deleterious  properties. 

ZOAIT  (18'an),  (Heb.  "itS.  tso'an,  perhaps  place 
of  departure  or  low  region;  Sept.  TJki,  Tanis). 

An  ancient  city  of  Lower  Egypt,  situated  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  Tanilie  branch  of  the 
Nile,  called  in  Egyptian  Gaue  or  Gani,  i.  e.  'low 
region,"  whence  both  the  Hebrew  name  Zoan,  and 
the  Greek  Tanis,  are  derived;  as  is  also  the  Arabic 
San.  bv  which  name  the  site  is  still  known. 

(1)  Scriptural  Beferencea.  Zoan  is  of  con- 
siderable Scriptural  interest.  It  was  one  of  the 
oldest  cities  in  Egypt,  having  been  built  seven 
years  after  Hebron,  which  already  existed  in  the 
lime  of  Abraham  (Num.  xiiiraz;  comp.  Gen, 
xxii:2).  It  seems  also  to  have  been  one  of  the 
principal  capitals,  or  royal  abodes,  of  the  Pharaohs 
(Is.  xix;ii,   13;  xxx:4);  and  accordingly,  'the 


ZOAR 


1753 


ZOPHAR 


field  of  Zoan/  or  the  fine  alluvial  plain  around 
the  city,  is  described  as  the  scene  of  the  marvelous 
works  which  God  wrought  in  the  time  of  Moses 
(Ps.  Ixxviii:i2,  43).  The  destruction  predicted 
in  Ezek.  xxx:i4,  has  long  since  befallen  Zoan. 

(2)  Present  Site.  The  'field'  is  now  a  barren 
waste;  a  canal  passes  through  it  without  being 
able  to  fertilize  the  soil ;  'fire  has  been  set  in  Zoan ;' 
and  the  royal  city  is  now  the  habitation  of  fisher- 
men, the  resort  of  wild  beasts,  and  infested  by 
reptiles  and  malignant  fevers.  The  locality  is 
covered  with  mounds  of  unusual  height  and  ex- 
tent, full  of  the  fragments  of  pottery  which  such 
sites  usually  exhibit.  These  extend  for  about  a 
mile  from  north  to  south,  by  about  three  quar- 
ters of  a  mile.  The  area  in  which  the  sacred  en- 
closure of  the  temple  stood,  is  about  fifteen  hun- 
dred feet  by  twelve  hundred  and  fifty,  surrounded 
by  the  mounds  of  fallen  houses,  as  at  Bubastis 
(see  Pi-Beseth),  whose  increased  elevation  above 
the  site  of  the  Temple  is  doubtless  attributable  to 
the  same  cause — the  frequent  change  in  the  level 
of  the  houses  to  protect  them  from  the  inundation, 
and  the  unaltered  position  of  the  sacred  build- 
ings. There  is  a  gateway  of  granite  and  fine 
grit  stone  to  the  enclosure  of  this  temple,  bearing 
the  name  of  Rameses  the  Great.  Though  in  a 
very  ruinous  condition,  the  fragments  of  walls, 
columns,  and  fallen  obelisks,  sufficiently  attest  the 
former  splendor  of  the  building  to  which  they 
belonged.  The  obelisks  are  all  of  the  time  of 
Rameses  the  Great  (B.  C.  1740),  and  their  num- 
ber, evidently  ten,  if  not  twelve,  is  unparalleled 
in  any  Egyptian  temple.  The  name  of  this  king 
most  frequently  occurs;  but  the  ovals  of  his  suc- 
cessor Pthamen,  of  Osirtasen  III,  and  of  Tir- 
hakah,have  also  been  found.  The  time  of  Osirtasen 
III  afscends  nearly  to  that  of  Joseph,  and  his 
name,  therefore,  corroborates  the  Scriptural  ac- 
count of  the  antiquity  of  the  town.  Two  black 
statues,  and  a  granite  sphinx,  with  blocks  of  hewn 
and  occasionally  sculptured  granite,  are  among 
the  objects  which  engage  the  attention  of  the  few 
travelers  who  visit  this  desolate  place.  The  mod- 
em village  of  San  consists  of  mere  huts,  with 
the  exception  of  a  ruined  kasr  of  modern  date 
(Wilkinson's  Modern  Egypt,  i.  449-452;  Narra- 
tive of  the  Scottish  Deputation,pp. 72-76;  Mariette 
Bey,  Monuments,  etc,  pp.  308,  309). 

ZOAB  (z5'ar),  (Heb.  "^^^  and  "'?'^^,  fso'ar,  small- 
ness). 

(1)  Original  Name.  A  town  originally  called 
Bala,  and  one  of  the  five  cities  of  the  plain  of 
Siddim.  It  was  doomed  with  the  rest  to  destruc- 
tion; but  spared  at  the  intercession  of  Lot  as  a 
place  to  which  he  might  escape.  He  alleged  the 
smallness  of  the  city  as  a  ground  for  asking  this 
favor;  and  hence  the  place  acquired  the  name  of 
Zoar,  or  ^smallness*  (Gen.  xiii:io;  xiv:2,  8; 
xix:20,  22,  30).  It  is  again  mentioned  only  in 
Deut.  xxxiv:3;  Is.  xv:5;  Jer.  xlviii:34;  which 
passages  indicate  that  it  belonged  to  the  Moab- 
ites,  and  was  a  place  of  some  consequence. 

(2)  Historical  Notices.  Eusebius  and  Jerome 
describe  it  as  having  in  their  day  many  in- 
habitants, and  a  Roman  garrison  (Onomast.,  s. 
V.  'Bala').  Stephen  of  Byzantium  calls  it  a  large 
village  and  fortress  (Reland,  Palcest.  p.  1065). 
In  the  Ecclesiastical  Notitia  it  is  mentioned  at 
the  seat  of  a  bishop  of  the  Third  Palestine,  down 
to  the  centuries  preceding  the  Crusades  (Reland, 
pp.  217,  223,  226,  230).  The  Crusaders  seem  to 
have  found  it  under  the  name  of  Segor,  as  in  the 
Sept.,  and  they  describe  the  place  as  pleasantly 
situated  with  many  palm  trees  (Will.  Tyr,  x.  8). 
Abulfeda  repeatedly  speaks  of  Zoghar  as  a  place 


adjacent  to  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Ghor  (Tab,  Syr, 
pp.  8,  9,  II,  148),  and  indeed  calls  the  Dead  Sea 
itself  the  Lake  of  Zoghar  (xii.  pp.  148,  156). 

(3)  Site.  Dr.  Robinson  (Bib,  Researches,  ii. 
480,  481;  648-651)  has  much  argument  to  show 
that  Zoar  must  have  lain  on  the  east  of  the  Dead 
Sea;  which  seems  clear  enough  from  its  having 
been  in  the  territory  of  Moab :  and  he  thinks  that 
Irby  and  Mangles  have  rightly  fixed  its  position 
at  the  mouth  ol  the  Wady  Kerak,  at  the  point 
where  the  latter  opens  upon  the  isthmus  of  the 
long  peninsula  which  stands  out  from  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  lake  towards  its  southern  end.  At 
this  point  Irby  and  Mangles  discovered  th«  re- 
mains of  an  ancient  town.  Here  'stones  that 
have  been  used  in  building,  though  for  thj  most 
part  unknown,  are  strewed  over  a  great  surface 
of  uneven  ground,  and  mixed  with  bricks  and 
pottery.  This  appearance  continues  without  in- 
terruption, during  the  space  of  at  least  half  a 
mile,  quite  down  to  the  plain,  so  that  it  would 
seem  to  have  been  a  place  of  considerable  extent. 
We  noticed  one  column,  and  we  found  a  pretty 
specimen  of  antique  variegated  glass.  It  may  pos- 
sibly be  the  site  of  the  ancient  Zoar^  (Travels, 
p.  448).  Conder,  who  would  place  the  lost  cities 
at  the  north  "end"  of  the  Dead  Sea,  suggests 
Tell  esh'Shaghur  as  the  site  of  Zoar.  It  is  at  the 
foot  of  the  eastern  mountains,  immediately  north 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  about  six  miles  south  of 
Nimrin. 

ZOBAH  (z5'bah),  (Heb.  ^^^,  iso-baw\  a  sta- 
tion), a  Syrian  kingdom,  whose  king  made  war 
with  Saul  (I  Sam.  xiv:47),  with  David  (2  Sam.  viii: 
3,  5,  12;  x:6;  xxiii:36),  and  with  Solomon  (2  Chron. 
viii:3;  Ps.  Ix  in  the  title).  Respecting  its  situation, 
see  Aram. 

ZOBEBAH  (zo-be'bah),  (Heb.  ^'^T^^,  hats-tso- 

day-daw' ,  the  slow  coming),  the  second  child  of  Coz, 
of  Judah  (I  Chron.  iv:8),  B.  C.  after  1618. 

ZOHAB  (zS'har),  (Heb.  ^0^,  tso'khar,  white- 
ness). 

1.  A  son  of  Simeon  (Gen.  xlvi:io;  Exod.  vi: 
15)  ;  called  Zerah  (i  Chron.  iv:24). 

2.  The  father  of  Ephron  the  Hittite  (Gen. 
xxiii:8;  xxvrp).    (B.  Cf.  before  2026.) 

ZOHELBTH  (z5'he.l«th),  (Heb.  ^2^\zo-kheh'' 

letht  serpent,  slippery),  a  stone  near  the  fountain 
of  Rogel,  or  En-rogel,  just  under  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  (i  Kings  irg). 

The  rabbins  tell  us  that  it  served  as  an  exer- 
cise to  the  young  men,  who  tried  their  strength 
by  throwing  it,  or  rather  rolling  it,  or  lifting  it. 
Others  think  it  was  useful  to  the  fullers,  or  white- 
sters,  to  beat  their  clothes  upon,  after  they  had 
washed  them. 

ZOHETH    (z5'heth),    (Heb.   ^O^T^    20'kkayth\ 

corpulent,  strong),  the  first  of  the  two  sons  of  Ishi 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (i  Chron.  iv:2o),  B.  C.  after 
1618. 

ZOPHAH  (z5'phah),    (Heb.   "?'^,  tso-fakh\  a 

cruse),  son  of  Hotham,  or  Helem,  the  son  of  He- 
ber,  of  Asher  (i  Chron.  vii:35,  36),  B.  C.  about  1618. 

ZOPHAI  (z5'phai),  (Heb.  T'^,/:r^-/aAV^, honey- 
combed), a  Kohathite  Levite,  son  of  Elkanah,  and 
ancestor  of  Samuel  (i  Chron.  vi:26);  called  Zuph 
(l  Chron.  vi:35). 

ZOPHAB  (zo'phar),  (Heb."^?^^,  tso-far*,  spar. 

row),  one  of  the  three  friends  of  Job  (ii:ii;  xi: 
i;  XX  :i;  xliiip).  Called  the  Naamathite  or  in- 
habitant of  Naamah,  a  place  whose  situation  is 


ZOPHIM,  THE  FIELD  OF 


1754 


ZUZIM3 


unknown,  as  it  could  not  be  the  Naamah  men- 
tioned in  Josh.  xv:4i. 

ZOFHIK,  THE  FIEU)  OF  (z5'phim,  thS  ^d 
ftv),  (Heb.  0"*^^,  ts<hfeem\  probably  field  of  drop- 
pings, I.  ^.,  fertile). 

The  place  near  Pisgah's  top  where  Baalam  had 
his  second  vision  of  Israel's  encampment  (Num. 
xxiii:i4).  It  is  now  Tai*at-es-safa,  in  the  valley 
between  Luhith  and  Pisgah. 

ZOBAH  (z5'rah),  (Heb.  '"n?,  tsor-aw',  hornets* 

town),  a  town  reckoned  as  in  the  plain  of  Judah 
(Josh.  xv:33),  but  inhabited  by  Danites  (xix:4i), 
not  far  from  Eshtaol,  and  chiefly  celebrated  as  the 
birthplace  of  Samson  (Judg.xiu:2,25;  xviii:2, 8,  ii; 
comp.  2  Chron.  xi:io). 

The  site  may  still  be  recognized  under  the  name 
of  Surah,  situated  upon  a  spur  of  the  mountains 
running  into  the  plain  north  of  Beth-shemesh 
(Robinson,  ii,  339;  iii,  18). 

ZOBATHTTES,  THB  (z5'ratb-Ites),  (Heb.  with 
the  article,  "*^yiV^»  hats-tsor-aw'thee*),  the  people 

of  Zorah  (i  Chron.  iv:2),  descended  from  Shobal, 
a  son  of  Judah.  In  i  Chron.  ii:^2,  53,  he  is  said 
to  have  founded  Kirjath-jearim,  from  which  came 
the  Zareathites  and  Eshtaulites. 

ZOBEAH  (z5're-ah),  (Heb.  •''?1?,  tsor-aw^), 
same  as  Zorah  (Josh.  xv:33). 

ZOBITES,  THB  (z5'rites.   the).    (Heb.  ^Tf^^ 

hatS'tsor^ee\  are  spoken  of  in  the  genealogies  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah  (i  Chron.  ii:54)  as  descendants 
of  Salma. 

ZOBOBABEL  (zo-rdb'a-b£l),  (Gr.  Zopo/Sd/SeX, 
Matt.  i:i2, 13;  Luke  iii:27).    See  Zerubbabel. 

ZTJAB  (zu'ar),  (Heb.  ^^^^  tsoo-awr',  smallness), 

father  of  the  Nethaneel  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar 
who  was  chief  of  his  tribe  at  the  time  of  the 
Exodus  (Num.  i:8;  ii:5;  vii:i8,  23;  x:i5),  B.C.  be- 
fore 1658. 

(ziiph),  (Heb.  *^!t,  tsoof,  honeycomb). 


1.  A  part  of  the  country  to  which  Saul  came 
after  he  had  passed  Shalisha  of  Shalim  and  of  the 
Benjamites  (i  Sam.  ix:5,  6).  Not  identified, 
unless  Soba  retains  a  hint  of  the  ancient  name. 

2.  A  Levite,  ancestor  of  Elkanah  and  Samuel 
(I  Sam.  i:i;  I  Chron.  vi:35);  called  Zophai  (i 
Chron.  vi;2iS). 

ZTJB  (ziir),  (Heb.  niX,  tsoor,  rock). 

1.  Father  of  Cozbi  (Num.  xxv:i5),  and  one 
of  the  princes  of  Midian  slain  when  Balaam  fell 
(Num.  xxxi;8;  Josh.  xiii:2i).    (B.  C.  11 70.) 

2.  Second  son  of  Tehiel  the  founder  of  Gibeon 
by  his  wife  Maachah  (i  Chron.  viii:30;  ix:^^). 
(B.  C.  after  1170.) 

ZXJBIEL   (za'ri-«l),  (Heb.  ^Tl^"^,  tsoo-ree-aie', 

God  Is  my  rock),  son  of  Abihail,  and  family  chief 
or  eenesarch  of  the  Merarites  at  the  organization 
of  the  Levitical  establishment  (Num.  iii:35).  It 
does  not  appear  to  which  of  the  two  great  divi- 
sions of  the  Merarites  he  belonged  (B.  C.  1658). 

ZT7BISHADDAI  (zQ'ri-shid'dai),  (Heb. ''^^T^^r. 

isoo-ree-shad'dah'ee,  my  rock  is  the  Almighty), 
father  of  Shelumiel,  the  prince  of  the  Simeonites  at 
the  time  of  the  exodus  (Num.  i:6;  ii:i2;  vii:36,  41; 
x:i9),  B.C. before  1658. 

ZTJZIMS  (zu'zimz),  (Heb.  Q^'»^i?,  haz-2<Hh2eem'\ 


one  of  the  ancient  tribes  or  nations  con^u^^^e^  trj 
Chedorlaomer  and  his  allies  (Gen.  xiv:5). 

The  Zuzims  were  settled  beyond  the  Jordan, 
and  are  perhaps  the  same  as  the  Zamzummims  of 
Deut.  ii:20.  The  Syriac  and  Onkelos,  like  the 
Septuagint,  take  the  word  for  an  appellative, 
signifying  'strong*  or  'valiant.*  Robinson's  Gesen- 
ius  proposes  the  Hebrew  root  of  this  word  as 
referring  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Sayce  thinks 
it  originated  in  a  transcription  of  a  cuneiform 
rendering  of  Zamzummim.  It  is  quite  generally 
suspected  to  be  an  abridgment  of  Zamzummim 
(which  see),  on  the  ground  that  the  place  of  the 
Zuzim  in  the  text  would  accord  well  with  the 
supposition  that  "  *Am  is  Ammon  ;'*  but  all  is  mere 
conjecture. 


ADDENDA. 


YOUNG    PEOPLE'S    SOCIETY    OF    CHBIS- 

TIAN  ENDEAVOB. 

i.  Origin  and  Growth.  The  first  Young 
People's  Society  of  Christian  Endeavor  was 
formed  Feb.  2,  i88i,in  Williston  Church,  Port- 
land, Me.,  by  the  pastor,  Rev.  Francis  E.  Clark. 
The  second  society  was  formed  in  Newburyport, 
Mass.,  by  the  Rev.  Charles  P.  Mills,  the  pastor 
of  the  church,  some  eight  months  later.  From 
this  small  beginning  it  has  rapidly  grown  until 
now  (January,  1902;  there  are  over  02,000  socie- 
ties in  all  parts  of  the  world,  with  a  membership 
of  3,500,000.  At  first  the  growth  of  the  move- 
ment was  slow,  but  after  a  few  years  it  gained 
impetus  and  headway,  so  that  now  several  thou- 
sand new  societies  are  added  to  the  ranks  every 
year. 

In  1887  the  first  society  was  formed  in  England, 
in  the  town  of  Crewe,  and  now  the  movement  is 
growing  there  as  rapidly  as  in  the  land  of  its 
birth.  About  this  time,  too,  societies  began  to 
be  formed  in  lands  to  which  American  and  Eng- 
lish missionaries  had  gone,  and  they  are  now 
increasing  very  rapidly  in  all  these  countries. 
In  i8go  the  Society  first  found  its  way  into 
France,  and  the  General  Synod  of  the  Protestant 
Church  has  recommended  that  all  the  churches  in 
France  adopt  this  means  of  Christian  nurture. 
In  1892  and  1893  the  founder  of  the  Society  made 
a  world-wide  tour,  visiting  large  conventions  in 
Australia,  where  the  movement  was  already 
thoroughly  established,  and  held  other  meetings 
in  China,  Japan,  India,  Turkey,  France  and 
Spain.  Since  that  time  three  similar  journeys 
have  been  made.  In  1894  the  Society  was  estab- 
lished in  Switzerland  and  Germany;  in  1895  in 
South  Africa ;  and  at  the  end  of  twenty-one  years 
it  can  be  said  that  it  is  found  in  every  country 
on  the  face  of  the  earth  where  there  are  Chris- 
tian churches  or  missions.  Recently  the  growth 
has  been  very  marked  in  India  and  other  mis- 
sion lands  and  European  countries,  where  the 
work  has  been  thoroughly  organized  and  devoted 
societies  obtained.  The  constitution  and  pledge 
have  been  translated  into  more  than  fifty  differ- 
ent languages. 

In  this  movement  all  evangelical  denominations 
are  represented.  In  America  the  Presbsrterians 
are  still  in  the  lead  in  the  number  of  societies. 
In  England  the  Baptists  are  the  leading  denomi- 
nation in  Christian  Endeavor.  In  some  of  the 
colonies  of  Australia  and  in  some  parts  of 
Canada  the  Methodists  are  in  advance  of  the 
other  denominations,  while  in  some  of  the  states 
of  the  Union  the  Disciples  of  Christ  and  in  other 
states  the  Congregationalists  claim  the  largest 
number  of  Christian  Endeavorers.  These  facts 
only  prove  that  the  Society  is  equally  adapted  to 
all  denominations  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
show  that  It  is  not  undenominational,  but  inter- 
denominational. Any^  society  connected  with  an 
evangelical  church  which  adopts  the  leading  prin- 
ciples of  the  movement,  including  the  prayer- 
meeting  pledge,  and  which  guarantees  these  prin- 
ciples by  the  name  "Christian  Endeavor,"  used 
either  alone  or  in  connection  with  a  denomina- 
tional name,  is  admitted  to  all  the  privileges  of 
the  movement. 

Local  unions,  early  in  the  the  movement,  were 
formed  for  the  sake  of  bringing  the  young  peo- 


ple together  for  fellowship  and  inspiration.  The 
first  one  was  formed  in  New  Haven,  Conn.  They 
have  been  very  successful  and  of  great  value  in 
promoting  the  growth  of  the  Endeavor  idea. 

From  the  beginning,  national  or  international 
conventions  have  been  held.  The  first  convened 
in  Portland,  Me.,  in  1882,  before  there  were  a 
dozen  societies  in  all  the  world.  These  conven- 
tions have  been  carried  on  with  increasing  power 
and  influence,  and  now  frequently  number  forty 
or  fifty  thousand  in  attendance.  They  are  by 
far  the  largest  religious  conventions  ever  held 
in  the  history  of  the  world. 

Very  little  business  comes  before  the  interna- 
tional convention  and  the  state  conventions  and 
local-union  meetings.  No  binding  votes  are  taken, 
and  they  exercise  no  authority  over  individual 
societies.  The  officers  of  the  state  and  local 
unions  freely  give  their  services  fo/  love  of  the 
cause. 

2.  The  Junior  Movement  started  a  few 
years  later,  though  many  features  of  the  Junior 
Society  as  now  developed  were  incorporated  in 
the  Endeavor  Society  from  the  beginning.  But 
as  time  went  on,  and  the  young  people  became 
older,  the  need  for  some  special  work  for  the 
boys  and  girls  became  evident;  hence  the  sur- 
prising growth  of  late  years  of  the  Junior  So- 
ciety of  Christian  Endeavor. 

3.  The  United  Societp  of  Christian  En^ 
deaVor  is  simply  a  bureau  of  information.  It 
claims  no  authority  and  exercises  none.  One 
of  the  Christian  Endeavor  principles  is  that  all 
authority  over  a  local  society  is  vested  in  the 
church  and  its  pastor.  The  United  Society  sim- 
ply records  the  names  of  local  societies,  tabulates 
statistics,  issues  information  in  the  form  of  leaf- 
lets and  booklets,  and  provides  the  program  for 
the  international  conventions.  The  details  of 
management  are  under  the  direction  of  a  board 
of  trustees,  consisting  of  about  one  hundred  well- 
known  clergymen  and  laymen  representing  the 
different  evangelical  denominations  and  state 
unions.  The  expenses^  of  the  United  Society  are 
kept  at  the  lowest  point  possible,  and  it  is  sup- 
ported by  the  sale  of  its  literature  and  badges. 

The  basis  of  the  union  of  the  societies  is  one 
of  common  loyalty  to  Christ,  common  methods  of 
service  for  him,  and  mutual  Christian  affection, 
rather  than  a  doctrinal  and  ecclesiastical  basis. 
In  such  a  union  all  evangelical  Christians  can 
unite  without  repudiating  or  being  disloyal  to  any 
denominational  custom  or  tenet 

The  Christian  Endeavor  World  is  the  official 
representative  of  the  societies.^  It  was  adopted 
by  the  sixth  annual  convention  of  Christian 
Endeavor  societies,  and  has  been  indorsed  by 
many  conventions  since.  ^  The  president  of  the 
United  Society,  as  editor-in-chief  of  the  Christian 
Endeavor  World,  and  the  treasurer,  as  business 
manager  of  the  paper,  receive  their  support  from 
the  paper  and  not  from  the  Society.  In  many 
other  ways  the  paper  contributes  to  the  support 
and  growth  of  the  Society. 

^  4.  Its  Principles.  The  pHndples  of  the  So- 
ciety of  Christian  Endeavor  as  they  have  been 
held  from  the^  beginning,  and  as  they  have  been 
wrought  out  in  the  experience  of  thousands  of 
societies,  are  embodied  in  the  following  state- 
ments.   These,  together  with  a  study  of  its  con- 


1765 


CHRISTIAN  ENDEAVOR 


1766     THE  EVANGELICAL  ASSOCIATION 


stitution,  will  ^ive  anyone  a  clear  idea  of  the 
Society  of  Christian  Endeavor,  what  it  is  and 
how  it  works. 

(1)  Organized  Effort.  The  Young  People's 
Society  of  Christian  Endeavor  is  an  organized 
effort  to  lead  young  people  to  Christ  and  into 
his  church,  to  establish  them  firmly  in  the  faith, 
and  to  set  them  at  work  in  the  Lord's  vineyard. 
One  main  point  upon  which  the  constitution  in- 
sists is  the  weekly  prayer  meeting,  which  each 
active  member  pledges  himself  or  herself  to  at- 
tend (unless  detained  by  some  reason  that  can 
conscientiously  be  given  to  the  Master),  and  to 
participate  In,  in  some  way,  however  small. 

Once  each  month  a  consecration  meeting  is 
held,  at  which  special  pains  are  taken  to  see  that 
every  active  member  is  faithful  to  his  pledge. 
Willfully  unfaithful  members  are  dropped  from 
the  roll  after  a  fair  trial. 

(2)  A  Training  School  in  the  Church.  It 
cannot  be  insisted  on  too  strongly  that  the  So- 
ciety of  Christian  Endeavor  is  a  religious  or- 
ganization. Social,  literary  and  other  features 
can  be  added  as  may  seem  desirable.  Into  this 
Society  the  new  Christian,  however  young  or 
feeble  he  may  be,  is  invited  to  come  at  once. 
Here  he  is  immediately  recognized  as  a  Chris- 
tian, and  is  afforded  the  opportunity  to  acknowl- 
edge his  Savior,  which  he  is  encouraged  to  do. 
He  is  fifiven  something  to  do  for  him  in  the 
way  of  practical  service.  This  work  accustoms 
him  to  the  sound  of  his  own  voice  in  the  prayer 
meeting.  It  causes  him  to  feel  that  he  has  a  part 
to  perform  in  the  activities  of  the  church,  as 
well  as  the  oldest  Christian.  Very  soon  he 
learns  that  he  has  a  duty  in  the  general  church 
prayer  meetings,  and  he  becomes  naturally  and 
easily  one  of  the  pastor's  trusted  helpers.  A 
generation  of  Christians  trained  from  early  boy- 
hood and  girlhood  in  this  way,  patiently,  persist- 
ently, kindly,  will  be  a  generation  of  working 
Christians. 

(3)  The  Committees.  The  various  committees 
are  essential  features  of  the  Young  People's  So- 
ciety of  Christian  Endeavor.  With  faithful,  earn- 
est, intelligent  committees,  the  work  can  hardly 
fail  to  succeed.  Perhaps  the  most  important  of 
these  is  the  Lookout  Committee.  This  has  for 
part  of  its  work  the  bringing  of  new  members 
mto  the  Society.  It  is  the  duty  of  its  members 
to  see  that  only  those  who  have  begun  the 
Christian  life  are  thus  introduced  as  active  mem- 
bers. The  other  committees,  especially  the 
Prayer-meeting,  Missionary  and  Social  Commit- 
tees, are  scarcely  less  important,  but  their  duties 
are  easily  understood  as  defined  in  the  constitu- 
tion, and  it  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  upon  their 
work.  All  these  committees,  according  to  their 
zeal  and  devotion,  can  make  much  or  little  of 
their  office.  Each  one  of  them  affords  ample 
opportunity  for  efficient  service,  if  it  is  rightly 
used. 

(4)  Loyalty  to  the  Church.  The  Society  has 
been  noted  ki  all  its  history  for  its  strict  and  un- 
swerving loyalty  to  the  local  church.  It  is  in  the 
church,  of  the  church,  for  the  church.  It  is  loyal 
to  its  pastor,  to  its  church  and  all  her  interests  and 
meetings,  to  its  denomination  and  her  mission- 
ary treasuries.  In  the  heart  of  the  pledge  is  a 
promise  to  **support  mv  own  church  in  every 
way,  especially  by  attending  her  Sunday  and  mid- 
week services." 

5.  Summarp.  The  essential  features,  then, 
of  the  Young  People's  Society  of  Christian  En- 
deavor are  the  following  pledged  and  constant 
duties:  attendance  upon  the  weekly  prayer  meet- 


ings and  participation  therein  by  every  active 
member;  work  for  others  through  committees 
and  in  any  other  way  which  may  be  suggested, 
and  unswerving  Joyalty  to  the  local  church.  A 
few  faithfully  observing  these  promises  will,  with 
the  blessing  of  God,  soon  become  a  powerful  host 
in  anv  church.  There  is  no  danger  that  the  rules 
will  be  too  strictly  enforced;  but  there  is  great 
danger  that  they  will  be  too  little  regarded.  The 
society  that  looks  to  God  for  all  blessings,  and 
strictly  observes  its  vows,  voluntarily  assumed 
by  each  young  person,  cannot  fail. 

6.  Recent  DeVetopmenU  More  recent  de* 
velopments  of  the  Christian  Endeavor  movement, 
such  as  the  "Quiet  Hour,"  *Tenth  Legion,"  etc., 
can  be  entered  into  or  not  as  any  local  society 
chooses.  However,  in  many  cases  they  will  be 
found  very  helpful  even  to  small  societies.  Chief 
among  the  auxiliary  movements  are: 

First. — ^The  Comrades  of  the  Quiet  Hour, 
whose  members  agree  as  a  rule  of  their  lives  to 
spend  at  least  fifteen  minutes  each  mornipg  in 
prayer  and  Bible  reading,  meditation  and  personal 
communion   with   God. 

Second. — The  Tenth  Legion,  whose  members 
agree  to  give  at  least  one-tenth  of  their  income 
to  missionary  or  benevolent  objects. 

Third. — The  Macedonian  Phalanx,  which  con- 
sists of  individuals  or  societies  who  support,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  through  their  own  denomina- 
tional board,  a  missionary  or  native  worker  on 
the  home  or  foreign  field.  It  is  expected  that  at 
least  twenty  dollars  will  be  given  each  year  for 
this  purpose  to  secure  enrollment  in  this  Phalanx. 

Fourth. — ^The  Gvic  Club  or  Congress,  for 
study  and  action  along  the  lines  of  good  citizen- 
ship, especially  of  municipal  affairs. 

Fifth. — The  Christian  Endeavor  Home  Circle, 
an  enrollment  for  the  promotion  of  family  wor- 
ship and  household  religion,  the  members  agree- 
ing to  observe  family  prayers  daily  or  at  least 
weekly.  F.  E.  C. 

THE    EVANGELICAL    ASSOCLA.TION. 

1.  Origin  of  the  Evangelical  Associatioxi. 
This  is  an  ecclesiastical  body  which  took 
its  rise  in  Eastern  Pennsylvania,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  under  the  labors  of 
that  godly  man,  Jacob  Albright.  Albright  was 
of  German  descent,  and  was  born  near  Pottstown, 
Montgomery  County,  Pa.,  May  ist,  1759.  In  1791 
he  came  to  a  saving  knowledge  of  the  truth  and 
was  soundly  converted.  Soon  thereafter  he  felt 
himself  inwardly  called  to  preach  the  Gospel  to 
those  of  his  own  tongue,  who  were  at  that  time 
sadly  neglected  and  given  over  to  dead  formal- 
ism in  religion  and  immorality  in  life.  He  had 
united  with  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  and 
felt  much  at  home,  but  the  deplorable  condition 
of  his  German  brethren  preyed  upon*  his  mind. 
Much  was  being  done  for  the  English-speaking 
population,  but  practically  nothing  for  these  peo- 
ple. Finding  that  his  call  was  imperative,  and  his 
duty  plain,  he  began  his  work  independently, 
that  being  the  only  course  open  to  him.  since  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  did  not  feel  drawn 
into  that  field.  Albright's  talent  and  piety  were 
recognized  and  he  was  in  full  accord  with  the 
Church.  There  was  no  dissension  or  schism 
of  any  kind.  Albright  was  simply  led  into  this 
field  by  the  Spirit  of  God.  He  was  to  become 
a  chosen  vessel  unto  the  Lord.  To  use  his  own 
account,  he  felt  called  "to  preach  the  Gospel  to 
his  own  people  in  its  purity  and  with  energy  and 
power,  trusting  in  the  grace  of  God  that  all 
those  who  hear  and  believe  shall  partake  of  his 
salvation." 


THE  EVANGELICAL  ASSOCIATION      1767 


THE  LORD'S  SUPPER 


He  began  to  preach  in  1796  and  his  efforts 
soon  resulted  in  conversions.  Though  this  hum- 
ble and  godly  man  had  no  thought  of  organizing 
a  new  denomination,  he  nevertheless  recognized 
the  necessity  of  organization  in  order  to  conserve 
the  results  of  his  labor  and  to  facilitate  the  spirit- 
ual culture  of  his  converts.  Accordingly  a 
meeting  of  the  leaders  was  held,  in  1800,  at 
which  several  "classes"  were  formed.  There 
were  but  twenty  members,  but  God  was  with  the 
little  company,  and  the  work  prospered  in  their 
hands.  This  became  the  inception  of  a  new 
denomination. 

2.  The  First  Council.  On  November  3, 
1803,  the  first  Council  was  h^ld,  in  which  17 
men  were  present.  These  solemnly  recognized 
Jacob  Albright  as  **an  Evangelical  Preacher," 
and  ordained  him  as  such.  In  1807  the  "Origi- 
nal Conference"  was  held  at  Kleinfeltersville, 
Pa.,  at  which  there  were  present  five  itinerant 
ministers  and  a  number  of  local  preachers  and 
laymen.  This  Conference  adopted  an  episcopal 
form  .of  government,  modeled  m  general  outline 
after  that  of  the  M.  E.  Church  as  it  then  ex- 
isted, with  which  they  were  in  JFull  accord.  They 
then  organized  by  electing  Albright  as  their 
bishop  with  full  episcopal  authority,  and  in- 
structed him  to  compile  a  Book  of  Discipline. 
Before  he  could  complete  this  important  work, 
this  wonderful  itinerant  succumbed  to  the  effects 
of  exposure  and  privation  and  died  May  18, 
1808,  after  a  ministry  of  only  twelve  years.  His 
last  message  to  his  colaborers  was:  "In  all 
that  you  do  or  think  of  doing,  let  your  object 
be  to  enhance  the  glory  of  God  and  advance  the 
work  of  His  grace  in  your  own  hearts  and  in 
the  hearts  of  others." 

3.  Development.  The  work,  however,  went 
forward  after  his  death,  though  it  met  with 
strong  opposition  and  severe  persecution.  In 
18 1 6  the  work  had  sufficiently  developed  to  or- 
ganize a  system  of  conferences  and  in  that  year 
the  first  delegated  General  Conference  was  held. 
It  was  then  that  the  name,  "The  Evangelical  As- 
sociation," was  adopted.  The  work  was  rapidly 
extending  its  borders.  Already  it  had  been 
pushed  into  the  State  of  Ohio,  and  eventually  it 
spread  over  the  entire  country. 

To-day  she  has  120,000  members — 15,000  in 
Europe,  and  nearly  1,000  in  Japan;  1,500  preach- 
ers, itinerant  and  local;  26  Annual  Conferences, 
nearly  2,000  churches,  over  2,000  Sunday-schools, 
in  which  20,000  teachers  instruct  150,000  children 
and  youth  in  the  word  of  God.  There  is  a  Mis- 
sionary Society  with  27  auxiliary  branches,  of 
which  the  Women's  Missionary  Society  is  the 
most  important;  this  society  operates  on  three 
grand  divisions  of  the  globe,  sustains  668  mis- 
sionaries and  656  missions,  dnd  has  an  annual 
income,  wholly  by  voluntary  contributions,  of 
over  $150,000.  The  children  alone  contributed 
last  year  through  Children's  Day  collections 
nearly  $12,000.  There  is  a  publishing  house  in 
Geveland,  O.,  valued  at  half  a  million  dollars  and 
issuing  monthly  at  least  half  a  million  copies  of 
good  literature,  besides  a  prosperous  branch  in 
Stuttgart,  Germany.  At  Flat  Rock,  O.,  is  k>- 
cated  an  Orphan  Home  harboring  130  orphans. 

The  Northwestern  College  and  Biblical  In- 
stitute is  located  at  Naperville,  111.,  Schuylkill 
Seminary  at  Fredericksburg,  Pa.,  and  there  are 
also^  schools  in  Reuttingen,  Germany,  and  in 
Tokk),  Japan.    All  are  doing  splendid  service. 

The  church  has  property  valued  at  $6,000,000, 
and  reports  annually  about  12,000  conversions. 
It  also  has  a  young  people's  society  known  as  the 
Yi>ung  People's  Alliance,  with  34,000  members. 


4.  Polity.  In  polity  the  Evangelical  Associa- 
tion is  thoroughly  American  or  democratic. 
There  are  three  conferences:  (a)  A  General 
Conference,  meeting  quadrennially.  It  is  the  su- 
preme legislative,  judicial  and  administrative  as- 
sembly, (b)  The  Annual  Conferences,  of  which 
there  are  twenty-seven ;  twenty-two  in  the  United 
States,  one  in  Canada,  three  in  Europe  (Ger- 
many and  Switzerland),  and  one  in  Japan.  The 
Annual  Conferences  are  purely  administrative 
in  their  powers  and  have  limited  territorial  juris- 
diction, (c)  The  Quarterly  Conference  on  each 
charge,  a  purely  local  body,  but  possessing  initial 
power  in  the  licensing  of  preachers.  All  offices, 
whether  lay  or  clerical,  are  elective.  The  appoint- 
ing power  does  not  exist.  The  bishops  are  itiner- 
ant superintendents,  elected  by  the  General  Con- 
ference for  a  term  of  four  years  only,  though 
th^  are  always  eligible  for  re-election. 

5.  Doctrine.  In  doctrine  the  Evangelical  As- 
sociation is  strictly  Arminian,  and  follows  closely 
the  Wesleyan  standards  as  to  the  specific  doc- 
trines of  grace.  She  holds  that  God  is  triune,  that 
Jesus  Christ  is  divine  and  that  the  Holy  Spirit 
IS  a  divine  Person.  She  believes  in  the  depravity 
of  human  nature  and  emphasizes  the  need  of  the 
new  birth.  She  teaches  the  all-sufficiency  and 
universality  of  the  atonement  effected  through 
the  death  of  Jesus;  the  freedom  of  the  will  and 
the  determinative  power  of  individual  choice  un- 
der the  grace  of  God ;  repentance  toward  God  and 
faith  toward  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  as  the  only 
condition  of  salvation;  baptism  as  the  appointed 
outward  sign  of  an  inward  grace,  and  the  mode 
non-essential ;  the  ^Lord's  Supper  as  the  perpetual 
sacrament  of  discipleship,  and  that  these  two  are 
the  only  sacraments  of  the  Christian  Church. 
The  baptism  of  infants  is  practiced  and  God's 
people  are  admitted  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  Special 
emphasis  is  laid  on  the  doctrine  of  entire  sancti- 
fication,  as  an  experience  in  the  grace  of  God  to 
be  attained,  after  conversion,  "in  this  life,  and 
long  before  we  die."  By  sanctification,  however, 
they  do  not  mean  sinless  perfection  in  any  Phar- 
isaical sense,  but  a  state  of  grace  in  which  we  are 
delivered  from  all  sinful  affections  and  desires, 
cleansed  from  all  unrighteousness  of  heart  by  the 
blood  of  Jesus  through  faith,  and  in  which  we 
have  the  love  of  God  shed  abroad  in  our  hearts 
in  such  a  measure  that  we  have  daily  and  con- 
tinuous victory  oyer  all  sin,  inwardly  tmd  out- 
wardly; a  state  in  which  we  are  kept^  by  the 
power  of  God  through  faith  unto  salvation,  and 
preserved  blameless  unto  the  coming  of  our 
Ivord  Jesus  Christ,  being  filled  with  all  the  ful- 
ness of  God. 

6.  Worship.  In  worship  this  Church  is  non- 
ritualistic,  adhering  to  a  simple  form,  giving 
liberty  in  the  Spirit,  but  insisting  that  all  things 
be  done  decently  and  in  order.  In  short,  her 
ideals  are:  Sound  conversion,  holiness  of  heart 
and  life,  spiritual  worship  and  evangelistic  aggres- 
siveness. S.  P.  S. 

THB  LUTHEBAN  DOCTBINE  OF  THE 
LOBD'S  ST7PPEB. 

The  Confessional  statement  of  it  is:  "The 
true  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  truly  present 
in  the  sacrament  under  the  forms  of  bread  and 
wine,  and  are  there  distributed  and  received." 
This  is  best  understood  when  approached 
through  a  recollection  of  the  two  views  which  it 
was  meant  to  oppose,  viz.,  on  the  one  side  the 
Roman  Catholic  teaching  of  transubstantiation, 
which  asserts  an  actual  change  of  the  substance 
of  the  bread  and  wine  into  the  very  body  and 
blood  of  Christ;  and  on  the  other  hand  the  view 


METHODIST  PROTESTANT  CHURCH     1758      METHODIST  PROTESTANT  CHURCH 


of  Zwingle  and  his  followers,  who  held  the  bread 
and  wine  to  be  simply  signs  and  memorials  of 
the  body  and  blood.  While  thus  thoroughly  re- 
jecting the  dogma  of  transubstantiation,  and  ad- 
mitting with  the  Zwinglians  that  the  bread  and 
wine  in  the  sacrament  remain  bread  and  wine,  the 
Lutherans  maintain  that  a  proper  regard  for  the 
literal  force  of  the  words  of  institution  requires 
recognition  of  the  real  presence  of  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  and  their  reception  by  the  com- 
municants. The  theoretical  explanation  of  the 
doctrine  is  based  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Person  of 
Christ.  This  teaches  that  through  the  personal 
union  of  the  divine  and  human  natures  He  is 
present,  not  according  to  one  nature  alone,  but 
according  to  both  natures.  Wherever  the  divine 
nature  is  there  also  is  the  human.  Though  in 
the  way  of  a  visible,  tangible,  circumscribed 
presence,  Christ  in  His  glorified  state  has  as- 
cended and  left  the  world,  yet  in  another  mode 
glorified,  supernatural  and  heavenly.  He  is  pres- 
ent in  the  unity  and  entirety  of  His  theanthropic 
Person — and  especially  where  He  wills  to  be. 
"The  right  hand  of  God,"  to  which  He  has  as- 
cended, is  everywhere — "far  above  all  the  heavens, 
that  he  might  fill  all  thines."  (Eph.  iv  :io.)  The 
terms  "body"  and  "blood"  designate  the  human- 
ity in  which  Christ  gave  Himself  to  death  for  sin. 
Since  His  exaltation  He  is  ever  present  in  the 
mode  of  existence  which  His  deity  gives,  or  can 
give,  to  His  whole  Person.  "Lo,  I  am  with  you 
always."  "Where  two  or  three  are  gathered  to- 
gether in  my  name,  there  am  I  in  the  midst  of 
them." 

It  is  of  the  body  and  blood  which  Christ  gave 
for  sin,  as  He  possesses  them  since  His  glorifica- 
tion, that  the  Lutheran  doctrine  makes  its  affirma- 
tion. It  distinctly  repudiates  everything  like  a 
presence  or  reception  after  a  gross,  natural,  or 
physical  manner.  Though  it  is  sometimes  called 
"corporeal,"  this  word  is  used  only  with  respect 
to  the  object,  not  the  mode.  The  mode  is  de- 
scribed as  "sacramental,  supernatural,  spiritual, 
divine  and  incomprehensible."  Though  the  terms 
"in,"  "with"  and  "under"  are  sometimes  em- 
ployed to  state  the  doctrine,  yet  these  words  are 
not  used  to  specify  or  describe  the  mode,  but  as 
simply  assertive  of  presence.  Moreover,  the  mys- 
tery of  the  sacramental  presence  or  union  is  held 
as  belonging  only  to  the  actual  administration  and 
reception,  of  the  elements,  and  not  before  or  after- 
wards. 

Since,  according  to  orthodox  Christology.  the 
union  of  the  divine  and  human  natures  in  Christ 
is  permanent  and  inseparable,  the  sacramental 
presence  becomes  the  presence  of  the  ivhole 
Christ.  Luther  maintained  th«».  real  presence  of 
the  Lord.  He  allowed  no  separableness  of  the  hu- 
man from  the  divine.  Sartorius  explains :  "For 
bread  and  wine  truly  communicate  and  appro- 
priate to  us  the  Christ  who  was  crucified  for  us." 
When  the  various  definitions  and  explanations 
are  put  together  and  combined,  the  Lutheran  doc- 
trine of  the  Lord's  Supper  maintains  a  real 
special  and  definitive  presence  of  the  theanthropic 
Christ,  in  His  humanity  as  well  as  divinity,  mak- 
ing the  administration  and  reception  of  the  sacra- 
ment, according  to  His  institution,  "the  com- 
munion of  His  body  and  blood,"  the  giving  of 
Himself  in  the  fullness  of  His  forgiving  love  and 
divine  life.  M.  V. 

THE  METHODIST  PBOTESTAKT  GHUBCH. 

1.  Origin.  In  1771  Mr.  Wesley  sent  Mr.  As- 
bury  to  America,  and  later  made  him  his  "gen- 
eral assistant"  and  placed  him  in  charge  of  the 


preachers  and  Methodist  Societies  in  America. 
Shortly  after  the  Revolutionary .  War,  Mr.  As- 
bury  wrote  Mr.  Wesley  urging  him  either  to  come 
over  himself  or  to  send  ordained  ministers  that 
the  sacraments  might  be  given  to  the  Methodists ; 
and  in  1784  Mr.  Wesley  "ordained"  Dr.  Coke, 
and  "appointed  Dr.  Coke  and  Mr.  Asbury  to  be 
joint  superintendents"  over  the  Methodist  preach- 
ers and  societies  in  America.  Dr.  Coke  came 
over,  and  having  ordained  Mr.  Asbury  at  the 
"Christmas  Conference,"  held  in  Baltimore,  1784, 
the  two  "joint  superintendents"  and  the  preachers 
present  organized  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  In  the  structure  of  the  government 
then  formed  are  found  the  causes  which  led  to 
the  organization  of  the  Methodist  Protestant 
Church.  No  right  of  representation  in  the  An- 
nual Conferences  or  in  the  General  Conference 
was  given  to  the  laity  of  the  church,  and  even 
the  rights  of  the  preachers  were  not  clearly  de- 
firiW  and  settled.  The  bishops,  that  is  the  name 
by  which  the  superintendents  came  to  be  called 
in  a  short  time,  claimed  and  exercised  the  power 
of  appointing  all  the  preachers  to  their  fields 
of  labor,  but  the  preachers  claimed  the  right  of 
appeal  to  the  Conferences  from  the  appointing 
power  of  the  bishops.  Thus  dissatisfaction  arose 
at  an  eirly  day.  Other  questions  between  the 
bishops  t^d  the  preachers  came  up  which  caused 
trouble,  especially  the  "presiding  elder"  issue,  the 
bishops  claiming  the  right  of  appointing  the  pre- 
siding elders,  many  of  the  preachers  insisting 
they  should  be  elected  by  the  Annual  Confer- 
ences. 

During  the  years  1820- 1830  the  right  of  the  laity 
to  an  equal  share  with  the  minister!  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  church  became  the  supreme  issue. 
Periodicals  were  established,  in  which  the  re- 
forms demanded  by  ministers  arid  laymen  were 
advocated.  As  the  controversy  went  on,  "Union 
Societies,"  consisting  of  ministers  and  laymen 
friendly  to  reform  of  the  church  government, 
were  organized.  The  struggle  became  more  and 
more  intense  on  both  sides,  the  bishops  and  a 
large  majority  of  the  ministers  being  determined 
not  to  yield  their  power,  the  reformers  becoming 
more  resolute  in  the  position  they  had  taken. 

In  1827  a  convention  of  representatives  of  the 
Union  Societies  was  held  in  Baltimore ;  a  *  Me- 
morial Address"  was  drawn  up  to  be  presented 
to  the  ensuing  General  Conference  whicH  was 
to  meet  in  1828  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.  The  Address 
was  brought  before  the  Conference,  but  failed  of 
its  purpose.  The  logic  of  events  had  at  last  con- 
vinced the  reformers  that  the  organization  of  an- 
other Methodist  Church  had  become  a  necessity, 
and  another  convention  was  called,  and  met  in 
November,  1828,  in  Baltimore.  "Articles  of  As- 
sociation" were  framed  "for  the  government  of 
such  Societies  as  shall  agree  thereto,"  the  So- 
cieties to  be  known  as  "The  Associated  Metho- 
dist Church;"  the  organization  of  Annual  Con- 
ferences was  authorized,  and  another  conventioM 
was  called  to  meet  in  the  same  city,  November, 
1830,  to  perfect  the  organization  thus  begun.  The 
convention  thus  called,  consisting  of  an  equal 
number  of  ministers  and  laymen  elected  by  the 
Annual  Conferences,  met  at  the  time  and  place 
appointed. 

2.  Constitution  and  Discipline.  A  Consti- 
tution and  Discipline  were  adopted,  in  which  all 
the  main  principles  for  which  the  reformers  had 
struggled  were  embodied.  The  rights  of  minis- 
ters, members  and  churches,  were  carefully  de- 
fined and  guarded.  The  General  Conference,  the 
supreme  legislative  body  of  the  church,  meets 
once  in  four  years,  consists  of  ministers  and  lay- 


METHODIST  PROTESTANT  CHURCH     1769 THE  UNITED  EVANGELICAL  CHUFCtt 


men,  elected  in  equal  numbers  by  the  Annual 
Conferences,  and  these  consist  of  ministers  and 
laymen,  the  latter  elected  by  the  churches.  Thus 
the  government  is  strictly  representative.  The 
name,  'The  Methodist  Protestant  Church,"  was 
adopted. 

3.  Development.  For  twenty  years  the 
church  prospered,  but  after  the  year  1850  the 
slavery  question  seriously  disturbed  it,  and  in 
1858  a  convention  of  representatives  from  the  An- 
nual Conferences  in  the  north  and  west  was  held 
in  Springfield,  Ohio,  and  all  official  connection 
with  the  Conferences  in  the  south  was  suspended. 
After  the  civil  war,  an  attempt  was  made  to  unite 
the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Church  and  the  Confer- 
ences just  mentioned,  but  the  attempt  failed.  A 
strong  desire  arose  in  the  south  and  the  norih 
to  reunite  the  two  wings  of  the  church,  and  in 
1878  two  conventions,  one  representing  the 
church  in  the  south,  the  other  representing  the 
church  in  the  north  and  west,  were  held  in  Balti- 
more, and  the  reunion  was  effected.  In  the  nego- 
tiations with  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Church,  the 
Methodist  Protestant  Conferences  had  dropped 
the  word  "Protestant"  out  of  their  name  and 
were  known  as  "The  Methodist  Church."  but 
they  gladly  accepted  the  former  name,  which  the 
Southern   Conferences   had  never  changed. 

4.  Boctrine.  Notwithstanding  its  man>  di- 
visions, Methodism  the  world  over  has  held  fast 
its  doctrinal  unity.  There  was  no  dispute  as  to 
any  theological  doctrine  involved  in  the  contro- 
versy which  caused  the  organization  of  the 
Methodist  Protestant  Church.  The  contest  was 
concerning  the  polity  of  the  church.  The 
Methodist  Protestant  Church  holds  all  the 
truths  contained  in  the  ecumenical  creeds  of 
the  early  centuries.  Rejecting  all  the  doctrines 
distinctive  of  Calvinism,  she  is  Arminian  in 
theology.  That  God  loves  all  mankind,  that 
Christ  died  for  every  man  and  that  eternal  salva- 
tion is  possible  to  every  man ;  the  freedom  of  the 
will,  justification  by  faith  alone,  the  necessity  of 
regeneration  and  sanctiflcation,  are  firmly  held  and 
taught.  In  a  word,  the  Methodist  Protestant 
Church  holds  and  teaches  all  the  fundamental 
truths  held  by  orthodox,  and  evangelical  churches. 
All  hierarchical  theories,  sacerdotalism,  and  the 
inherent  efficacy  of  the  sacraments,  are  repudi- 
ated as  unscriptural. 

5.  Statistics.  Home  and  foreign  missions 
are  carried  on  with  success.  The  church  owns 
several  colleges  and  seminaries,  and  two  publish- 
ing houses.  Two  weekly  religious  newspapers 
and  an  excellent  Sunday-school  literature  are  pub- 
lished. The  minutes  of  the  General  Conference 
of  the  year  1900  show  a  membership  of  177,066; 
number  of  ministers  and  preachers  2,781 ;  total 
value  of  church  property  $4,754,721. 

THE  UNITED  EVAKGEUOAIi  OHUBOfi. 

Earnest  differences  of  opinion  in  the  Evangelical 
.Association  concerning  the  powers  of  the  general 
conference  and  of  the  episcopacy,  more  especially 
the  lattei:,  resulted  in  a  division  of  that  body,  and 
the  organization  of  the  United  Evangelical  Church 
in  the  fall  of  1894.  These  differences  existed  for 
many  years  but  did  not  take  on  an  acute  form 
until  1887.  In  that  year  the  general  conference 
assumed  original  jurisdiction  in  the  case  of  an 
accused  brother  and,  overruling  his  protest,  pro- 
ceeded to  try  him  in  a  manner  which  called  forth 
the  most  earnest  protestations  from  nearly  one- 
half  of  the  delegates.  From  that  time  forth  the 
contest  was  characterized  by  an  ever-increasing 
earnestness  and  determination ;  the  parties  thereto 
being  known,  from  their  comparative  strength  in 


the  general  conference,  as  the  Majority  and  the 
Minority,  respectively.  Different  interpretations 
of  the  Church  law  resulted  in  the  calling  of  two 
general  conferences  in  189 1.  Repeated  efforts  on 
the  part  of  the  Minority  to  have  the  differences 
adjusted  by  arbitration,  including  a  declaration  to 
that  effect  signed  by  four  hundred  and  forty-one 
ministers,  were  unconditionally  rejected  by  the 
Majority  leaders.  The  civil  tribunals  were  then 
resorted  to  and,  after  prolonged  litigation,  the 
courts  of  final  resort  decided  that  the  Majority 
general  conference  had  been  legally  called,  that 
therefore  its  adherents  constituted  the  Evangelical 
Association  and  were  entitled  to  the  church  prop- 
erty. 

On  October  10,  1894,  former  members  of  the 
East  Pennsylvania  conference,  with  an  equal  num- 
ber of  lay  delegates,  met  in  convention,  organized 
as  the  East  Pennsylvania  Conference  of  the  United 
Evangelical  Church,  and  called  a  general  confer- 
ence, to  meet  in  Naperville,  111.,  November  29, 
1894.  Similar  action  was  taken  by  former  mem- 
bers of  other  annual  conferences,  and  on  the  day 
designated  the  conference,  composed  of  an  equal 
number  of  ministers  and  lay  delegates,  represent- 
ing six  annual  conferences,  convened  and  declared 
itself  "The  First  General  Conference  of  the  United 
Evangelical  Church."  Articles  of  faith  and  a  dis- 
cipline were  adopted,  and  submitted  to  the  annual 
conferences  for  ratification  at  their  sessions  in  the 
following  spring.  While  the  doctrines,  spirit,  and 
distinctive  features  which  characterized  the  older 
organization  in  her  earlier  days,  have  been  care- 
fully preserved,  the  church  polity  has,  in  a  number 
of  particulars,  been  radically  changed.  The  powers 
of  the  general  conference  and  of  the  bishops  are 
closely  limited  and  clearly  defined.  Bishops  are 
elected  by  the  general  conference  for  the  term  of 
four  years,  but  are  not  eligible  for  more  than  two 
successive  terms.  The  general  conference  can 
never  deprive  an  annual  conference  of  the  right  to 
determine  the  legality  of  its  own  organization ;  it 
has  no  original  jurisdiction  to  try  any  person ;  and 
it  can  legislate  only  by  the  concurrent  action  of 
two-thirds  of  the  members  of  all  the  annual  con- 
ferences. Lay  representation,  equal  in  number  to 
the  ministerial  membership,  has  been  introduced  in 
all  the  general  bodies  of  the  church.  In  the  con- 
ferences, annual  and  general,  the  lay  delegates 
have  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  ministerial 
members,  except  that  they  cannot  vote  on  the 
reception,  ordination,  and  expulsion  of  ministers. 

The  ministry  consists  of  two  orders— deacons 
and  elders.  The  itinerant  system  of  ministerial 
appointments  obtains  and  can  never  be  abolished. 
Ministers  are  appointed  to  their  charges  annually 
by  a  committee  of  the  annual  conference,  consist- 
ing of  the  bishop  and  the  presiding  elders.  ^  No 
one  can  serve  longer  than  four  years  consecutively 
on  the  same  charge.  The  governing  bodies  are 
the  quarterly,  annual,  and  general  conferences. 
The  first  meets  four  times  a  year  on  each  pastoral 
charge,  the  second  annually  on  each  conference 
district,  and  the  third,  representing  the  whole 
church,  once  every  four  years. 

Starting  with  practically  no  property,  eight  years 
ago,  the  United  Evangelical  Church  has  to-day  240 
parsonages  and  820  churches,  valued  at  $2,521,814. 
A  publishing  house,  located  at  Harrisburg,  Pa., 
and  owned  by  the  church,  supplies  the  necessary 
denominational  literature.  During  the  year  ending 
in  April,  1902,  $71,181,  or  an  average  of  $1.12  per 
member,  was  raised  for  missions.  A  mission  has 
been  established  in  the  city  of  Changsha,  province 
of  Hunan,  China.    Two  missionaries,  with  tneir 


GEZER 


1760 


AMAZIAH 


families,  are  now  on  the  field,  and  others  are  ex- 
pected to  follow  in  the  near  future.  There  are 
three  flourishing  educational  institutions:  Al- 
bright College,  at  Myerstown,  Pa.;  Western 
Union  College,  at  LeMars,  Iowa,  and  Dalles 
College,  at  The  Dalles,  Oregon. 

The  church  has  at  this  time  (July,  1902)  ten 
annual  conferences,  located  in  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  Ore- 
gon, with  pastoral  charges  in  New  York,  Mary- 
land, Indiana,  Michigan,  Missouri,  Minnesota, 
North  and  South  Dakota,  Oklahoma,  and  Cal- 
ifornia; 715  ministers  and  63,390  members.  The 
membership  of  the  Sunday  schools  is  94»730,  and 
of  the  Young  People's  Society — ^the  Keystone 
League  of  Christian  Endeavor,  23,839.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  missionary  society  and  its  auxiliaries, 
the  following  organizations  have  been  effected: 
A  charitable  society,  to  aid  aged  and  disabled 
ministers,  and  a  church  extension  society,  to 
assist  weak  congregations  in  securing  church 
homes.  Every  department  of  the  work  is  well 
organized  and  prosperous.  The  gain  in  mem- 
bership, while  not  so  large  as  it  should  have 
been,  has  been  steady  from  the  beginning,  and 
the  outlook  for  the  future  is  promising. 

A.  M.  Sampsel. 

GEZEB. 

(1)  Name.  This  Canaanitish  city  (p.  703) 
is  called  Gob  in  2  Sam.  xxi:i8,  while  the  Sep- 
tuagint  and  Syriac  versions  read  Gath.  The 
Philistines  appear  to  have  been  emigrants  from 
Egypt,  but  they  may  have  belonged  to  the  old 
half  Semitic  and  half  Mongol  race  of  the  Hyksos 
period.  The  names  of  their  chiefs,  such  as 
Abimelech,  are  usually  Semitic,  and  this  applies 
also  to  those  whose  letters,  written  in  Assyrian 
and  Babylonian  from  Ascalon  and  Joppa,  La- 
chish  and  Gezer,  are  preserved,  and  these  let- 
ters date  from  the  15th  cent.  B.  C.  (See 
Amraphel,  also  Tell  Amarna  Tablets.) 

(2)  Egryptian  Conquest.  When  the  Egyp- 
tians of  the  eighteenth  dynasty  conquered  Ca- 
naan, Gezer  was  placed  under  an  Egyptian 
governor.  At  the  time  of  the  Tell  Amarna 
Tablets  the  Philistines  had  not  as  yet  come 
into  Palestine,  but  the  towns  which  they  after- 
wards occupied  were  there,  and  they  took  pos- 
session of  them  without  changing  their  names; 
hence  in  one  of  the  letters  (105  B)  Adonizedek 
speaks  of  a  raid  on  Gezer,  Ascalon,  and  the 
territory  as  far  as  Lachish,  after  the  taking  of 
Ajalon  by  the  Hebrews.  Subsequently  Gezer 
was  occupied  by  a  Bedawi  sheikh,  Labai,  and  his 
ally;  under  this  rule  the  city  joined  in  an  attack 
on  Ebed-top,  the  king  of  Jerusalem.  When  the 
Israelites  entered  Canaan,  Horam  was  king  of 
Gezer,  and  he  went  to  the  assistance  of  Lachish, 
but  "Joshua  smote  him  and  his  people,  until  he 
had  left  him  none  remaining"  (Josh.  x:33). 
The  town  was  included  in  the  southern  border 
of  the  inheritance  of  Ephraim.  "And  they  drove 
not  out  the  Canaanites  that  dwelt  in  Gezer." 
But  the  Gezerites  served  the  Ephraimites  "under 
tribute." 

(3)  Philistine  War.  In  the  time  of  David 
"there  arose  war  at  Gezer  with  the  Philis- 
tines." A  recently  discovered  inscription  of 
Meneptah,  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  says: 
"Carried  away  is  the  land  of  Ashkelon.  Over- 
powered is  the  land  of  Gezer.  The  Israelites 
are  minished  so  that  they  have  no  seed."  (Men- 
eptah, p.   1 141.) 


(4)  Under  Solomon.  In  the  reign  of  Solo- 
mon it  was  again  taken  by  an  Egyptian  Pharaoh 
who  gave  it  to  his  daughter,  the  wife  of  Solo- 
mon (i  Kings  ix:i6).  Conder  thinks  that  the 
Pharaoh  who  then  burned  Gezer  and  gave  the 
site  to  his  daughter  may  have  been  the  ener- 
getic Saaman  of  the  twenty-first  dynasty.  The 
important  position  of  the  town  as  commanding 
the  communication  between  Egypt  and  Jerusalem 
made  it  a  valuable  strategic  point  for  Solomon 
to  hold,  and  he  rebuilt  and  fortified  it.  It  w^as 
not  heard  of  again  until  after  the  captivity,  yet 
it  played  an  important  part  in  the  struggles  of 
the  nation,  being  the  Gazera  or  Gazara  of  the 
Apocrypha  and  Josephus  (i  Mace.  xv:28,  35). 

The  place,  under  the  modern  name  of  Tell 
Jezar,  lies  to  the  right  of  the  road  from  Jaffa 
to  Jerusalem;  it  is  about  eighteen  miles  from 
the  "City  of  David,"  and  the  site  is  marked  by 
fragments  of  early  pottery  and  blocks  of  un- 
hewn stone.  It  would  probably  well  repay  fur- 
ther exploration. — ^-  A.  11. 

AMAZTAH. 

(i)  The  eighth  king  of  Judah  (2  Chron. 
xxiv:27)  and  son  of  Joash.  He  succeeded  his 
father  upon  the  assassination  of  the  latter  (B.  C. 
about  839).  He  was  twenty-five  years  of  age 
when  he  began  to  reign,  and  reigned  twenty- 
nine  years  at  Jerusalem.  He  quickly  executed 
punishment  on  the  murderers  of  his  father,  but 
did  no  harm  to  their  innocent  children. 

Amaziah  found  three  hundred  thousand  men 
in  the  kingdom  able  to  bear  arms.  He  engaged 
a  mercenary  army  of  one  hundred  thousand 
men  from  the  king  of  Israel,  the  first  instance 
of  the  kind  in  the  history  of  the  Jews.  His 
design  was  to  employ  these  troops  against  Edom, 
which  had  revolted  from  Judah  in  the  reign  of 
Joram,  about  fifty-four  years  before  (2  Kings 
viii:2o).  A  prophet  of  the  Lord  commanded 
him  to  send  these  auxiliaries  back,  saying  (2 
Chron.  xxv:7):  "O  King,  let  not  the  army  of 
Israel  go  with  thee,  for  the  Lord  is  not  with 
Israel."  The  exasperated  mercenaries  returned 
and  plundered  the  towns  and  destroyed  the  peo- 
ple on  their  homeward  march. 

Edom  suffered  a  severe  defeat  in  the  engage- 
ment with  Amaziah  in  the  Valley  of  Salt,  and 
the  capital,  Sela  or  Petra,  fell  into  his  hands 
(2  Kings  xiv.7).  Elated  by  his  victory,  Ama- 
ziah believed  he  could  reduce  the  ten  tribes  under 
his  dominion.  He  therefore  challenged  to  a 
combat  the  king  of  Israel,  Jehoash,  the  grandson 
of  Jehu.  This  powerful  monarch  answered  him 
by  the  parable  of  the  cedars  of  Lebanon  and 
the  thistle  trodden  down  by  a  beast  (2  Kings 
xiv:8,  9).  Amaziah  disregarded  the  advice  con- 
tained in  it  and  rushed  blindly  to  his  ruin.  At 
the  battle  of  Bethshemesh  he  was  defeated  by 
Jehoash    and  taken   prisoner    (2   Kings    xiviio, 

Jehoash  followed  up  his  victory  by  breaking 
down  a  great  part  of  the  city  wall  of  Jerusalem, 
pillaging  the  palace  and  the  temple  and  carrying 
hostages  to  Samaria  (2  Kings  xiv:ii-i4).  He, 
however,  left  Amaziah  on  the  throne.  "How 
long  Amaziah  survived  this  humiliating  defeat 
it  is  not  easy  to  decide.  The  statement  (2  Kings 
xiv:i7)  that  he  outlived  Jehoash  fifteen  years 
.can  hardly  be  correct,  and  there  seems  to  be 
sufficient  reason  for  considerably  reducing  the 
number  of  years  (twenty-nine)  assigned  to  his 
reign  by  the  chronological  system  adopted  in  the 


WORD 


1761 


HAMMURABI 


i':' 


I,  f 

t  .  .. 

II  i 

?:- 
1'.' 

fr-r 

■,i :.. 

u:- 

fr- 


irrc 

U 

).i 

[u: 
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nd 

n, 

d 
f 


Book  of  Kings.  His  reign  appears  to  have  syn- 
chronized almost  exactly  with  that  of  Jehoash, 
as  that  of  his  successor  did  with  the  reign  of 
Jeroboam  II."  (Rev.  John  A.  Selbie,  M.  A., 
Hastings'  Dictionary.) 

The  disaster  which  Amaziah  had  brought  upon 
Jerusalem  probably  occasioned  the  conspiracy 
which  cost  him  his  life.  He  fled  to  the  fortress 
of  Lachish  when  he  heard  of  it,  but  was  pursued 
and  assassinated  there.  His  body  was  brought 
back  to  Jerusalem  for  interment  in  the  royal 
sepulcher   (2  Kings  xiv:  17-21). 

The  death  of  Amaziah  probably  occurred  about 
(B.  C  780),  the  year  when  Uzziah,  or  Azariah, 
his  son,  at  sixteen  years  of  age,  ascended  the 
throne. 

(2)  The  priest  of  the  Golden  Calves  at  Bethel, 
in  the  time  of  Jeroboam,  who  complained  to  the 
king  of  Amos*  prophecies  of  coming  evil,  and 
urged  the  prophet  himself  to  go  to  the  kingdom 
of  Judah  and  prophesy  there  (Amos  vii:io-i7). 
(See  Amos.) 

(3)  A  man  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  (i  (Thron. 

iv:34)- 

(4)  A  descendant  of  Merari  (i  Chron.  vi:45). 

WOBD  (wiird).    Heb.  ^V\  dah-vahr.     There 

arc  ten  words  in  the  Old  Testament  which  are 
translated  by  the  term,  word,  or  its  equivalent, 

but  the  principal  of  these  is  *??,  which  occurs 

1,351  times.  It  is  rendered  in  various  ways, 
including  "the  words  of  Moses"  as  well  as  "the 
word  of  the  Lord."  It  is  also  used  in  "the 
word  of  the  prophet"  and  "the  words  of  the 
great  king."  It  is  sometimes  translated  ads  in 
connection  with  the  deeds  of  certain  men,  as  in 
2  Chron.  xxv:26,  and  elsewhere. 

In  the  Ixx  it  is  translated  sometimes  as 
Xcoof  \lo'gos)  and  sometimes  as  'p^\va  {rke'ma,) 
In  the  phrase  "the  word  of  the  Lord  came" 
the  term  word,  as  used  in  the  historical  books, 
is  translated  logos  in  2  Sam.  xxiv:2;  i  Kings 
vi:2,  and  elsewhere.  But  the  same  word  is 
rendered  'pi7M«»  i  Sam.  xv:io;  2  Sam.  vii:4; 
I  Kings  xvii:8,  etc.  In  the  prophetic  books, 
logos  is  almost  invariably  used  to  denote  the 
message  which  God  gives  to  the  Prophet  to  be 
delivered  to  the  people  (see  Ixx). 

In  the  New  Testament  X67o»  is  the  most  im- 
portant term  and  the  one  most  frequently  used 
to  express  "the  word  of  the  Lord."  (See  Logos.) 
It  occurs  in  the  New  Testament  316  times.  It 
represents  a  word  or  a  thing  uttered.  Matt, 
xxiiiis;  I  Cor.  xiv  rip. 

Speech,  language  or  conversation.  Matt,  xxii: 
15;  Luke  xx:2o;  2  Cor.  x:io. 

Mode  of  discourse  or  style  of  speaking,  Matt. 
v:37;   i   Cor.  1:17;   i   Thes.  ii:5. 

A  saying,  a  speech,  Mark  vii:29;  Eph.  iv:29. 

An  expression,  form  of  words — a  formula, 
Matt  xxvi:24;  Rom.  xiiiig;  Gal.  v:i4. 

A  thing  propounded  in  a  discourse.  Matt. 
vii:24. 

Message  and  announcement,  2  Cor.  vriQ. 

Written  narrative,  a  treatise.  Acts,  i:i. 

Prophetic  announcement,  John  xii:38. 

An  account,  statement  or  report,  Matt,  xxviii: 
15;  John  iv:39. 

A    set  discourse,   Acts   xx:7. 

Doctrine,  John   viii:3i-37. 

Subject  matter,  reckoning,  account.  Acts,  xv:6; 
Matt,   xii  :36. 

A  plea.  Matt    v:32;  Acts  xix:38. 

Motive,  Acts  x:29. 


Reason,  Acts  xviii:i4. 

The  word  (h  \orfot)  especially  in  the  gospel. 
Matt.  xiii:2i,  22\  Mark  xvi:20;  Luke  it2;  Acts 
vi:4,  etc.  The  divine  Word,  or  Logos.  John 
i:i. 

'fyriiui  represents  that  which  is  spoken;  declara- 
tion, saying  or  speech  in  Matt,  xii -.36;  Mark 
ix:32;  xiv  72. 

A  command,  mandate,  or  promise,  Luke  iii:2; 
v:5. 

Prediction  or  prophecy,  2  Pet.  iii:2.  A  doc- 
trine of  God  or  Christ,  John  iii:34;  John  v:47; 
vi  :63,  68 ;  Acts  v  :2o. 

Accusation,  charge,  or  crimination,  Matt.  v:2; 
xxvii:i4. 

Business  transaction,  or  other  matter.  Matt. 
xviii:i6;  Luke  i:65,  etc. 

Also:  "In  the  mouth  of  two  or  three  wit- 
nesses, every  word  shall  be  established,"  i  Cor. 
xiii:i. — E.    A.    R. 

HAMMURABI. 

Hammurabi  or  Khammurabi.  This  name 
has  long  been  known  to  scholars.  As  early  as 
1861  Rawlinson  published  three  of  the  inscrip- 
tions of  Hammurabi  in  Vol.  I.  of  ^'Cuneiform 
Inscriptions  of  Western  Asia"  Since  that  time 
the  information  in  relation  to  him  has  been 
gradually  accumulating,  until  we  have  a  great 
deal  of  data  concerning  his  life  and  reign.  The 
Babylonian  form  of  his  name  is  Khammu- 
rapaltu,  or  Kimptu-rapaltu,  as  he  is  called  in 
the  bilingual  list.  In  Genesis  he  is  called  Am- 
raphel,  in  the  Ixx.  Amarpel. 

This  king  conquered  Kudur-Lagamar,  who  has 
been  identified  as  Chedorlaomer  of  Genesis  xiv, 
and  who  had  raided  Northern  Babylonia.  Eri- 
Aku,  or  Arioch,  of  Larsa  was  also  conquered, 
with  Kudur-Mabug,  his  father,  who  shared  the 
throne  with  him.  Having  made  these  important 
conquests,  Hammurabi  succeeded  in  bringing 
about  so  complete  a  union  between  Northern  and 
Southern  Babylonia,  that,  from  that  time  on- 
ward, with  very  little  interruption,  the  city  of 
Babylon  remained  for  many  centuries  the  politi- 
cal center  of  Babylonia. 

He  also  drove  the  Elamites  out  of  the  land, 
and  inscriptions  have  been  discovered  in  which 
Hammurabi  and  one  of  his  successors  use  not 
only  the  title  "King  of  Babylon"  but  add  also 
to  their  names  that  of  "King  of  Martu,"  thus? 
claiming  supremacy  over  the  "countries  of  the 
west,"  which  included  Palestine. 

Hammurabi  was  the  most  powerful  king  in 
early  Babylonian  history,  but  he  belonged  to  an 
Arabian  dynasty  which  had  managed  to  estab- 
lish itself  in  Northern  Babylonia  about  a  hun- 
dred years  before  Arioch  succeeded  to  the  throne 
of  Larsa.  This  is  called  the  First  Dynasty  of 
Northern  Babylonia,  and  it  included  eleven  kings, 
of  whom  Hammurabi  was  the  sixth.  It  is  con- 
ceded among  scholars  that  he  reigned  fifty-five 
years  or  thereabouts,  but  as  to  the  exact  period 
there  has  been  much  difference  of  opinion,  on 
account  of  the  almost  insurmountable  difficulties 
pertaining  to  Babylonian  chronology.  Between 
such  men  as  Oppert,  Winckler,  Maspero,  De- 
litzsch,  Hilprecht,  Reiser,  Niebuhr  and  Hommel, 
we  find  a  variation  of  nearly  five  hundred  years. 
This  variation,  however,  covers  a  period  of  in- 
vestigation reaching  over  many  years,  and  during 
the  last  two  decades,  individual  Assyriologists 
have  changed  their  own  opinions  as  other  evi- 
dence has  come  to  light  in  the  shape  of  later 


HAMMURABI 


1762 


HAMMURABI 


documents,  tablets  and  monuments.  After  an 
exhaustive  discussion  of  all  the  evidence  avail- 
able in  the  matter,  Dr.  Fritz  Hommel  of  the 
University  of  Munich  presents  evidence  which 
is  apparently  incontestable  to  the  effect  that 
Hammurabi   reigned  from  1947  to  1892  B.  C. 

The  Arabian  origin  of  this  dynasty  is  con- 
clusively proven  by  an  examination  of  the  per- 
sonal names  of  the  period — names  which  have 
come  down  to  us  in  many  contract  tablets,  and 
especially  in  the  list  of  witnesses  which  occurs 
in  the  most  of  them. 

The  historical  deductions  from  all  these  rec- 
ords of  the  time  of  Hammurabi  and  Arioch  of 
Larsa  are  numerous.  Among  the  most  impor- 
tant of  them  is  the  fact  that  the  Elamites  and 
their  kinsmen,  the  kings  of  Larsa,  had  suc- 
ceeded in  subjugating  the  "countries  of  the  west" 
as  the  kings  of  Ur  had  done  before  them; 
and  it  was  at  this  period  that  the  evidence  indi- 
cates that  the  migration  of  Abraham  took  place 
when  he  went  from  Ur  of  Chaldees,  through 
Haran  into   Palestine. 

By  this  time  the  confused  elements  of  poly- 
theism had  obtained  to  a  great  extent,  and  of 
the  mythical  deities  of  the  period.  Sin,  the  moon 
god,  was  the  most  prominent.  His  most  ancient 
temple  was  at  Haran,  and  afterward  he  had  an 
important  shrine  at  Ur,  where  he  was  worshiped 
under  the  name  of  Nannar,  or  Uruki.  His  cult 
spread  rapidly,  and  ere  long  he  was  the  most 
popular  deity  in  Babylonia. 

It  was  out  of  these  corrupt  surroundings  that 
Abraham,  the  friend  of  God,  went  forth.  Per- 
haps it  was  largely  by  his  migration  from  Chal- 
dea  that  his  own  higher  and  purer  creed  was 
saved  from  absorption  into  Babylonian  polythe- 
ism. 

Professor  Sayce  says:  "There  were  therefore 
Hebrews,  or  at  least  a  Hebrew-speaking  popu- 
lation, living  in  Babylonia  at  the  period  to  which 
the  Old  Testament  assigns  the  lifetime  of  Abra- 
ham. But  this  is  not  all.  As  I  pointed  out 
five  years  ago,  the  name  of  Khammurabi  him- 
self, like  those  of  the  rest  of  the  dynasty  of 
which  he  was  a  member,  is  not  Babylonian,  but 
South  Arabian.  The  words  with  which  they 
are  compounded  and  the  divine  names  which 
they  contain,  do  not  belong  to  the  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  language,  and  there  is  a  cuneiform 
tablet  in  which  they  are  given  with  their  Assy- 
rian translations.  The  dynasty  must  have  had 
close  relations  with  South  Arabia.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  most  interesting  part  of  the 
matter.  The  names  (Khammurabi,  Ammi-za- 
duga,  etc.)  are  not  only  South  Arabian,  but 
they  are  Hebrew  as  well.  .  .  .  When  Abra- 
ham, therefore,  was  born  in  Ur  of  Chaldees,  a 
dynasty  was  ruling  there  which  was  not  of 
Babylonian  origin,  but  belonged  to  a  race  which 
was  at  once  Hebrew  and  South  Arabian.  The 
contract  tablets  prove  that  a  population  with 
similar  characteristics  was  living  under  them  in 
the  country. 

"Could  there  be  a  more  remarkable  confirma- 
tion of  the  statements  which  we  find  in  the 
tenth  chapter  of  Genesis?  There  we  read  that 
unto  Eber  were  born  two  sons;  the  name  of 
the  one  was  Peleg,  the  ancestor  of  the  Hebrews, 
while  the  name  of  the  other  was  Joktan,  the 
ancestor  of  the  tribes  of  South  Arabia.  The 
parallelism  between  the  Biblical  account  and  the 
latest  discovery  of  archaeology  is  thus  complete 
and  makes  it  impossible  to  believe  that  the  Bib- 
lical   narrative    could    have    been    compiled    in 


Palestine  at  the  late  date  to  which  some  of  our 
modern  'critics'  assign  it.  All  recollection  of  the 
facts  embodied  in  it  would  then  have  long  since 
passed  away."  (Sayce,  Patriarchal  Palestine, 
Pref.) 

In  comparison  with  the  indescribable  atrocities 
which  were  wrought  by  later  kings,  Hammurabi 
appears  to  have  been  a  humane  ruler.  He  came 
of  good  stock.  His  race  was  descended  from 
Eber,  and  the  inscriptions  and  the  names  of 
South  Arabia  indicate  that  although  this  people 
were  polytheistic,  nevertheless  there  must  have 
been  a  time  in  their  very  early  history  when 
there  was  much  of  faith  in  the  true  God,  and 
in  spite  of  the  growing  heathenism  of  their 
surroundings  it  must  have  persisted  in  many 
families,  for  the  names,  even  during  the  general 
prevalence  of  pol3rtheistic  worship,  were  usually 
compounded  with  ilu,  (ood. 

Hommel  says:  "If  we  consider  how  fre- 
quently primitive  ideas  continue  to  persist  in 
the  personal  names  of  any  race,  this  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  there  must  have  been  a 
time  in  the  history  of  Arabia  when  these  gods 
(a  number  of  whom  .  .  .  recently  discovered 
by  Glaser,  were  certainly  imported  from  outside) 
did  not  receive  worship,  and  when  some  higher 
form  of  devotion  of  a  type  which  involuntarily 
reminds  one  of  what  we  are  told  about  Mel- 
chisedek  in  the  Old  Testament,  must  have  pre- 
vailed. .  .  .  The  fact  that  the  worship  of  a 
number  of  deities  is  prominently  mentioned  even 
in  the  earliest  South  Arabian  inscriptions,  merely 
serves  to  throw  into  still  stronger  relief  the 
persistent  monotheism  of  the  personal  names, 
which  even  the  lapse  of  a  thousand  years  or  so 
had  been  powerless  to  efface. 

"How  deeply  this  monotheistic  principle  must 
have  rooted  itself  in  the  hearts  of  this  people 
from  the  earliest  ages  is  proved  by  its  having 
been  able,  in  the  face  of  growing  encroachments 
of  polytheism,  to  retain  for  so  long  an  undis- 
puted   position    in    their    appellations.  .   .   . 

"We  are  fully  warranted  in  assuming  that  what 
has  been  said  of  South  Arabian  names  applies 
with  equal  force  to  the  Arabian  personal  names 
of  the  Khammurabi  epoch;  these  names  indicate 
that  their  owners  possessed  a  far  purer  religion 
than  that  of  the  Babylonians,  a  religion,  in  short, 
of  an  essentially  monotheistic  character."  (Hom- 
mel, An.  Heb,   Trad.y  pp.  82,  88,  117.) 

The  latest  sources  of  information  concerning 
the  reign  of  Hammurabi  are  found  in  "Letters 
and  Inscriptions  of  Hammurabi/'  published  by 
L.  W.  King,  in  three  volumes.  Luzac,  London, 
1 898- 1900. 

These  letters  and  inscriptions  teach  that  the 
king  was  a  very  strenuous  ruler,  who  kept  the 
most  important  of  the  government  business  un- 
der his  own  personal  care.  Most  of  the  letters 
are  addressed  to  Sin-idinnam,  who  may  have 
.  been  either  a  vassal  king  of  Larsa,  or  only  the 
governor  of  that  city.  At  all  events,  minute 
orders  were  issued  to  this  man,  who  also  ex- 
ercised more  or  less  authority  over  Erech  and 
Ur. 

In  these  letters  we  also  find  the  king  giving 
directions  concerning  the  construction  of  canals 
and  other  public  works.  He  orders  the  dwellers 
on  the  banks  of  a  waterway  to  clean  it  out.  It 
appears  that  one  canal  was  in  such  a  condition 
that  ships  could  not  come  to  Erech.  and  the  king 
orders  the  clearing  of  it  to  be  done  "in  three 
days!"  His  letters  indicate  that  he  was  ac- 
cessible  to    his    subjects.    He    punished    bribery 


HAMMURABI.  CODE  OF 


1763 


HAMMURABI.  CODE  OF 


promptly  and  enforced  a  merchant's  claim  for 
debt  against  a  government  official;  nevertheless 
he  appears  to  have  been  severe  upon  money 
loaners.  He  was  careful  in  the  collection  of 
revenues,  the  auditing  of  public  accounts,  the 
regulation  of  food  supplies,  and  the  care  of  the 
herds  of  cattle  belonging  to  the  crown.  (See 
"Lettersr)  E.  A.  R. 

EAJOniBABZ,  CODE  07. 

In  the  winter  of  1901-1902  an  expedition  which 
was  sent  out  by  the  French  Government  under 
the  leadership  of  M.  de  Morgan  as  Director- 
General,  made  a  remarkable  discovery  on  the 
acropolis  of  Susa,  the  ancient  Persepolis,  which 
was  once  the  capital  of  an  independent  Elamite 
monarchy.  This  find  was  no  less  than  an  enor- 
mous block  of  black  didorite  which  had  been 
broken  in  three  pieces,  but  when  fitted  together 
they  formed  a  monument  2.25  meters  (nearly 
eight  feet)  in  height  and  tapering  from  1.90  to 
1.65  meters.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  front  side 
a  sculptured  bas-relief  represents  King  Ham- 
murabi receiving  his  code  of  laws  from  the  sun 
god  Shamas,  or  Chemosh. 

Upon  this  stele  is  the  longest  inscription  in 
cuneiform  characters  which  has  ever  been  dis- 
covered. It  is  written  in  parallel  columns,  but 
each  column  is  arranged  like  a  belt  around  the 
curved  surface  of  the  rock.  In  some  places  the 
surface  has  been  injured  and  part  of  the  inscrip- 
tion is  thus  lost,  but  when  complete  the  whole 
consisted  of  282  sections,  and  must  have  con- 
tained about  eight  thousand  words. 

Careful  "squeezes"  of  the  inscription  were 
taken  and  sent  to  France,  and  Prof.  V.  Schiel 
published  the  text  by  photogravure  in  *'Mi- 
moires  de   la  Diligation   en  Perse"    (Leroux, 

Paris.) 

The  text  was  accompanied  by  a  transliteration 
into  Roman  characters,  a  good  first  translation 
with  footnotes,  and  a  summary  of  the  laws. 
This  handsome  quarto  volume  appeared  in  Oc- 
tober of  1902,  and  at  once  produced  great  ex- 
citement among  scholars;  hence  a  vast  amount 
of  literature  has  been  published  on  the  subject. 

The  monument  not  only  contained  the  Code, 
but  also  a  prologue  and  an  epilogue,  which  are 
devoted  mostly  to  the  honor  of  the  king,  a 
description  of  his  goodness  and  valor,  the  glory 
of  his  kingdom  and  that  of  the  gods  whom  he 
worshiped.  His  summary  of  the  cities  over 
which  he  ruled  would  indicate  that  he  reigned 
over  all  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia  and  also  the 
countries  of  the  west 

The  Code  itself  recognizes  three  social  grades, 
besides  the  various  trades  and  professions. 
These  are  called  gentlemen,  freemen  and  slaves. 
It  cannot  be  denied  that  there  is  much  of 
class  distinction  in  the  Code;  not  only  are  the 
aristocrat,  the  freeman  and  the  slave  treated 
separately,  but  there  is  also  special  legislation 
for  other  classes. 

(1)  The  gentlemen  were  the  feudal  land- 
owners. They  held  the  lands  of  the  crown  by 
service  and  had  other  duties  in  connection  with 
the  government,  such  as  the  maintenance  of  or- 
der in  their  respective  localities.  They  might 
be  sent  "on  the  king's  way,"  meaning  perhaps 
a  military  expedition,  but  including  any  royal 
business.  For  them  to  send  a  hired  substitute 
meant  death,  and  the  substitute  took  the  office 
thus  made  vacant: 


"If  either  an  officer  or  a  constable,  who  is 
ordered  to  go  on  an  errand  for  the  king,  do 
not  go  but  hire  a  substitute  and  despatch  him 
in  his  stead,  that  officer  or  constable  shall  be 
put  to  death;  his  hired  substitute  shall  take  to 
himself  his  (the  officer's)  hous^."     (Sec  26.) 

For  a  governor  or  magistrate  to  allow  such 
substitution  was  punishable  with  death  also. 
(See  sec  33.) 

The  officer  could  not  be  oppressed  by  the  gov- 
ernor, defrauded  of  his  salary,  nor  wronged  in 
court  on  pain  of  death: 

"If  a  governor  or  a  magistrate  take  the  prop- 
erty of  an  officer,  plunder  an  officer,  let  an  officer 
for  hire,  present  an  officer  in  a  judgment  to  a 
man  of  influence,  take  the  gift  which  the  king 
has  given  to  an  officer,  that  governor  or  magis- 
trate shall  be  put  to  death."     (34.) 

(2)  The  Second  Class,  or  Freemen,  occu- 
pies a  much  lower  rank,  but  there  is  especial 
legislation  for  him: 

"If  a  man  strike  another  man  in  a  quarrel, 
and  wound  him,  he  shall  swear,  T  struck  him 
without  intent,'  and  shall  be  responsible  for  the 
physician."     (206.) 

"If  he  die  as  the  result  of  the  stroke,  he  shall 
swear  (as  above),  and  if  he  be  a  man  (or  gen- 
tleman), he  shall  pay  one-half  mana  of  silver." 

(207.) 

"If  he  be  a  freeman,  he  shall  pay  one-third 
mana  of  silver."     (208.) 

Again:  "If  a  physician  set  a  broken  bone  for 
a  man  or  cure  his  diseased  bowels,  the  patient 
shall  give  five  shekels  of  silver  to  the  physician." 
(221.) 

"If  he  be  a  freeman,  he  shall  give  three  shek- 
els of  silver."     (223.) 

(3)  The  Slave  was  a  veritable  chattel.  He 
could  be  sold  or  pledged:  "If  he  bind  over  to 
service  a  male  or  a  female  slave,  and  if  a  mer- 
chant transfer  or  sell  such  slave,  there  is  no 
cause  for  complaint."  (118.)  The  penalty  for 
aiding  a  fugitive  slave  to  escape  was  death: 

"If  a  man  aid  a  male  or  a  female  slave  of  the 
palace,  or  a  male  or  female  slave  of  a  freeman 
to  escape  from  the  city  gate,  he  shall  be  put  to 
death."    (15.) 

"If  a  man  harbor  in  his  house  a  male  or  a 
female  slave  who  has  fled  from  the  palace,  or 
from  a  freeman,  and  do  not  bring  him  (the 
slave)  forth  at  the  call  of  the  commandant,  the 
owner  of  the  house  shall  be  put  to  death."    (16.) 

The  reward  for  returning  fugitives,  however, 
was  not  large: 

"If  a  man  seize  a  male,  or  female  slave,  a 
fugitive,  in  the  field  and  bring  that  slave  back 
to  his  owner,  the  owner  of  the  slave  shall  pay 
him  two  shekels  of  silver."    (17.) 

Damage  done  to  a  slave  must  be  paid  to  his 
owner : 

"If  a  physician  operate  on  the  slave  of  at 
freeman-  for  a  severe  wound  with  a  bronze  lan- 
cet and  cause  his  death,  he  shall  restore  a  slave 
of  equal  value."     (219.) 

"If  he  open  an  abscess  in  his  eye  with  a 
bronze  lancet  and  destroy  his  eye,  he  shall  pay 
silver  to  the  extent  of  one-half  his  price." 
(220.) 

A  slave  who  married  one  of  his  master's 
slave  girls  was  able  to  acquire  wealth,  but  his 
master  was  his  sole  heir  and  his  children  were 
slaves.  On  the  other  hand,  a  slave  in  the  serv- 
ice of  a  great  house  could  marry  a  free  woman. 
In  that  case  the  children  were  free  (175),  and 


HAMMURABI,  CODE  OF 


1764 


HAMMURABI,  CODE  OF 


the    free    woman's    marriage    portion    remained 
hers,  for  her  children  after  her  husband's  death. 

(175) 
A    female    slave   could   become    her    master's 

concubine,  and  if  he  acknowledged  her  children 

they   could    share   his   property   with   his   other 

heirs  after  his  death.     (170.)     If     he  did  not 

aclmowledge   them,  "the   children  of  the  maid 

servant   shall   not   share   in   the   goods   of   the 

father's  house  with  the  children  of  the  wife." 

The   maid   servant   and   her  children,   however, 

shall  be  given  their  freedom.     (171.) 

(4)  The  Death  Penalty.  According  to  the 
Code,  the  death  penalty  was  executed  upon 
offenders  for  thirty-nine  different  offenses,  some 
of  them  apparently  trivial: 

"If  the  purchaser  (of  stolen  property)  do  not 
produce  the  seller  who  sold  it  to  him,  and  the 
witnesses  in  whose  presence  he  purchased  it, 
and  if  the  owner  of  the  lost  property  produce 
witnesses  to  identify  his  lost  property,  the  pur- 
chaser shall  be  put  to  death  as  a  thief ;  the  owner 
of  the  lost  property  shall  recover  his  loss."  (10.) 

If  a  woman  were  unjustly  accused  of  incon- 
tinence she  was  required  to  throw  herself  into 
the   river: 

"If  the  finger  have  been  pointed  at  the  wife 
of  a  man  because  of  another  man  and  she  be 
not  guilty,  for  her  husband's  sake  she  shall 
throw  herself  into  the  river."     (132.) 

The  penalty  for  poor  housekeeping  was  drown- 
ing: 

"If  she  have  not  been  a  careful  mistress,  have 
gadded  about,  have  neglected  her  house  and 
have  belittled  her  huslnind,  they  shall  throw 
that  woman  into  the  water."     (143.) 

"For  a  building  of  faulty  construction,  the 
builder  must  pay  the  penalty  with  his  life  pro- 
vided the  collapse  result  in  the  death  of  the 
owner." 

"If  a  builder  build  a  house  for  a  man  and  do 
not  make  its  construction  firm,  and  the  house 
which  he  built  collapse  and  cause  the  death  of 
the  owner  of  the  house,  that  builder  shall  be 
put  to  death."     (229.) 

"If  it  cause  the  death  of  a  slave  of  the  owner 
of  the  house,  he  shall  give  to  the  owner  of 
the  house  a  slave  of  equal  value."     (231.) 

The  death  penalty  was  also  pronounced  upon 
theft,  provided  the  unfortunate  thief  had  no 
money : 

"If  a  man  steal  the  property  of  a  temple  or 
palace,  that  man  shall  be  put  to  death;  and  he 
who  received  from  his  hand  the  stolen  (prop- 
erty) shall  also  be  put  to  death."    (6.) 

"If  a  man  steal  an  ox,  sheep,  ass,  pig,  or  goat 
— if  it  be  from  a  temple  he  shall  restore  thirty 
fold — if  it  be  from  a  freeman,  he  shall  render 
ten  fold.  If  the  thief  have  nothing  with  which 
to  pay,  he  shall  be  put  to  death."     (8.) 

The  death  penalty  was  inflicted  in  various 
ways : 

By  burning  in  the  case  of  theft  at  a  con- 
flagration and  several  other  offenses: 

"If  a  fire  break  out  in  a  man's  house  and  a 
man  who  goes  to  extinguish  it  cast  his  eye  on 
the  furniture  of  the  owner  of  the  house,  and 
take  the  furniture  of  the  owner  of  the  house, 
that  man  shall  be  thrown  into  the  fire."    (25.) 

Drowning  was  the  penalty,  not  only  for  poor 
housekeeping  but  also  for  irregularities  in  the 
tale  of  wine  and  various  other  offenses: 

"If  a  wine  seller  do  not  receive  g^'ain  as  the 
price  of  drink,  but  if  she  receive  money  by  the 


great  stone,  or  make  the  measure  for  drink 
smaller  than  the  measure  for  com,  they  shall 
call  that  wine  seller  to  account,  and  they  shall 
throw  her  into  the   water."     (108.) 

Impalement  was  the  method  of  inflicting  the 
death  penalty  at  times: 

"If  a  woman  bring  about  the  death  of  her 
husband  for  the  sake  of  another  man,  they  shall 
impale  her."     (153.) 

(6)  Dismemberment  for  fraud,  if  unable  to 
meet  his  obligation  for  grain  misappropriated: 

"If  a  man  hire  a  man  to  oversee  his  farm 
and  furnish  him  with  seed  griin  and  entrust 
him  with  oxen  and  contract  with  him  to  culti- 
vate the  field,  and  that  man  steal  either  the 
seed  or  the  crop,  and  it  be  found  in  his  posses- 
sion, they  shall  cut  off  his  fingers."     (253.) 

"If  he  be  not  able  to  meet  his  obligation,  they 
shall  leave  him  in  that  field  with  the  cattle  (to 
be   torn  to   pieces)."     (256.) 

(6)  Mutilation.  Other  mutilations  were  in- 
flicted in  many  cases: 

"If  the  son  of  a  ner-se-ga  (a  palace  warder), 
or  the  son  of  a  devotee,  say  to  his  father  who 
has  reared  him,  or  the  mother  who  has  reared 
him,  *My  father  thou  art  not,*  *My  mother  thou 
art  not,'  they  shall  cut  out  his  tongue."    (193.) 

"If  the  son  of  a  ner-se-ga,  or  the  son  of  a 
devotee,  identify  his  own  father's  house,  and 
hate  the  father  who  has  reared  him  and  the 
mother  who  has  reared  him  and  go  back  to 
his    father's    house,    they    shall    pluck    out    his 

eye."    (193) 

"If  a  man  give  his  son  to  a  nurse  and  that 
son  die  in  the  hands  of  the  nurse,  and  the  nurse 
substitute  another  son  without  the  consent  of 
his  father  or  mother,  they  shall  call  her  to  ac- 
count, and  because  she  has  substituted  another 
son  without  the  consent  of  his  father  or  mother, 
they  shall  cut  off  her  breast."     (194.) 

"If  a  son  strike  his  father,  they  shall  cut  off 
his  fingers."     (195.) 

"If  a  man's  slave  strike  a  man's  son,  they 
shall  cut  off  his   (the  slave's)  ear."     (205.) 

"If  a  brander,  without  the  consent  of  the 
owner  of  the  slave,  brand  a  slave  with  the  sign 
that  he  cannot  be  sold,  they  shall  cut  off  the 
fingers  of  the  brander."     (226.) 

For  malpractice:  "If  a  physician  operate  on 
a  man  for  a  severe  wound  with  a  bronze  lancet 
and  cause  a  man's  death;  or  open  an  abscess 
of  a  man  (in  the  eye),  and  destroy  the  man's 
eye,  they  shall  cut  off  his  fingers."     (218.) 

(7)  Scourging  is  mentioned  only  once: 

"If  a  man  strike  the  person  of  a  man  who  is 
his  superior,  he  shall  receive  sixty  strokes  with 
an  ox-tail  whip  in  public."     (202.) 

(8)  Temple  Devotees  are  also  made  the  sub- 
ject of  especial  legislation.  A  woman  might  be 
devoted  to  the  service  of  a  god  and  thus  be- 
came the  bride  of  the  god  and  might  thus  be 
dowered  by  her  father  as  in  marriage  (178).  Or 
if  he  gave  her  no  dowry,  she  might  receive  a 
small  portion  of  his  estate  at  his  death,  but  only 
one-third  of  the  portion  given  to  a  son: 

"If  a  father  do  not  give  a  dowry  to  his 
daughter,  a  priestess  of  Marduk  of  Babylon,  and 
do  write  for  her  a  deed  of  gift;  after  her  father 
dies  she  shall  receive  as  her  share  with  her 
brothers  one-third  the  portion  of  a  son  in  the 
goods  of  her  father's  house,  but  she  shall  not 
conduct  the  business  thereof.  A  priestess  of 
Marduk  may  give  to  whomsoever  she  may  please 
or  transfer  for  use  after  her  death."    (182.) 


HAMMURABI.  CObE  OF 


1765 


HAMMURABI,  CODE  OP 


She  must  be  temperate; 

"If  a  priestess  who  is  not  living  in  a  convent 
open  a  wine  shop  or  enter  a  wineshop  for  a 
drink,  they  shall  burn  that  woman."     (no.) 

Some  claim  that  these  devotees  were  virginal, 
but  in  Harper's  translation  of  the  Code  they 
are  listed  as  "sacred  prostitutes,'*  and  three  sec- 
tions of  the  Code  pertain  to  the  children  of 
devotees ; 

"The  son  of  a  ner-se-ga,  a  palace  warder,  or 
the  son  of  a  vowed  woman,  no  one  has  any 
claim  upon."     (187,  see  also  192  and  193) 

These  priestesses  were  called  by  several  names : 
They  were  kadishtu,  holy  ones;  also  kharimtu, 
which  embodies  a  similar  idea— that  of  being 
set  aside;  they  were  also  styled  shamkhatu, 
meaning   "pleasure   maiden." 

(9)  Marriage  and  Family  Life.  The  suitor 
appears  to  have  beien  free  to  make  his  choice 
of  a  wife,  but  the  woman  in  the  case  is  not 
free;  her  father  gives  her  in  marriage;  it  is  he 
who  accepts  or  rejects  the  applicant  for  her 
hand.  He  often  brought  a  present  to  the  house 
of  the  father,  and  if  he  were  accepted  he  made 
a  marriage  settlement,  but  if  he  afterward 
changed  his  mind  he  forfeited  whatsoever  he 
had  brought: 

"If  a  man  who  has  brought  a  present  to  the 
house  of  his  father-in-law  and  has  given  a  mar- 
riage settlement,  look  with  longing  upon  another 
woman  and  say  to  his  father-in-law,  'I  will  not 
take  thy  daughter,'  the  father  of  the  daughter 
shall  take  to  himself  whatever  was  urought  to 

him."    (159.)  ,    . 

If,  however,  on  the  other  hand,  it  was  the 
father  of  the  girl  who  changed  his  mind,  he 
was  the  one  to  pay  the  forfeit: 

"If  a  man  bring  a  present  to  the  house  of  his 
father-in-law  and  give  a  marriage  settlement 
and  the  father  of  the  daughter  say,  1  will  not 
give  thee  my  daughter,'  he  (the  father)  shall 
double  the   amount  and   return  it."    (160,   also 

If  a  wife  brought  a  dowry  into  the  family 
of  her  husband  it  was  her  own,  and  at  her 
death  it  was  returned  to  her  family  by  her  hus- 
band if  she  died  childless,  but  he  might  deduct 
the  amount  of  the. marriage  settlement,  if  any, 
which  he  had  made  upon  his  wife. 

"If  his  father-in-law  do  not  return  to  him 
the  marriage  settlement,  he  may  deduct  from 
her  dowry  the  amount  of  the  marriage  settle- 
ment and  return  (the  rest  of)  her  dowry  to 
the  house  of  her  father."     (164.) 

"If  a  man  would  put  away  his  wife  who  has 
not  borne  him  children,  he  shall  give  her  money 
to  the  amount  of  her  marriage  settlement,  and 
he  shall  make  good  to  her  the  dowry  which  she 
brought  from  her  father's  house,  and  then  he 
may  put  her  away."     (138.) 

"If  there  were  no  marriage  settlement  he  shall 
give   her    one   mana   of   silver   for   a    divorce." 

"If  he  be  a  freeman,  he  shall  give  her  one- 
third  of  a  mana  of  silver."     (140.) 

(10)  An  Unsatisfactory  Wife,  however, 
often  had  very  little  recourse: 

"If  the  wife  of  a  man  who  is  living  in  his 
house  set  her  face  to  go  out  and  play  the  part 
of  a  fool  and  neglect  her  house  and  belittle  her 
husband,  they  shall  call  her  to  account;  if  her 
husband  say,  'I  have  put  her  away,'  he  shall  let 
her  go.  On  her  departure  nothing  shall  be 
gjyff?  hsr  for  her  divorce.    If  her  husband  shall 


say,  1  have  not  put  her  away/  her  husband 
may  take  another  woman.  The  first  woman 
shall  dwell  in  her  husband's  house  as  a  maid 
servant."     (141.) 

The  Code  allowed  a  prenuptial  arrangement 
to  the  eflFect  that  neither  of  them  should  be  re- 
sponsible in  after  life  for  the  prenuptial  debts 
of  the  other,  but  whatever  indebtedness  was  in- 
curred after  marriage  must  be  shared  by  both 
parties,  and  this  often  worked  hardship  to  the 
wife  and  children,  because  the  husband  was 
allowed  to  sell  them  into  slaveiy  to  pay  his 
debts. 

"If  a  man  be  in  debt  and  sell  his  wife,  son 
or  daughter,  or  bind  them  over  to  service,  for 
three  years  shall  they  work  in  the  house  of 
their  purchaser,  or  master;  in  the  fourth  year 
they  shall  be  given  their  freedom."     (117.) 

They  were  thus  allowed  to  go  free  in  the 
fourth  year,  but  there  is  nothing  to  indicate 
that  this  process  might  not  be  repeated  as  often 
as  the  husband  and  father  ran  into  debt. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  wife  contracted  a 
debt,  there  was  no  one  to  work  it  out  for  her; 
it  was  one  of  those  offenses  which  might  lead 
to  divorce  or  even  death.  In  141,  one  of  the 
crimes  imputed  to  the  wife  is  sometimes  trans- 
lated, "If  she  have  wasted  her  house." 

Divorce  of  the  wife  was  easy;  the  husband 
had  only  to  say,  "Thou  art  not  my  wife,"  but 
if  either  a  wife  or  a  concubine  has  borne  chil- 
dren and  remain  blameless,  neither  can  he  cast 
off  without  a  portion: 

"If  a  man  set  his  face  to  put  away  a  con- 
cubine who  has  borne  him  children,  or  a  wife 
who  has  presented  him  with  children,  he  shall 
return  to  that  woman  her  dowry  and  shall  give 
to  her  the  income  of  field,  garden  and  goods, 
and  she  shall  bring  up  her  children;  from  the 
time  her  children  are  grown  up,  from  whatever 
is  given  to  her  children  they  shall  give  to  her 
a  portion  corresponding  to  that  of  a  son,  and 
the  man  of  her  choice  may  marry  her."    (137.) 

If  the  wife  wanted  a  divorce  she  was  obliged 
to  prove  that  her  husband  had  injured  her 
reputation;  then  if  she  were  blameless  herself 
she  was  free. 

"If  a  woman  hates  her  husband  and  has  said, 
'Thou  shalt  not  possess  me,'  one  shall  inquire 
into  her  past,  what  is  her  lack,  and  if  she  has 
been  economical  and  has  no  vice  while  her  hus- 
band has  gone  out  and  greatly  belittled  her, 
that  woman  has  no  blame,  she  shall  take  her 
marriage  portion  and  go  off  to  her  father's 
house.'      (142.) 

(11)  Children  of  a  wife  must  be  recognized, 
but  children  borne  to  the  master  of  the  house 
by  a  maid  servant  was  subject  to  his  caprice 
in  the  matter  of  recognition;  (171.)  I^.  how- 
ever, he  did  acknowledge  them  they  became  his 

heirs : 

"If  a  man's  wife  bear  him  children,  and  his 
maid-servant  bear  him  children,  and  the  father 
during  his  life  time  say  to  the  children  which 
the  maid-servant  bore  him,  'My  children,'  and 
reckon  them  with  the  children  of  his  wife,  after 
the  father  dies  the  children  of  the  wife  and  the 
children  of  the  maid-servant  shall  divide  the 
goods  of  the  father's  house  equally.  The  child 
of  the  wife  shall  have  the  right  of  choice  at 
the  division."     (170.) 

The  father  had  power  over  his  children;  he 
could  pledge  them  for  his  debts  (119),  and  they 
were  often  hired  out  by  him  to  work  for  others. 


HAMMURABI,  CODE  OP 


1766 


HAMMURABI.  CODE  OP 


It  seems  that  as  long  as  a  son  lived  in  his 
father's  house,  the  father  had  a  right  to  his 
labor  or  his  earnings.  The  father  sought  wives 
for  his  sons  and  provided  them  with  a  proper 
bride-price. 

The  relation  of  sonship  could  be  dissolved  if 
good  grounds  were  given,  but  the  judge  had  to 
consent  and  was  bound  to  try  to  reconcile  the 
father  first  Only  on  a  repetition  of  the  offense 
was  disinheritance  allowed.  i 

"If  a  man  set  himself  to  disinherit  his  son 
and  say  to  the  judges,  1  will  disinherit  my  son,' 
the  judges  shall  inquire  into  his  antecedents, 
and  if  the  son  have  not  committed  a  crime  suf- 
ficiently grave  to  cut  him  off  from  sonship,  the 
father  may  not  cut  off  his  son  from  swiship." 
(i68.) 

"If  he  have  committed  a  crime  against  his 
father  sufficiently  grave  to  cut  him  off  from 
sonship,  they  shall  condone  his  first  (offense). 
If  he  commit  a  grave  crime  the  second  time,  the 
father  may  cut  off  his  son  from  sonship."  (169.) 

(12)  A  Monotheistic  Code.  The  Code  of 
Hammurabi  is  civil  and  not  ceremonial;  there 
is  no  admonition  to  worship,  no  directions  con- 
cerning altars,  offerings  or  sacrifices;  no  re- 
ligious doctrines  are  taught,  and  no  provision 
made  for  public  service.  As  well  might  we  look 
for  these  things  in  the  municipal  codes  of  our 
modem  cities. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  virtually  monotheistic.  In 
sees.  45  and  48  one  translator  speaks  of  Adad 
the  god  of  storms,  but  another  merely  speaks 
of  a  "thunderstorm."  In  sec.  182  "Marduk  of 
Babylon"  is  mentioned,  and  he  appears  to  be  in- 
ferred in  the  previous  section,  but  with  these 
exceptions  the  Code  is  entirely  monotheistic 
Although  it  is  civil  and  not  religious,  like  our 
modem  systems  of  jurisprudence,  it  recognizes 
God  as  the  Being  before  whom  an  oath  must 
be  taken,  and  the  whole  course  of  procedure 
was  in  harmony  with  this  principle.  The  wit- 
nesses recognizing  lost  property  "shall  say  out 
before  God  what  they  know."     (9.) 

"If  the  brigand  has  not  been  caught,  the  man 
who  has  been  despoiled  shall  recount  before 
God  what  he  has  lost."    (23.) 

"If  while  he  goes  upon  his  journey  the  enemy 
has  made  him  quit  whatever  he  was  carrying, 
the  agent  **shall  swear  by  the  name  of  God 
and  shall  go  free."     (103.) 

"If  an  agent  has  taken  money  from  a  mer- 
chant .  .  .  that  merchant  shall  put  the  agent 
to  account  before  God  concerning  the  money 
taken,  and  the  agent  shall  give  to  the  merchant 
three  fold  the  money  he  has  t  .ken."    (106.) 

"If  a  merchant  has  wronged  an  agent  .  .  . 
that  agent  shall  put  the  merchant  to  account 
before  God  and  witnesses,  and  the  merchant, 
because  he  disputed  the  agent,  shall  give  to  the 
agent  six  fold  what  he  has  taken."    (107.) 

If  the  owner  of  a  storehoure  remove  a  por- 
tion of  the  grain  which  has  been  intmsted  to 
him,  or  if  any  disaster  has  taken  place,  then: 

"The  owner  of  the  com  shall  estimate  his 
com  before  God.  The  owner  of  the  house  shall 
double  the  com  which  he  took  and  shall  give 
it  to  the  owner  of  the  com."    (120.) 

If  a  man  falsely  claims  to  have  lost  his  prop- 
erty: 

"Since  nothing  of  his  is  lost,  his  loss  he  shall 
estimate  before  God,  and  whatever  he  has 
claimed  he  shall  double  and  give  as  his  loss." 
(126.) 


If  a  wife  is  falsely  accused,  she  shall  go  free 
upon  her  own  oath. 

"If  the  wife  of  a  man  has  been  accused  by 
her  husband  and  she  has  not  been  caught  .  .  • 
she  shall  swear  by  God  and  retum  to  her  own 
house."    (131.) 

In  the  case  of  damage  done  to  shipping  by 
carelessness  on  the  part  of  another: 

"The  owner  of  the  ship  that  has  been  sunk 
shall  recount  before  God  whatever  was  lost  in 
his  ship,  and  that  of  the  ship  going  forward 
which  sunk  the  ship  at  anchor  shall  render  to 
him  his  ship  and  whatever  of  his  was  lost" 
(240.) 

If  an  animal  dies  without  visible  cause: 

"If  a  man  has  hired  an  ox  and  God  has 
stmck  it  and  it  has  died,  the  man  who  has 
hired  the  ox  shall  swear  before  God  and  shall 
go  free."     (249.) 

In  the  at)ove  and  in  the  following  instance  a 
stroke  of  lightning  seems  to  be  contemplated: 

"If  in  a  sheep  fold  a  stroke  of  God  has  taken 
place,  or  a  lion  has  killed,  the  shepherd  shall 
purge  himself  before  God,  and  the  owner  of 
the  fold  shall  face  the  accident  of  the  fold." 
(266.) 

Again  in  the  case  of  servants  being  purchased 
in  a  foreign  land  and  on  being  brought  home 
are  recognized  by  a  neighbor  as  his  property, 
the  innocent  purchaser  must  make  oath  to  that 
effect : 

"If  they  are  natives  of  another  land,  the 
buyer  shall  tell  out  before  God  the  money  he 
has  paid  and  the  owner  of  the  man  servant  or 
the  maid  servant  shall  give  to  the  merchant  the 
money  he  paid  and  shall  recover  his  man  serv- 
ant or  his  maid  servant."    (281.) 

In  every  instance  in  the  Code  where  oath  is 
made  it  is  made  "before  God,"  never  in  the 
presence  of  any  heathen  deity.  And  yet  Ham- 
murabi was  a  polytheist.  In  the  prologue  and 
in  the  epilogue  to  his  Code  no  less  than  four- 
teen heathen  deities  are  recognized.  Must  we 
not  infer,  therefore,  that  this  polytheistic  king 
was  not  the  originator  of  a  monotheistic  Code? 
The  evidence  in  hand  indicates  that  a  goodly 
portion  of  it  was  handed  down  to  him  from 
some  earlier  period. 

Hommel  says:  "From  that  time  (the  migfra- 
tion  of  Abraham^  we  find  Babylonian  manners 
and  Babylonian  idol  worship  steadily  penetrat- 
ing into  the  Arabian  religion  as  they  had  pre- 
viously done  into  that  of  the  Canaanites.  .  . 
It  can  be  readily  imagined  that  this  influence 
operated  with  still  greater  force  on  those  Arabs 
who  lived  in  Babylonia  itself.  Even  the  Arab 
kings,  from  Sumu-abi  onwards,  became  almost 
entirely  Babylonian — at  first  no  doubt  from  pol- 
icy, but  ere  long  from  habit  as  well,  and  finally 
from  innate  conviction."  (Hommel,  "An,  Heb. 
Trad,,  p.  118.) 

(13)  Hammurabi  and  Moses.  There  are 
some  notable  similarities  between  the  laws  of 
Hammurabi  and  those  of  Moses,  but  it  is  safe 
to  say  the  likenesses  are  not  so  radical  nor  so 
abundant  as  the  differences  that  exist. 

Some  of  the  resemblances  are  of  little  mo- 
ment, as,  for  instance,  certain  regulations  per- 
taining to  flocks  and  herds,  similar  usages  be- 
ing found  among  all  races  where  similar  condi- 
tions occur.  Of  more  importance  is  the  fact 
that  the  penalty  for  man  stealing  is  death  in 
both  codes,  although  in  the  case  of  Hammurabi 


HAMMURABI,  CODE  OP 


1767 


HAMMURABI.  CODE  OF 


it  is  confined  to  a  child  who  must  be  the  son 
of  a  gentleman,      (Compare  14  with  Ex.  xxi:i6.) 

In  Hammurabi  a  man  in  debt  might  sell  his 
wife  and  children  into  bondage,  but  they  must 
be  given  their  freedom  in  the  fourth  year  (117). 
This  is  claimed  to  be  a  similarity  to  the  Mosaic 
command  applying  to  any  Hebrew  servant: 
"Six  years  shall  he  serve  and  in  the  seventh  he 
shall  go  free  for  nothing."  (Ex.  xxi:2.)  But 
in  the  case  of  a  Hebrew  servant  he  could  not 
be  sent  out  empty  handed,  but  liberal  provision 
must  be  made  for  him: 

"And  when  thou  sendest  him  out  free  from 
thee  .  .  .  thou  shalt  furnish  him  liberally 
out  of  thy  flock,  and  out  of  thy  floor,  and  out 
of  thy  wine  press;  of  that  wherewith  the  Lord 
thy  God  hath  blessed  thee  thou  shalt  give  to 
him."     (Deut,  xv:i2-i4.) 

There  is  no  such  provision  in  the  Babylonian 
code  for  the  unfortunate  wife  and  children 
who  have  worked  for  two  masters — the  hus- 
band and  father  and  also  their  purchaser. 

Hammurabi  prescribes  that  a  slave  who  denies 
his  master's  ownership  shall  have  his  ear  cut 
off  (282).  This  is  claimed  as  having  some  kin- 
ship with  the  opposite  provision  made  for  the 
servant  who  refuses  to  leave  his  master  and 
voluntarily  submits  to  having  his  ear  bored  as 
a  token  of  life  service.    (Ex.  xxi:6.) 

Incest  with  one's  mother  called  for  the  death 
of  both  parties  in  both  codes.  (157,  Lev.  xxiii.) 
But  it  seems  not  to  have  been  mentioned  in 
Israel  except  in  connection  with  a  stepmother, 
or  with  a  mother-in-law.  (Deut.  xxvii:2(>-23.) 
Incest  with  a  man's  daughter  in  the  Code  of 
Hammurabi  only  required  the  expulsion  of  the 
criminal  from  the  city  (154). 

But  in  the  Mosaic  law,  if  a  man  was  guilty 
of  incest  with  his  (Taughter-in-law,  it  meant 
death  to  both.  (Lev.  xx:i2.)  Adultery  called 
for  the  death  of  both  parties  in  both  codes. 
(129,  Lev.  XX.) 

Hammurabi  says:  "If  a  man  has  caused  the 
loss  of  a  gentleman's  eye,  one  shall  cause  his* 
eye  to  be  lost."     (196.) 

"If  he  have  shattered  a  gentleman's  limb,  one 
shall  shatter  his  limb."     (i97-) 

"If  he  has  caused  a  poor  man  to  lose  his 
eye,  or  shattered  a  foor  man's  limb,  he  shal'*  pay 
one  mina  of  silver.      (198.) 

There  is  no  such  distinction  as  this,  however, 
in  the  Mosaic  law.  It  is  "eye  for  eye,  tooth  for 
tooth,  hand  for  hand,  foot  for  foot."  (Ex. 
xxi  124.) 

Hammurabi's  Code  prescribes  death  for  thirty- 
nine  offenses,  while  the  Mosaic  law  mentions 
only  seventeen  crimes  as  being  worthy  of  capital 
punishment.  That  this  is  not  merely  the  result 
of  the  lapse  of  time  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
in  England  in  the  time  of  Sir  William  Black- 
stone  one  hundred  and  sixty  offenses  were  by 
Act  of  Parliament  declared  to  be  worthy  of 
instant  death.  (Blackstone's  Commentaries,  book 
IV,  chap.  4,  pages  15-18.) 

Hammurabi  says:  "If  a  man  have  struck  a 
gentleman's  daughter  ...  if  that  woman  has 
died,  one  shall  put  to  death  his  daughter."  (209- 
210.) 

But  if  he  strikes  "the  daughter  of  a  poor 
man"  ...  if  that  woman  has  died  he  shall 
pay  half  a  mina  of  silver."     (211-212.) 

"If  he  has  caused  the  son  of  the  owner  of  the 
house  to  die  (through  collapse  of  the  building), 


one  shall  put  to  death  the  son  of  that  builder." 
(230.) 

In  strong  contrast  to  this  is  the  declaration: 
"The  fathers  shall  not  be  put  to  death  for  the 
children,  neither  shall  the  children  be  put  to 
death  for  the  fathers;  every  man  shall  be  put 
to  death  for  his  own  sin."     (Deut  xxiv:i6.) 

In  the  Code  of  Hammurabi  there  are  repeated 
discriminations  in  favor  of  "the  gentleman"  and 
against  the  "poor  man."  The  thief  who  has 
property  may  escape  by  paying,  but  if  he  have 
none  he  is  put  to  death.  The  rank  of  the  per- 
son against  whom  the  offense  has  been  commit- 
ted is  the  one  aggravating  circumstance. 

In  direct  opposition  to  all  of  this  and  many 
other  instances  of  class  legislation  we  read: 
"Ye  shall  do  no  unrighteousness  in  judgment; 
thou  shalt  not  respect  the  person  of  the  poor, 
nor  honor  the  person  of  the  mighty,  but  in 
'righteousness  shalt  thou  judge  thy  neighbor." 
.  .  .  "Ye  shall  not  respect  persons  in  judg- 
ment; but  ye  shall  hear  the  small  as  well  as  the 
great."    (Lev.   xix:i5;    Deut.   i:i7.) 

In  the  literary  presentation  there  is  a  great 
difference.  The  laws  of  the  Babylonian  king 
are  crude  in  statement  beside  the  laws  of  Moses. 
The  classifications  of  the  Biblical  laws  are  the 
basis  of  those  of  the  English  common  law. 
Blackstone  says:  "Upon  these  two  foundations, 
the  law  of  nature  and  the  law  of  revelation, 
depend  all  human  law."  The  laws  of  Hammu- 
rabi do  not  indicate  any  consciousness  in  the 
law  giver  of  such  a  generalization  of  human 
rights  and  duties  as  that  contained  in  the  Ten 
Commandments  or  any  such  sublime  moral 
heights  as  are  found  in  the  words: 

"Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all 
thy  heart  and  with  all  thy  soul  and  with  all  thy 
might."     (Deut.  vi:5.) 

I  "Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself." 
(Lev.  xix:i8.) 

I  And  yet  in  his  great  summary  our  Lord  has 
said:  "Upon  these  two  commandments  hang  all 
the  law  and  the  prophets."     (Matt.  xxii:40.) 

(14)  Similarities  to  Law  of  Moses.  That 
there  are  similarities  between  the  Code  of  Ham- 
murabi and  that  of  Moses  is  freely  admitted, 
but  if  they  were  tenfold  more  abundant  it  would 
not  by  any  means  prove  that  the  Jewish  law- 
giver was  in  any  way  indebted  to  the  Baby- 
lonian king. 

It  is  evident  to  Biblical  scholars  that  the  car- 
dinal principles  of  righteousness  have  been  in 
the  world  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  ever  since 
the  Creator  first  revealed  Himself  to  His 
creatures. 

"The  Lord  God  walking  in  the  garden  in  the 
cool  of  the  day"  (probably  through  the  medium- 
ship  of  His  name-bearing  angel — Ex.  xxiii  :2i) 
gave  to  our  first  parents  lessons  of  obedience 
and  loyalty.  That  instructions  were  afterward 
given  concerning  the  altar  and  sin  offerings  we 
have  a  right  to  infer  from  the  fact  that  "Abel 
offered  up  a  more  acceptable  sacrifice  than  Cain." 
We  read  also  that  "Enoch  walked  with  God" 
and  Noah  at  the  time  of  the  building  of  the 
ark,  knew  without  further  instruction  which 
were  "the  clean  beasts"  long  before  the  Leviti- 
cal  law  was  given  (Gen.  vii:2o).  He,  too,  had 
"walked  with  (}od,"  and  on  coming  out  of  the 
ark  "Koah  builded  an  altar  unto  the  Lord,  and 
took  of  every  clean  beast  and  of  every  clean 
fowl  and  offered  burnt  offerings  on  the  altar." 
(viii:20.) 


HAMMURABI,  CODE  OF 


1768 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Thus  at  the  repeopling  of  the  earth  after  the 
flood  the  altar  and  the  sacrifice  were  again  in- 
stituted, for  "Noah  found  grace  in  the  eyes  of 
the  Lord" 

In  the  days  of  Abraham  we  find  not  only  the 
altar  and  the  sacrifice  but  also  a  priesthood. 
Melchizedek  was  the  priest-king  of  the  early 
city  of  Salem — ^the  City  of  Peace — ^which  was 
called  Uru-salem  in  the  Tel-el-Amama  tablets. 
He  was  "a  priest  of  the  Most  High  God,"  to 
whom  Abraham  paid  tithes.  (See  Gen.  xiv:i8; 
Ps.  ex  .'4;  Heb.  v:6-io,  vi:20,  vii :  1-15- 17-21.) 
See  also  the  tablets  of  Tel  el  Amarna. 

We  know,  too,  that  at  this  time  and  before 
this  time  Abraham  had  God's  commandments 
and  His  statutes  and  His  laws.  Thus  we  see 
that  God  has  never  left  Himself  without  a  wit- 
ness among  the  children  of  men,  and  we  can- 
not wonder  that  among  all  nations  we  still  find 
some  traces  of  laws  which  are  more  or  less 
righteous — some  vestiges  of  the  altar,  the  ofiFer- 
ing    and    the    priesthood. 

Men  have  often  concerned  themselves  to  find 
similarities  between  certain  codes  and  specu- 
lated whether  or  not  one  was  indebted  to  an- 
other without  investigating  the  earliest  means 
through  which  the  cardinal  principles  of  right- 
eousness were  given  to  the  world.  Blackstone 
says:  "The  divine  or  revealed  law  is  the  law 
of  nature,  revealed  by  God  himself."  (Black- 
stone,  Introduction.) 

Not  only  has  much  effort  been  made  to  prove 
that  Moses  was  indebted  to  Hammurabi,  but 
Prof.  D.  H.  Miiller  has  worked  out  a  number 
of  striking  parallels  between  the  Babylonish 
Code  and  the  Roman  Twelve  Tables ;  Prof.  Cohn 
compared  the  Laws  of  the  West  Goths,  while 
incidental  comparisons  with  the  Laws  of  Manu 
are  noted  by  Mr.  Cook.  The  Code  of  Ham- 
murabi receives  illustration  from  a  variety  of 
other  sources  which  might  be  mentioned  in  an 
extensive  bibliography,  and  now  men  are  won- 
dering whether  a  knowledge  of  this  code  can 
really  have  spread  to  Rome  or  India.  But  back 
of  it  all  are  God's  early  revelations  to  the  chil- 


dren of  men;  "Noah  was  a  preacher  of  right- 
eousness" before  "the  beginnings  of  Babylon," 
and  Abraham  "obeyed  ...  my  command- 
ments, my  statutes  and  my  laws"  before  Israel 
was  born  or  his  children  were  thought  of,  ex- 
cept in  the  purpose  and  promise  of  GJod. 

Hence  when  God  called  Moses  to  the  lead- 
ership of  His  people  He  called  the  man  who 
had  been  trained  for  the  work  and  gave  to  him 
a  compendium  of  laws  designed  for  those  whom 
he  led  out  of  bondage  into  victory — led  be- 
tween the  walls  of  the  cleft  sea  and  through  the 
wilderness  of  sin  even  to  the  borders  of  the 
promised  land. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Edward  Glasser,  A  Sketch  of  the  History  and 
Geography  of  Arabia,  Also  Abessinier.  (Leip- 
zig) 

Hilprecht,  Recent  Research  in  Bible  Lands. 
(Philaj 

R.  P.  Harper,  The  Code  of  Hammurabi  (au- 
tograph of  text,  transliteration,  translation,  glos- 
sary, etc.).     Chicago. 

Fritz  Hommel,  Ancient  Hebrew  Tradition 
Illustrated  by  the  Monuments;  History  of  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria;  and  Civilization  of  the  East, 
etc.     (London.) 

L.  W.  King,  Letters  and  Inscriptions  of  Ham- 
murabi,    (London.) 

Aug.  Klostermann,  Der  Pentateuch.  (Leip- 
zig) 

W.    Max    Mailer,    Asien    und    Europa    nach 

altag.  Denmdlern.     (Leipzig.) 

Meissner,  Babylonian  Common  Law.  (Ger- 
many and  London.) 

T.  G.  Pinches,  Old  Testament  in  the  Light 
of  the  Historical  Records  of  Assyria  and  Baby- 
Ionia,     (London.) 

A.  H.  Sayce,  Patriarchal  Palestine,  Also  Re- 
ligion of  the  Ancient  Babylonians      (London.) 

Sayce,  Religions  of  Ancient  Egypt  and  Baby^ 
Ionia.     (Edinburgh.) 

E.  A.  Rebd. 


CHRISTIAN 


1769 


SCIENCE 


CHBI6TIAN    SCIENCE. 

Christian  Science  is  the  definitive  name  of 
the  religious  organization  and  movement  which 
represents  the  life-work  and  teaching  of  Mary 
Baker  G.  Eddy.  Respecting  her  discernment  of 
Christian  Science  and  the  use  of  this  term,  she 
says :  "In  the  year  1866,  I  discovered  the  Christ 
Science  or  divine  laws  of  Life,  Truth,  and  Love, 
and  named  my  discovery  Christian  Science.  I 
knew  the  Principle  of  all  harmonious  Mind- 
action  to  be  God,  and  that  cures  were  produced 
in  primitive  Christian  healing  by  holy,  uplifting 
faith ;  but  I  must  know  the  Science  of  this  heal- 
ing, and  I  won  my  way  to  absolute  conclusions 
through  divine  revelation,  reason  and  demon- 
stration" (Science  and  Health,  pp.  107,  109). 
The  term  Christian  Science  or  Divine  Science 
also  designates  that  apprehension  and  scientific 
statement  of  truth  which  embraces  all  right 
ideas,  all  that  is  good,  beautiful,  and  true.  It 
is  the  fullness  of  divine  consciousness,  the  wis- 
dom of  God. 

In  keeping  with  the  teaching  of  Christ  Jesus, 
to  which  its  unswerving  loyalty  is  affirmed, 
Christian  Science  recognizes  God  as  infinite 
Truth  and  Love.  He  is  divine  Principle,  the 
only  Cause  and  creator;  and  reasoning  deduc- 
tively therefrom,  it  declares  that  there  is  no 
real  being,  no  life  intelligence,  or  substance  apart 
from  God.  Says  Mrs.  Eddy,  "Christian  Science 
reveals  incontrovertibly  that  Mind  is  All-in-all, 
that  the  only  realities  are  the  divine  Mind  and 
idea"   (Science  and  Health,  p.   109). 

That  which  especially  differentiates  Christian 
Science  from  all  other  systems  of  Christian 
thought  is  its  insistence  upon  the  logical  se- 
quences of  the  divine  idealism  of  Christ  Jesus, 
its  denial  of  the  reality  of  matter,  sin,  sickness, 
and  death — all  that  is  not  in  keeping  with  the 
divine  nature  and  immediately  traceable  to  the 
divine  activity.  Discarding  the  teaching  that  evil 
is  an  educational  necessity  and  a  divine  provi- 
sion, it  declares  it  to  be  but  the  sequence  of 
false  material  sense,  the  liar  and  the  lie  which 
is  "an  abomination  unto  the  Lord."^  Identifying 
all  substance  and  reality  with  Mind  and  its 
manifestations,  and  all  unideality  as  false  sense 
or  illusion,  Christian  Science  teaches  that  heal- 
ing, escape  from  sin,  sickness,  and  death,  is  to 
be  realized  by  the  attainment  of  the  Mind  "which 
was  also  in  Christ  Jesus."    Drug  medication  is 


therefore  discarded  as  a  relic  of  superstition, 
and  reliance  upon  the  declaration  and  demon- 
stration of  the  truth  of  being  is  inculcated  as  the 
true  remedy  for  all  mortal  ills. 

Christian  Science  teaches  that  the  real  uni- 
verse, including  immortal  man,  is  spiritual  and 
perfect,  because  it  is  the  constant  going  forth 
or  phenomena  of  infinite  Spirit,  and  that  the 
so-called  world  of  matter  including  the  mortal, 
material  man,  whom  St.  raul  names  "the  carnal 
man,"  is  an  objectified  false  concept  of  that 
which  is  true. 

The  text-book  of  Christian  Science,  "Science 
and  Health  with  Key  to  the  Scriptures,"  by 
Mrs.  Eddy,  was  first  published  in  1875,  and  the 
subsequent  phenomenal  growth  of  the  movement 
is  distinctly  traceable  to  the  unnumbered  heal- 
ings from  sin  and  all  kinds  of  disease  which 
have  attended  the  apprehension  of  Scripture 
truth  as  it  is  interpreted  in  this  book. 

The  first  Christian  Science  church,  known  as 
The  Mother  Church,  in  Boston,  Mass.,  was 
erected  in  1894,  at  a  cost  of  two  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  dollars.  There  are  now  (1907) 
seven  hundred  and  fourteen  organized  churches 
and  three  hundred  and  ten  societies,  and  very 
many  splendid  church  buildings  have  been  erected, 
including  the  impressive  structure  completed  in 
1906,  at  an  expense  of  two  million  dollars,  which 
is  officially  known  as  The  First  Church  of 
Christ,  Scientist,  in  Boston,  The  Mother  Church. 
The  total  number  of  adherents  of  the  move- 
ment is  unknown,  but  it  may  safely  be  estimated 
as  many  hundreds  of  thousands. 

Mrs.  Eddy  has  instituted  and  made  eflFective 
all  the  varied  activities  of  the  Church  life.  She 
founded  its  periodicals,  and  for  many  years 
edited  The  Christian  Science  Journal,  She 
established  the  Metaphysical  College  and  the 
Board  of  Lectureship,  instituted  the  Lesson- 
Sermons,  which  have  replaced  the  preaching 
service  of  other  Christian  churches,  and,  as- 
sisted by  a  board  of  directors,  she  still  retains 
her  active  leadership  of  the  entire  organization. 

Christian  Scientists  believe  in  God,  in  the 
divinity  of  Christ,  in  the  inspiration  of  the 
Scriptures,  in  unceasing  prayer,  in  the  highest 
morality  of  thought  and  conduct,  and  in  the 
practical  possibility  of  a  present  overcoming  of 
sin  and  all  its  eflPects  through  spiritual  appre^ 
hension  of  the  Christ,  Truth. 

John  B.  Willis. 


APPENDIX. 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

L    A  General  Chronological  Table 2 

II.    The  Calendar  of  the  Jews 38 

III.  Tables  of  Weights,  Measures  and  Money  Mentioned  in  the  Bible 42 

IV.  Plan  for  Reading  the*BibIe  Through  in  One  Year 43 

V.    Tabular  View  of  the  Prophets 44 

VI.    Chronological  Table  of  the  Patriarchs 45 

VII.  Parables  in  the  Old  Testament      45 

VIII.  Symbolical  Language  Used  by  the  Poets  and  Prophets 46 

IX.    Words  of  Scripture  Requiring  Explanation 48 

X.    Prayers  Mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament 49 

XL    Special  Prayers  Mentioned  in  the  New  Testament 49 

XII.    The  Principal  Miraculous  Events  Mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament 50 

XIIL    Names  and  Titles  of  the  Holy  Spirit 60 

XIV.    Names,  Titles  and  Offices  of  Jesus  Christ 51 

XV.    Tabulated  Harmony  of  the  Gospels 52 

XVI.    Miracles  of  Jesus  Christ 54 

XVII.  Parables  of  Jesus  Christ 55 

XVIII.  Pronouncing  Dictionary  of  Scripture  Proper  Names 56 

XIX.    Index  to  the  Atlas  of  Bible  Lands 76 

XX  Atlas  of  Bible  Lands 81 

XXI  The  Wonderful  Story  of  the  Man  of  Galilee 89 


A  GENERAL 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


OF  THB 


HOLY  BIBLE. 


ARRANGED  WITH  SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO  THE  SUNDAY  SCHOOL  LESSONS. 


This  Table  gives,  in  the  left-hand  column,  the  chronology  of  Archbishop  Usher  (li*recl  1580  to  1656), 
which  is  the  one  given  in  most  Bibles  that  give  marginal  dates.  The  next  column  gives  the  chronology 
of  the  French  monk  and  great  biblical  scholar  of  his  day,  Augustin  Calmet  (1672-1757).  To  these  the 
third  column  adds  the  chronology  of  Rev.  William  Hales,  D.D.  (1778-1821),  who,  from  1809  to  1814, 
published  in  three  volumes  a  "New  Analysis  of  Chronology,"  far  superior  in  biblical  learning  and 
elaboration  to  either  of  the  preceding.  Modem  scientific  chronologers  and  students  of  the  Bible  differ 
from  all  these  chiefly  in  recognizing  the  fact  that  most  of  their  work  is  based  upon  unproven  theories  and 
mere  conjecture,  so  that  the  particular  dates  are  true  relatively  to  their  assumptions,  and  are,  when  not 
imaginary,  merely  approximate,  in  the  earlier  times;  they  are  nearer  to  correctness  as  they  approach  the 
Christian  era. 


Year  bbporb  Christ. 


Usher. 

Calmet. 

4004 

4000 

4001 

3999 

4000 

8998 

3876 

3871 

3874 

3870 

3769 

3765 

3679 

3675 

3609 

3605 

3544 

3540 

3382 

3378 

3317 

3313 

3130 

3126 

3074 

3070 

3017 

3013 

2962 

2958 

2948 

2955 

2860 

2766 

2710 

2578 

2468 

2460 

2448 

2444 

2446 

2442 

Hales. 


5411 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


6311 
6310 
6210 
5181 
4976 
4786 
4616 
4451 
4289 
4124 
3937 
4481 
3914 
4269 
3744 
4071 
3877 
3721 
3489 
327^ 


8166 


The  Creation. 

First  Day, — Creation  of  Light. 

Second  Day, the  Firmament 

Third  Day.— SeaL,  Water,  Plants,  Trees 

Fourth  Day, — ^Sun,  Moon,  and  Stars 

Fifth  Day, — Fishes  and  Birds 

Sixth  Day, — Land-animals  and  Man 

God  causes  the  animals  to  appear  before  Adam,  who 
gives  them  names.  God  creates  the  woman  by 
taking  her  out  of  the  side  of  the  man,  and  gives  her 
to  him  for  a  wife.     He  brings  them  into  Paradise 

Seventh  Day, — God  rests  from  the  work  of  Creation, 
and  sanctifies  the  repose  of  the  Sabbath 

Eve,  tempted  fatally,  by  means  of  the  serpent,  disobey 
God,  and  persuades  her  husband,  Adam,  to  disobedi- 
ence also.    God  expels  them  from  Paradise 

Cain  bom,  son  of  Adam  and  Eve 

Abel  bom,  son  of  Adam  and  Eve 

Cain  kills  his  brother  Abel 

Seth  bom,  son  of  Adam  and  Eve 

Enos  bom,  son  of  Seth 

Ca!nan  bom,  son  of  Enos 

Maha^.aleel  bom,  son  of  Cainan   

Jared  bom,  son  of  Mahalaleel 

Enoch  bom,  son  of  Jared 

Methuselah  bom,  son  of  Enoch 

Lamech  bom,  son  of  Methuselah  

Adam  dies,  aged  930  vears 

Enoch  translated,  had  lived  365  years 

Seth  dies,  aged  912  years 

Noah  bom,  son  of  Lamech 

Enos  dies,  aged  906  years 

Cainan  dies,  aged  910  years 

Mahalaleel  dies,  aged  896  years 

Jared  dies,  aged  962  years 

God  informs  Noah  of  the  future  deluge,  and  commis- 1 
sions  him  to  preach  repentance,  120  years  before  \ 
the  deluge J 

Japhet  bom,  eldest  son  of  Noah 

Shem  bom,  the  second  son  of  Noah 


Gen.  i.  1 — 5. 

6-8. 

9—13. 

14-19. 

20—23. 

^24—31;  ii.  7. 


ii.  8— 25, 
—2,3. 


m. 

iv.  1. 

2. 

8. 

25. 

V.  6. 

9. 

12. 

15. 

18. 

2K 

25. 

5. 

24. 

8. 

29. 

V.  11. 

14. 

17. 

20. 

Gen.  vi.  13—22:  Heb. 

xi.  7;  1  Pet  liL  20; 

2  Pet  ii  5. 

V.  32 ;  X.  21. 

32. 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


Year  bbporb  Christ. 


Usher. 


2363 
2348 


2347 


2346 
2341 


2311 
2281 
2247 
2234 


2233 


2233 


2217 

2185 
2155 


2126 
2056 
1998 
1996 
1986 
1917 


1921 
1920 


Calmet. 


2349 
2344 


2343 


2342 
2337 


2307 
2277 
2243 
2230 


2229 


2213 

2181 
2151 


2122 
2052 
1994 
1992 
1982 
1917 


1917 
1916 


Hales. 


3155 


3154 


3153 
8148 


3018 
2888 
2754 
2554 


2554 


2624 
2614 
2482 
2362 
2337 

2283 
2213 
2805 
2153 
2143 
2093 


2078 


2077 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


Lamech  dies,  the  father  of  Noah,  aged  777  years 

Methuselah  dies,  the  oldest  of  men,  aged  969  years,  in 
the  year  of  the  deluge. 

The  tenth  day  of  the  second  month  (November)  God 
commands  Noah  to  prepare  to  enter  the  ark 

Seventeenth  day  of  the  same  month,  Noah  enters  the 
ark  with  his  wife,  his  sons,  and  their  wives 

Rain  on  the  earth,  forty  days.  The  waters  continue  on 
the  earth  150da)rs 

Seventeenth  day  of  the  seventh  month,  the  ark  rests  on 
the  mountain  of  Ararat 

First  day  of  the  tenth  month,  the  tops  of  the  mountains 
b^^  to  appear 

Forty  days  afterwards.  Noah  sends  forth  a  raven 

Seven  days  afterwards,  Noah  sends  out  the  dove;  it 
returns 

Seven  days  afterwards,  he  sends  it  out  again ;  it  returns 
in  the  evening,  bringine  an  olive-branch  in  its  bill  . . . 

Seven  days  afterwards,  he  sends  it  forth  again ;  it 
returns  no  more 

Noah  beine  now  601  years  old,  the  first  day  of  the  first 
month  he  takes  oft  the  roof  of  the  ark 

Twenty-seventh  day  of  the  second  month  Noah  quits 
the  ark.  He  offers  sacrifices  of  thanksgiving.  God 
permits  to  man  the  use  of  flesh  as  fo<xi;  and 
appoints  the  rainbow,  as  a  pledge  that  he  would 
send  no  more  a  universal  deluge 

Arphaxad  bom,  son  of  Shem 

AtSout  seven  years  after  the  deluge,  Noah,  having 
planted  a  vineyard,  drank  of  the  wine  to  excess ; 
talline  asleep,  he  was  uncovered  in  his  tent  His 
son  Ham,  mocking  at  him,  is  cursed  for  it 

Salah  bom,  son  of  Arphaxad 

Heberbom,  son  of  Salah,  whence  the  name  **  Hebrews  ** 

Phaleg  bom,  son  of  Heber,  same  as  Peleg 

About  this  time  the  building  of  the  tower  of  Babel  is 
undertaken;  God  confounds  the  language  of  men 
and  disperses  them 

About  this  time  the  beginning  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy 
of  Nimrod.  From  this  year  to  the  taking  of  Babylon 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  are  1903  years ;  the  period 
to  which  Callisthenes  traced  the  astronomical  calcu- 
lations of  the  Chaldeans 

[Prof.  Rawlinson  suggests  B.  C.  2486  as  date  of  found- 
ing of  Assyria  and  Babylon ;  his  brother,  Sir  Henry, 

found  reason  for  a  date  before  5000  B.  C.    Prof.  Sayce 

ventures  no  date,  but  favors  a  very  ancient  one.] 

The  Egyptian  empire  begins  about  the  same  time,  by 
Ham,  the  father  of  Mizraim :  this  empire  continued 
1633  years,  till  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Cambyses. . 
[Dr.  Flinders  Petrie,  who  formerly  aated  the  founding 

of  United  Egypt,  by  Mena,  about  4777  B.  C.  (while 

Mariette  put  it  at  50(H),  has  made  some  new  discoveries 

which  put  that  event  before  6000  B.  C.    There  were 

separate  kingdoms  before  Mena.] 

Reu  bom,  son  of  Phaleg  or  Pel^ 

Division  of  the  earth 

Semg  bom,  son  of  Reu 

Nahor  bom,  son  of  Semg 

About  this  time  lived  Job,  famous  for  his  wisdom,  virtue 
and  patience.    [Date  uncertain.] 

Terah  bom,  son  of  Nahor 

Haran  bom,  son  of  Terah :  Hyksos  in  Egypt  [Usher] . . 

Noah  dies,  aged  950  years 

Abram  bom,  son  of  Terah 

Sarai  bom,  afterwards  wife  of  Abram 

Abram  called,  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees.  He  travels  to 
Carrhae,  or  Haran,  of  Mesopotamia.  His  father, 
Terah,  dies  there,  aged  205  years 

Second  calling  of  Abram  from  Haran.  He  comes  into 
Canaan  with  Sarai  his  wife,  and  Lot  his  nephew ; 
and  dwells  at  Sichem 

Abram  goes  into  Egypt ;  Pharaoh  takes  his  wife,  but 


—  31. 

—  27. 


vu. 


—  13. 

— 15—19. 

—  20—22. 


ix.    1—17. 
xi.  10,  11. 


Porphyr.  ap.  Sunplic. 
lib.  ii.  de  Cceio. 


Ps.  cvi.  22 ;  Is.  xix.  11. 

Constantin.   Manass.  in 
Annalib. 


Gen.  xi.  18. 

X.  25. 

xi.  20. 

22. 

Book  of  Job. 
Gen.  xi.24. 

ix.  29. 

xi.  27;  Josh.  xxlv.  2. 

29,  30;  xviL  17. 

Acts  viL  2,  3. 

Gen.  xi.  31,  32. 

Gen.  xii.  1—6;  Acts  viL 
4,  5;  Heb.  xi.  8. 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


Ybar  before  Christ. 


Usher. 


1918 


1910 
1897 


1896 
1892 


1871 
1859 
1856 


1836 
1818 


1796 

1760 
1763 


Calmet. 


1909 
1908 


Hales. 


1907 
1906 
1893 


1892 
1885 


1867 


1855 
1852 


1850 
1842 
1833 


1832 
1817 
1813 
1800 


1792 


1769 
1756 


1754 
1753 
1762 
1761 
1741 

1735 


1727 


2070 


2069 
2068 
2067 


2054 


2053 


2054 

2028 
2016 
2013 


2012 


1993 
1978 


1796 

1930 
1916 


1915 
1913 
1911 
1910 
1902 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


soon  restores  her  again.  Abram  quits  Egypt ;  he 
and  Lot  separate 

The  kings  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrha  revolt  from  Che- 
dorlaomer 

Chedorlaomer  and  his  allies  defeat  the  kings  of  Sodom 
and  Gomorrha.  etc.  Sodom  is  pillaged;  Lot  is 
taken  captive ;  Abram  pursues  them,  disperses  them, 
retakes  the  booty  and  rescues  Lot 

Melchizedec  blesses  Abram 


The  Lord  makes  a  covenant  with  Abram,  and  promises  1 
him  a  numerous  posterity / 

Sarai  gives  her  maid  Hagar,  for  a  wife,  to  her  husband 
Abram 

Ishmael  bom,  the  son  of  Abram  and  Hagar.  Abram 
was  86  years  old 

The  new  covenant  of  the  Lord  with  Abram;  God 
promises  him  a  numerous  posterity;  changes  his 
name  from  Abram  to  Abraham,  and  that  of  his  wife 

Sarai  to  Sarah 

In  cotmecHon  with  this  covenant^ 

Circumcision  is  instituted 

Abraham  entertains  three  aujg^els,  under  the  appearance 
of  travellers ;  they  predict  to  Sarah  the  buth  of  a 
son  (Isaac) 

Sodom,  Gomorrha,  Admah  and  Zeboiim  burnt  by  fire 
from  heaven.  Lot  is  preserved;  retires  to  Zoar; 
commits  incest  with  his  daughters 

Abraham  departs  from  the  plain  of  Mamre,  to  Beer- 
sheba  

Isaac  bom,  the  son  of  Abraham  and  Sarah.  Sarah 
makes  Abraham  turn  away  Hagar  and  her  son 
Ishmael.  Hagar  causes  Ishmael  to  take  an  Eeyptian 
woman  to  wife,  by  whom  he  has  several  children. . . . 

Covenant  between  Abraham  and  Abimelech,  king  of 
Gerar 

Abraham  about  to  ofifer  his  son  Isaac 

Sarah  dies,  aged  127  years 

Abraham  sends  Eliezer  into  Mesopotamia  to  procure  a 
wife  for  his  son  Isaac,  who  was  40  years  of  age; 
Eliezer  brin^  Rebekah 

Abraham  mames  Keturah,  by  whom  he  has  several 
children 

Shem  dies,  the  son  of  Noah,  500  years  after  the  birth  of 
Arphaxad 

Rebekah  continuing  barren  nineteen  years,  Isaac  inter- 
cedes for  her,  and  she  obtains  the  favor  of  concep- 
tion   

Jacob  and  Esau  bora,  Isaac  being  60  years  old 

Abraham  dies,  aged  176  years 

Heber  dies,  agecr464  years 

Isaac  goes  to  Gerar.  God  renews  with  him  his  promises 
made  to  Abraham.  Isaac  covenants  with  Abimelech, 
king  of  Gerar 

Esau  marries  Canaanitish  women 


*••••••••• 


The  deluge  of  Ogyges  in  Attica,  1020  years  before  the 
first  Olympiad 

Ishmael  dies,  the  eldest  son  of  Abraham,  aged  137  years. 

Isaac  blesses  Jacob  instead  of  Esau.  Jacob  withdraws 
into  Mesopotamia,  to  his  uncle  Laban.  Here  he 
marries  Leah,  and  afterwards  Rachel 

Reuben  bom,  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah 

Simeon  bom,  son  of  Leah 

Levi  bom,  son  of  Leah 

iudah  bom,  son  of  Leah 
oseph  bom.  son  of  Jacob  and  Rachel,  Jacob  being  90 

years  old 

Jacob  resolves  to  retum  to  his  parents  in  Canaan.  Laban 
pursues  him,  and  overtakes  him  on  mount  Gilead. 
Esau  comes  to  meet  him,  and  receives  him  with 

much  affection.    Jacob  arrives  at  Shechem 

Dinah,  Jacob's  daughter,  ravished  by  Shechem,  son  of 


Gen.  xH.  9— xiii.  IL 
xiv.  1 — 4. 


-  xiv.  5—16. 

18— 20;Heb.viL 

1—11. 

-XV.;    Acts  vii.   6; 

Gal.  iiL  17. 

-  xvi.  1-^ 


— 15, 16. 


-  xvii.  1~^22. 

-  — 10-14,  23—27. 

-  xviii.  1 — 15;  Heb. 
xui.  2. 

-  xviil  16— xix.  38; 
2  Pet  il  6-8. 

-XX.  1. 


xxL  1—21. 

—  2^-84. 
xxiL  2—19. 
xxiiL 


XXIV. 

XXV.  1—4. 
xi.  10, 11. 


XXV.  21—23. 

24—26. 

7—11. 

xL    17. 


xxvLl-^1. 
34,85. 


XXV.  17, 18. 


xxvii. — ^xxix.  28. 
xxix.  32. 

33. 

34. 

85. 

XXX.  22— 24. 


XXX.  25— xxxiii.  20. 


A   CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


Year  before  Christ. 

Usher. 

Caltnet. 

Hales. 

1889 

1728 

1724 

1885 

1719 

1714 
1713 

1899 

1716 

1712 

1715 

1711 

1710 
1709 

1872 

1708 

1704 

1707 

1703 

1706 

1702 

1700 

1669 
1698 
1698 

1689 

1695 

1846 

1635 

1631 
1615 

1792 

1573 

1573 

1728 

1570 

1725 

1571 

1567 

1722 

1531 

1527 

1688 

1491 

1487 

1648 

FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


Hamor.    Dinah's  brothers  revenge  this  affront  by 
the  death  of  the  Shechemites 

Benjamin  bom,  son  of  Rachel 

Joseph,  beine  seventeen  years  old,  tells  his  father, 
Jacob,  of  his  brothers*  faults;  they  hate  him  and  sell 
him  to  strangers,  who  take  him  into  Egypt.  Joseph 
sold  there  as  a  slave  to  Potiphar 

About  this  time  Judah  marries  the  daughter  of  Shuah,  a 
Canaanite,  by  whom  he  has  Er,  Onan  and  Shelah  . . . 

Joseph,  tempted  by  the  wife  of  his  master  Potiphar, 
refuses  her;  is  put  in  prison 

The  shepherds,  expelled  from  Egypt,  settle  in  Palestine. 
11700,  Mariette;  1327,  Petrie;  after  death  of  Joseph, 
Usher.] 

Joseph  explains  the  dreams  of  the  two  officers  of 
Pharaon 

Isaac  dies,  aged  180  years 

Pharaoh's  creams  explained  by  Joseph;  Joseph  \s\ 
made  governor  of  Egypt j 

The  beginning  of  the  seven  years  of  plenty  foretold  by 
Joseph 

Manasseh  bom,  son  of  Joseph 

Ephraim  bom,  second  son  of  Joseph 

The  beginning  of  the  seven  years  of  scarcity,  foretold  by 
Joseph 

Joseph's  ten  brethren  resort  to  Egypt  to  buy  com. 
Joseph  imprisons  Simeon 

Joseph's  brethren  retum  into  Egypt  with  their  brother 
benjamin.  Joseph  discovers  himself,  and  engages 
them  to  settle  in  Egypt  with  their  fother,  Jacob,  then 
130  years  old 

Joseph  gets  all  the  money  of  Egypt  into  the  king's  treas- 
unr 

Josepn  gets  all  the  cattle  of  Egypt  for  the  king 

The  Egyptians  sell  their  lands  and  liberties  to  Pharaoh . . 

The  end  of  the  seven  years  of  scarcity.  Joseph  returns 
the  Egyptians  their  cattle  and  their  lands,  on  condi- 
tion that  they  pay  the  king  the  fifth  part  of  the  prod- 
uce  

Jacob's  last  sickness;  he  adopts  Ephraim  and  Manasseh; 
foretells  the  character  of  all  his  sons;  desires  to  be 
buried  with  his  fathers.    Dies,  aged  147  years 

Joseph  dies,  aged  110  years.  He  foretells  the  departure 
of  the  Israelites  from  E^ypt,  and  desires  his  bones 
may  be  taken  with  them  into  Canaan 

Levi  dies,  a^ed  137  years 

A  new  king  m  Egypt,  who  knew  neither  Joseph  nor  his 

services.    He  oppresses  the  Israelites 

FDr.  Bmgsch  dates  this  1333:  Petrie,  1275.] 

[Many  suppose  Job  to  have  been  earlier  than  Moses: 

Dr.  Adam  Clarke  dates  him  B.  C.  1520,] 

Aaron  bom,  son  of  Amram  and  Jochebed 

Moses  bom,  brother  of  Aaron;  is  exposed  on  the  banks 
of  the  Nile;  is  found  by  Pharaoh's  daughter,  who 
adopts  him 

Moses  goes  to  visit  his  brethren;  kills  an  Egyptian;  being 
informed  that  Pharaoh  knows  of  it,  he  retires  into 
Midian;  marries  Zipporah,  daughter  of  Jethro;  has 
two  sons  by  her,  Gershom  and  Eliezer 

The  Lord  appears  to  Moses  in  a  burning  bush,  while 
feedinjg^his  father-in-law's  flock;  sends  him  to  Egypt 
to  deliver  Israel 

Moses  retums  into  Egypt.  His  brother  Aaron  comes  to 
meet  him,  to  mount  Horeb.  The  two  brothers 
announce  to  Pharaoh  the  commands  of  the  Lord; 
Pharaoh  refuses  to  set  Israel  at  liberty,  but  loads 
them  with  new  burdens.  Moses  performs  several 
miracles  in  his  presence;  these  failing  to  convince  the 
king,  his  people  suffer  several  plagues 

1.  Plague.  Water  changed  into  blood;  about  the  18th 
of  6th  month 

2.  Plague.    Frogs;  25th  of  6th  month 

3.  Plague.    Gnats  or  lice;  27th  of  6th  month 


xxxiv. 
XXXV.  16—18 


xxxvii.  3 — 36. 
xxxviii.  1^^. 


xxxix. 


xl. 

-  XXXV.  28,  29. 
xli.  1—46. 
Psalm  cv.  17—21. 

-  xli.  47—49. 

-  —  50,  51. 

—  52. 

—  53—57. 
•  xlii. 


xliii.  —  xlv. 

Psalm  cv.  17—23. 

Gen.  xlvii.  14. 

15—17. 

18—22. 


23—26. 

28— xUx.  33. 

1.  24—26;  Heb.  xi. 

22. 
Test  of  12  patriarchs. 

Exod.  L  8—22. 

Exod.  vi.  20. 

u.  1—10.; 

Heb.  xl  23. 

11—22; 

Ex.  xviii.  3,  4. 
Heb.  xi.  24—26. 

iii.— iv.  19. 


iv.  2(>-xiL  29. 

vu.  17—25. 
viii.  1 — 14. 
— 15—19. 


6 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


Ybar  beforb  Christ. 


Usher. 


Cmlmet. 


1491 


1487 


Hales. 


1648 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OP  CHRIST. 


1491 


1491 


1487 


1647 


1647 


1487 


1647 


4.  Flies  of  all  sorts;  about  the  28th  and  29th  of  6th  month 

5.  Murrain  on  the  cattle:  about  the  1st  of  7th  month  . 

6.  Boils;  about  the  8d  of  7th  month 

7.  HaU,  thunder  and  fire  from  heaven;  4th  of  7th  month . 

8.  Locusts.    7th  of  7th  month 

9.  Darkness:  10th  of  7th  month 

On  this  day  Moses  appoints  that  this  month  in  future 

should  De  the  1st  month,  according  to  the  sacred 
style.  Orders  the  passover,  and  sets  apart  the 
paschal  lamb,  which  was  to  be  sacrificed  four  days 
afterwards 

10.  Death  of  the  first-bom  of  the  Egyptians,  in  the 
night  of  the  14th  or  16th  of  Abib 

This  same  night,  the  Israelites  celebrate  the  first  pass- 
over;  and  Fharaoh  expels  them  from  Egypt 

Israel  departs  from  Rameses  to  Succoth 

[1320,  Bunsen,  Lepsius:  1650,  Poole,  Rawlinson.] 
From  Succoth  to  Etnam 

From  Etham  they  turned  south,  and  encamped  at 
Pi-hahiroth;  between  Migdol  and  the  sea,  over 
against  Baal-zephon  

Pharaoh  pursues  Israel  with  his  army,  and  overtakes 
them  at  Pi-hahiroth:  God  gives  the  Hebrews  a  pillar 
of  cloud  to  guide  and  protect  them.  The  waters 
divided.  Israel  goes  through  on  dry  ground.  The 
Egyptians  are  drowned;  21st  of  the  first  month 

Moses,  having  passed  the  sea,  is  now  in  the  wilderness 
of  Etham;  after  marching  three  days  in  the  desert, 
Israel  arrived  at  Marah,  where  Moses  sweetens  the 
water.  From  Marah  they  come  to  Elim.  From 
Elim  to  the  Red  Sea;  then  into  the  desert  of  Sin, 
where  God  sends  manna;  from  thence  to  Dophcah, 
Alush  and  Rephidim,  where  Moses  obtains  water 
from  a  rock;  2d  month  

About  this  place  the  Amalekites  slay  those  who  could 
not  keep  up  with  the  body  of  Israel.  Moses  sends 
Joshua  agamst  them,  while  he  himself  goes  to  a 
mountain,  and  lifts  up  his  hands  in  prayer 

On  the  third  day  of  the  third  month,  after  their  depar- 
ture from  Egypt,  Israel  comes  to  the  foot  of  Mount 
Sinai,  where  they  encamped  above  a  year 

Moses  goes  up  the  mountain;  God  offers  a  covenant  to 
Israel 

Moses  comes  down  from  the  mountain,  and  reports  to 
the  people  what  the  Lord  had  proposea.  The 
people  declare  their  readiness  to  enter  into  this 
covenant 

Moses  again  ascends  the  mountain;  God  orders  him  to 
bid  me  people  prepare  themselves  to  receive  his 
law 

On  the  third  day  after  that  notice,  the  glory  of  God 
appears  on  the  mountain,  accompanied  by  sound  of 
trumpet  and  thunder.  Moses  stations  the  people  at 
the  toot  of  Mount  Sinai  ^  he  alone  goes  up  the 
mountain.  God  directs  him  to  forbid  the  people  to 
ascend,  lest  they  should  suffer  death.  Moses  goes 
down  and  declares  these  orders  to  the  people.  He 
then  ascends  again  and  receives  the  decalogue 

He  returns,  and  proposes  to  the  people  what  he  had 
receivea  from  the  Lord.  The  people  consent,  and 
covenant  on  the  terms  proposed .••••••. 

Moses  goes  s^ain  up  the  mountain;  God  gives  him  sev- 
eraljudiciary  precepts  of  civil  polity.  At  his  return 
he  erects  twelve  altars  at  the  toot  of  the  mountain, 
causes  victims  to  be  sacrificed  to  ratify  the  covenant, 
and  sprinkles  with  the  blood  of  the  sacrifices  the 
book  that  contained  the  conditions  of  the  covenant 
He  also  sprinkles  the  people,  who  promise  obedience 
and  fidelity  to  the  Lord 

Moses,  Aaron,  Nadab,  Abihu  and  seventy  elders  of 
Israel,  go  up  the  mountain  and  see  the  glory  of  the 
Lord,    They  come  down  the  same  day;  but  Moses, 


Gen.  viiL  20 — 32. 

ix.    1—7. 

8—12. 

18—36. 

X.    3—19, 

21^23. 


_xi.4— 6;xiL29— S3. 

—  xiL  21—53;  Heb. 
xl27,28. 

37—39. 

Numb,  xxxiii.  1 — 6. 

—  xiii.  17—22;  Numb, 
xxxiii.  6. 

—  XIV.  1 — ^19:  Numb, 
xxxiii.  7. 


—  xiv.  19-«1;   Heb. 
xi.  29. 


XV.  22— 26. 


27;  Ntunb.  xxxiii. 

9,10. 
xvL  1 — ^xyii.   7; 

Numb,  xxxiii.  10,  11. 
Ntunb.  xxxiii.  12—14. 


Exod.  xvii.  8 — 16. 

xix.   1,  2;  Numb. 

xxxiii.  15. 

Exod.  xix.  3— 6. 


—  21— xxiv.  8. 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


Year  before  Christ. 


Usher. 


Calmet. 


1490 


Hales. 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


1486 


1486 


1490 


t«.. 


1486 


1647 


1647 


1485 


and  his  servant  Joshua,  stay  there  six  days  long:er. 
The  seventh  day  the  Lord  calls  Moses,  and  during 
forty  days  shows  him  all  that  concerned  his  taber- 
nacle, the  ceremonies  of  sacrifice,  and  other  things. . 

After  these  forty  days,  God  gives  Moses  the  decalogue, 
written  on  two  tables  of  stone,  and  bids  him  hasten 
down,  because  Israel  had  made  a  golden  calf,  and 
was  worshipping  it 

Moses  comes  down,  and  finding  the  people  dancing 
about  their  golden  calf,  he  throws  the  tables  of  stone 
on  the  ground,  and  breaks  them.  Coming  into  the 
camp,  he  destroys  the  calf;  slays  by  the  sword  of 
the  Levites  three  thousand  Israelites  who  had  wor- 
shipped this  idol 

The  day  following,  Moses  again  goes  up  the  mountain, 
and,  by  his  entreaties,  obtains  from  God  the  pardon 
of  his  people,  God  orders  him  to  prepare  new  tables 
for  the  law,  and  promises  not  to  forsake  Israel 

Moses  comes  down  and  prepares  new  tables;  goes  up 
again  the  day  following;  God  shows  him  his  glory. 
He  continues  again  fortv  days  and  forty  nights  on 
the  mountain,  and  God  wntes  a  second  time  his 
laws  on  the  tables  of  stone 

After  forty  da^s  Moses  comes  down,  not  knowing  that 
his  face  shmes  with  glory.  He  puts  a  veil  over  his 
face,  discourses  to  the  people,  and  proposes  to  erect 
a  tabernacle  to  the  Lorcl;  to  accomplish  this  he 
taxes  each  Israelite  at  half  a  shekel.  This  occasions 
a  numbering  of  the  people,  who  amount  to  603,550 
men.  He  appoints  Bezaleel  and  Aholiab  to  oversee 
the  work  of  the  tabernacle  

Construction  of  the  tabernacle,  on  the  first  day  of  the 
first  month  of  the  second  year,  after  the  exodus. 

A  second  numbering  of  the  people,  the  first  day  of  the 
second  month 

Consecration  of  the  tabernacles,  the  altars  and  the 
priests,  the  fifth  day  of  the  second  month 

The  Levites  numbered  by  themselves;  they  are  conse- 
crated to  the  service  of  the  tabernacle,  instead  of  the 
first-bom  of  Israel • 

On  the  eighth  day  after  the  consecration  of  the  taber- 
nacle, the  princes  of  the  tribes,  each  on  his  day,  oflFer 
their  presents  to  the  tabernacle 

Jethro  comes  to  the  camp,  a  few  days  before  the  de- 
parture of  Israel  from  Sinai 

On  the  twentieth  day  of  the  second  month  (May),  the 
Israelites  decamp  from  Sinai,  and  come  to  Taberah, 
or  Burning;  from  thence  to  Kibroth-hattaavah,  or  the 
Graves  of  Lust,  three  days'  journey  from  Mount 
Sinai 

Eldad  and  Medad  prophesy  in  the  camp 

Quails  sent. .., , 


Israel  arrives  at  Hazeroth;  Aaron  and  Miriam  murmur 
s^ainst  Moses,  because  of  his  wife.  Miriam  con- 
tinues seven  days  without  the  camp 

Israel  comes  to  Rithmah,  in  the  wilderness  of  Paran: 
thence  to  Kadesh-bamea;  from  whence  they  send 
twelve  chosen  men,  one  out  of  each  tribe,  to  examine 
the  land  of  Canaan 

After  forty  days  these  men  return  to  Kadesh-bamea,  and 
exasperate  the  people,  saying  that  this  country  de- 
voured its  inhabitants,  and  that  they  were  not  able 
to  conquer  it  Caleb  and  Joshua  withstand  them; 
the  people  mutiny;  God  swears  that  none  of  the 
murmurers  shoula  enter  the  land,  but  be  consumed 
in  the  desert  The  people  resolve  on  entering 
Canaan,  but  are  repelled  by  the  Amalekites  and  the 
Canaanites 

Continue  a  long  while  at  Kadesh-bamea.  From  hence  1 
they  joumey  to  the  Red  sea i 


xxiv.  9 — xxxl  18. 


—  *-xxxii.  1 — 14. 


15-30. 


31 — ^xxxiv.  3. 


xxxiv.  4 — ^28. 


29 — ^xxxv.  36. 

xxxvL  1 — ^xl.  33. 

Numb.  i.  1—46. 
Lev.  viii.  1— 4x.  24. 


Numb.  i.  47 — 53;  iii. 
IV.  49;  viu. 


vu. 


Exod.  xviiL 


Numb.   X.   11— xL   34; 

xxxiii.  16. 

xi.  26,  27. 

31,  32:  Ex.  xvi. 

13;  Ps.  bcxviiL  26—29; 

cv.  40. 

35— xil   15; 

xxxiii.  17. 


—  xu.  16— xiil  20; 
xxxiiL  18. 


—  xiil  21— xiv.  46. 

—  XV. — ^xix;  Deut  i. 
46;  ii.  1. 


8 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE. 


Ybar  bbforb  Christ. 


Usher. 


1471 
1451 


1451 


1451 


1451 


1451 


Calmet. 


1448 


1447 


Hales. 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


1609 


Names  of  the  several  SUUUms. 

1.  Rameses.  27.  Mithcah. 

2.  Succoth.  28.  Hashmonah. 

3.  Etham.  29.  Moseroth. 

4.  Baal-zephon.  30.   Ben&>jaakan. 

5.  Desert  of  Etham.  31.   Hor-Haeidgad. 

6.  Marah.  32.  Jotbathsm. 

7.  Elim.  33.   Ebronah. 

8.  Coast  of  Red  sea.  34.   Ezion-gaber. 

9.  Desert  of  Sin.  35.   Moseroth. 

10.  Dophcah.  36.  Kadesh. 

11.  Alush.  37.  Mount  Hor.. 

12.  Rephidim.  38.  Zalmonah. 

13.  Sinai.  39.  Punon. 

14.  Taberah.  40.  Oboth. 

15.  Kibroth-hattaavah.  41.  Ije-abarim. 

16.  Hazeroth.  42.  Valley  of  Zared. 

17.  Rithmah.  43.  Bamoth  Amon. 

18.  Rimmon-Parez.  44.  Beer. 

19.  Libnah.  45.  Mattanah. 

20.  Rissah.  46.  Nahaliel. 

21.  Kehelathah.  47.  Dibon-gad. 

22.  Mount  Shapher.  48.  AlmonKliblathaim. 

23.  Haradah.  49.  Mount  Pisgah. 

24.  Makheloth.  50.  Kedemoth. 

25.  Tahath.  51.  Abel-shittim. 

26.  Tarah.     (But  see  under  the  article  Exodus.) 

Probably  at  the  encampment  of  Kadesh-bamea,  hap- 
pened the  sedition  of  Korah,  Dathan  and  Abiram. . . 

After  wandering  in  the  deserts  of  Arabia-Petraea  and 
Idumea  thirty-seven  years,  they  return  to  Moseroth, 
near  Kadesh-bamea,  m  the  thirty-ninth  year  after  the 
exodus 

Moses  sends  ambassadors  to  the  king  of  Edom,  to  desire 
passage  through  his  territories;  he  refuses 

The  Israelites  amve  at  Kadesh.  Miriam  dies,  aged  130 
years  

The  Israelites  murmur  for  want  of  water.  Moses  brings 
it  from  the  rock;  but  he,  as  well  as  Aaron,  having 
shown  some  distmst,  God  forbids  their  entrance  into 
the  Land  of  Promise 

From  Kadesh  they  proceeded  to  Mount  Hor,  where 
Aaron  dies,  aged  123  years;  the  first  day  of  the  fifth 
month 

King  Arad  attacks  Israel,  and  takes  several  captives. . . . 

From  Mount  Hor  they  come  to  Zalmonah,  where  Moses 
raises  the  brazen  serpent.  Others  think  this  hap- 
pened at  Punon  

Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites,  refuses  the  Israelites  a  pas- 
sage through  his  dominions.  Moses  attacks  him,  and 
conquers  his  country 

Og,  king  of  Bashan,  attacks  Israel,  but  is  defeated 

Israel  encamps  in  the  plains  of  Moab 

Balak,  king  of  Moab,  sends  for  Balaam 

Israel  seduced  to  fornication,  and  to  the  idolatry  of\ 
Baal-Peor / 

The  people  punished  for  their  sin 

• 

War  against  the  Midianites 

Distribution  of  the  countries  of  Sihon  and  Og,  to  the 
tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad,  and  the  half  tribe  of 
Manasseh 

Moses  renews  the  covenant  of  Israel  with  the  Lord 

Moses  dies,  being  120  ^  ^ars  old,  in  the  twelfth  month  of 
the  holy  year ' 

Joshua  succeeds  him;  sends  spies  to  Jericho  in  the  first 
month  (March) 


Exod.  XV. — xix. 


xxxiii.  19—30. 
XX.  14—21. 
—  1;  xxxiii.  36. 


2—13. 

22—29;  xxxiii. 

37—39. 

—  xxi.  1 — 3;  xxxiii. 

40. 


—  4 — ^9;  xxxiii.  41. 


23— 31;Deut.  ii. 

26—37. 

33—35;  Deut. 

iii.  1—11. 

xxii.  1 — 4;  xxxiii. 


48. 


6 — xxiv.  25; 


Deut  xxiii.  4,  5. 
XXV.  1—3;  Ps.  cvi. 


28,  29;  1  Cor.  x.  8. 

4—15;  Deut. 

iv.  3. 

16 — 18;  xxxi. 


xxxii;    Deut.  iii. 

12—22. 
xxxiii.  50— xxxv; 

Deut.  i. — xxxiii. 

Deut.  xxxiv. 
Josh.  L  iL 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


9 


YSAR  BEFORE  CHRIST. 


Usher. 


1461 


1451 

to 

1445 

1445 


1444 


1443 


1419 
1405 


1406 
1405 
1342 
1325 


1305 
1296 

1245 


1232 
1209 

1139 


Calmet 


1446 


1441 


1440 


1439 
1430 


1409 
1401 
1339 
1321 


1281 

1248 
1241 

1232 

1229 
1228 

1205 

1201 
1183 
1180 

1177 
1170 
1160 
1152 


Hales. 


1608 


1607 


1602 


1596 


1572 
1564 
1524 
1506 


1426 
1406 
1366 
1359 

1319 


1316 

1293 

1271 
1253 


1247 
1240 
1230 
1182 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST, 


The  people  pass  the  Jordan,  the  10th  of  the  first  month. . 

The  day  following,  Joshua  restores  circumcision 

The  first  passover,  after  passing  the  Jordan;  the  15th  of 

the  fii^t  month 

Manna  ceases 

{ericho  taken 
srael  comes  to  mount  Ebal  to  erect  an  altar,  pursuant  1 

to  the  order  of  Moses / 

The  Gibeonites  make  a  league  with  Joshua 

War  of  the  five  kings  against  Gibeon.    Joshua  defeats 

them;  the  sun  and  moon  stayed 

War  of  Joshua  against  the  kings  of  Canaan.    These  wars 
occupy  six  years 

Joshua  divides  the  conquered  country  among  Judah, 

Ephraim,  and  the  half^tribe  of  Manasseh 

He  g;ives  Caleb  the  portion  that  the  Lord  had  promised 

him,  and  assists  him  in  conquering  it 

The  ark  and  the  tabernacle  fixed  at  SnUoh,  in  the  tribe 

of  Ephraim -. 

Joshua  distributes  the  country  to  Benjamin,  Simeon, 

Zebulun,    Issachar,   Asher,     Naphtali     and    Dan. 

Receives  his  own  portion  at  Timnath-serah,  on  the 

mountain  of  Ephrami 

Reuben,  Gad,  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  return 

beyond  Jordan 

Joshua  renews  the  covenant  between  the  Lord  and  the 

Israelites 

Joshua  dies,  aged  110  years 

After  his  death,  the  eiders  govern  about  eighteen  or 

twenty  years;  during  which  time  happen  the  wars  of 

Judah  with  Adoni-bezek 

Anarchy;  during  which   some  of  the  tribe  of  Dan 

conquer  the  city  of  Laish. 
In  this  mterval  happened  the  story  of  Micah,  and  the 

idolatry  occasioned  by  his  ephod. 
Also,  the  war  of  the  twelve  tribes  against  Benjamin,  to 

revenge  the  outrage  committed  on  the  wife  of  a 

Levite. 
The  Lord  sends  prophets,  in  vain,  to  reclaim   the 

Hebrews.    He  permits,  therefore,  that  they  should 

fall  into  slavery 

Servitude  of  the  Israelites,  under  Cushan-Rishathaim, 

kine  of  Mesopotamia,  eight  years. 
Othniel   delivers   them;    defeats    Cushan-Rishathaim; 

judges  the  people  forty  years 

Second  servitude,  under  Eglon,  king  of  Moab,  about 

sixty-two  years  after  the  peace  of  Othniel 

Ehud  cielivers  them,  after  aoout  twenty  years 

Third  servitude  of  the  Israelites,  under  the  Philistines. 

Shamgar  delivers  them;  year  uncertam 

Fourth  servitude,  under  Jabin,  king  of  Hazor.    Deborah 

and  Barak  deliver  them,  after  twenty  years 

Fifth  servitude,  under  the  Midianites 

Gideon  delivers  Israel.    He  governs  them  nine  years, 

from  1241  to  1232 

Abimelech,  son  of  Gideon,  procures  himself  to  be  made 

king  of  Shechem 

Abimelech  killed,  after  three  years 

Tola,  judge  of  Israel,  after  Abimelech;  governs  twenty- 
three  years 

Jair  judges   Israel,   chiefly  beyond  Jordan;  governs 

twenty-two  years 

Sixth  servitude  under  the  Philistines  and  the  Ammonites. 

Tephthah  delivers  the  Israelites  beyond  Jordan 

The  city  of   Troy   taken,   408  years  before  the  first 

Olympiad.     [Wholly  uncertain;  perhaps  fiction.] 

Tephthah  dies,  Ibzan  succeeds  him 

Ibzan  dies;  Elon  succeeds  him 

Eton  dies,  Abdon  succeeds  him 

Abdon  dies.    The  high-priest  Eli  succeeds  as  judge  of ) 

Israel ) 


iiL 

iv.— V.  2—9. 


—  V.  10,  IL 

12. 

vl20— 27. 

—  viiL  30—35;  Deut 
xxvii. 

—  ix.  6—15. 

—  X.  1—27. 
28— xL  23. 


XV.  1—13,  20;  xvi. 


XVll. 


XV.  7—15. 

...       m 

XVllU  1. 


11— xbc.49. 

Josh.  xix.  49 — 51. 

xxii.  1 — ^9. 

— ^  xxiii. — xxiv.  28. 
xxiv.  29,  30. 

Judg.  i.^ii.  1—5;  xvfL — 
xxi. 


iil 


-  — 10, 11. 

— 12-14. 

-  —  15-80. 

-  31. 

-  iv.^v. 

-  vi.  1— a. 

-  7— viil  82. 

-  ix.  1—52. 

-  —  53,64. 

-  x.  1,  2. 

—  3-5. 

-  —  6—9. 

-  — 10— xil  6. 


xii.  7—9. 

10, 11. 

12,  la 

15. 

1  Sam.  i. — ^iv.  18. 


10 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


Year  bbporb  Christ. 

Usher. 

Calmet. 

Hales. 

1151 

1222 
1202 

1120 

1139 
1133 
1132 
1113 

1152 

1141 

1112 

1142 
1122 

1095 

1092 
1091 

1110 

1089 

1108 

1063 

1081 
1070 
1059 
1058 

1106 
1100 

1057 
1056 

1074 

1055 

1054 

1060 

1053 

1060 

1071 

1056 

1051 
1051 

1056 

1070 

1053 

1049 
1044 

1048 

1047 

1043 

1063 

1042 

1061 

1045 

1041 

1060 

FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


Seventh  servitude  under  the  Philistines,  forty  years  .... 

Samuel  bom 

In  Eli's  judicature  God  raises  Samson,  bom  1153  B.  C. . 

God  begins  to  manifest  himself  to  Samuel 

Samson  marries  at  Tinmath 

Samson  bums  the  ripe  com  of  the  Philistines 

Samson  delivered  to  the  Philistines  by  Delilah;  kills 
himself  under  the  mins  of  the  temple  of  Dagon, 
with  a  great  multitude  of  Philistines.  He  defended 
Israel  twenty  years 

War  between  the  Philistines  and  Israel.  The  ark  of 
the  Lord  taken  by  the  Philistines.  Death  of  the 
high-priest  Eli.    He  govemed  Israel  forty  years 

The  Philistines  send  back  the  ark  with  presents.  It  is 
deposited  at  Kirjath-jearim.  Samuel  acknowledged 
chief  and  judge  of  Israel,  39  or  40  years 

Victory  of  the  Israelites  over  the  Philistines 

The  Israelites  ask  a  king  of  Samuel 

Saul  is  appointed  king,  and  consecrated  in  an  assembly 
of  the  people  at  Mizpah.  He  reigned  forty  years. 
ri073,  Duncker:  1095,  Rawlinson.] 

Saul  delivers  Jabesh-gilead 

War  of  the  Philistines  gainst  Saul 

Saul,  not  having  obeyed  Samuel's  orders,  is  rejected  of 
God 

Victory  obtamed  by  Jonathan  over  the  Philistines 

Birth  of  David,  son  of  Jesse. 

War  of  Saul  against  the  Amalekites 

Samuel  sent  by  God  to  Bethlehem  to  anoint  David 

War  of  the  rhilistines  against  the  Israelites.  David 
kills  Goliath 

Saul,  urged  by  jealousy,  endeavors  to  slay  David 

David  retires  to  Achish,  king  of  Gath;  withdraws  into 
the  land  of  Moab 

Saul  slays  Abimelech  and  other  priests.  Abiathar 
escapes  to  David 

David  delivers  Keilah,  besieged  by  the  Philistines 

David  flies  into  the  wildemess  of  Ziph.  Saul  pursues 
him,  but  is  obliged  to  return  suddenly,  on  the  news 
of  an  irruption  of  the  Philistines 

David  withdraws  to  about  En-gedi.  He  spares  Saul, 
who  had  entered  alone  the  cave  where  David  and 
his  men  were  concealed 

Samuel  dies,  aged  98  years.  He  had  judged  Israel 
twenty-one  years  before  the  reign  of  Saul.  He  lived 
thirty-eight  years  afterwards 

David  retires  into  the  wildemess  of  Paran.  The  history 
of  Nabal.  David  marries  Abigail.  Comes  into  the 
desert  of  Ziph;  enters  by  night  the  tent  of  Saul,  and 
takes  away  his  lance  and  cmse  of  water.  With- 
draws to  Achish,  king  of  Gath,  who  assigns  him 
Ziklag.    Here  he  abides  a  year  and  four  months  .... 

War  of  the  Philistines  against  Saul.  Saul  consults  the 
witch  of  Endon  He  loses  the  battle  and  kills 
himself 

The  Amalekites  pillage  Ziklag;  David  recovers  the 
plunder  and  captives 

Ishbosheth,  son  of  Saul,  acknowledged  king;  reigns  at 
Mahanaim  beyond  Jordan 

David  acknowledged  king  by  Judah,  is  consecrated  a 
second  time.  Reigns  at  Hebron.  [1058,  Oppert; 
1033,  Duncker] 

War  between  Ishbosheth  and  David,  four  or  five  years. . 

Abner  quits  Ishbosheth;  resorts  to  David;  is  treacher- 
ously slain  by  Joab 

Ishbosheth  assassinated 

David  acknowledged  king  over  all  Israel;  consecrated  ) 
a  third  time  at  Hebron f 

Jerusalem  taken  from  the  Jebusites  by  David,  who ) 
makes  it  the  royal  city ) 

War  of  the  Philistines  against  David.  He  beats  them  1 
at  Baal-perazim j 

David  brings  the  ark  from  Kirjath-jearim  to  Jemsalem;* 


Judg.  xiiL  1. 
1  Sam.  L  20. 
Judg.  xiii.  2,  c<c 
1  Sam.  iiL 
Judg.  xiv. 
XV.  1—5. 


xvL 


1  Sam.  iv.  1—18. 

V.  —  vii.  1—6,    15 

—17. 

vii.  7—14. 

viii.  5—22, 

ix. 

Acts  xiii.  21. 
1  Sam.  xi. 
xiii.  5—8. 

9—14. 

xiv. 

XV. 

xvi.  1—13. 

xvii. 

xviii.  8 — xix.  17. 

xix.  18 — ^xxiL  4. 

xxii.  9—23. 

xxiiL  1—6. 


—  14—28. 

—  29— xxiv.  1—22. 

XXV.  1. 


1 — xxvii.  12. 

1  Chron.  xii.  1—22. 

1  Sam.  xxviii.  xxxi. 
1  Chron.  x. 

1  Sam.  XXX. 

2  Sam.  il  8—11. 


—  1—7. 

—  13-iiLl. 

iii.  12-39. 
iv. 

v.  1—5;   1  Chron. 
xL  1—3. 

—  6—10;  1  Chron. 
xt.  4—9. 

— 17—20;  1  Chron. 
xiv.  11. 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


U 


Ybar  bbforb  Christ. 


Usher. 


1036 
1034 
1033 


1021 


1017 


1016 


1015 


1014 


1012 
1003 


976 
976 


Calmet. 


1040 
1040 

1033 

1032 
1031 

1030 


1029 
1028 
1026 
1023 
1021 
1019 


1017 
1013 
1012 

1011 


1010 


1010 


1009 


1008 


1000 
999 


988 


Hales. 


1056 
1055 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


1052 


1050 


1036 


1032 


1030 


1027 
1020 


974 
971 


991 
990 


commits  it  to  Abinadab.  After  three  months,  David 
brings  it  to  his  own  palace 

David  designs  to  build  a  temple  to  the  Lord;  is  diverted 
from  it  by  the  prophet  Nathan 

David's  wars  against  the  Philistines,  as^ainst  Hadadezer, 
against  Damascus,  and  against  Idumea;  continued 
about  six  years 

David's  war  against  the  king  of  the  Ammonites,  who 
had  insulted  his  ambassadors;  and  against  the 
Syrians,  who  had  assisted  the  Ammonites 

Joab  besieges  Rabbah,  the  capital  of  the  Ammonites. 
David  commits  adultery  with  Bathsheba,  and  causes 
Uriah  to  be  killed.    Rabbah  taken 

After  the  birth  of  the  son  conceived  by  the  adultery  of 
David  with  Bathsheba,  Nathan  reproves  David;  his 
deep  repentance 

Solomon  born 

Amnon,  David's  son,  ravishes  Tamar 

Absalom  kills  Amnon 

Joab  procures  Absalom's  return 

Absaiom  received  at  court,  and  appears  before  David. . . 

Absalom's  rebellion  against  David 

Absalom  killed  by  Joab 

Sedition  of  Sheba,  the  son  of  Bichri,  appeased  by  Joab. . 

Beginning  of  the  famine  sent  to  avenge  the  death  of  the 
Gibeonites,  unjustly  slain  by  Saul;  ended  1014  B.  C. . 

David  numbers  the  people.  God  gives  him  the  choice  \ 
of  three  plagues,  by  which  to  be  punished f 

David  prepares  for  building  the  temple  on  Mount  Zion,  > 
in  the  threshing  floor  of  Araunah ) 

Rehoboam  bom,  son  of  Solomon 

Abishag,  the  Shunammlte,  given  to  David 

Adonijah  aspires  to  the  kingdom.  David  causes  his  son 
Solomon  to  be  crowned.  Solomon  proclaimed  king 
by  all  Israel 

David  dies,  ac;ed  70  years,  having  reigned  seven  years 
and  a  half  over  Judah  at  Hebron,  and  thirty-three 

years  over  all  Israel,  at  Jerusalem 

[Death  of  David,  1017,  Oppert;  1016,  Rawlinson; 
993,  Duncker.] 

Solomon  reigns  alone,  having  reigned  about  six  months 
in  the  lifetime  of  his  father  David.  He  reigned  forty 
years...* 

Adonijah  slain 

Abiathar  deprived  of  the  office  of  high-priest  Zadok  in 
future  enjoys  it  alone 

Joab  slain  in  the  temple 

Solomon  marries  a  daughter  of  the  kin^  of  Egypt 

Solomon  eoes  to  Gibeon  to  offer  sacrifices  and  to  pray  1 
to  God  there.    God  grants  him  singular  wisdom  . .  / 

Solomon  gives  a  remarkable  sentence  between  two 
^  women  

Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  congratulates  Solomon  on  his 
accession  to  the  crown;  Solomon  requires  of  him 
timber  and  workmen  to  assist  in  building  the  temple. 

Solomon  lays  the  foundation  of  the  temple,  2d  day  of 
the  2d  month  ( May ).     [1015,  Duncker.] 

Temple  of  Solomon  finished:  being  seven  years  and  a 
half  in  building,  and  dedicated  the  year  following, 
probably,  because  of  the  solemnity  of  the  year  of 
Jubilee  that  then  happened ^ 

Solomon  finishes  the  building  of  his  palace,  and  that  of 
his  queen,  the  daughter  of  Pharaon 

Visit  of  the  queen  of  Sheba 

Jeroboam,  son  of  Nebat,  rebels  against  Solomon.    He 

flies  into  Egypt ^ 

Solomon  dies 

Rehoboam  succeeds  him;  alienates  the  Israelites,  and 
occasions  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes.  Jeroboam,  the 
son  of  Nebat,  acknowledged  king  of  the  ten  tribes.  • . 


vl.    1  Chron.  xiiL 

5 — ^14;  XV,  xvL 

viL    1  Chron.  xviL 

2  Sam.  viii.    1  Chron. 
xvili. 


—  X.    1  Chron.  xix. 

—  xi.  xiL  26—31; 
1  Chron  xx.  1—3. 


—  xil  1—26;  Ps.  11 
24,26. 

—  xiii.  1—20. 
23—39. 

—  xiv.  1—27. 
2S-33. 

—  XV.  1 — ^xviiL  8. 

—  xviil  9—33. 

XX. 

—  xxi.  1—14. 

—  xxiv.  1—16;  1 
Chron.  xxL  1 — 17. 

xxiv.  18—25;  1 


Chron.  xxi.  18 — 27. 
1  Kings  xiv.  21. 
i.  1—16. 


—  16-63. 

—  ii.  1—11;  1  Chnm. 
xxbc26— 30. 


1  Kings  xi.  42. 
S.  12—25. 

26,27. 

28—34. 

Ml.  1. 

3—15;  2  Chron.  i. 

3—12. 

16—28. 


V. 

vi.  vii.  2  Chnm. 
u.— iv. 


•  •  a 


—  viii.  2  Chron. 
v.— vii. 


ix.  1—10. 

x.  1—10;  2  Chron.  ix. 


1—9. 

—  xi.  26-40. 

41—43;  2  Chron. 

ix.  29— 31. 

—  xii.  1—20. 
2  Chron.  x. 


12 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


[Kingdoms  of 


Year  bbforb  Christ. 


Usher. 


976 


971 
958 
957 
955 


941 


Calmet. 


914 
914 


892 


888 


971 

970 

968 
967 

954 

953 

951 

947 

945 
937 
936 


Hales. 


920 
913 
910 

903 
894 
893 

892 


888 
885 

884 
883 
882 


990 


987 
985 

973 


970 


929 


904 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST, 


KINGS  OF  JUDAH.— 388  Years. 

Rehoboam  intends  to  subdue  the  ten  tribes,  but  for- 1 
bears;  reigned  seventeen  years j 

The  priests  and  Israelites  that  fear  the  Lord  withdraw  in 
great  numbers  from  the  kingdom  of  Israel  into  that 
of  Judah 

Rehoboam  becomes  impious 

Shishak,  kine  of  Egypt,  comes  to  Jerusalem,  plunders  ^ 
the  temple  and  the  king j 

Rehoboam  dies.  Abijam  succeeds  him;  reigns  three  1^ 
years.    [961,  Oppert.]  j 

Abijam*s  victory  over  Jeroboam,  who  loses  many 
thousands  of  his  troops 

Abijam  dies.    Asa  succeeds  him.    [958,  Oppert.] 

Asa  suppresses  idolatry  in  Judah 

Jehoshaphat  bom,  son  of  Asa 

Asa's  victory  over  Zerah,  king  of  Ethiopia,  or  Cush  . . . . 

Asa  engages  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  to  make  an  irrup- 
tion into  the  territories  of  the  kinjg^dom  of  Israel,  to 
force  Baasha  to  quit  his  undertakmg  at  Ramah 


Jehoram  bom,  son  of  Jehoshaphat 

Hesiod,  the  Greek  poet,  flourishes.    [Uncertain.! 

Asa,  troubled  with  a  lameness  in  his  feet  (probably  the  \ 

gout),  places  his  confidence  in  physicians j 

Asa  dies,  having  reigned  forty-one  years.    [917  Oppert] 

Jehoshaphat  succeeds  Asa;  expels  superstitious  worship. 

Ahaziah  bom,  son  of  Jehoram  and  Athaliah,  and  grand- 
son of  Jehoshaphat 

Jehoshaphat  nominates  his  son  Jehoram  king;  makes 
him  his  viceroy. 

Jehoshaphat  accompanies  Ahab  in  his  expedition  against 
Ramoth-gilead,  where  he  narrowly  escapes  a  great 
danger 

Jehoshaphat  equips  a  fleet  for  Ophir;  Ahaziah,  king  of 
Israel,  participating  in  his  design,  the  fleet  is 
destroyed  by  tempest 

About  this  time  Jehoshaphat  is  invaded  by  the  Ammon- 
ites and  Moabites,  over  whom  he  obtains  a  miracu- 
lous victory 

Elijah  the  prophet  removed  from  this  world  in  a  fiery 
chariot 

Jehoshaphat  invests  his  son  Jehoram  with  the  royal 
dignity 

Jehoshaphat  dies,  having  reigned  twenty-five   years; 

Jehoram  succeeds 

The  Idumeans  revolt,  and  assert  their  liberty 

Jehoram,  at  the  importunity  of  his  wife,  Athaliah,  1 
introduces  into  Judah  the  worship  of  Baal / 

Jehoram  smitten  of  God  with  an  incurable  distemper  in 
his  bowels 

Jehoram  makes  his  son  Ahaziah  viceroy,  or  associate  in 
his  kingdom. 


1  Kings  xii.  21—24;  xiv. 
21;2Chron.  xi.  1 


2  Chron.  xl  12—17. 

xiL  1. 

2 ^9. 

1  Kings  xiv.  25,  26. 
29—31 ;  2  Chron 

xii.  15,  16. 

2  Chron.  xiiL  »— 20. 

1  Kings  XV.  7—9;  2 
Chron.  xiii.  22;  xiv.  1 . 

U— 15;  2  Chron. 

xiv.  2—5;  XV. 
_^___  xxii.  42 

2  Chron.  xiv.  8—15. 


1  Kings  XV.  18—20;   2 
Chron.  xvL 


—  22;  2  Chron.  xvi. 
12. 

—  24;  2  Chron.  xvi. 
13,  14. 

— 24;2Chron.  xvii. 
1—19;  XX.  31—33. 


—  xxii.  1—33;  2  Chron. 
xviii.  1 — 32. 


48;  2  Chron.  xx. 

35—37. 

2  Chron.  xx.  1—30. 

2  Kings  ii. 

viii.  16,  17. 

1  Kings  xxii.  50;  2  Chron. 

xxi.  1. 

2  Kings  viii.  20:  2  Chron. 

XXI.  8—10. 

18;  2  Chron.  xxi. 

6,  11. 

2  Chron.  xxi.  18, 19. 


JuDAH  AND  Israel.]    A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


18 


Ybar  before  Christ. 


Usher. 


974 


957 
954 
953 


924 
918 


Calmet. 


906 


899 


897 


971 
970 


Hales. 


953 
950 
946 
936 

926 
925 


921 
920 
914 


904 


897 

896 
895 
894 

893 


892 


891 


990 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


KINGS  OF  ISRAEL.— 254  Years. 

Jeroboam,  son  of  Nebat,  the  first  king  of  Israel;  that  is, 
the  revolted  ten  tribes.     [953  Duncker.] 

Jeroboam^  son  of  Nebat,  king  of  Israel,  abolishes  the 
worship  of  the  Lord,  and  sets  up  the  golden  calves; 
reigned  nineteen  years 


972 
968 
966 


943 
942 


938 
931 


908 


897 


Jeroboam  overcome  by  Abijah,  who  kills  500,000  men. . 

Jeroboam  dies,  Nadab  his  son  succeeds;  reigns  two 

years 

Nadab  dies;  Baasha  succeeds  him;  reigns  twenty  years. . 

Baasha  builds  Ramah,  to  hinder  Israel  from  going  to  \ 

Jerusalem j 

Ben-hadad,  king  of  Damascus,  invades  the  country  of  )^ 

Baasha  j 

Baasha  dies,  Elah  his  son  succeeds  him;  reigns  two 

years 

Elan  killed  by  Zimri,  who  usurps  the  kingdom  seven 

days 

Omri  besieges  Zimri  in  Tirzah;  he  bums  himself  in  the 

palace 

Omri  prevails  over  Tibni;  reigns  alone  in  the  31st  year 

of  Asa 

Omri  builds  Samaria;  makes  it  the  seat  of  his  kingdom. 

Omri  dies.    [920  Oppert;  875  Duncker.] 

Ahab  his  son  succeeos;  reig[ns  22  years 

The  prophet  Elijah  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 


907 


891 


He  presents  himself  before  Ahab,  and  slays  the  false 
prophets  of  Baal 

Ben-hadad,  king  of  Syria,  besieges  Samaria;  is  forced 
to  quit  it 

Returns  next  year;  is  beaten  at  Aphek 

Ahab  seizes  Naboth's  vineyard 

Ahab  invests  his  son  Ahaziah  with  royal  power  andl 
dignity . .  j 

Ahab  wars  against  Ramoth-gilead;  is  killed  in  dis-)^ 
guise j 

Ahaziah  succeeds;  reigns  two  years 

Ahaziah  falls  from  the  platform  of  his  house;  is  danger- 
ously wounded 

Ahaziah  dies;  Jehoram  his  brother  succeeds  him 

He  makes  war  against  Moab 

Elisha  foretells  victory  to  the  army  of  Israel,  and  pro- 
cures water  in  abundance 


1  Kings  xiL  20. 

26— 33* 

2Chron.xi.l4,15. 


2  Chron.  xiil.  3—20. 


1  Kings  xiv.  20;  xv.  25. 
XV.  27,  28. 


—  17j  2  Chron. 

XVI.  1. 

—  20j  2  Chron. 
xvL  4,  5. 


xvi.  1—^. 

—  9—15. 

—  16-20. 

—  21—23. 

—  23—27. 

—  28. 

—  29. 


—  xvil  xviiL 


XX.  1—21. 

22—34. 

xxi. 

xxii.  40;  2  Kings  i. 

1—18. 

1—40;  2  Chron. 

xviii. 
40. 

2  Kings  i.  2. 

16-18;  ill.  1—3. 

Hi.  4—10. 


— 11—20. 


14 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


[Kingdoms  op 


Year  before  Christ. 

Usher. 

Calmet. 

Hales. 

885 

881 

896 

880 

895 

878 

874 

860 
853 

889 

869 
840 

835 

849 

839 

823 

826 

822 

820 

810 

806 

An  in- 
terrec- 
nam  of 
eleTen 

810 

809 

• 

779 

754 

757 

748 

FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


KINGS  OF  JUDAH.— 388  Years. 

Jehoram  dies;  he  reigned  four  years ) 

Ahaziah  reigns  but  one  year ( 

{oash,  or  Tenoash  bom. 
lomer,  the  Greek  poet,  flourishes.    [Time  uncertain; 

940,  Jebb.] 
Ahaziah  accompanies  Jehoram,  king  of  Israel,  to  the 

siege  of  Ramoth-gilead 

Ahazi^  slain  by  Jehu 

Athaliah  kills  all  the  royal  family;  she  usurps  the  king- 
dom. Joash  is  preserved,  and  kept  secretly  in  the 
temple  six  years 

Jehoiada,  the  high-priest,  sets  Joash  on  the  throne  of 
Judah,  and  slays  Athaliah.  Joash  reigns  forty 
years.     [837,  Duncker] 

Amaziah  bom,  son  of  loasn 

Joash  repairs  the  temple 

Cartha^  built,  by  Dido.     [Approximate  date.] 
Zechanah,  the  hieh-priest,  son  of  Jehoiada,  killed  in  the 

temple  by  order  of  Joash 

Hazael,  king  of  Syria,  wars  against  Joash 

Hazael  retums  against  Joash;  forces  large  sums  from 

him 

Joash  dies,  Amaziah  succeeds  him;  reigns  twenty-nine ) 

years / 

Amaziah  wars  against  Idumea 

Amaziah  wars  against  Joash,  king  of  Israel;  is  defeated  ) 

by  him J 

Uzziah,  or  Azariah,  bom,  son  of  Amaziah. 

Amaziah  dies ••• .... 


Uzziah,  or  Azariah,  succeeds  him;  reigns  fifty-two ) 
years.     [792,  Duncker;  811,  Oppertl ) 

In  Judah,  the  prophets  Isaiah  and  Amos,  under  this 
reign 

Jotham  bom,  son  of  Uzziah. 


Uzziah  dies;  Jotham,  his  son,  succeeds,  reigns  sixteen! 

years.     [740,  Duncker;  758,  Oppert.] j 

Isaiah  sees  the  glory  of  the  Lord 

Isaiah  and  Hosea  continue  to  prophesy. 
Hezekiah  bom,  son  of  Jotham. 


2Kmgs  viii.  24—29; 
2  Chron.  xxii  1,  2. 


2  Chron.  xxii.  5. 
2  Kings  ix.  16—28; 
2  Chron.  xxii.  8,  9. 

xi.  1—3;  2  Chron. 

xxiL  10—12. 

4—21;  2  Chron. 

xxiii. 

xii.  1—16;  2  Chron. 

xxiv.  1 — 14. 


2  Chron.  xxiv.  17-22. 
2  Kings  xii.  17. 

2  Chron.  xxiv.  23,  24. 
2  Kings  xii.  19—21;  xiv. 

1,2. 

XIV.    7;   2  Chron. 

XXV.  11, 12. 

8—15;  2  Chron. 

XXV.  17—24. 


—  17— 20;  2  Chron. 
XXV.  27,28. 


XV.  1,  2;  2  Chron. 

xxvi.  1 — 21. 

Isaiah  i.  1;  Amos  L  1. 


2  Kings  XV.  6, 7;  2  Chron 

XXVI.  22,  23. 
Is.  vi;John  xii.  39— 41. 


lUDAH  AND  Israel.]    A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


15 


r 


Year  before  Christ. 


Usher. 


884 


856 


825 


862 

784 


Calmet. 


881 


880 


852 


835 
832 

822 


819 


771 
755 


778 


768 
767 


757 
755 


746 


Hales. 


885 


867 


850 
832 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


834 


793 

AnlA- 
t«rreg- 
nam 
of  22 

•ttw 
the 
death 
of  Jer> 
oboam 

n. 

Zaoha* 

riah 

ascends 

the 

throne. 

771 


770 


760 
758 


An  in- 
terreB> 
nam 
of  10 
7eara. 


710 


KINGS  OF  ISRAEL.— 254  Years. 

Samaria  besieged  by  Ben-hadad,  king  of  Svria.  Ben- 
hadad  and  his  army,  seized  with  a  panic  tear,  flee  in 
the  night 

Elisha,  going  to  Damascus,  foretells  the  death  of  Ben- 
hadad  and  the  reign  of  Hazael 

Jehoram  marches  witn  Ahaziah  against  Ramoth-eilead; 
is  daneerousl^  wounded  and  carried  to  Jezreel 

Jehu  rebels  against  Jehoram;  kills  him.  Jehu  reigns 
twenty-eight  years. • 

Jehu  dies;  his  son,  Jehoahaz,  succeeds  him;  reigns  sev- 
enteen years 

Jehoahaz  dies;  Joash,  or  Jehoash,  succeeds  him 

Elisha  dies  about  this  time.    [837,  Duncker.] 

Hazael,  king  of  Syria,  dies;  Ben-hadad  succeeds  him  . . . 
Joash  wars  against  Ben-hadad 

Joash  obtains  a  great  victory  over  Amaziah,  king  of 
Judah 


Joash  dies;  Jeroboam  II.  succeeds  him;  reigns  forty-one 
years.    [790,  Duncker:  825,  Oppert.] 


The  prophets  Jonah,  Hosea  and  Amos,  in  Israel,  under  1 

this  reign / 

Preaching  of  Jonah  at  Nineveh. 


Jeroboam  II.  dies;  Zachariah  his  son  succeeds  him; 
reigns  six  months;  or  perhaps  ten  years.  [749, 
Duncker:  787,  Oppert.] 

The  chronology  of  this  reign  is  perplexed.  2  Kings  xv. 
8,  12,  places  the  death  of  Zachariah  in  the  38th  year 
of  Uzziah,  allowing  him  a  reign  of  but  six  months. 
Yet,  reckoning  what  time  remains  to  the  end  of  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  we  must  either  admit  an  inter- 
regnum of  nine  or  eleven  years,  between  Jero- 
Ix^m  II.  and  Zachariah,  as  Usher  does;  or  we  must 
suppose  Jeroboam  II.  reigned  fifty-one  years;  or  that 
his  reign  did  not  begin  till  809  B.  C,  and  ended  in 
768  B.  C,  which  is  the  year  of  the  death  of  Zachariah. 

Zachariah  killed  by  Shallum^  after  reigning  six  months. . 

Shallum  reigns  one  month;  is  killed  by  Menahem,  who 
rei^s  ten  years.     [748,  Duncker.] 

Pul,  king  of  Assyria,  invades  Israel;  Menahem  becomes 
tributary  to  him 

Menahem  dies;  Pekaiah,  his  son,  succeeds 

Pekaiah,  assassinated  by  Pekah,  son  of  Remaliah,  who 
reigns  twenty-eight  years.  The  text  allows  20 
years  only,  but  we  must  read  28  years.  Syncellus 
says  (p.  202)  it  was  28  years,  in  a  copy  quoted  by 
Basil.  And,  indeed,  his  reign  began  in  the  52d  of 
Azariah  (2  Kings  xv.  27)  and  ended  in  the  12th  of 
Ahaz  (2  Kings  xvii.  1),  which  includes  28  years 

[Pul  or  Pulu  is  now  regarded  as  the  name  of  Tiglath- 
pileser  II.,  Assyrian  king,  745-727;  Menahem  must 
accordingly  be  placed  later  than  745.] 

Arbaces,  governor  of  Media,  and  Belesus,  governor  of  j 
Babylonia,  besiege  Sardanapalus,  king  of  Assyria,  V 
in  Nineveh,    [Not  historical.] j 


2  Kings  vi  24— vii.  7. 

viii.  7—13. 

28,29. 

ix,  14— X.  3a. 


X,  35, 36;  xiii.  1—8. 


xiii.  9, 10. 
— 14—21. 

—  24. 

—  25. 


xiv,  8—14. 


—  15, 16, 23, 24, 27. 


—  25;  Hos.  i.  1; 
Amos.  i.  1. 


—  28,  29;  XV.  8,  9. 


2  Kings  XV.  10—12. 


— 13—17. 

— 19—21. 
—  22—26. 


XV.  25—28. 


Diod.  Sic.  lib.  ii. 
Athenaeus,  lib.  xiL 
Herod,  lib.  i. 


16 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


[Kingdoms  op 


Ybar  beforb  Christ. 


Usher. 


742 


7ia 
713 


Calmet 


739 

738 


737 
736 


723 
722 
722 
721 


710 
709 


Hales. 


741 


725 


725 


711 
710 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


KINGS  OF  JUDAH.— 388  Years. 

Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  invade 
Judah  

Jotham  dies;  Ahaz  succeeds  him;  reigns  sixteen  years. 
[743,  Oppert.] 

Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  con- ) 
tinue  hostilities  against  Judah / 

Isaiah  foretells  to  Ahaz  the  birth  of  the  Messiah,  and  a 
speedy  deliverance  from  the  t\yo  kings,  his  enemies. 
Nevertheless,  the  year  following,  they  return  and 
spoil  his  country 

The  Idumeans  and  Philistines  also  invade  Judah 

Ahaz  invites  to  his  assistance  Ti^lath-pileser,  king  of  1 
Assyria,  and  submits  to  pay  him  tribute j 

Ahaz  remits  the  royal  authority  to  his  son  Hezekiah. 

[728,  Duncker:  727,  Oppert.] 
Ahaz,  king  of  Judah,  dies 

Hezekiah  restores  the  worship  of  the  Lord  in  Judah,  ^ 
which  Ahaz  had  subverted j 

First-fruits  and  tithes  again  gathered  into  the  temple, 
for  maintenance  Of  the  priests  and  mmisters 


Hezekiah  revolts  from  the  Ass3rrians;  makes  a  league 
with  E^pt  and  Cush,  a^inst  Sennacherib 

Sennachenb  invades  Hezekiah;  takes  several  cities  of ) 
Judah J 

Hezekiah's  sickness.  Isaiah  foretells  his  cure;  gives'! 
him  as  a  sign  the  shadow's  return  on  the  dial  of  V 
Ahaz J 

Sennacherib  besieges  Lachish 

Hezekiah  ^ves  money  to  Sennacherib,  who  yet  con- 
tinues his  war  against  him,  and  sends  Rabshakeh  to 
Jerusalem;  marches  himself  against  Tirhakah,  kmg 
of  Cush,  or  Arabia.  Returning  into  Judah,  the  angel 
of  the  Lord  destroys  many  thousands  of  his  army; 
[698,  Rawlinson] ;  he  retires  to  Nineveh,  where  he  is 

slain  by  his  sons.     [681,  Rawlinson.] 

[Tirhakah  or  Tahark  is  now  known  to  have  been  a 

king  of  Egypt  of  the  Ethiopian  line  that  had  conquered 

Egypt,  730-738;   he  was  king  698-667,  or  702-662(?); 

Sennacherib  barely  entered  Egypt,  losing  his  army  at 

Pelusium,  by  the  pestilence  or  other  disaster.] 


2  Kings  XV.  37. 


—  38;  xvi.  1,  2. 
xvi.  5;  2  Chron. 


xxviu. 


Isaiah  vii. — ix. 

2  Chron.  xxviii.  16 — 18. 

2  Kings  xvi.  7j  8;  2 
Chron.  xxviii.  16. 


2  Kings  xvi.  19,  20;  2 
Chron.  xxviii.  27. 

xviii.  1 — 6; 

2  Chron.  xxix. — xxxi, 

2  Chron.  xxxi,  4,  5. 


2  Kmgs  xviii.  7. 

13;  2  Chron. 

xxxii,  l;ls.  xxxvi. 

XX.  1—11;  2  Chron. 

xxxii.  24;  Is.  xxxviii. 

2  Chron.  xxxii.  9. 


2  Kings  xviii.    14 — xix. 
37;  Is.  xxxvi.  xxxxvii. 


Herod,  lib.  iL 


JUDAH  AND  Israel.]    A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


17 


Year  bbporb  Christ. 


Usher. 


Calmet. 


743 


736 

738 

740 

736 

730 

736 
726 

728 

721 

724 

724 

721 

719 

721 

720 

717 

721 

to 

719 

Hales. 


707 


747 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


KINGS  OF  ISRAEL.— 264  Years. 

After  a  siege  of  three  years,  Sardanapalus  bums  him- 
self in  his  palace  with  all  his  ricnes.  Arbaces  is 
acknowledged  king  of  Media,  and  Belesus  king  of 
Babylonia.     [Not  historical.] 

Belesus,  otherwise  Baladan,  or  Nabonassar,  founds  the 
Babylonian  empire.  This  famous  epoch  of  Nabon- 
assar falls  743  years  before  Christ,  747  before  A.  D. . 

Ninus  junior,  called  in  Scripture  Tiglath-pileser,  succes- 
sor of  Sardanapalus,  continues  the  Assyrian  empire, 
but   reduced    mto    very    narrow  limits.      Reigned 

nineteen  years;  according  to  others,  thirty  years 

[Not  historical.] 
*^J*On  Sardanapalus,   Baladan,  etc.,  see  note  below, 

which   gives   results   of   modem   knowledge  through 

the  monuments  and  cuneiform  records. 

Tiglath-pileser  defeats  and  slays  Rezin,  king  of  Dam-  ^ 
ascus. J 

Enters  the  land  of  Israel,  takes  many  citiv  and  captives, 
chiefly  from  Reuben,  Gad,  and  the  half  tnbe  of 
Manasseh.    The  first  captivity  of  Israel 

Hoshea,  son  of  Elah,  slays  Pekah,  and  usurps  the 
kingdom.    [734,  Duncker.] 

Reigns  peaceably  the  12th  year  of  Ahaz;  reigns  nine 
years 

Shalmaneser  succeeds  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Nineveh.  \ 
[727,  Duncker.] J 

Hoshea  makes  an  alliance  with  So  [or  Sabaco],  king  of 
Egypt,  and  endeavors  to  shake  ofiF  the  yoke  of  Shal- 
maneser  

Shalmaneser  besieges  Samaria;  takes  it  after  three 
years*  siege.  Carries  beyond  the  Euphrates  the 
tribes  that  Tiglath-pileser  had  not  already  carried 
into  captivity;  the  ninth  vear  of  Hoshea;  of  Heze- 
kiah  the  sixth  year.  [722,  Duncker:  721,  Oppert, 
Rawlinson  and  others] 

Among  the  captives  earned  away  by  Shalmaneser  to 

Nineveh  is  Tobit,  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali 

[Tobit  is  regarded  as  romance  only.  J 


End  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel;  after  U  had  subsisted 
two  hundred  and  fifty-Jour  years. 


Justin,  lib.  L  c  3. 

Nic.  Dam.  in  Edog. 
Vales,  p.  426,  etc. 


2  Kings  XV.  29;  xvi.  7. 
Euseb.  Chron.  p.  46. 


xvi.  6—9;  Amos  L  6. 


XV.  29;  1  Chron. 

V.  26. 

30,  31. 

xvii.  1. 

Castor,  ap.  Euseb. 
Chron.  p.  46. 


2  Kings  xviL  4. 

3—18;  Hos.  xiii. 

16; 

1  Chron.  v.  26. 

Tobit  i 


♦»♦  Readers  of  this  Table  should  bear  in  mind  that  while  its  dates  are  in  relation  to  each  other 
generally  tme,  and  in  so  misty  a  subject  as  chronology  has  been  they  are  fairly  approximate,  they 
are  not  reliable  respecting  matters  not  derived  from  me  Old  Testament.  The  whole  of  Egyptian, 
Assyrian  and  Babylonian  history  has  been  rewritten  several  times  since  1860,  since  monumental 
and  other  writings  have  been  deciphered. 

After  800  B.C.  four  kings  reigned  in  Assyria  before  746,  when  Tiglath-pileser  became  king  and 
began  the  great  era  of  conquest  and  palace-building.  Then  came  Shalmaneser  IV.,  727-721: 
Sargon,  721-705;  Sennacherib,  705-681;  Esarhaddon,  681-668(?),  who  began  the  conquest  of 
Egypt;  Assur-bani-pal.  about  668  to  648  or  later;  his  name  became  in  Greek  Sardanapalus,  and  of 
his  effeminacy,  cowardice  and  wealth  a  fantastic  fiction  with  tra^cal  end  was  told.  In  fact,  under 
him,  in  660,  Assyria  was  at  the  height  of  its  power.  It  is  uncertam  whether  one,  two  or  three  kings 
followed  before  the  fall  of  this  power  in  625  (Rawlinson)  or  as  late  as  606  (Clinton),  nor  are  details 
of  the  destmction  of  Nineveh  known. 

Babylon  regained  independence  under  Nabonassar,  as  said  above,  747  B.C.,  an  assured  date, 
but  lost  it  again  under  Merodach-Baladan,  709,  who  was  not  Nabonassar.  Nor  is  any  Arbaces 
known  as  king  of  Media.  Sargon,  not  Assaradon  or  Esarhaddon,  reconquered  Babylon,  which 
remained  subject  until  Cyaxares  of  Media  and  Nabopolassar,  father  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  overthrew 
Assyria  and  aivided  its  empire,  625  or  606(?)  B.C. 


18 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLli  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


Year  beporb  Christ.!        FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


Usher. 


677 


694 


671 


639 


637 

630 
624 


606 


602 


Calmet. 


708 


707 

706 

694 

696 

677 

680 

661 

674 

653 

640 

639 

641 

637 

630 
624 
620 


619 


^06 


Hales. 


605 
602 


601 
598 

596 


605 


708 


639 


628 


608 


586 


605 


599 


JUDAH  alone. 
Assaradon,   or     Esarhaddon,    succeeds  Sennacherib. 


[681,  Rawlinson.] 
Prooably  about  this  time  Baladan,  or  Merodach-Baladan, 

king  of  Babylon,  sends  to  congratulate  Hezekiah  on 

the  recovery  of  his  health,  and  to  inquire  about  the 

prodigy  on  that  occasion 

The   prophets   Micah,   the   Morasthite,   and   Nahum, 

prophesy 

Tartan  sent  by  Sargon  a^nst  the  Philistines,  the  Idu- 1 

means  and  the  Egyptians / 

The  Kin^  of  Assyria  sends  an  Israelitish  priest  to  the 

Cushites  settled  at  Shechem 

Hezekiah  dies;  Manasseh  succeeds  him;  reigns  fifty- 1 

five  years.     [697,  Ehincker,  Rawl.] j 

Assaradon  becomes  master  of  Babylon;  reunites  the 
empires  of  Assyria  and  Chaldea. 

Manasseh  taken  by  the  Chaldeans,  and  carried  tol 
Babylon j 

The  war  of  Holofemes,  who  is  slain  in  Judea  by  Judith. 
[Judith  is  a  fiction. — Rawlinson.  1  

Manasseh  dies.  He  returned  into  Judea  a  good  while  ) 
before,  but  the  time  is  not  exactly  known.  [642,  \ 
Duncker.] j 

Amon  succeeds  him;  reigns  two  years 


Amon  dies;  Josiah  succeeds  him.     [640,  Duncker.] 


Zephaniah  prophesies  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign 

Josiah  endeavors  to  reform  abuses;  he  restores  the  wor- 1 

ship  of  the  Lord j 

Jeremiah  begins  to  prophesy,  in  the  thirteenth  year  of 

lian 


the  reign  of  Josial 

The  high-priest  Hilkiah  finds  the  book  of  the  law  in  the 
treasury  of  the  temple,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of 
Josiah r 

Money  collected  for  repairing  the  temple 


The  prophetess  Huldah  foretells  the  calamities  that 'I 

threaten  Judah / 

A  solemn  passover,  by  Josiah  and  all  the  people 


ioel  prophesies  under  Josiah. 
osiah  opposes  the  expedition  of  Necho,  king  of  Egypt, ' 
against  Carchemish;  is  mortally  wounded,  and  dies 
at  Jerusalem.     [609,  Dune,  Rawl.]    Jeremiah  com-  ' 
poses  lamentations  on  his  death ^ 

Jehoahaz  is  set  on  the  throne  by  the  people,  but  Necho, 
returning  from  Carchemish,  deposes  him,  and  installs 
Eliakim,  or  Tehoiakim,  his  brother,  son  of  Josiah, 
who  reigns  eleven  years 

Habakkuk  prophesies  under  his  reign. 

Nebuchadnezzar  besieges  and  takes  Carchemish;  comes 
into  Palestine;  besieges  and  takes  Jerusalem;  leaves 
Jehoiakim  there,  on  condition  of  paying  a  large 
tribute 

Daniel  and  his  companions  led  captive  to  Babylon 

Jeremiah  begins  to  commit  his  prophecies  to  writing. . . . 

Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  of  a  great  statue  explained  by 
Daniel 

The  history  of  Susannah  at  Babylon.     [Fiction.] 

Tehoiakim  revolts  against  Nebuchadnezzar 

Nebuchadnezzar  sends  an  army  from  Chaldea,  Syria, 
and  Moab,  which  ravages  Judea,  and  brings  away 
3023  Jews  to  Babylon,  in  the  seventh  year  of  Jehoia- 
kim    

Cyrus  born,  son  of  Cambyses  and  Mandane   


2  Kings  xix.  37;  Isaiah 
xxxviL  38. 


XX.  12—19;  Isaiah 

xxxix. 

Mic.  i.  1. 

2  Kings  xviiL  17;  Isaiah 

XX.;   Joseph.  Ant 

lib.  X.  cap.  1,  2. 

xvii.  27—33. 

XX.  20,  21;  xxL  1— 

18;2Chron.  xxxii. 

32, 33;  xxxiii.  1—10. 

Canon.  Ptolemaei. 
2  Chron.  xxxiii.  11 — 19; 
Jos.  Ant  lib.  x.  c  4. 

Judith,  Apoc. 

2  Kin|:s  xxL  17,  18; 
2  Chron.  xxxiii.  20. 

18—22;  2  Chron. 

xxxiii.  20—23. 

23—26;  2  Chron. 

xxxiii  24,  25. 
Zeph.  i.  1. 
2  Kings  xxii.  1 — 7; 
2  Chron.  xxxiv.  1 — 13. 

Jer.  i.  2. 

2  Kings  xxii.  8;  2  Chron. 

xxiv.  14. 
4—7;  2  Chron. 

xxiv.  9 — 14. 
14—20;  2  Chron. 

xxiv.  22—28. 
xxiii.  1—24;  2 

Chron.  xxxiv.  29 

— XXXV.  19. 

29,  30;  2  Chron. 

XXXV.  20—27. 
Herod,  lib.  2;  Jos. 
Ant  lib.  X.  c  6. 


—  30— 56;  2  Chron. 
xxxvi.  1 — 5. 


2  Kings  xxiv.  1;  2  Chron. 

xxxvi.  6,  7. 
Jer.  XX.  4;  xlvi.  2;  Dan. 

i.  1—7. 
xxxvL  1 — 4. 

Dan.  ii. 

Susannah,  Apoc 
2  Kings  xxiv.  1. 


2  Kings  xxii'.  2—4;  Jer. 

Hi.  8. 
Diod.  Sic.  lib.  i;  Herod, 
lib.  i. 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


19 


Year  before  Christ. 


Usher. 


690 


592 


584 


686 


598 
669 


Calmet. 


594 


691 
590 
589 


586 


584 


586 


583 


681 


568 


667 
566 
565 
557 


Hales. 


597 


590 


588 


586 


584 


571 
570 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


JUDAH  alone. 

Jehoiakim  revolts  a  second  time  against  Nebuchad-1 
nezzar;  is  taken,  put  to  death,  and  cast  to  the  fowls  > 
of  the  air;  reigned  eleven  years J 

Jehoiakin,  or  Coniah,  or  Jeconiah,  succeeds 

Nebuchadnezzar  besieges  him  in  Jerusalem,  and  takes 
him  after  he  had  reigned  three  months  and  ten  days. 
He  is  carried  to  Babylon,  with  part  of  the  people. 
Mordecai  is  among  the  captives.  [597,  Duncker, 
Rawlinson.] 

Zedekiah,  his  uncle,  is  left  at  Jerusalem  in  nis  place,  1 
and  reigns  eleven  years / 

Zedekiah  sends  ambassadors  to  Babylon. 

Jeremiah  writes  to  the  captive  Jews  there 

Seraiah  and  Baruch  sent  by  Zedekiah  to  Babylon. 

Ezekiel  begins  to  prophesy  in  Chaldea 

He  foretells  the  taking  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  dispersion 
of  the  Jews 

Zedekiah  takes  secret  measures  with  the  king  of  Egypt,  ( 
to  revolt  against  the  Chaldeans 1 

Zedekiah  revolts. 

Nebuchadnezzar  marches  against  Jerusalem,  besieges  it; 

quits  the  siejge  to  repel  the  king  of  Egjrpt,  who 

comes  to  assist  2^dekiah.     Returns  to  the  siege 

Jeremiah  continues  prophesying  during  the  whole  siege,  1 

which  continued  almost  three  years j 

Ezekiel  in  Chaldea  also  describes  the  same  siege. 
Jerusalem  taken  on  the  ninth  day  of  the  fourui  month 

(July),  the  eleventh  year  of  Zedekiah 

Zedekiah,  endeavoring  to  flv  by  night,  is  taken,  and 
brought  to  Riblah,  to  hfebuchaonezzar.  His  eyes 
are  put  out.  and  he  is  carried  to  Babylon 

Jerusalem  and  the  temple  burnt;  seventh  day  of  the 
fourth  month 

The  Jews  of  Jerusalem  and  Judah  carried  captive  beyond 
the  Euphrates.  The  poorer  classes  only  left  in  the 
land 

Thus  ends  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  after  it  had  subsisted 
four  hundred  and  sixty-eight  years ,  from  the  begin^ 
ning  of  the  reign  of  David,  and  three  hundred  and 
eighty-eight  years  from  the  separation  of  Judah  and 
the  ten  tribes. 

The  beginning  of  the  seventy  years*  captivity,  foretold 
by  Jeremiah 

Gedaliah  made  governor  of  the  remains  of  the  people.  ) 
He  is  slain \ 

Jeremiah  carried  into  Egypt  by  the  Jews,  after  the  death 
of  Gedaliah.     He  prophesies  in  Egypt 

Ezekiel  in  Chaldea  prophesies  against  the  captives  of 
Judah  

The  siege  of  Tyre  by  Nebuchadnezzar;  lasted  thirteen 
years.  During  this  interval,  Nebuchadnezzar  wars 
against  the  Idumeans,  the  Ammonites  and  the 
Moabites , 

Obadiah  prophesies  against  Idumea. 

Tyre  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar.    [573,  Duncker.] 

Nebuchadnezzar  wars  against  Egypt 

He  returns  to  Babylon. 

Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  of  a  great  tree 

His  wild  insanity  in  the  fields 

His  return  to  his  former  condition 


2  Kings  xxiv.  5,  6;  2 

Chron.  xxxvi.  8; 

Jer.  xxii.  18,  19; 

xxxvi.  30. 
6;  2  Chron. 

xxxvL  8|  9. 


8—16;  2  Chron. 

xxxvi.  10. 
17, 18;  2  Chron. 

xxxvi  10, 11. 

Jer.  xxix« 

Ezek.  L  1,  2. 

iv.  V.  viii. — xii. 

2  Kings  xxiv.  20;  2 

Chron.  xxxvL  13;  Jer. 

lii.  3. 


XXV.  1,  2;  Jer. 

xxxvii.  5. 
Jer.  xxxvii.  6— ll;xxvii. 

xxi.    Ezek.  xxiv. 

2  Kings  XXV.  3,  4,  8;  2 
Chron.  xxxiv.  17, 
18;  Jer.  lii.  5—7. 

4 — 7;  Jer.  liL 

7—11. 
9,  10;  2  Chron. 


Bel.  lib.  vii.  c.  10. 
—  11, 12: 2  Chron. 
xxxvi.   20;  Jer. 
xxxix.  9  10;  liL 
15, 16. 


Jer.  XXV. 

2  Kings  XXV.  22—25; 
Jer.  xl.  1— xK.  1,  2. 

Jer.  xliii.  5 — 13. 

Ezek.  xxxiii. 

Jer.  xxvii— xxix. 

Ezek.  XXV. 

Jos.  Ant  lib.  x.  c  IL 

Ezek.  xxix.  18;  Jos.  Ant 

lib.  X.  c.  11. 
19-xxxiL  32. 

Dan.  iv.  1 — ^27. 

28—33. 

34—37. 


20 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


Year  beforb  Christ. 


Usher. 


680 


502 


555 


537 


548 
538 


535 
530 


521 


520 


462 

458 
516 


452 


487 


456 


Calmet. 


556 


555 

554 

552 
551 

550 


545 
544 
543 


542 
525 


522 
520 
517 


516 
515 

513 

512 
511 

505 
504 

481 

469 
463 


Hales. 


569 


561 


558 

551 
553 


548 
536 


529 

525 
463 


463 

460 
516 


485 
464 
457 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


He  sets  up  a  golden  statue  for  worship 

DaniePs  three  companions  cast  into  the  fiery  furnace. . . . 

Nebuchadnezzar's  death  [561  B.  C],  after  reigning 
forty-three  years,  from  the  death  of  Nabopolassar, 
his  lather,  who  died  in  604  B.  C 

Evil-merodach,  his  son,  succeeds  him;  reigns  but  one 
year 


[Real  history,  as  now  known  —  Evil-merodach^  king 
561  to  559;  Nerielissar,  559  to  555;  Laborosoarchod,  a 
boy,  a  few  montns;  Nabonadius,  last  king  of  Babylon, 
555  to  538;  city  then  taken  by  Persians,  whUe  Nabona- 
dius was  not  in  it;  Belshazzar  was  viceroy  or  associate 
king.  **  Darius  the  Mede  **  is  not  known  to  history.] 
Belshazzar  succeeds  him. 

DaniePs  vision  of  the  four  animals 

Cyrus  begins  to  appear;  he  liberates  the  Persians  and 

takes  the  title  of  king.     [558,  Rawlinson.] 

Belshazzar's  impious  feast    His  death  £538  f] 

Darius  the  Mede  succeeds  Belshazzar 

Daniel's  prophecy  of  seventy  weeks 

Darius  decrees  that  supplication  should  be  made  to  no 

other  god  but  himself 

Daniel  cast  into  the  lion's  den 

C)nrus  begins  conquests,  overthrowing  the  Mediaii  king- 
dom of  Astyages.   [558,  Rawlinson;  others  say  550J. 

Cyrus  conquers  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia 

He  takes  Babylon.    [538,  Rawlinson.]  

He  sets  the  Jews  at  liberty,  and  i>ermits  their  return  1 

into  Judea.    The  first  year  of  his  reign  over  all  the  > 

East J 

The  history  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon  [fiction] 

The  Jews,  returning  from  captivity,  renew  the  sacrifices 

in  the  temple 

Cyrus  dies,  aged  seventy  years  [529,  Rawlinson] 

Cambyses  succeeds  him.    The  Cushites,  or  Samaritans, 

obtain  a  prohibition  forbidding  the  Jews  to  continue 

the  buildmg  of  their  temple 

Cambyses  wars  in  Egypt,  five  years  [522,  Rawlinson] . . . 
Cambyses  kills  his  brother  Smerdis,  or  Bardya. 

He  dies 

The  seven  Magi  usurp  the  empire.    Artaxata,  one  of 

them,  forbids  the  building  of  the  temple 

Seven  chiefs  of  the  Persians  slay  the  Magi 

Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes,  acknowledged  king  of  the 

Persians.    Marries  Atossa,  the  daughter  of  Cjrrus 

[521,  Rawlinson] 

Haggai  begins  to  prophesy;  reproaches  the  Jews  for  not 

building  the  house  of  the  Lord 

The  Jews  recommence  building  the  temple 

About  this  time  Zechariah  begins  to  prophesy 

Here y  properly^  end  the  seventy  years  of  capHvUy  foretold 

by  Jeremiah^  which  began  jS,C,  686, 
The  feast  of  Ahasuerus;  he  divorces  Vashti.    [Scholars 

say  Ahasuerus  was  Xerxes] 

He  espouses  Esther 

The  dedication  of  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  rebuilt  by 

Zerubbabel 

The  beginning  of  the  fortune  of  Haman 

He  vows  the  destruction  of  the  Jews,  and  procures  from 

Ahasuerus  an  order  for  their  extermination 

Esther  obtains  a  revocation  of  this  decree.     Haman 

hung  on  the  gallows  he  had  prepared  for  Mordecai . . 
The   Jews   pumsh   their   enemies   at   Shushan,  and'i 

throughout  the  Persian  empire j 

Darius  dies;  Xerxes  suceeeds  him 

Xerxes  dies;  Artaxerxes  succeeds  him  [465,  Rawlinson] 

He  sends  Ezra  to  Jerusalem,  with  several  priests  and 


Dan.  ill  1—7. 
8-30. 

Berosus,  ap.  Jos.  cont 

Ap.  lib.  1. 
2  Kings  XXV.  27—30;  Jer. 

lii.  31 — 34.    Berosus, 

ap.  Jos.  cont  Ap.  lib. 

i.  et  Euseb.     Praep. 

lib.  ix. 


Dan.  viL 


V.  1-80. 

—  81. 
ix. 

vl  1—0. 

—  10—24. 


Herod,  i;  Cyrop.  vL 

i;   Cyrop.  vii. 

2Chron.  xxxvi.  22,  23; 

Ezra  i;  Xen.  Cyrop. 

lib.  viii. 
Apocrypha. 

Ezra  ii.  1 — iii.  7. 
Cyropedia,  lib.  viiL 

Ezra  iv.  6—24. 

Ptol.  Can. 
Herod,  ii,  iii;  Just  i.  c  9. 

Herod,  lib.  iiL 

1  Esdras  v.  78. 

Herod,  iii;  Just  i.  c.  10. 


Haggai. 
Ezra  vi.  6 — 14. 
Zech.  L  1. 


Esth.  I 
ii.  1—18. 

Ezra  vi.  1&— 22. 
Esth.  iii.  1,  2. 


3-15. 

iv. — ^viL 

ix.  1 — 16;  Jos.  Ant 

lib.  xi.  c.  6. 
Ptol.  in  Canone;  Africa- 

nus;  Euseb.,  etc. 
Diod.  Sic.  lib.  xi;  Justin. 

lib.  iii.  c.  1. 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


21 


Year  bbporb  Christ. 


Usher. 


448 
444 


428 


332 


323 


321 


Calmet. 


462 
460 


449 

437 
435 


420 


346 
329 
328 


827 

326 
319 

316 

310 

308 


273 
267 
242 


Hales. 


444 


432 
424 


420 
413 
373 
341 


341 


821 
300 
291 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


Levites,  the  seventh  year  of  Artaxerxes 

Ezra  reforms  abuses  among  the  Jews,  especially  as  to 

their  strange  wives 

Nehemiah  obtains  leave  of  Artaxerxes  to  visit  Jerusalem, 

and  to  rebuild  its  gates  and  walls 

The  walls  rebuilt.     [445,  Rawlinson] 

Dedication  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem 

Nehemiah  prevails  with  several  families  in  the  country 

to  dwell  in  Jerusalem 

The  Israelites  put  away  their  strange  wives 

Nehemiah  renews  the  covenant  of  Israel  with  the  Lord. . 

Nehemiah  returns  to  king  Artaxerxes 

Nehemiah  comes  a  second  time  into  Judea,  and  reforms 

abuses 

Zechariah    prophesies    under    his    government;    also 

Malachi,  whom  several  have  confounded  with  Ezra.. 
Nehemiah  dies. 
Eliashib,  the  high-priest,  who  lived  under  Nehemiah,  is 

succeeded  by  Joiada,  who  is  succeeded  b>r  Jonathan, 

who  is  killed  in  the  temple  by  Jesus,  his  brother; 

the  successor  of  Jonathan  is  Jaddus,  or  Jaddua.    The 

exact  years  of  the  death  of  these  high-priests  are  not 

known 


Artaxerxes  Ochus  sends  several  Jews  into  Hyrcania,  1 

whom  he  had  taken  captive  in  Egypt j 

Alexander  the  Great  enters  Asia.     [334,  Rawl.] 


He  besieges  Tyre;  demands  of  the  high-priest  Jaddua 
the  succors  usually  sent  to  the  king  of  Persia;  Jaddua 
refuses.     [332,  Rawlinson.] 

Alexander  approaches  Jerusalem,  shows  respect  to  the 
high-priest,  ts  favorable  to  the  Jews;  erants  them  an 
exemption  from  tribute  every  Sabbatical  year. 
[Doubtful  story.] 

The  Samaritans  obtain  Alexander's  permission  to  buUd 
a  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim. 

Alexander  conquers  Egypt;   returns  into  Phoenicia;' 
chastises  the  Samaritans,  who  had  killed  Androma- 
chus,  his  governor;  gives  the  Jews  part  of  their 
country.     [332,  331j  Rawlinson.] _ 

Darius  Cddomannus  dies,  the  last  king  of  the  Persians. 
[330.  Rawlinson.] 

Alexander  the  Great  dies,  first  monarch  of  the  Grecians 
in  the  East     [323,  Rawlinson.] 


Judea  in  the  divbion  of  the  kings  of  Syria. 

Ptolemy,  son  of  Lagus,  conquers  it;  carries  many  Jews  1 
into  Egypt.     [320,  Rawlinson.] / 

Antigonus  retakes  Judea  from  Ptolemy.     [314,  Rawl.] . . 

Ptolemy,  son  of  Lagus,  conquers  Demetrius,  son  of 
Antigonus,  near  Gaza;  becomes  again  master  of 
Judea.     [312,  Rawlinson.] 

Judea  returns  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  kings  of  Syria; 
the  Jews  pay  them  tribute  some  time.  Judea  is  in 
subjection  to  the  kings  of  Egypt  under  the  reign  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  if  what  we  read  concerning 
the  version  of  the  Septuagint  be  true. 

The  Septuapnt  version  supposed  to  be  really  made 
about  this  time.  [Begun  then;  continued  for  a  cen- 
tury or  more.] 

Antiochus  Theos,  king  of  Syria,  begins  to  reign;  grants 
to  the  Jews  the  privileges  of  free  denizens  throughout 
his  dominions.     [261,  Blair.] 

Ptolemy  Euergetes  makes  himself  master  of  Syria  and 
Judea. 

The  high-priest  Jaddua  dying  in  318,  Onias  I.  succeeds 
him,  whose  successor  is  Simon  the  Just,  in  298.  He, 
dying  in  289,  leaves  his  son  Onias  II.  a  child;  his 
father's  brother,  Eleazar,  discharges  the  office  of 
high-priest  about  thirty  years.  Under  the  priesthood 
of  Eleazar  the  version  of  the  Septuagint  is  said  to  be 
made.  After  the  death  of  Eleazar  in  256,  Manasseh, 
great  uncle  of  Onias,  and   brother  of  Jaddua, 


IS 


Ezra  vil  1,  7,  8. 

ix.  X. 

Neh.  L— il  12. 

ii.  13— vi.  19. 

xii.  27—43. 


XI. 

ix.  2. 

viii. — X. 

vii.  1—4;  xiii.6;  Prid. 


xiu.  7. 


Jos.  Ant.  lib.  xL  c  7; 

Chron.  Alexand. 
Diod.  Sic.  lib.  xvi;  Jos. 

cont.  Ap.  lib.  1. 
Plut.  in  Alex.  Arrian,  i. 

Diod.  Sic.  lib.  xxii. 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  xL  c  8. 


Q.  Curt  lib.  !v.  c.  8; 
Euseb.  Chron.  p.  177. 
Cedrenus;  Jos.  cont. 
Ap.  lib.  ii. 


Plut.  in  Alexander  0. 
Curt.  lib.  X.  c.  6;  Died. 
Sic.  lib.  xvii. 

Jos.  Ant.  lib.  xii.  c.  7; 
Arist  Diod.  lib.  xviii. 
Plut  in  Demet 

Diod.  Sic.  lib.  xix.  App. 
inSyriads. 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  xii.  c.  2; 


22 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


Year  before  Christ. 


Usher. 


250 


217 


217 


Calmet. 


229 


217 

215 
214 
213 


204 


195 


187 


176 


175 


175 


212 

20(1 

198 
195 

194 

193 


Hales. 


275 
250 


217 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


188 
185 
183 

172 


171 


169 


166 


195 


195 


175 


172 


invested  with  the  priesthood.    [260,  Blair.] 

Manasseh  dying  this  year,  Onias  if.  possesses  the  high- 
priesthood.  Incurs  the  indication  ot  the  king  of 
Egypt,  for  not  paying  his  tribute  of  twenty  talents; 
his  nephew  Joseph  gSns  the  king's  favor  and  farms 
the  tributes  of  Coele -Syria,  Phoenicia,  Samaria  and 
ludea.    [233,  Blair.] 

Ptolemy  Euergetes,  king  of  Egypt,  dies;  Ptolemy  Philo- 
pator  succeeds  him.    [222,  Kawl.] 


Onias,  II.  high-priest,  dies;  Simon  II.  succeeds  him. 
[219,  Blaar.] 

Antiochus  the  Great  wars  against  Ptolemy  Philopator.  \ 
[219  Blair.  ]  / 

Ptolemy  Philopator  defeats  Antiochus  at  Raphia  in 
Palestine.    [217,  Rawlinson.] 

Ptolemy  attempts  to  enter  the  temple  of  Jerusalem;  is 
hindered  by  the  priests.  He  returns  into  Egypt;  con- 
demns the  Jews  in  his  dominions  to  be  trod  to  death 
by  elephants.  God  gives  his  people  a  miraculous 
deliverance 

The  Egyptians  rebel  against  their  king  Ptolomy  Philo- 
pator; the  Jews  take  his  part. 

Ptolemy  Philopator  dies;  Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  an  infant, 
succeeds  him.     [205,  Rawlinson.  J 


Antiochus  the  Great  conquers  Phoenicia  and  Judea. 

Simon  II.  high-priest,  dies;  Onias  III.  succeeds  him. 
[195,  Blair.] 

Scopas,  a  general  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  retakes  Judea 
from  Antiochus 

Antiochus  defeats  Scopas;  is  received  by  the  Jews  into  \ 
Jerusalem.     [198,  Kawlinson.] j 

Arius,  king  of  Lacedaemon,  writes  to  Onias  III.  and 
acknowledges  the  kindred  of  the  Jews  and  Lacedae- 
monians. The  year  uncertain.  Perhaps  it  was 
rather  Onias  I. 

Antiochus  the  Great  gives  his  daughter  Cleopatra  in 
marriage  to  Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  king  of  Egypt;  and 
as  a  dowiy,  Coele-Syria,  Phoenicia,  Judea  and  Samaria. 

Antiochus,  declaring  war  against  the  Romans,  is  over- 
come, and  loses  great  part  of  his  dominions.  He 
preserves  Syria  and  Judea.    [192,  Rawlinson.] 

Antiochus  dies;  leaves  Seleucus  Philopator  his  suc- 
cessor. Antiochus,  his  other  son,  surnamed  after- 
wards Epiphanes,  at  Rome  as  a  hostage 

[187,  Rawlinson.] 

Heliodorus,  by  order  of  Seleucus,  attempts  to  rifle  the 
treasury  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  Is  prevented 
by  an  angel. 

Onias  III.  ^oes  to  Antioch,  to  vindicate  himself  against 
calumnies. 

Seleucus  sends  his  son  Demetrius  to  Rome,  to  replace 
his  brother  Antiochus,  who  had  been  a  hostage 
there  fourteen  years. 

Antiochus  journeying  to  return  to  Syria,  Seleucus  is  put 
to  death  by  tne  machinations  of  Heliodorus,  who 
intends  to  usurp  the  kingdom. 

Antiochus,  at  his  arrival,  is  received  by  the  Syrians  as  a 
tutelar  deity,  and  receives  the  name  of  Epiphanes. 
[176,  Rawlinson.] 

Jason,  son  of  Simon  II.,  high-priest,  and  brother  of 
Onias  III.,  now  high-priest,  buys  the  high-priesthood 
of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 

Several  Jews  renounce  Judaism,  for  the  religion  and 
ceremonies  of  the  Greeks. 

Antiochus  Epiphanes  intends  war  a^inst  Ptolemy 
Philometor,  king  of  Eg>'pt.  Is  received  with  great 
honor  in  Jerusalem. 

Menelaus  offers  three  hundred'  talents  of  silver  for  the 
high-priesthood  more  than  what  Jason  had  given  for 
it;  he  obtains  a  grant  of  it  from  Antiochus 

Menelaus,  not  paying  his  purchase-money,  is  deprived 


Euseb.  in  Chron. 


Tos  Aiit  lib.  zii.  c  S. 
Polyb.  lib.   ii.  p.   155; 

iusrin,  lib.  xxix.  c  1; 
Duseb.  in  Chron. 


Polyb.  lib.  V.  Justin,  lib. 

XXX.  c  1. 

Polyb.  lib.  V. 

3  Mac  i.  it 

ios.  Ant  lib.  xii.  c.  4. 
Luseb.  in  Chron. 
Chron.  Alezand. 

Pol^b.  lib.  5. 

Justin,  lib.  XX.  c  1,  2. 

Ptol.  in  Canone; 

Euseb.  etc 
Polyb.  lib.  V. 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  xiL  c  3. 
Polyb.  lib.  xvi 
Jos.  Ant  lib.  xiL  c  3. 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  xiL  c  3. 


Justin,  lib.  xxxL  C  6-~8. 


xxxiL  c  2; 


Strabo,  lib.  xvL 
App.  in  Syriads. 


2  Mac  IV.  7;  Jos.  de  Mac 
c  4. 


—  23—28. 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


23 


Year  before  Christ. 


Usher. 


168 


168 


Calmet. 


164 


163 


167 
166 


161 


162 
162 


161 


160 


159 


Hales. 


163 
163 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


of  the  high-priesthood;  Lysimachus,  his  brother,  is 

ordered  to  perform  the  functions  of  it. 
Menelaus,  gaining  Andronicus,  governor  of  Antioch,  in 

the  absence  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  causes  Onias 

III.,  the  high-priest,  to  be  killeo 

Lysimachus,  thinking  to  plunder  the  treasury  of  the 

temple  at  Jerusalem,  is  put  to  death  in  the  temple. 

[175,  Rawlinson.] 

Antiochus  preparing  to  make  war  in  Eg>'pt.    Prodigies 

seen  in  the  air  over  Jerusalem 

A  report  that  Antiochus  Epiphanes  was  dead,  in  Egypt; 

Jason  attempts  Jerusalem,  but  is  repulsed 

Antiochus,  being  informed  that  some  Jews  had  rejoiced 

at  the  false  news  of  his  death,  plunders  Jerusalem, 

and  slays  80,000  men 

Apollonius  sent  into  Judfea  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 

He  demolishes  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  and  oppresses 

the  people.     He  builds  a  citadel  on  the  mountain 

near  the  temple,  where  formerly  stood  the  c^'ty  of 

David 

Judas  Maccabaeus,  with  nine  others,  retires  into  the 

wilderness 

Antiochus  Epiphanes  publishes  an  edict,  to  constrain  all 

the  people  of  his  dominions  to  uniformity  with  the 

religion  of  the  Grecians. 
The  sacrifices  of  the  temple  interrupted;  the  statue  of 

(upiter  Olympus  set  up  on  the  altar  of  burnt-sacrifices. 
168,  Rawlinson.] 

The  martyrdom  of  the  old  Eleazar  at  Antioch;  of  the) 

seven  brethren  Maccabees,  and  their  mother j 

Mattathias  and  his  seven  sons  retire  into  the  moun-)^ 

tains;  the  Assideans  join  them j 

About  this  time  flourishes  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach,  author 

of  the  book  of  Ecclesiasticus. 

Mattathias  dies.     [166,  Blair.] 

Is   succeeded   by   Judas   Maccabaeus.     Judas   defeats 

Apollonius,  and  afterwards  Seron 

Antiochus  Epiphanes,  wanting  money  to  pay  the 
Romans,  goes  to  Persia.  Nicanor  and  Gorgias,  and 
Ptolemy,  son  of  Dorymenes,  enter  Judea  at  the  head 
of  their  armies 

Judas  Maccabaeus  defeats  Nicanor.     [161,  Rawlinson.] 

Gorjg:ias  declines  a  battle  against  Judas. 

Lysias,  coming  into  Judea  with  an  army  is  beaten,  and 

forced  to  return  to  Antioch. 
Judas  purifies  the  temple,  after  three  years'  defilement 

by  the  Gentiles.    This  is  called  Encoenia 

Timotheus  and  Bacchides,  generals  of  the  Syrian  army, 
are  beaten  by  Judas. 

Antiochus  Epiphanes  dies  in  Persia  [164,  Rawlinson]. 
His  son,  Antiochus  Eupator,  aged  nine  years,  suc- 
ceeds him  under  the  regency  of  Lysias 

Judas  wars  against  the  enemies  of  his  nation  in  Idumea,  ^ 

and  beyond  Jordan j 

Timotheus,  a  second  time,  overcome  by  Judas 

The   people  beyond  Jordan  and  in  Galilee  conspire 

against  the  Jews,  who  are  supported  by  Judas  ana  hii. 

brethren. 
Lysias,  coming  into  Judea,  forced  to  make  peace  with 

Judas;  returns  to  Antioch 

A  letter  of  king  Antiochus  Eupator,  in  favor  of  the  Jews. 
The  Roman  legates  write  to  the  Jews,  and  promise  to 

support  their  interests  with  the  king  of  Syria. 
The  treachery  of  Joppa  and  Samaria  chastised  by  Judas. 
Judas  wars  beyond  Jordan.     Defeats  a  general  of  the 

Syrian  troops,  called  Timotheus,  different  from  the 

former  Timotheus ^ 

Judas  attacks  Gorgias  in  Idumea;  having  defeated  him, 


—  84. 


—  40-42, 
V.  1—3. 

—  5,  6;  Jos.  Ant  1. 
xii.  c.  8. 

—  11 ;   Diod.   Sic. 
lib.  xxxiv. 


24—26;   1  Mac. 

i.  30—40;  Jos.  Ant  1. 
xxii.  c  7* 

2  Mac.  V.  27. 


Jos.  Ant  L  xxiL  c.  7. 
2  Mac.  vi.  vii. ;  Jos.  de 

Mac. 
1  Mac.  ii.  27—30;  Jos. 

Ant  lib.  xii.  c.  8. 


—  70. 


1  Mac.  iii.  1,  13,  14 ; 
2  Mac.  viii.  1;  Jos. 
Ant  lib.  xii.  c  9. 


—  42,  etc.    2  Mac. 


viii.  34,  etc  Jos.  Ant 
lib.  xii.  c  11. 


—  iv.  36,  etc  2  Mac. 
X.  1,  etc.  Jos.  Ant 
lib.  xii.  c  11. 


Appian,  in  Syriacis; 
Euseb.  in  Chron.  Jos. 
Ant  lib.  xii.  r.  14. 
1  Mac  vi.  17*  2  Mac. 
ix.  29;  X.  10,  11. 

1  Mac.  v.  1,  etc    2  Mac. 

x.  14,  15,  etc 

2  Mac  X.  24—38. 


xLl-lIk 


2  Mac  xlL  10,  etc. 


24 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


Ybar  bbforb  Christ. 


Usher. 


Calmet. 


161 


153 


Hales. 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


158 


158 


157 


156 
154 


163 


160 


149 
148 


153 


finds  Jews,  killed  in  the  fight,  had  concealed  gold 
under  their  clothes,  which  they  had  taken  from  an 
idoPs  temple  at  Jamnia 

Antiochus  Eupator  invades  Judea  in  person;  besieges 
Bethshur  and  takes  it;  besieges  Jerusalem 

Philip,  who  had  been  appointed  regent  by  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  coming  to  Antioch,  Lysias  prevails  with 
the  king  to  make  peace  with  the  Jews,  and  to  retiun 
to  Antioch.  But  before  he  returns,  he  enters  Jerusa- 
lem, and  causes  the  wall  to  be  demolished  that  Judas 
had  built  to  secure  the  temple  from  the  insults  of  the 
citadel 

Menelaus,  the  high-priest,  dies;  is  succeeded  by  Alcimus, 
an  intruder 


Onias  IV.  son  of  Onias  III.  lawful  heir  to  the  dignity  of 
high-priest,  retires  into  Egypt,  where,  some  time 
after,  he  builds  the  temple  Onion. 

Demetrius,  son  of  Seleucus,  sent  to  Rome  as  a  hostage; 
escapes  from  thence,  comes  into  Syria,  where  ne 
slays  his  nephew  Eupator,  also  Lysias,  regent  of 
the  kingdom,  and  is  acknowledged  king  of  Syria. .  ^ 

Alcimus  intercedes  with  Demetrius  for  the  confirmation 
of  the  dignity  of  high-priest,  which  he  had  received 
from  Eupator 

Alcimus  returns  into  Judea  wilh  Bacchides,  and  enters 
Jerusalem 

Is  driven  from  thence,  and  returns  to  Demetrius,  who 
appoints  Nicanor,  with  troops,  to  take  him  back  to 
ludea.  Nicanor  makes  an  accommodation  with 
Tudas,  and  lives  for  some  time  on  good  terms  with 
him   

Alcimus  accuses  Nicanor  of  betraying  the  king's  inter-  \ 
ests.  Demetrius  orders  Nicanor  to  bring  Judas  to  > 
him j 

Judas  attacks  Nicanor,  and  kills  about  5,000  men 

Death  of  Rhazis,  a  famous  old  man,  who  chooses 
rather  to  die  by  his  own  hand  than  to  fall  alive  into 
the  power  of  Nicanor 

Judas  obtains  a  complete  victory,  in  which  Nicanor  is 
killed    

Bacchides  and  Alcimus  again  sent  into  Judea 


Judas  gives  them  battle;  dies  like  a  hero,  on  a  heap  of  1 
enemies  slain  by  him.     [160,  Rawlinson.] j 

Jonathan  Maccabaeus  chosen  chief  of  his  nation,  and  S 
high-priest,  in  the  place  of  Judas j 

The  envoys  return,  which  Judas  had  sent  to  Rome,  to 
make  an  alliance  with  the  Romans. 

Bacchides  pursues  Jonathan;  he,  after  a  slight  combat,  ) 
swims  over  the  Jordan  in  sight  of  the  enemy ) 

Alcimus  dies 

Jonathan  and  Simon  Maccabasus  are  besieged  in  Beth- 
bessen,  or  Beth-agla.  Jonathan  goes  out  of  the 
placet  raises  soldiers,  and  defeats  several  bodies  of 
the  enemy 

Simon,  his  brother,  makes  several  sallies,  and  opposes 
Bacchides. 

Jonathan  makes  proposals  of  peace  to  Bacchides, ") 
which  are  accepted / 

Jonathan  fixes  his  abode  at  Mikmash,  where  he  judges 
the  people 

Alexander  Balas,  natural  son  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  1 
comes  into  Syria  to  be  acknowledged  king j 

Demetrius  Soter,  king  of  Syria,  writes  to  Jonathan,  asks 
soldiers  against  Alexander  Balas.  Balas  also  writes 
to  Jonathan,  with  offers  of  friendship  and  the  dignity 
of  nigh-priest 

Jonathan  assists  Balas,  puts  on  the  purple,  and  periorms 
the  fimctions  of  high-priest^  for  the  first  time  at  Jeru- 
salem, which  he  makes  his  ordinary  residence.    In 


I  Mac  V.  65,  etc 
V1.4S-54. 


55—62;  2  Mac 

xiil  23. 

2  Mac.  xiv.  3;  Jos.  Ant. 
lib.  xii.  c  15, 
lib.  XX.  c  8. 


\ 


1  Mac.  vii.  1—4;  2  Mac. 
xiv.  1,  2;  Jos.  Ant. 
lib.  xii.  c.  16;  Appian 
in  Syriacis;  Just  lib. 
xxxiv.  c.  3. 


1  Mac.  vii.  5—9. 


— 10,  etc 


26—29. 

27—32;  2  Mac 

xiv.  2^—29;  Jos. 

Ant  1.  xii.  c  17. 
2  Mac.  XV.  27. 


xiv.  37—46. 


XV.  27,  etc. 

1  Mac.  ix.  1,  etc.    Jos. 

Ant  lib. ;  H.  c.  19. 

5—21:  jos.  Ant 

lib.  xii.  c.  19. 
28,  etc. ;  Jos. 

Ant.  lib.  xiii.  c.  1. 


—  43,  etc.    Jos. 
Ant  lib.  xiii.  c  1. 

—  54. 


—  62,  etc.    Jos. 
Ant  lib.  xiii.  c  1. 


—  70;  Jos.  Ant 
lib.  xiii.  c  2. 

—  73. 

x.  1;  Jos.  Ant 
lib.  xiii.  c.  3. 


—  3—9,  15-20; 
Jos.  Ant  1.  xiii.  c  5. 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


25 


Year  before  Christ. 


Usher. 


145 


144 


140 


Calmet. 


146 


146 


142 
141 


140 


139 


138 


136 

135 
134 


Hales. 


153 


143 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


the  year  of  the  Greeks  160 

Demetnus*s  second  letter  to  Jonathan 

Demetrius  Soterdies;  Alexander  Balas  is  acknowledged 

king  of  Syria.     [151,  Rawlinson.] 

Onias  IV.  son  of  Onias  III.  builds  the  temple  of  Onion 
in  Egypt  (pronounced  O-ni^-on) 

A  dispute  between  the  Jews  and  Samaritans  of  Alexan- 
dria concerning  their  temples.  The  Samaritans  con- 
demned by  the  king  of  Egypt,  and  the  temple  of 
Jerusalem  preferred  to  that  of  Gerizim 

Aristobulus,  a  peripatetic  Jew,  flourishes  in  Egypt, 
under  Ptolemy  Philopator. 

Demetrius  Nicanor,  elaest  son  of  Demetrius  Soter,  1 
comes  into  Cilicia  to  recover  the  kingdom  of  his  >• 
father J 

Apollonius,  to  whom  Alexander  Balas  had  trusted  his 
affairs,  revolts  to  Demetrius  Nicanor 

He  marches  against  Jonathan  Maccabaeus,  who  continues 
in  the  interest  of  Alexander  Balas.  Apollonius  is 
put  to  flight 

Ptolemy  Philometor,  king  of  Egypt,  comes  into  Syria, 
pretending  to  assist  Alexander  Balas,  but  he  really 
designs  to  dethrone  him 

Alexander  Balas  gives  battle  to  Philometor  and  Deme-1 
trius  Nicanor,  He  loses  it  and  flees  to  Zabdiel,  > 
king  of  Arabia,  who  cuts  off  his  head J 

Ptolemy  Philometor  dies  in  Syria.  Cleopatra,  his^j 
queen,  gives  the  command  of  her  army  to  Onias,  a  > 
Jew,  son  of  Onias  III.     [146,  Rawlinson.  1. . .  j 

Onias  restrains  Ptolemy  Physcon,  son  of  Phflometor. . . . 

Jonathan  besieges  the  fortress  of  the  Syrians  at  Jeru- 1 
salem / 

Demetrius  comes  into  Palestine;  Jonathan  finds  means 
to  gain  him  by  presents 

Demetrius  Nicanor  attacked  by  the  inhabitants  of  Anli- 
och,  who  had  revolted.  Jonathan  sends  him  soldiers, 
who  deliver  him 

Tryphon  brings  young  Antiochus,  son  of  Alexander 
Balas,  out  of  Arabia,  and  has  him  acknowledged 
kin^  of  Syria.  Jonathan  espouses  his  interests 
against  Demetrius  Nicanor 

Jonathan  renews  the  alliance  with  the  Romans  and*) 
Lacedaemonians j 

He  is  treacherously  taken  by  Tryphon  in   Ptolemais, 

who  some  time  afterwards  puts  him  to  death 

[144,  Rawlinson.] 

Simon  Maccabaeus  succeeds  Jonathan 

Tryphon  slays  the  young  km^  Antiochus  Theos,  and 
usurps  the  kingdom  c3  Syria 

Simon  acknowledges  Demetrius  Nicanor,  who  hadl 
been  dispossessed  of  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  and  > 
obtains  from  him  the  entire  freedom  of  the  Jews. . .  J 

The  Syrian  troops,  that  held  the  citadel  of  Jerusalem, 
capitulate 

Demetrius  Nicator,  or  Nicanor,  goes  into  Persia  with 

an  army;  is  taken  by  the  king  of  Persia 

[140,  Rawlinson.] 

Simon  acknowledged  high-priest,  and  chief  of  the  Jews, 
in  a-great  assembly  at  Jerusalem 

Antiochus  Sidetes,  brother  of  Demetrius  Nicanor, 
becomes  king  of  Syria;  allows  Simon  to  coin  money, 
and  confirms  all  the  privileges  the  Syrian  kings  had 
granted  to  the  Tews.     [1 37,  Rawlinson.] 

Return  of  the  ambassadors  Simon  had  sent  to  Rome, 
to  renew  his  alliance  with  the  Romans 

Antiochus  Sidetes  quarrels  with  Simon,  and  sends  Cen- 
debeus  into  Palestine,  to  ravage  the  country 


1  Mac.  X.  21,  etc. 

24—45. 

50;   Justin,   lib. 

XXXV.  c.  1 ;  Polyb. 
lib.  iii.  p.  161 ;  Jos. 
Ant.  lib.  xiii.  c.  5. 
Jos.  Ant  lib.  xii.  c.  6 ; 
lib.  XX.  c.  8;  Bell.  lib. 
vii.  c.  30, 


xiii.  c.  6. 


1  Mac.  x.  67;  Jos.  Ant 
1.  xiii.  c.  8;  Justin,  1. 
XXXV.  c.  2. 

Jos.  Ant.  1.  xiii.  c.  8. 

1  Mac.  X.  69—87;  Jos. 
Ant.  1.  xiii.  c.  8. 

xi.  1 — 5;  Jos.  Ant. 

1.  xiii.  c.  8. 
xi.   15—17;   Diod. 

Sic.  in  Excer.  Phot 

cod.  244. 
xi.  18;  Polyb.  in 

Excer.    Val.  p.    194. 

Strab.  1.  xvi.  p.  751. 
Justin,  lib.  xxxviii.  c.  8; 

Jos.  cont.  Ap.  1.  ii. 
1  Mac.  xi.  20;  Jos.  Ant 
1.  xiii.  c.  8. 

21—29. 


—  43,  44. 


64—60;  Jos.  Ant 

1.  xiii.  c.  9. 

xii.  1 — 23;  Jos.  Ant. 

1.  xiii.  c  9. 

39-53, 

xiii.  1 — 9. 

Diod.  Sic.  Legat  31, 
1  Mac.  xii.  34—42;  xiv. 

38—41;   Jos.  Ant   1. 

xiii.  c.  11. 

xiii.  49—52. 

xiv.  1 — ^3;  Justin,  1. 

xxxvi.  c.  1 ;  Jos. 

Ant  xiii.  c.  9, 12; 

Orosius,  lib.  v. 

c.  4. 
26—49. 


XV.  1,  etc. 

—  15. 

—  26-38. 


26 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


Year  bbforb  Christ. 


Usher. 


135 


109 


106 


Calmet. 


131 


130 


130 

127 

126 

126 
123 


106 
105 

102 


Hales. 


136 


136 


106 


101 


100 
99 

98 

94 
93 


81 

80 
74 


105 


105 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


Cendebeus  is  beaten  by  John  and  Judas,  Simon's  sons . . 
Simon  killed  by  treachery,  with  two  of  his  sons,  by 

Ptolemy,  his  son-in-law,  in  the  castle  of   Dcicus. 

[135,  Rawlinson.] 

Hyrcanus,    or   John   Hyrcanus,    succeeds   his  father, 

Simon.     [136,  Rawlinson.] 
Antiochus  Sidetes  besieges  Hyrcanus  in  Jerusalem 


} 


Hyrcanus  obtains  a  truce  of  eight  days  to  celebrate  the 
feast  of  Tabernacles.    Makes  peace  with  Antiochus. . 

Hyrcanus  finds  money  in  Davicrs  tomb,  or  rather  the 
hidden  treasures  of  the  kings  of  Judah 

Antiochus  Sidetes  goes  to  war  against  the  Persians; 
Hyrcanus  accompanies  him.  Antiochus  is  conquered 
and  slain.     [129,  Rawlinson.]  

Hyrcanus  shakes  off  the  yoke  of  the  kings  of  Syria,  sets 
himself  at  perfect  liberty,  and  takes  several  cities 
from  Syria.     [129,  Rawlinson.  J 

He  attacks  the  Idumeans,  and  obliges  them  to  receive 
circumcision.     [109,  Rawlinson.  J , 

He  sends  ambassadors  to  Rome,  to  renew  his  alliance 
with  the  Roman  power , 

While  the  two  kin^  of  Syria,  both  of  them  called  An- 
tiochus, war  against  each  other,  Hjrrcanus  strengthens 
himself  in  his  new  monarchy 

He  besieges  Samaria;  takes  it  after  a  year's  siege 

Hjrrcanus  dies,  after  a  reign  of  twenty-nine  years.  [106, 
Rawlinson.] 

Under  his  government  is  placed  the  beginning  of  the 
three  prmcipal  Jewish  sects,  the  Pharisees,  uie  Sad- 
ducees  and  the  Essenians,  but  their  exact  epochs  are 
not  known. 

Judas,  otherwise  called  Aristobulus,  or  Philellen,  suc- 
ceeds John  Hyrcanus,  associates  his  brother  Anti- 
gonus  with  him  in  the  government,  leaves  his  other 
brethren  and  mother  in  bonds.  Lets  his  mother 
starve  in  prison;  takes  the  diadem  and  title  of  king. 
Reigns  one  year.     [106,  Rawlinson.] 

He  declares  war  against  the  Itureans.  Antigonus,  his 
brother,  beats  them,  and  obliges  them  to  be  circum- 
cised   

Antigonus  slain  at  his  return  from  this  expedition,  by 
order  of  his  brother  Aristobulus 

Aristobulus  dies,  after  reigning  one  year.  Alexander 
Jannaeus,  his  brother,  succeeds  him;  reigns  twenty- 
six  years.  He  attempts  Ptolemais,  but  hearing  that 
Ptolemy  Lathurus  was  coming  to  relieve  the  city,  he 
raises  the  siege,  and  wastes  the  country.  [105, 
Rawlinson.] 

Ptolemy  Lathurus  obtains  a  great  victory  over  Alex- 
ander, king  of  the  Jews 

Cleopatra,  queen  of  Egypt,  fearing  that  Lathurus  should 

five   her   disturbance    in    Egypt,    sends  the  Jews 
leldas  and  Ananias  against  nim,  with  a  powerful 

army.    She  takes  Ptolemais 

Alexander  Jannaeus,  king  of  the  Jews,  makes  an  alliance 

with  Cleopatra,  and  takes  some  places  in  Palestine. . 
Attacks  Gaza,  takes  it  and  demolishes  it. 
The  Jews  revolt  against  him,  but  he  subdues  them. 
He  wages  several  wars  abroad  with  success. 
His  subjects  war  against  him  during  six  years,  and  invite 

to  their  assistance  Demetrius  Eucerus,  king  of  Syria. 
Alexander  loses  the  battle,  but  the  consideration  ot  his 

misfortimes  reconciles  his  subjects  to  him. 
Demetrius  Eucerus  obliged  to  retire  into  Syria.    The 

years  of  these  events  are  not  well  known. 
Antiochus  Dionysius,   king   of   Syria,  invades  Judea; 

attacks   the   Arabians,    but   is   beaten   and   slain. 

Aretas,  king  of  the  Arabians,  attacks  Alexander; 

having  overcome  him,  treats  with  him,  and  retires. 
Alexander  Jannseus  takes  the  cities  of  Dion,  Gerasa, 

Gaulon,  Seleucia,  etc. 
Alexander  Jannaeus  dies,  aged  forty-nine  years 


1  Mac  XV.  38—30. 

xvi.  14 — 18;    Jos. 

Ant  1.  xiiL  c  14. 


20— 24;  Jos.  Ant 

1.  xiii.  c.  14. 
Jos.  Ant  lib.  xiii.  c.  16; 

Diod.Sicxxxiv.  p.901. 

Jos.  Ant  lib.  xiii  c  16. 


Justin,  1.  xxxviii.  c.  10. 

Jos.  Ant.  lib.  xiii.  c.  17; 

Strabo,  lib.  xvi.  p.  76. 
XV.  c.  11; 

Strabo,  1.  xvi.  p.  760. 

xiii.  c.  17. 


c.  18. 


Euseb.  in  Chron. 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  xiii.  c  19; 
de  Bell.  lib.  i.  c.  3. 


Jos.  ubi  sup. 


c20. 
C.  20,  21. 

c2L 


e.22. 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  xiiL  c.  28. 


rf^ 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


27 


Year  before  Christ. 


Usher. 


79 


70 


Calmet. 


67 

66 
65 


62 


Hales. 


78 


60 


63 


61 


60 


59 


53 


52 


69 


63 


61 


63 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


Alexandra,  otherwise  Salome,  or  Salina,  his  queen, 
succeeds  him;  gains  the  Pharisees  to  her  party,  by 
giving  them  great  power.    Reigns  nine  years. 

AnstobuTus  II.  son  of  Alexander  Jannseus,  heads  the 
old  soldiers  of  his  father;  is  discontented  with  the 
government  of  his  mother  and  the  Pharisees 


Takes  possession  of  the  chief  places  of  Judea,  during 
his  mother's  sickness 


Alexandra  dies.  Hjrrcanus,  her  eldest  son,  and  brother 
of  Aristobulus,  is  acknowledged  king.  Reigns 
peaceably  two  years.    [70,  Rawlinson.] 

Battle  between  Hyrcanus  and  Aristobulus;  Hyrcanus  is 
overcome  at  Jericho.  H^canus  had  been  high- 
priest  imderthe  reign  of  his  mother  nine  years;  then 
IS  king  and  pontiS  two  years;  is  afterwards  only 
priest  nineteen  years;  after  which  he  is  ethnarch 
lour  years.  At  last,  he  is  Herod's  captive  and  sport 
eight  years.  So  that  he  survived  his  father,  AJex- 
ander  Jannaeus,  forty-eight  years 

Peace  concluded  between  the  brothers,  on  condition 
that  Hyrcanus  should  live  private,  in  the  enjoyment 
of  his  estate,  and  Aristobulus  oe  acknowledged 
high-priest  and  king.  Thus  Hyrcanus,  having 
reigned  three  years  and  three  months,  resigns  the 
kingdom  to  Aristobulus  II.,  who  reigns  three  years 
and  three  months 

Hyrcanus,  at  the  instigation  of  Antipater,  seeks  protec- 
tion from  Aretas,  king  of  the  Arabians. 

Aretas,  king  of  the  Arabians,  undertakes  to  replace 
Hyrcanus  on  the  throne 

Aristobulus  is  worsted,  and  forced  to  shut  himself  up  in 
the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 

He  sends  deputations,  first  to  Gabinius,  and  then  to 
Scaurus,  who  were  sent  by  Pompey  into  Syria;  offers 
them  great  sums  of  money  to  enjg^age  on  his  side, 
and  to  oblige  Aretas  to  raise  the  siege  of  the  temple. 

Scaurus  writes  to  Aretas,  and  threatens  to  declare  him 
an  enemy  to  the  Roman  people,  if  he  does  not  retire. 

Aretas  withdraws  his  forces;  Aristobulus  pursues  him, 
gives  him  battle,  and  obtains  a  victory  over  him. 

Pompey  comes  to  Damascus,  and  orders  Aristobulus 
and  Hyrcanus  to  appear  before  him.  Hears  the 
cause  of  the  two  brothers,  and  advises  them  to  live 
in  good  understanding  with  each  other 

Aristobulus  withdraws  into  Jerusalem,  and  maintains  the 
city  against  Pompey,  who  besieges  it  The  dty  and 
temple  taken.  Aristobulus  taken  prisoner.  Hjrrca- 
nus  made  high-priest  and  prince  of  the  Jews,  but  not 
allowed  to  wear  the  diadem.  Judea  reduced  to  its 
ancient  limits,  and  obliged  to  pay  tribute  to  the 
Romans 

Alexander,  son  of  Aristobulus,  having  escaped  from  the 
custody  of  those  who  were  carrying  him  to  Rome, 
comes  into  Judea,  and  raises  soldiers 


End  of  the  Kingdom  of  Syria, 

Augustus,  afterwards  emperor,  is  bom.  [63,  Rawl.J 
Gabinius^  a  Roman  commander,  beats  Alexander  [57, 
Rawlinson]  and  besieges  him  in  the  castle  of  Afex- 
andrion.  Alexander  surrenders,  with  all  his  strong 
places. 
Aristobulus,  escaping  from  Rome,  returns  into  Judea, 
and  endeavors  to  repair  the  castle  of  Alexandrion. 
Is  hindered  by  the  Romans,  who  disi>erse  his  little 
army.  He  flees  to  Machaeron,  determining  to  fortify 
it,  but  is  presently  besieged  in  it  After  some  resist- 
ance, is  taken,  and  sent  a  second  time  prisoner  to 


Rome.  [57,  Rawlinson.]. 
Ptolemy  Auletes,  king  of  Egypt,  by  money,  induces 
Gabinius  to  come  mto  Egypt,  to  restore  him  to  the 
throne.  John  Hyrcanus  furnishes  Gabinius  with  pro- 
visions for  his  army,  and  writes  to  the  Jews,  in  Pelu- 
sium,  to  favor  the  passage  of  th^'Romans 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  sdiL  c  24. 


lib.  xiv.  c  1;  Bel. 
lib.  i.  c.  4. 


Jos.  ub!  sup. 


c.  3;  Bel  lib.  L  6. 


c4 


c  5. 


c  5—7. 


Strab.  lib.  xvi.  p.  762. 

Jos.  Ant  lib.  xiii.  c  10; 
BeL  lib.  L  c  6. 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  xiv.  c  11; 
Bel.  lib.  L  c  6. 


Dion.  Cas.  lib.  xxxix.; 
Plutarch  in  Anton. 
Jos.  Ant  L  xiv.  c.  11. 


. 


28 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


Year  before  Christ. 


Usher. 


Calmet 


60 
49 


48 


45 


43 


Hales. 


53 


47 


42 


44 


41 


40 


89 


88 


37 


47 


I 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


While  Gabinius  is  busy  in  Egypt,  Alexander,  son  of 

Aristobulus,  wastes  Judea.    Gabinius  defeats  him  at 

the  foot  of  Mount  Tabor 

Crassus  succeeds  Gabinius  in  the  government  of  Syria  . . 
Crassus,  passing  into  S^ma,  and  finding  the  province 

quiet,  makes  war  against  the  Parthians. 
He  comes  to  Jerusalem,  and  takes  great  riches  out  of 

the  temple 

He  marches  against  the  Parthians;  is  beaten  and  killed 

by  Orodes 

Cassius  brings  the  remains  of  the  Roman  army  over  the 

Euphrates,  takes  Tirhakah,  and  brings  from  thence 

above  30,000  Jewish  captives. 
He  restrains  Alexander,  son  of  king  Aristobulus. 
Civil  war  between  Caesar  and  Pompey 


Julius  Caesar,  making  himself  master  of  Rome,  sets 

Aristobulus  at  liberty,  and   sends  him  with   two 

legions  into  Syria. 
Those  of  Pompey's  party  poison  Aristobulus. 
Scipio  slays  young  Alexander,  son  of  Aristobulus. 
The  battle  of  Pharsalia.    Antipater  governor  of  judea. 

[48,  Rawlinson  and  all  others.] 
The  library  of  Alexandria  burnt. 
Antipater,  by  order  of   Hyrcanus,  joins  Mithridates, 

who  was  going  into  Egypt  with  succors  for  Caesar, 

and  assists  him  in  reducing  the  Egyptians. 
Caesar,  having  finished  the  war  in  Egypt,  comes  into 

Syria;  confirms  Hyrcanus  in  the  high-priesthood. 

[57,  Rawlinson.] 
Vitruvius,  the  architect,  flourishes. 
Antigonus,  son  of  Aristobulus,  remonstrates  to  Caesar; 

but  Caesar  is  prejudiced  against  him  by  Antipater . . . 
Antipater  takes  advantage  of  me  indolence  of  Hyrcanus; 

makes  his  eldest  son,  Phasael,  governor  of  Jerusa- 
lem^ and  Herod,  another  of  his  sons,  governor  of 

Galilee  

Herod  is  summoned  to  Jerusalem  to  give  an  account  of 

his  conduct,  but,  finding  himself  in  danger  of  being 

condemned,  retires  to  his  government. 
Hillel  and  Sameas,  two  famous  rabbins,  live  about  this 

time.    Sameas  was  master  to  Hillel.    Jonathan,  son 

of  Uziel,   author  of  the  Chaldee  paraphrase,    was 

a  disciple  of   Hillel.     Josephus  says,   that  Pollio 

was  master  of  Sameas.    Jerome  says,  that  Akiba 

succeeded  Sameas  and  Hillel  in  the  school  of  the 

Hebrews. 
Caesar  passes  into  Africa.    Cato  kills  himself  at  Utica. 

[46,  Rawlinson.] 
Reform  of  the  Roman  Calendar,  in  the  year  of  Rome 

708.    This  year  consisted  of  445  days 

Hjrrcanus  sends  ambassadors  to  Julius  Caesar,  to  renew 

alliance.    The  alliance  renewed  in  a  manner  very 

advantageous  to  the  Jews. 
After  the  death  of  Julius  Caesar,  the  ambassadors  of 

the  Jews  are  introduced  into  the  senate,  and  obtain 

their  whole  request 
The  Jews  of  Asia  confirmed  in  their  privilege  of  not 

being  compelled  to  serve  in  the  wars. 
Cassius   demands  700  talents  from  Judea.     Malichus 

causes  Antipater  to  be  poisoned.    [43,  Rawlinson] . . 
Herod  causes  Malichus  to  be  killed,  to  avenge    the 

death  of  his  father  Antipater. 
Felix,  having  attacked  Phasael,  is  shut  up  by  him  in  a 

tower,  whence  Phasael  would  not  release  him  but 

on  composition. 
The  era  of  S()ain,  Spain  being  now  subdued  to  Augustus 

by  Domitius  Calvinus. 

Herod  and  Phasael  tetrarchs  of  Judea 

Antigonus  II.  son  of  Aristobulus,  gathers  an  army,  and 

enters  Judea. 
Herod  gives  him  battle,  and  routs  him. 


tos.  ubi  sup. 
)ion.  Cas.  lib.  xxxix. 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  xiv.  c  12. 
Dion.  Cas.  lib.  xL 


Plut  in  Caes.,  etc 
Dion.  Cas.  lib.  xli. 
App.  Bel.  dv.  lib.  ii. 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  xiv.  c  15; 
Bel.  lib.  I  c  8. 


c  17. 


Censoriiu  c.  201 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  xvL  c  18, 
10. 


C  23. 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


20 


Year  before  Christ. 


Usher. 


40 


40 


Calmet. 


36 


Hales. 


37 


35 


34 
33 

33 


32 


31 
30 


27 


37 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 


40 


37 


Mark  Antony  coming  into  Bithynia,  some  Tews  resort 
to  him,  and  accuse  Herod  and  Phasael  before  him; 
but  Herod,  coming  thither,  wins  the  affections  of 
Antony 

Mark  Antony,  being  at  Ephesus,  grants  the  liberty  of 
their  nation  to  such  Jews  as  had  been  brought  cap- 
tive by  Cassius,  and  causes  the  lands  to  be  restored 
that  had  been  unjustly  taken  away  from  the  Jews. 

Mark  Antony  coming  to  Antioch,  some  principal  Jews 
accuse  Herod  and  Phasael,  but  instead  of  hearing 
them,  he  establishes  the  two  brothers  tetrarchs  of 
the  Jews , 

The  Jews  afterwards  send  a  deputation  of  a  thousand 
of  their  most  considerable  men  to  Antony,  then  at 
Tyre;  but  in  vain 

Antigonus,  son  of  Aristobulus,  prevails  with  the  Par- 
thians  to  place  him  on  the  throne  of  Judea.  The 
Parthians  seize  Hyrcanus  and  Phasael,  and  deliver 
them  up  to  Antigonus  

Phasael  beats  out  his  own  brains;  the  Parthians  carry 
Hyrcanus  beyond  the  Euphrates,  after  Antigonus 
had  cut  of!  his  ears.     [40,  Rawlinson.] 

Herod  forced  to  flee  to  Jerusalem,  and  thence  to  Rome, 
to  implore  assistance  from  Antony.  He  obtains 
the  kingdom  of  Judea  from  the  senate,  and  returns 
with  letters  from  Antony,  who  orders  the  governors 
of  Syria  to  assist  in  obtaining  the  kingdom.  He 
reigns  thirty-seven  years 

He  first  takes  Joppa,  then  goes  to  Massada,  where  his 
brother  Joseph  was  besieged  by  Antigonus 

He  raises  that  siege,  and  marches  against  Jerusalem; 
but,  the  season  being  too  far  advanced,  he  could  not 
then  besiege  it   

He  takes  the  robbers  that  hid  themselves  in  the  caves  of 
Galilee,  and  slays  them. 

Machera,  a  Roman  captain,  and  Joseph,  Herod's 
brother,  carry  on  the  war  against  Antigonus,  while 
Herod  goes  with  troops  to  Antony,  then  besieging 
Samosata 

After  the  taking  of  Samosata,  Antony  sends  Sosius, 
with  Herod,  into  Judea,  to  reduce  it 

After  several  battles,  Herod  marches  against  Jerusalem; 
the  city  is  taken;  Antigonus  surrenders  himself  to 
Sosius,  who  insults  him. 

Antigonus  carried  prisoner  to  Antony  at  Antioch,  who 
orders  him  to  be  beheaded 


End  of  the  reign  of  the  Asmoneans^  which  had  lasted 

1S6  years, 

Ananel  high-priest  the  first  time. 

Hyrcanus  is  treated  kindly  by  the  king  of  the  Parthians. 
Obtains  leave  to  return  into  Judea. 

Because  Hyrcanus  could  no  longer  exercise  the  func- 
tions of  the  high-priesthood,  Herod  bestows  that 
dignity  on  Ananel 

Alexandra,  mother  of  Mariamne  and  Aristobulus,  obtains 
of  Herod  that  Aristobulus  might  be  made  high-priest. 

Herod  causes  Aristobulus  to  be  drowned,  after  he  had 
been  high-priest  one  year. 

Ananel  high-priest  the  second  time 

Herod  is  sent  for  by  Antony  to  justify  himself  concern- 
ing the  murder  of  Aristobulus 

War  between  Augustus  and  Mark  Antony.  Herod 
sides  with  Antony. 

Herod's  wars  with  the  Arabians. 

A  great  earthquake  in  Judea 

The  battle  of  Actium;  Augustus  obtains  the  victory ) 
over  Antony.     [31,  Rawlinson.] ) 

Herod  seizes  Hyrcanus,  who  attempted  to  take  shelter 
with  the  king  of  the  Arabians,  and  puts  him  to  death. 
[37,  Rawlinson.] 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  xvi.  c  22. 


c.  23. 


c24,  25 


c  26. 
c  27. 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  xiv.  c.  27. 


•XV.  c  2. 


—  c  2,  8. 


Jos.  ubi  sup. 

Jos.  Ant  lib.  xv.  c.  4. 


c.  7; 

Bel.  lib.  i.  c.  14. 
Dion.  Cas.  lib.  11.    Plut 
in  Ant  etc. 


80 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


Year  bbforb  Christ. 


Usher. 


17 


Calmet, 


26 


25 
24 
22 

21 

18 

17 

16 
15 
12 

11 
10 

9 

7 
6 
5 


3 
2 


Hales. 


37 


FROM  THE  CREATION  TO  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST, 


He  goes  to  Rome  to  pay  his  court  to  Augustus;  obtains 

uie  confirmation  of  me  kingdom  of  Judea. 
Antony  and  Cleopatra  kill  themselves.  [30,  Rawlinson.] 

End  of  the  kings  of  Alexandria^  994  years  from  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great, 

Au^;ustus  comes  into  Syria;  passes  through  Palestine; 
IS  magnificently  entertainea  by  Herod. 

Herod  puts  to  death  his  wife  Mariamne,  daughter  of 
Alexandra.     [29,  Rawlinson.] 

Salome,  Herod*s  sister,  divorces  herself  from  Costo- 
barus. 

Plague  and  famine  rage  in  Tudea. 

Herod  undertakes  several  buildings,  contrary  to  the 
religion  of  the  Jews 

He  builds  Caesarea  of  Palestine. 

Agrippa,  Augustus's  favorite,  comes  into  Asia.  Herod 
visits  him.     [16,  Blair.J 

Augustus  gives  Trachonitis  to  Herod. 

Herod  undertakes  to  rebuild  the  temple  of  Jerusalem. . . 

Herod  makes  a  journey  to  Rome,  to  recommend  him- 
self to  Au^stus 

He  marries  his  two  sons,  Alexander  and  Aristobulus 

Herod  comes  to  meet  Agrippa,  and  engages  him  to  visit 
Jerusalem. 

Domestic  divisions  in  Herod's  family.  Salome,  Pheroras 
and  Antipater  at  variance  with  Alexander  and  Aristo- 
bulus     

Herod  goes  to  Rome,  and  accuses  his  two  sons,  Alex- 
ander and  Aristobulus,  to  Augustus. 

The  solemn  dedication  of  the  city  of  Caesarea,  built  by 
Herod,  in  honor  of  Auc^ustus. 

Augustus  continues  the  Jews  of  Alexandria  in  their 
ancient  rights  and  privil^es. 

Herod,  it  is  said,  causes  David's  tomb  to  be  opened,  to 
take  out  treasure. 

New  disturbances  in  Herod's  family. 

Archelaus,  king  of  Cappadoda,  reconciles  hb  son-in- 
law,  Alexander,  to  his  father,  Herod. 

Archelaus  goes  to  Rome  with  Herod. 

Herod  makes  war  in  Arabia. 

Herod  is  accused  to  Augustus  of  killing  several  Arabs. . 

An  angel  appears  to  the  priest  Zacharias.  The  concep- 
tion of  John  the  Baptist    September  24 

Annunciation  of  the  Incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,  to 
the  Virgin  Mary.    March  25    

Herod  condemns  and  sla^  his  two  sons  Alexander  and 
Aristobulus.     [6,  Blair.]  

Antipater,  son  of  Herod,  aims  at  the  kingdom. 

Herod  sends  Antipater  to  Rome. 

The  artifices  and  tricks  of  Antipater  are  discovered. 

Birth  of  John  the  Baptist,  six  months  before  tiie  birth  of 
Jesus,  June  24 


[The  precise  date  of  the  birth  of  Jesus  the  Christ  is 
still  disputable.  The  common  reckoning  or  Vulear  Era 
as  devised  by  Abbot  Dionysius  Exiguus  (he  died  about 
556  A.  D. )  was  based  upon  the  notion  that  Jesus  was 
bom  on  December  25,  one  week  before  the  January  1  of 
the  Julian  yecr  which  we  call  1  A.  D.,  thus  really  upon 
December  25  of  the  year  1  B.  C.  But  no  chronologist 
now  contends  that  December  25  was  the  natal  day;  the 
only  attempt  is  to  fix  tiie  year.  As  Herod  died  in  March 
or  April  of  the  year  4  B.  C,  and  Matthew  puts  the  birth 
of  Tesus  before  Herod's  death,  the  birth  would  fall  in  the 
still  earlier  part  of  the  year  4  B.  C,  or  in  a  previous  vear. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  that  very  learned  work,  LArt  de 
Verifier  les  DaieSy  puts  tiie  birth  in  the  year  7  B.  C,  to 
make  Jesus  two  years  old  at  the  Christmas  before  the 
death  of  Herod,  and  other  chronologists  have  adopted 
the  years  6,  5,  4,  3,  2, 1,  B.  C,  and  even  1,  2  or  3  A.  D., 
giving  a  range  of  ten  years.] 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  zv.  c  11. 


c  13. 
Cl4. 


xvi.  c  1. 
c  2. 


€.6—12. 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  xvi.  c  15. 
Luke  L  9—20. 
26-38. 


Jos.  Ant  1.  xvi.  c  17. 
1.  xvii.  c.  1. 


Luke  L  67—80. 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


31 


Before  A.D. 


Year  of 
Christ. 


Hales. 


A.D. 

7 
10 


25 


26 


27 


Usher. 


4 

3 


A.D. 


8 

8 


10 


26 


26 


27 


Calmet. 


4 
3 


A.D. 
6 

7 


9 


10 
14 


20 


28 


29 


30 


9 
10 


12 


13 
17 


23 


31 


32 


33 


FROM  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST  TO  THE  DESTRUC- 
TION OF  JERUSALEM. 


The  birth  of  our  Lord  and  Savior  Jesus  Christ, 
December  25 

Circumcision  of  Jesus,  January  1 ; 

Antipater  returns  from  Rome.  Is  accused  and  ^ 
convicted  of  a  design  to  poison  Herod j 

Wise  men  come  to  worship  Jesus 

Purification  of  the  Virgin  Mary;  Jesus  presented 
in  the  temple,  forty  days  after  fiis  birth,  Feb- 
ruary 2 

Flight  into  Egypt 

Massacre  of  Uie  innocents  at  Bethlehem 

Antipater  put  to  death  by  order  of  Herod. 

Herod  dies,  five  days  after  Antipater 

Archelaus  appointed  king  of  Judea  by  the  will  1 

Return  of  Tesus  Christ  out  of  Egypt.  He  goes 
to  dwell  at  Nazareth 

Archelaus  goes  to  Rome,  to  procure  from  Augus- 
tus the  confirmation  of  Herod*s  will  in  his 
favor. 

The  Jews  revolt;  Varus  keeps  them  in  their  duty. 

Archelaus  obtains  a  part  of  his  father's  domin- 
ions, with  the  title  of  tetrarch,  and  returns  to 
Judea. 

An  impostor  assumes  the  character  of  Alexander, 
son  of  Herod  and  Mariamne. 

Archelaus  takes  the  high-priesthood  from  Joazar, 
and  gives  it  to  Eleazar. 

The  Vulgar  Era,  or  Anno  Domini:  the  fourth 
year  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  first  of  which  has 
but  eight  days. 

Archelaus  banished  to  Vienne  in  Gaul 

Enrollment,  or  taxation,  by  Cyrenius  in  Syria. 
[The  difficulties  arising  from  the  dating  of  this 

census  are  discussed  in  the  article  Chronology.] 

Revolt  of  Judas  the  Gaulonite,  chief  of  the  Hero- 
dians. 

Jesus  Christ,  at  twelve  years  of  age,  visits  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem;  continues  there  three 
days,  unknown  to  his  parents 

Marcus  Ambivius,  governor  of  Judea 

Death  of  the  emperor  Augustus;  reigned  fifty- 
seven  years,  five  months  and  four  c&ys 

Tiberius  succeeds  him;  reigns  twenty-two  years, 
six  months,  and  twenty-eight  days 

Tiberius  expels  from  Italy  all  who  profess  the 
Jewish  religion,  or  practice  Egyptian  supersti- 
tions. 

Pilate  sent  as  governor  into  Judea.     [25,  Raw- 
linson  and  Blair. J 

He  attempts  to  bnng  the  Roman  colors  and 
ensigns  into  Jerusalem,  but  is  opposed  by 
the  Jews. 

John  the  Baptist  begins  to  preach 

Jesus  Christ  baptized  by  John 

Jesus  goes  into  the  desert 

After  forty  days,  Jesus  returns  to  John.  He  calls 
Andrew,  Simon,  Philip  and  Nathanaei 

The  marriage  in  Cana,  where  Jesus  changes 
water  into  wine 

Jesus  comes  to  Capernaum;  thence  to  Jerusalem, 
where  he  celebrates  the  first  passover  after 
his  baptism,  April  15,  this  year 


Luke  ii.  7. 

2L 

Jos.  Ant.  1.  xvii.  c  7,  9; 
Bel.  lib.  i.  c  20,  21. ' 
Matt  ii.  1—12. 


Luke  ii.  22—38. 
Matt  iL  13—16. 
16, 17. 

Jos.  Ant.  1.  xvii.  c.  8; 

Euseb.  Hist.  Ec.  L  8. 
Jos.  Ant  1.  xvii.  c  13; 

Matt  ii.  22. 

Matt.  ii.  19—23. 


Jos.  Ant,  L  xviL  c  15* 


^ 


Luke  ii.  46-48. 
OS.  Ant.  1.  xvii.  c.  15. 

el.  Pat.  lib.  ii.  c.  123; 

Suet,  in  Oct.  c.  100; 

Tadtus.  1.  i.  c.  5,  7. 
Jos.  Ant  lib,  xviii,  c.  8, 

etc. 


Matt  iii.  1; 

Luke  iii.  2,  3; 

John  i.  15. 
13—17; 

Mark  i.  9; 

Luke  iii.  2L 
iv.l— 11; 

Mark  i.  12; 

Luke  iv.  1. 


— 12,  etc.    John  i. 


35,  etc 
John  ii.  1. 

Matt  ix — xiL    John  iL 

12—25. 


32 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


A.n. 


Year  of 
Christ. 


Hales. 


28 


Usher. 


Calmet. 


30 


31 


27 


28 


32 


30 


29 


29 


29 


31 


33 


31 


33 


30 


33 


34 


35 


36 


36 


FROM  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST  TO  THE  DESTRUC- 
TION OF  JERUSALEM. 


Nicodemus  comes  to  Jesus  bv  night 

Jesus  goes  to  the  banks  ot  Jordan,  where  he 

baptizes 

Heroa  Antipas  marries  Herodias,  his  brother 

Philip's  wife,  Philip  being  yet  living. 
John  the  Baptist  declares  vehemently  against  1 

this  mqpiage;  he  is  put  in  prison / 

Jesus  withdraws  into  Galilee;  converts  the  Sa- 
maritan woman  and  several  Samaritans 

Preaches  at  Nazareth,  and  leaves  this  city  to 
dwell  m  Capernaum 

Calling  of  Simon,  Andrew,  James  and  John,  by 
Jesus  Christ 

Jesus  Christ  works  several  miracles 

Matthew  called 

The  second  passover  of  our  Saviour's  public 

ministry. 
Our  Saviour's  sermon  on  the  moimt 

John,  the  Baptist,  in  prison,  sends  a  deputation  \ 

to  Jesus,  to  inquire  if  he  were  the  Messiah . .  j 

Mission  of  the  apostles  into  several  parts  of  Judea 

John  the  Baptist  slain,  by  order  of  Herod,  at  the"! 

instigation  of  Herodias,  in  the  seventeenth  V 

year  of  Tiberius J 

Jesus  Christ  feeds  5,000  men,  with  five  loaves  and 

two  fishes 

Jesus  Christ's  third  passover,  after  his  baptism. 
He  passes  through  Judea  and  Galilee,  teaching! 

and  doing  miracles / 

Transfiguration  of  Jesus  Christ 

Mission  of  the  seventy-two  disciples 

Jesus  goes  to  Jerusalem  at  the  feast  of  Pentecost. . 

His  relations  would  have  him  go  to  the  feast  of 
Tabernacles;  he  tells  them  his  hour  is  not  yet 
come;  however,  he  goes  thither  about  the 
middle  of  the  feast 

At  the  beginning  of  the  third  year  of  the  ministry 
of  Jesus,  L^arus  falls  sick,  and  dies  ;  Jesus 
comes  from  beyond  Jordan,  and  restores  him 
to  life 

Jesus  retires  to  Ephraim  on  Jordan,  to  avoid  the 
snares  and  malice  of  the  Jews  of  Jerusalem . . . 

He  comes  to  Jerusalem,  to  tie  present  at  his  last 
passover 

On  Sabbath,  March  28,  of  Nisan  9,  he  arrives  at 
Bethany ;  sups  with  Simon  the  leper 

Sunday,  March  29,  his  triumphant  entry  into) 
Jerusalem j 

Tuesday,  March  31,  he  comes  again  to  Jerusa- ) 
lem;  on  his  wav  curses  the  barren  fig-tree. .  / 

Wednesday,  April  1,  the  priests  and  scribes  )^ 
consult  on  means  to  apprehend  him / 

Thursday,  April  2,  he  passes  this  day  on  the 
mount  of  Olives;  sends  Peter  and  John  into 
the  city  to  prepare  for  the  passover 

Thursday  evening,  he  goes  into  the  city,  and  eats 
his  last  supper  with  his  apostles;  institutes 
the  Eucharist.  After  supper,  he  retires  with 
them  into  the  garden  of  Gethsemane,  where 
Tudas,  accompanied  by  the  soldiers,  seizes 
him 


John  iii.  1— 21. 
22. 


Matt  xiv.  3—5;  Mark 
vi.  17—20;  Luke  iii. 
19. 

John  iv.  1—42. 

Luke  iv.  16—32. 

Matt.  iv.  18—22;  Marki. 

1^—20;   Luke  v.  1— 

11. 
Mark  i.  23—27;   ii.  12; 

Matt.  viii.   14—17; 

Luke  iv.  35;  v.  25. 
Matt.  ix.  9;  Mark  ii.  14; 
Lukev  27. 


v.  1— vii.  29;  Luke 

VI.  20—49. 

xi.  2 — 6;  Luke  vii. 

18—23. 

X.  Mark  vi.  7 — 13; 

Luke  ix.  1—6. 


xiv.  1;  Markvi.  14; 

Luke  ix.  7. 
15;  Mark  vi.  35; 

Luke  ix.  12;  John 

vi.  5. 

ix.  35;  Mark  vi.  6. 

xvii.  1;  Mark  ix.  2; 

Luke  ix.  28. 
Luke  X.  1 — 16. 
John  V.  1. 


vii.  1— ^. 


xi.  17—46. 
—  54. 


Matt.  xxi.  1;  Mark  xi.  1; 
Luke  xix.  29;  John 
xii.  12. 

iohn  xii.  1 — 8. 
iatt.  xxi.  8;  Mark  xi. 
8;    Luke  xix.   36; 
John  xii.  13. 

xxi.  18,  19;  Mark 

xi.  12—14. 
Mark  xi.  18;  Luke  xix. 
47,  48. 

Matt.  xxvi.l7;  Mark  xiv. 

12;  Luke  xxii.  7. 
20;   Mark    xiv. 

17:  Luke  xxii.  14; 

John  xiii.  1;  Matt. 

XX vi.  30;  Mark  xiv. 

26:   Luke  xxii.  39; 

Jonn  xviii.  1,  3. 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


33 


A.D. 


Year  of 
Christ. 


Hales. 


Usher. 


Calmet. 


30 


30 


31 


34 
35 


30 


35 
37 
37 


34 


34 


35 


37 


35 
36 
37 


37 


37 


37 


38 
40 
40 


38 


38 
39 
40 


41 


FROM  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST  TO  THE  DESTRUC- 
.  TION  OF  JERUSALEM. 


In  the  night-time,  Jesus  is  conducted  to  Annas,  ^ 
father-in-law  of  the  high-priest  Caiaphas. . .  / 

Friday.  April  3,  Nisan  14,  he  is  carried  to  Pilate,  ] 
accused,  condemned  and  crucified  on  Calvary  >> 
[Some  date  the  crucifixion  in  A.D.  29.]  j 

Towards  evening,  before  the  repose  of  thel 
sabbath  begins,  he  is  taken  down  from  the  >• 
cross,  embalmed,  and  laid  in  a  tomb j 

The  priests  set  guards  about  it,  and  seal  up  the 
entry  of  the  sepulchre 

He  continues  in  the  tomb  all  Friday  night,  all 
Saturday  (that  is,  the  sabbath),  and  Saturday 
night,  till  Sunday  morning. 

He  rises  on  Sunda}^  morning 

Angels  declare  his  resurrection  to  the  holy 
women  who  visit  his  tomb 

Jesus  himself  appears;  1.  to  Mary  Magdalen, 
who  mistakes  nim  for  the  gardener;  2.  to  the 
holy  women,  returning  from  the  sepulchre; 
3.  to  Peter;  4.  to  the  two  disciples  going  to 
Emmaus;  5,  to  the  apostles  assembled  in  an 
apartment  at  Jerusalem,  excepting  Thomas, 
who  was  absent;  all  this  on  the  day  of  his 
resurrection 

Eight  days  after,  in  the  same  place,  he  again 
visits  his  disciples,  and  convinces  Thomas, 
now  present 

The  apostles  return  into  Galilee.  Jesus  shows  1 
himself  to  them  on  several  occasions / 

The  apostles,  having  passed  about  twenty-eight 
days  in  Galilee,  return  to  Jerusalem. 

Jesus  appears  to  ihem  while  at  table,  in  Jerusa- 
lem, May  14.  Having  taken  them  out  of  the 
city,  to  the  mount  of  Olives,  he  ascends  into 
heaven  before  them  all,  on  the  fortieth  day 
after  his  resurrection 

Ten  davs  after,  being  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  the 
Holy  Ghost  descends  upon  them  in  the  form 
of  tongues  of  fire 

Seven  deacons  chosen 

St.  Stephen  martyred 

Saul  persecutes  tne  church;  his  conversion 

[Conversion  of  Paul,  33  A.D. ,  Adam  Clarke;  36, 
Conybeare  and  Howson;  37  or  later,  Farrar.] 

Pretended  date  of  a  fictitious  letter,  which  pur- 
ports to  be  from  Pilate  to  Tiberius,  about  the 
life  and  death  of  Tesus  Christ. 

James  the  lesser  made  bishop  of  Jerusalem. 

Philip  the  deacon  baptizes  the  eunuch  of  queen 
Candace  

Dispersion  of  believers  from  Jerusalem , 

Agrippa  the  younger,  being  much  involved  in 
deDt  in  Judea,  resolves  on  going  to  Rome. 

He  arrives  at  Rome,  and  devotes  himself  to  Caius, 
afterwards  emperor. 

He  falls  under  the  displeasure  of  Tiberius,  and  is 
put  in  prison. 

Pilate  ordered  into  Italy. 

Tiberius  dies;  Caius  Caligula  succeeds 

Agrippa  set  at  liberty,  and  promoted  to  honor. 

Apollonius  Tyanaeus  becomes  famous  about  the 
end  of  Tiberius* s  reign. 

It  is  thought  that  about  this  time  St.  Peter  comes 
to  Antioch. 

St.  Paul  escapes  from  Damascus,  by  being  let 
down  in  a  basket 

He  comes  to  Jerusalem;  Barnabas  introduces  him 
to  the  apostles  and  disciples 

He  goes  to  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  his  native  country   , 

Caligula  gives  Agrippa  the  tetrarchy  of  his  uncle 
Philip;  he  returns  into  Judea;  passing  through 


Matt    xxvi.    57;   Mark 

xiv.  53;  Luke  xxii. 

54;  John  xviii.  13. 
xxvii.     2,    11 — 14; 

Mark  xv.  1  ;Lu.xxiii. 

1;  John  xviii.  28. 
57;  Mark  xv. 

42:  Luke  xxxiii.50; 

Jonn  xix.  38. 

66. 


X  xviii.  2. 


John  XX.  11. 

14. 

Matt  xxviii.  9;  John  xx. 

18. 
Luke  xxiv.  36. 


iohn  XX.  19—23. 
lark  xvi.  14;  John  xx. 
26. 

Matt,  xxviii.  16—18; 
John  xxi.  1. 


Luke  xxiv.  30,  31;  Acts 
i.  9. 


Actsii. 

vi.  1-6. 

8— vii.  60. 

viii.  1 — ix,  1—19. 


Acts  viii.  26-40. 


—  L 


Sueton.  in  Calig. 


Acts  ix.  23—25. 


—  26—29. 

—  30. 


84 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


A.D. 


Year  of 
Christ. 


Hales. 


Usher. 


Calmet. 


39 


40 


41 


41 


35 


44 


42 
43 
44 


43 


45 


48 
48 


46 


48 


42 


43 


44 


45 
46 
47 


48 


49 


51 


49 


52 


FROM  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST  TO  THE  DESTRUC- 
TION OF  JERUSALEM. 


Alexandria,  he  is  ridiculed  by  the  inhabitants. 

The  citizens  of  Alexandria  make  an  uproar  against 
the  Jews,  at  the  instigation  of  Flaccus. 

Pilate  kills  himself.    [Tradition:  not  known.] 

Flaccus  apprehended,  and  carried  to  Rome;  is 
banished  by  order  of  Caligula. 

Herod  the  tetrarch  goes  to  Rome,  in  hopes  of 
obtaining  some  favor  from  the  emperor.  But 
Caligula,  being  prepossessed  by  Agrippa,  ban- 
ishes him  to  Lyons. 

Calieula  orders  Petronius  to  place  his  statue  in 
the  temple  of  Jerusalem.  The  Jews  obtain 
some  delay  from  Petronius. 

Agrippa  endeavors  to  divert  the  emperor  from 
this  thought,  at  last,  as  a  great  favor,  that  this 
statue  should  not  be  set  up. 

Philo,  the  Jew,  goes  with  a  deputation  from  the 
Tews  at  Alexandria  to  Caligula. 

Philo  obtains  an  audience  of  the  emperor,  and 
runs  the  hazard  of  his  life. 

Tumults  in  Chaldea;  the  Jews  quit  Babylon,  and 
retire  to  Seleucia. 

About  this  time,  Helena,  queen  of  the  Adiabe- 
nians,  and  Izates,  her  son.  embrace  Judaism. 

Caius  Caligula  dies;  Claudius  succeeds  him. 
A&jippa  persuades  him  to  accept  the  empire 
ottered  by  the  army.  Claudius  adds  Judea 
and  Samaria  to  Agnppa's  dominions 

Agrippa  returns  to  Judea;  takes  the  high-priest- 
hood from  Theophilus,  son  of  Ananus;  gives 
it  to  Simon  Cantharus. 

Soon  after,  takes  this  dignity  hx>m  Cantharus,  and 
gives  it  to  Matthias. 

Peter  comes  to  Rome  in  the  reig^  of  Claudius. 
The  year  not  certain.  [Even  the  coming 
disputed.] 

Agrippa  deprives  the  high-priest  Matthias  of  the 
pnesthood;  bestows  it  on  Elioneus,  son  of 
Citheus 

Causes  the  apostle  James  the  greater  to  be  seized  ^ 
and  beheads  him j 

Peter  also  put  into  prison  by  his  order,  but  is  liber- 
ated by  an  angel 

Sometime  afterwards,  Agrippa,  at  Caesarea,  re- 
ceives a  sudden  stroke  n'om  heaven,  and  dies 
in  great  miseiy 

Paul  and  Barnabas  go  to  Jerusalem  with  the 
contributions  of  the  believers  at  Antioch 

At  their  return  to  Antioch,  the  church  sends  them 
forth  to  preach  to  the  Gentiles,  wherever  the 
Holy  Ghost  should  lead  them 

Caspius  Fadus  in  Judea,  governor.    [44,  Rawl.] 

A  great  famine  in  Judea 

Paul  and  Barnabas  go  to  Cyprus,  thence  to  Pam- 
phylia,  Pisidia  and  Lycaonia.  (But  see  under 
Paul) 

At  Lystra,  the  people  prepare  sacrifice  to  them 
as  gods 

They  return  to  Antioch 

The  First  Epistle  of  Peter 

About  this  time  Mark  writes  his  Gospel 

Caspius  Fadus  recalled:  the  government  of  Judea 
given  to  Tiberius  Alexander 

Herod,  king  of  Chalcis,  takes  the  pontificate  from 
Joseph,  son  of  Camides;  gives  it  to  Ananias, 
son  of  Nebedeus. 

Herod,  kine  of  Chalcis,  dies. 

Ventidius  Cumanus  made  governor  of  Judea  in 
place  of  Tiberius  Alexander.  [48,  Rawlinson.] 

Troubles  in  Judea  imder  the  government  of  Cu- 
manus. 


Sueton.  in  Claud. 


Acts  xii.    1.  2; 
Jos.  Ant  lib.  xix.  c.  8. 


—  3—17. 


—  21—23. 


xi.  2e-30;  xiL  25. 


xiii.  1—3. 


Jos.  Ant.  lib.  xx.  c  2. 


Acts  xiii.  4 — xiv.  10. 


xiv.  11—18. 
—  19—28. 


1  Peter. 
Gospel  of  Mark. 

Jos.  Ant.  lib.  xx.  c  6. 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


35 


A.D. 


Year  of 
Christ. 


Hales. 


49 


49 


Usher. 


60 


52 
52 
55 


53 
54 


56 


57 
58 


60 
60 
61 


61 


63 


Calmet. 


51 


52 
53 


54 
54 


55 
56 
57 


58 
59 


60 


61 


62 


63 


64 


54 


55 
56 


57 
57 


58 
59 
60 


61 
62 


63 


64 


65 


66 


67 


FROM  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST  TO  THE  DESTRUC- 
TION OF  JERUSALEM. 


Judaizin^  Christians  enforce  the  law  on  converted 
Gentiles 

The  council  at  lerusalem  determines  that  con- 
verted Gentiles  should  not  be  bound  to  an 
observance  of  the  legal  ceremonies 

Peter  comes  to  Antioch  and  is  reproved  by  Paul.. 

Paul  and  Barnabas  separate  on  accoimt  of  John 
Mark 

Timothy  adheres  to  Paul  and  receives  circumci- 
sion   

Luke  at  this  time,  with  Paul 

Paul  passes  out  of  Asia  into  Macedonia 

Paul  comes  to  Athens 

From  Athens  he  goes  to  Corinth 

The  Jews  expelled  from  Rome  imder  the  reig^  of 
Cflaudius 

Felix  sent  governor  into  Judea  instead  of  Cuma- 
nus.     [49,  Rawlinson.J 

First  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Thessalonians 

His  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  some 
months  after  the  First .•....•..  

Paul  leaves  Corinth  after  a  stay  of  eighteen 
months;  takes  ship  to  go  Jerusalem;  visits 
Ephesus  in  his  way 

Apollos  arrives  at  Ephesus;  preaches  Christ 

St  Paul,  having  finished  his  devotions  at  Jerusa- 
lem^  goes  to  Antioch 

Passes  into  Galatia  and  Phrygia,  and  returns  to 
Ephesus,  where  he  continues  three  years 

Claucuus,  the  emperor,  dies,  being  poisoned  by 
Agrippina.  Nero  succeeds  him.  [54,  Raw- 
linson.J    

j^istle  of  Paul  to  the  Galatians 

The  First  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Corinthians 

Paul  forced  to  leave  Ephesus  on  account  of  the 
uproar  raised  against  him  by  Demetrius  the 
silversmith  

He  goes  into  Macedonia:  writes  2  Corinthians. . . 

Epistle  to  the  Romans 

Paul  goes  into  Judea  to  carry  contributions 

Is  seized  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem 

Is  sent  prisoner  to  Caesarea 

Ishmael,  son  of  Tabei,  made  high-priest  instead 
of  Ananias. 

Disturbance  between  the  Jews  of  Caesarea  and 
the  other  inhabitants. 

Pordus  Festus  made  governor  of  Judea  in  the 
room  of  Felix 

Paul  appeals  to  the  emperor;  is  put  on  shipboard; 
sent  to  Rome;  wrecked  at  Malta 

He  arrives  at  Rome,  and  continues  there  a  pris- 
oner two  years 

The  Jews  build  a  wall,  which  hinders  Agrippa 
from  looking  within  the  temple. 

Ishmael,  the  hi§h-priest  deposed.  Joseph,  sur- 
named  Cabei,  is  put  in  his  place. 

Epistles  of  Paul  to  the  Philippians;  Colossians  . . . 

Martyrdom  of  the  apostle  James  the  lesser,  bishop 
of  Jerusalem. 

Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Hebrews,  written  from  Italy 

soon  after  he  was  set  at  liberty 

rit  is  not  certain  that  Paul  wrote  that  Epistle.] 

Albinus,  successor  to  Festus,  arrives  in  Judea 
[62,  Rawlinson.l 

A  division  among  the  priests  of  Jerusalem  on  the 
subject  of  tithes. 

The  singing  Levites  obtain  leave  to  wear  linen 
garments  in  the  temple  as  well  as  the  priests. 

Jesus,  son  of  Ananus,  begins  to  cry  in  Jerusalem, 
**  Woe  to  the  dty  *'  etc.,  and  continues  so  to 
cry  till  the  siege  by  the  Romans 

Paul  comes  out  of  Italy  into  Judea;  passes  by 


Acts  XV,  1— 6, 


—  6—29. 


Gal.  ii.  11. 
Acts  XV.  36—39. 
xvi.  1—3. 


—  9—12. 
xvii.  15 — 34. 
xviii.  1. 


xviii.  2. 


1  Thessalonians. 


Acts  xviii.  18,  19,  20. 
24—26. 


—  22. 

— 23;  xix.  1. 


Sueton.  in  Nero, 
Galatians. 
1  Corinthians, 


Acts  xix.  23 — 41. 

XX.  1 ;  2  Cor. 

Romans. 

Acts  xxi.  1 — 15. 

xxi.  27 — xxiil  10. 

xxiii.  31 — 35. 


xxiv.  27. 

XXV.  11, 12— xxviL 

xxviii.  16 — 31. 


Philippians,  Colossians, 


Hebrews. 


Jos.  Ant  lib.  xx.  c  9. 


Jos.  Bel.  lib.  vL  c.  5. 


86 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


A.D. 


Year  of 
Christ. 


Hales. 


Usher. 


66 


Calmet. 


65 


64 


66 


64 
66 


61 
61 

67 


66 


62 


67 
68 


69 


67 


67 


68 


68 


69 


70 


71 


72 
72 


FROM  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST  TO  THE  DESTRUC- 
TION OF  JERUSALEM. 


Crete,  Ephesus  and  Macedonia.  [No  author- 
ity for  such  reputed  joumeyj 

He  writes  his  First  Epistle  to  Timothy  and  that 
to  Titus 

Agrippa  takes  the  high-priesthood  from  Jesus, 
son  of  Gamaliel;  gives  it  to  Matthias,  son  of 
Theophilus 

Gessius  Florus  made  governor  of  Judea  in  place 
of  Albinus.     [65,  Rawlinson.] 

Nero  sets  fire  to  the  city  of  Rome;  throws  the 
blame  on  the  Christians,  several  of  whom  are 
cruelly  put  to  death 

Peter  wntes  his  Second  Epistle,  probably  from 
Rome:  many  deny  that  he  visited  Rome 

Several  prodigies  at  Jerusalem  this  year,  during 
the  passover. 

Paul  goes  to  Rome  the  last  time;  is  there  put 
into  prison:  also  Peter. 

Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Ephesians 

Second  Epistle  of  Paul  to  Timothy 

Apollonius  Tyanaeus  comes  to  Rome. 

Tne  martyrdom  of  Peter  and  Paul  at  Rome 

[The  presence  of  Peter  in  Rome  is  not  proved. 

The  date  of  the  martyrdom  of  Paul  is  given  at 

66  A.D.  by  Blair  and  others;  at  68  A.D.   by 

Conybeare  and  Howson;  Farrar  seems  to  agree 

with  them.] 

Clement  succeeds  St.  Peter,  but  does  not  take 

rn  him  the  government  of  the  church  till 
r  the  death  of  Linus. 

Mark  comes  again  to  Alexandria,  and  there  suf- 
fers martyrdom. 

Cestius,  governor  of  Syria,  comes  to  Jerusalem; 
enumerates  the  Jews  at  the  passover 

Disturbances  at  Caesarea,  and  at  Terusalem. 

Florus  puts  several  Jews  to  deaui;  the  Jews  re- 
volt, and  kill  the  Roman  garrison  at  Jerusa- 
lem; a  massacre  of  the  Jews  of  Cssarea. 

All  the  Jews  of  Scythopolis  slain  in  one  nieht. 

CestiuSj  governor  of  Sjrria,  comes  into  Judea. 

He  besieges  the  temple  at  Jerusalem;  retires;  is 
defeated  by  the  Jews. 

The  Christians  of  Jerusalem,  seeing  a  war  about 
to  break  out  retire  to  Pella,  in  the  kingdom 
of  Agrippa,  oeyond  Jordan 

Vespasian  appointed  by  Nero  for  the  Jewish  war. 

Tosephus  made  governor  of  Galilee. 

Vespasian  sends  his  son  Titus  to  Alexandria; 
comes  himself  to  Antioch,  and  forms  a 
numerous  armv. 

Vespasian  enters  Judea;  subdues  Galilee;  Jose- 
phus  besieged  in  Jotapata;  Jotapata  taken; 
Josephus  surrenders  to  Vespasian 

Tiberias  and  Tarichea,  which  had  revolted  against 
A^ppa,  reduced  by  Vespasian. 

Divisions  in  Jerusalem;  the  Zealots  seize  the 
temple,  and  commit  violence  in  Jerusalem . . 

They  depose  Theophilus  from  being  high-priest, 
and  put  Phannias  in  his  place. 

The  Zealots  send  for  the  Idumeans  to  succor 
Jerusalem;  they  slay  Ananus,  Jesus,  son  of 
Gamala,  and  Zachanas,  son  of  Baruch. 

The  Idumeans  retire  from  Jerusalem. 

Nero,  the  emperor,  dies.    Galba  succeeds  him. . . 

Vespasian  takes  all  tiie  places  of  strength  in 
Judea,  about  Jerusalem. 

Simon,  son  of  Gioras,  ravages  Judea,  and  the 
south  of  Idumea. 

Galba  dies;  Otho  declared  emperor 

Otho  dies;  Vitellius  proclaimed  emperor. 

Vespasian  declared  emperor  by  the  army;  is 
acknowledged  all  over  the  East 


1  Tunothy, 

Jos.  Ant  lib.  xx«  c.  9 


Tacit  Hist  lib.  v. 
2  Peter. 


Ephesians. 
2  Timothy, 

Euseb.  Hist  L  iiL  c  1. 


Jos.  BeL  lib.  H.  c  13. 


c86. 


lib.  ill.  c  1. 
c8. 


Iib.iv.c5,6. 


Plut  et  Suet  In  Galb. 


Tacit  lib.  ii.  c  50. 


Jos.  Bel.  lib.  iv.  c.  10. 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  THE  HOLY  BIBLE 


37 


A.D. 


Year  of 
Christ. 


Hales. 


70 


Usher. 


74 


05 


Calmet. 


70 


71 


72 


73 


74 


75 


FROM  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST  TO  THE  DESTRUC- 
TION OF  JERUSALEM. 


Tosephus  set  at  liberty. 

John  of  Gischala  heads  the  Zealots. 

Eleazer,  son  of  Simon,  forms  a  third  party;  makes 
himself  master  of  the  inner  temple,  or  the 
cx>urt  of  the  priests 

Titus  marches  against  Jerusalem,  to  besiege  it . . . 

Comes  down  beiore  Jerusalem,  some  days  before 
the  passover. 

The  factions  unite  at  first  against  the  Romans, 
but  afterwards  divide  again 

The  Romans  take  the  first  enclosure  of  Jerusa- 
lem, then  the  second;  they  make  a  wall  all 
roimd  the  city,  which  is  reduced  to  distress 
by  famine. 

July  17,  the  perpetual  sacrifice  ceases. 

The  Romans  become  masters  of  the  court  of  the 
people,  in  the  temple;  they  set  fire  to  the 
galleries. 

A  Roman  soldier  sets  the  temple  on  fire,  notwith- 
standing Titus  commands  the  contrary 

The  Romans,  being  now  masters  of  the  city  and 
temple,  offer  sacrifices  to  their  gods. 

The  last  enclosure  of  the  city  taken 

John  of  Gischala,  and  Simon,  son  of  Gioras, 
conceal  themselves  in  the  common  sewers. 

Titus  demolishes  the  temple  to  its  foundations. 

He  also  demolishes  the  city,  reserving  the  towers 
of  Hippicus,  Phasael  and  Mariamne 

Titus  returns  to  Rome,  to  his  father  Vespasian; 
they  triumph  over  Judea. 

Bassus  sent  into  Judea  as  lieutenant. 

After  the  death  of  Bassus,  Fulvius  Svlva  succeeds; 
takes  some  fortresses  that  still  held  out  in 
Judea. 

The  temple  Onion,  in  Egypt,  shut  up  by  the 
Romans. 

An  assassin  of  Judea  seduces  the  Jews  of  Cyrene, 
and  causes  their  destruction 

Vespasian  causes  a  strict  search  to  be  made  for 
all  who  are  of  the  race  of  David. 

John  exiled  to  Patmos;  he  dies  there  about 
A.D.  100.  In  this  latter  year  Pliny,  proconsul 
of  Bithynia,  writes  to  Trajan  about  Christians. 


Jos.  BeL  lib.  v.  c  1. 


<.2 


■c.  7 


lib.  vL  c.  4. 


C.8. 


lib.  vil.  c.  1. 


c  11. 


Note.— It  is  Important  to  an  understandinfi^  of  Calmet's  dates  that  the  reader  shall  notice  that  Calmet  does  not  take  the 
_  of  the  Christian  Era  as  the  point  from  wnich  to  reckon.  In  other  words,  his  **  before  Christ "  is  not  the  same  as  the 
C."  of  other  writers.  He  dates  the  birth  of  Jesus  in  the  close  of  the  year  4  B.  C,  which  he  calls  the  year  of  Christ ,  or  the 
year  1  of  a  new  scale.  Then  he  numbers  the  years  as  they  occur  before  that  year.  Thus  his  year  1  "  before  Christ  **  is  the  same 
as  the  year  5  B.  C.  of  other  writers.  So  when  Calmet  places  the  death  of  Solomon  in  971  *'  before  Christ,"  as  in  the  table  above, 
and  Usher  makes  it  975  B.  C.  (see  page  11),  they  ascribe  the  event  to  the  same  real  year.  To  Calmet *s  dates  add  4  to  bring  them 
to  the  common  computation.  But  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Era  this  rule  must  be  abandoned :  from  that  point  his  dates 
are  regularly  3  years  more  than  the  dates  A.  D. 


S8 


THE  CALENDAR  OF  THE  JEWS. 


The  year  of  the  Hebrews  is  composed  of  twelve  lunar  months,  of  which  the  first  has  thirty  days,  and  the  second  twenty- 
nine ;  and  so  the  rest  successively  and  alternately.  The  year  begins  in  autumn,  as  to  the  civil  year ;  and  in  the  spring,  as  to  the 
sacred  vear.  The  Jews  had  calendars,  anciently,  wherein  were  noted  all  the  feasts— all  the  fasts — and  all  the  days  on  which 
they  celebrated  the  memory  of  any  great  event  that  had  happened  to  the  nation.  Zech.  viii:  10 ;  Esth.  viii:  6,  m  Graco.  These 
ancient  calendars  are  sometimes  quoted  in  Talmud  {Afisna  jyaci,  Taanith,  n.  8),  but  the  rabbins  acknowledge  that  they  are  not 
now  in  being  {vide  Maimonides  ei  Bartenora,  in  eum  locum) .  Those  that  we  have  now,  whether  printed  or  in  manuscript,  are 
not  very  ancient  (vide  Genebrar,  Bibliot  Rabbinic  d  S19:  BuxtorC  Levii.  Talmud,  p.  1046;  Bartolocci.  BibL  Rabbinic^  torn.  ii. 
p.  560;  Lamy's  Introduction  to  the  Scnpture;  and  Plantav.  Isarog.  Rabbin,  ad  Jinem].  That  which  passes  for  the  oldest  is 
MegillcUh  Taanith^  **  the  volume  of  affliction  ;**  which  contains  the  days  of  feasting  and  fasting  heretofore  in  use  among  the 
Jews,  which  are  not  now  observed,  nor  are  they  in  the  common  calendars.  We  shall  insert  the  chief  historical  events,  taken  as 
well  ifrom  this  volume,   TaanitA,  as  from  other  calendars. 

THE  JEWISH  YEAR. 

(This  table  commences  at  the  first  month  of  the  sacred  year.) 


Month  of 

Name. 

No.  of 
Days. 

English  Months. 

Products  Maturing. 

Sacred 
Year. 

Civil 
Year. 

Jewish  Festivals. 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XL 
XII. 
XIII. 

VII. 

VIII. 
IX. 

X. 

XI. 
XII. 

I. 

II. 
III. 

IV. 
V. 
VI. 

f     Abib,  or  Nisan      1 

\  (Exod.xii:2;  xiii  14).  j 

lyar,  or  Zif. 

Sivan. 

Thammuz. 

Ab  (Ezra  vii:  9). 

Elul  (Neh.  vi:  15). 

Tisri  (1  Kings  viii:  2) 
or  Ethanim. 

Bill  (1  Kings  vi:  38). 
Chisleu  (Zech.  vii:  1). 
Tebeth  (Esth.  ii:  10). 

ShebatVZech.  i:  7). 

Adar  (Ezra  vi:  15). 
Ve-Adar,  Intercalary, 

30 

29 
30 
29 
30 
29 

30 

29 
30 
29 
30 
29 

March,  April. 

April,  May. 

May,  June. 

Jiine,  July. 

July,  August. 

Augiist,  Sept 

Sept,  Oct 

Oct,  Nov. 

Nov.,  Dec 

Dec.,  Jan. 

Jan.,  Feb. 

Feb.,  March. 

f     Barley  ripe.      \ 

\  Fig  in  Dlossom.  j 

Barley  harvest 

Wheat  harvest. 

Early  vintage. 

Ripe  figs. 

General  vintage. 

r  Ploughing  and  1 
\        Sowing.        1 

Latter  grapes. 

Snow. 
Grass  after  rain. 

Winter  fig. 
Almond  blossom. 

f           Passover 

\  Unleavened  Breads 

Pentecost 

i  Feast  of  Trumpets. 

Atonement 
I    Feast  of  TiWnMki 

I>edication. 
Purim. 

(The  Calendar  g^ven  below  commences  at  the  first  month  of  the  civil  year.) 

TISRI. 

The  first  month  of  the  civil  year;  the  seventh  month  of  the  sacred  year.    It  has  thirfy  days,  and  answers 
to  the  moon  of  September, 

Day  1.    New  moon.    Beginning  of  the  dvil  year. 

The  feast  of  trumpets,  Lev.  xxiii:  24;  Numb,  xxix:  1,  2. 

3.    Fast  for  uie  death  of  Gedaliah,  2  Kings  xxv:  25:  Ten  xli:  2. 

The  same  day,  the  abolition  of  written  contracts.  Wicked  kings  having  forbidden  the  Israelites  to 
pronounce  the  name  of  God,  when  they  were  restored  to  liberty,  the  Asmoneans,  or  Maccabees,  ordained 
that  the  name  of  God  should  be  written  in  contracts  after  this  manner:  **  In  such  a  year  of  the  high- 
priest  N.,  who  is  minister  of  the  most  high  God,"  etc.  The  judges  to  whom  these  writings  were  pre- 
sented, decreed  they  should  be  satisfied:  saying,  for  example,  "  On  such  a  day,  such  a  debtor  shall  pay 
such  a  sum,  accordmg  to  his  promise,  after  which  the  schedule  shall  be  torn."  But  it  was  found  that  the 
name  of  God  was  taken  away  out  of  the  writing;  and  thus  the  whole  became  useless  and  ineffectual. 
For  which  reason  they  abolished  all  these  written  contracts,  and  appointed  a  festival  day  in  memory  of 
it    (MegtlL  Taanith,  ch.  7.) 

5.  The  death  of  twenty  Israelites.    Rabbi  Akiba,  son  of  Joseph,  dies  in  prison. 

7.    A  fast,  on  account  of  the  worshipping  the  golden  calf,  and  of  the  sentence  God  pronounced 
against  Israel,  in  consequence  of  that  crime.    Exod.  xxxii:  6-8,  34. 
10.    A  feast  of  expiation.    Lev.  xxiii:  19,  etc. 
15.    The  feast  of  tabernacles,  with  its  octave.    Lev.  xxiii:  34. 

21.  Hosanna  Rabba.    The  seventh  day  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  or  the  feast  of  branches. 

22.  The  octave  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles. 

23.  The  rejoicing  for  the  law,  a  solemnity  in  memory  of  the  covenant  that  the  Lord  made  with  the 
Hebrews,  in  giving  them  the  laws  by  the  mediation  of  Moses. 

On  this  same  day,  the  dedication  of  Solomon's  temple,  1  Kings  viii:  65,  66. 
30.    The  first  new  moon  of  the  month  of  Marchesvan. 

MARCHESVAN,  OR  BUL. 

The  second  month  of  the  civil  year;  the  eighth  month  of  the  sacred  year.    It  has  but  twenty-nine  days, 
and  answers  to  the  moon  of  October, 

Day  1.    The  second  new  moon,  or  first  day  of  the  month. 

6,  7.  A  fast,  because  Nebuchadnezzar  put  out  the  eyes  of  Zedekiah,  after  he  had  slain  his  children 
t>efore  his  face.    2  Kings  xxv:  7;  Jer.  Hi:  10. 

19.  A  fast  on  Monday  and  Tuesday  (Thursday  ?],  and  the  Monday  following,  to  expiate  faults  com- 
mitted on  occasion  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles  ( vide  Cfalendar,  a  Bartoloccio  editum, 

23.  A  feast,  or  memorial  of  the  stones  of  the  altar,  profaned  by  the  Greeks;  which  were  laid  aside, 
in  expectation  of  a  prophet,  who  could  declare  to  wniat  use  they  might  be  applied.  1  Mac.  iv:  46. 
(Megitlath,  ch.  8.) 

26.  A  feast  in  memory  of  some  places  possessed  by  the  Cuthites,  which  the  Israelites  recovered  at 
their  return  from  the  captivity. 


THE  CALENDAR  OF  THE  JEWS— Continued  3» 

A  dispute  of  Rabbin  Jochanan,  son  of  Zachai,  against  the  Sadducees,  who  pretended  that  the  loaves 
of  the  fii^-fruits  (Lev.  xxiii:  17, 18)  were  not  to  be  offered  on  the  altar,  but  to  be  eaten  hot  (MegiiL 
ch.  9.) 

CHISLEU. 

Th^  third  month  of  the  civil  year;  the  niftth  month  of  the  sacred  year.    It  has  thirty  days  and  answers 
to  our  moon  of  November, 

Day  1.    New  moon,  or  the  first  day  of  the  month. 

3.  A  feast  in  memory  of  the  idols  which  the  Asmoneans  threw  out  of  the  courts,  where  the  Gentiles 
had  placed  them.   {^MegilL  TaanithA 

6.  A  fast  in  memory  of  the  book  of  Jeremiah,  torn  and  burnt  by  Jehoiakim,  Jer.  xxxvi:  23. 

7.  A  feast  in  memory  of  the  death  of  Herod  the  Great,  son  of  Antipater,  who  was  always  an  enemy 
to  the  sages.    ( Megillath,  ch.  11. ) 

21.  The  feast  of  Mount  Gerizim.  The  Jews  relate  that  when  their  high  priest  Simon,  with  his 
priests,  went  out  to  meet  Alexander  the  Great,  the  Cutheans  or  Samaritans  went  also,  and  desired  this 
prince  to  give  them  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  to  sell  them  a  part  of  Mount  Moriah,  which  reauest 
Alexander  granted.  But  the  high  pnest  of  the  Jews  afterwards  presenting  himself,  and  Alexander  asking 
him  what  he  desired,  Simon  entreated  him  not  to  suffer  the  Samaritans  to  destroy  the  temple.  The  king 
replied  to  him,  that  he  delivered  that  people  into  his  hands,  and  he  might  do  what  he  pleased  with  them. 
Then  the  high  priest  and  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  took  the  Samaritans,  bored  a  hole  through  their  heels, 
and  tyin^  them  to  their  horses'  tails,  draped  them  aloi^  to  Mount  Gerizim,  which  they  ploughed  and 
sowed  with  tares,  just  as  the  Samaritans  had  intended  to  do  to  the  temple  of  Jerusalem.  In  memory  of 
this  event  they  instituted  this  festival.    (Comp.  Sivan  2G.) 

24.  Prayers  for  rain.    (Calendar  Bartolocci.) 

25.  The  dedication,  or  renewing  of  the  tempi ;,  proved  by  order  of  Antiochus  Ei>iphanes,  and 


cap.  11.)  But  the  Jewish  authors  give  another  reason  for  the  name  of  lights.  They  report,  that  when 
they  were  employed  in  cleansing  the  temple,  after  it  had  been  profaned  by  the  Greeks,  they  found  there 
only  one  small  pnial  of  oil,  sealed  up  by  the  high  priest,  which  would  hardly  suffice  to  keep  in  the  lamps 
so  much  as  one  niehtj  but  God  permitted  that  it  should  last  several  days,  till  they  had  time  to  make 
more:  in  memoiy  of  which,  the  Jews  lighted  up  several  lamps  in  their  synagogues,  and  at  the  doors  of 
their  nouses  {viae  Selden,  de  Syned.  lib.  iii:  cap.  13).  Others  affirm  (as  theScholastical  History,  Thomas 
Aquinas,  Cardinal  Hughgo,  on  1  Mac  iv:  52),  that  the  appellation  of  the  feast  of  lights  was  a  memorial 
of  that  fire  from  heaven  which  inflamed  the  wood  on  the  altar  of  burnt  offerings,  as  related  2  Mac.  i:  22. 

Some  think  this  feast  of  the  dedication  was  instituted  in  memory  of  Judith  (vide  Sigon,  lib.  iii.  cap. 
18,  de  Republ,  Hebr.),  But  it  is  doubted  whether  this  ought  to  be  understood  of  Jucfith,  daughter  of 
Merari,  who  killed  Holofemes;  or  of  another  Judith,  daughter  of  Mattathias,  and  sister  of  Judas  Mac- 
cabaeus,  who  slew  Nicanor,  as  they  tell  us  {vide  Ganz.  Zemach  David;  Millenar  4.  an.  622,  et  afmd 
Selden,  de  Synedriis.  lib.  iii.  cap.  13,  n.  11^.  This  last  Judith  is  known  only  in  the  writings  of  the  rabbins, 
and  is  not  mentioned  either  in  the  Maccaoees,  or  in  Josephus.  .  But  there  is  great  likelihood  that  the 
Jews  have  altered  the  Greek  history  of  Judith,  to  place  it  in  the  times  of  Judas  Maccabseus. 

A  prayer  for  rain.    Time  of  sowing  begins  in  Judea. 

SO.    First  new  moon  of  the  month  Tel^th. 

TEBETH. 

The  fourth  month  of  the  civil  year;  the  tenth  month  of  the  eccUsiasHcal  year.    R  has  twenfy^ne  days^ 
and  answers  to  the  moon  of  December, 

Day  1.    New  moon. 

8.  A  fast,  because  of  the  translation  of  the  law  out  of  Hebrew  into  Greek.  This  day,  and  the 
three  following  days,  were  overcast  by  thick  darkness. 

The  fast  of  the  tenth  month.     (Calend.  Bartolocd. ) 

9.  A  fast  for  which  the  rabbins  assign  no  reason. 

10.  A  fast  in  memory  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  2  Kings  xxv:  1, 

28.  A  feast  in  memory  of  the  exclusion  of  the  Sadducees  out  of  the  Sanhedrim,  where  they  had 
all  the  power  in  the  time  of  king  Alexander  Jannseus.  Rabbi  Simeon,  son  of  Shatach,  found  means  of 
excluding  them  one  after  another,  and  of  substituting  Pharisees.    {Megillat,  Taanith;    Comp.  Jiai  23.) 

SHEBAT. 

The  fifth  month  of  the  civil  year;  the  eleventh  month  of  the  sacred  year.    It  has  thirty  days  and  answers 
to  the  moon  offanuary. 

Day  1.    New  moon,  or  the  first  day  of  the  month. 

2.    A  rejoicing  for  the  death  of  king  Alexander  Jannseus,  a  great  enemy  to  the  Pharisees.  (MegilL) 

4  or  5.    A  fast  in  memory  of  the  death  of  the  elders  who  succeeded  Joshua,  Judg.  ii:  10. 

15.  The  beginning  of  the  year  of  trees,  that  is,  from  hence  they  begin  to  count  the  three  years, 
during  which  trees  were  judged  unclean,  from  the  time  of  their  being  planted.  Lev.  xix:  23-25.  Some 
place  the  beginning  of  these  four  years  on  the  first  day  of  the  month. 

22.  A  least  in  memory  of  the  death  of  one  called  Niskalenus,  who  had  ordered  the  placing  images 
or  figures  in  the  temple,  which  was  forbidden  by  the  law;  but  he  died,  and  his  orders  were  not  executed. 
The  Jews  place  this  under  the  high  priest  Simon  the  Just.  It  is  not  known  who  this  Niskalenus  was. 
(MeHltch.  11.) 

23.  A  fast  for  the  war  of  the  ten  tribes  against  that  of  Benjamin,  Judg.  xx. 
They  also  call  to  remembrance  the  idol  ofMicah,  Judg.  xviii. 

29.  A  memorial  of  the  death  of  Antiochus  Epipnanes;  an  enemy  of  the  Jews,  1  Mac  vi:  1. 
(Me^Ulath,) 

80.    First  new  moon  of  the  month  Adar. 


40  THE  CALENDAR  OF  THE  JEWS— Continued 

ADAR. 

The  sixth  month  of  the  civil  year;  the  twelfth  month  of  the  sacred  year.    It  has  M  twent)Hnne  days,  and 
answers  to  the  moon  of  February, 

Day  1.    New  moon. 

7.  A  fast  because  of  the  death  of  Moses.    Deut.  xxxiv:  6. 

8.  9.  The  trumpet  sounded,  by  way  of  thanksgiving  for  the  rain  that  fell  in  this  month,  and  to  pray 
for  it  in  future.     {^Megillath  Taanith.) 

9.  A  fast  in  memory  of  the  schism  between  the  schools  of  Shammai  and  Hillel  (called  Taanith 
Tzadehim). 

12.  A  feast  in  memoiy  of  the  death  of  two  proselytes,  Hollianus  and  Pipus  his  brother,  whom  one 
Tyrinus  or  Turianus  would  have  compelled  to  break  the  law,  in  the  city  of  Laodicea;  but  they  chose 
rather  to  die  than  act  contrary  to  the  law.     (Selden  de  Synedr.  lib.  iii:  cap.  13.  ex.  Megill,  Taanith.) 

13.  Esther's  fast;  probablv  in  memory  of  that,  Esth.  iv:  16.     (Geneb.  BartoloccC) 

A  feast  in  memory  of  the  death  of  Nicanor,  an  enemy  of  the  Jews,  1  Mac.  vii:  44;  2  Mac.  xv;  30,  &C. 
Some  of  the  Hebrews  insist  that  Nicanor  was  killed  by  Judith,  sister  of  Judas  Maccabseus. 

14.  The  first  purim,  or  lesser  feast  of  lots,  Esth.  ix:  21.  The  Jews  in  the  provinces  ceased  from  the 
slaughter  of  their  enemies  on  Nisan  14,  and  on  that  day  made  great  rejoicing.  But  the  Tews  of  Shushan 
continued  the  slaughter  till  the  16th.  Therefore  Mordecai  settled  the  feasts  of  lots  on  tne  14th  and  15th 
of  this  month. 

15.  The  great  feast  of  purim,  or  lots;  the  second  purim.  These  three  days,  the  13th,  14th  and  15th, 
are  commonly  called  the  days  of  Mordecai;  though  the  feast  for  the  death  of  Nicanor  has  no  relation 
either  to  Esther  or  Mordecai. 

The  collectors  of  the  half-shekel,  paid  by  every  Israelite,  (Exod.  xxx:  13)  received  it  on  Adar  16,  in 
the  cities,  and  on  the  25th  in  the  temple.     (  Talmud,  ^ract,  Shekalim,) 

17.  The  deliverance  of  the  sages  of  Israel,  who  hving  from  the  persecution  of  Alexander  Jannaeus, 
kin^  of  the  Jews,  retired  into  the  city  of  Koslick  in  Arabia;  but  finding  themselves  in  danger  of  being 
sacrificed  by  the  Gentiles,  the  inhabitants  of  the  place,  they  escaped  by  mght     {^MegilL  Taanith.) 

20.  A  feast  in  memory  of  the  rain  obtained  from  God,  by  one  called  Onias  Hammagel,  during  a 
great  drought  in  the  time  of  Alexander  Jannseus.     {^Megill.  Taanith. ) 

23.  Tne  dedication  of  the  temple  of  Zerubbabel,  Ezra  vi:  16.  The  day  is  not  known.  Some  put  it 
on  the  16th,  the  calendar  of  Sigonius  puts  it  on  the  23d. 

28.  A  feast  in  commemoration  of  the  repeal  of  the  decree  by  which  the  kin^  of  Greece  had  for- 
bidden the  Jews  to  circumcise  their  children,  to  observe  the  sabbath  and  to  declme  foreign  worship. 
{^Megill.  Taanith.  et  Gemar.  ut  Tit.  Thainith.  ch.  2.) 

When  the  year  consists  of  thirteen  lunar  months,  they  place  here,  by  way  of  intercalation,  the  second 
month  Adar,  or  Ve-adar. 

NISAN,  or  ABIB.    Exod.  xiu:  4. 

The  seventh  month  of  the  civil  year;  the  first  month  of  the  sacred  year.    It  has  thirty  days,  and  answers 
to  the  moon  of  March. 

Day  1.    New  moon.    A  fast,  because  of  the  death  of  the  children  of  Aaron^  Lev.  x:  1,  2. 

10.  A  fast  for  the  death  of  Miriam,  the  sister  of  Moses,  Numb,  xx:  1.  Also  m  memory  of  the  scarcity 
of  water  that  happened  after  her  death,  to  the  children  of  Israel  in  the  desert  of  Kadesh,  Numb,  xx:  2. 

On  this  day  every  one  provided  himself  a  lamb  or  kid,  preparatory  to  the  following  passover. 

14.  On  the  evening  of  the  14th  they  killed  the  paschal  lamb;  they  began  to  use  unleavened  bread, 
and  ceased  from  all  servile  labor. 

15.  The  solemnity  of  the  passover,  with  its  octave.  The  first  day  of  unleavened  bread,  a  day  of  rest 
They  ate  none  but  unleavened  bread  during  eight  days. 

After  sunset  they  gathered  a  sheaf  of  barley  which  they  brought  into  the  temple  (  Cod.  MenacJwt.  vi:  3.) 
Supplication  for  the  reign  of  the  spring.     (Geneb.  J 

16.  On  the  second  day  of  the  feast  they  offered  tne  barley  which  they  had  provided  the  evening  be- 
fore, ap  the  first  fruits  of  the  harvest    After  that  time  it  was  allowed  to  put  the  sickle  to  the  gr^n. 

The  beginning  of  harvest 

From  this  day  they  begin  to  count  fifty  days  to  pentecost 

21.  The  octave  of  the  feast  of  passover.  The  end  of  unleavened  bread.  This  day  is  held  more 
solemn  than  the  other  days  of  the  octave;  yet  they  did  not  refrain  from  manual  labor  on  it 

26.  A  fast  for  the  death  of  Joshua,  Josh,  xxiv:  29. 
30.    The  first  new  moon  of  the  month  Jiar. 

The  book  called  MegUlath  Taanith  does  not  notice  any  particular  festival  for  the  month  Nisan. 

JIAR,  or  lYAR. 

The  eighth  month  of  the  civil  year;  the  second  month  of  the  ecclesiasHcal  year.     It  has  b^tt  twenty-nine 
days  and  answers  to  the  moon  of  April. 

Day  1.    New  moon. 

6.  A  fast  of  three  days  for  excesses  committed  during  the  feast  of  the  passover.  ^Iiat  is,  on  the  Mon* 
day,  Thursday  and  the  Monday  following.     (Calendar  B^olocci. ) 

7.  The  dedication  of  the  temple,  when  the  Asmoneans  consecrated  it  ane\)v  aiter  ^he  persecutions 
of  the  Greeks.    (Megill.  Taanith^  ch.  2.) 

10.    A  fast  for  tne  death  of  the  high  priest  Eli,  and  the  capture  of  the  ark  by  tne  Philistines. 

14.    The  second  passover,  in  favor  of  those  who  could  not  celebrate  the  first,  on  Nisan  16. 

23.    A  feast  for  taking  of  the  city  of  Gaza,  by  Simon  Maccabaeus.  (  Calend.  Scalig.  1  Mac  xiii:  43, 44.) 

Or  for  the  taking  and  purification  of  the  citadel  of  Jerusalem,  by  the  Maccabees;(according  to  the 
calendar  of  Sigonius,  1  Mac.  xiii:  49,  53;  xvi:  7,  36.) 

A  feast  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Caraites  out  of  Jerusalem,  by  the  Asmoneans  or  Maccabees.  {Megill. 
Taanith;  Comp.  Tebeth  28.) 

27.  A  feast  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Galileans,  or  those  who  attempted  to  set  up  crowns  over  the 
gates  of  their  temples,,  and  of  their  houses;  and  even  on  the  heads  of  their  oxen  and  asses;  an  1  to  sing 


THE  CALENDAR  OF  THE  JEWS— Continued  41 

hymns  in  honor  of  false  gods.    The  Maccabees  drove  them  out  of  Judea  and  Jerusalem,  and  appointed 
this  feast  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  their  expulsion.     {MegilL  Taaniih, ) 
28.    A  fast  for  the  death  of  the  prophet  Samuel,  1  Sam.  xxv:  1. 

SIVAN. 

The  ninth  month  of  the  civil  year;  the  third  month  of  the  ecclesiastical  year.    It  has  thirty  days^  and 
answers  to  the  moon  of  ]\my. 
Day  1.  New  moon. 

6.  Pentecost,  the  fiftieth  day  after  the  passover.  Called  also  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  because  it  hap- 
pened seven  weeks  after  the  passover.    We  do  not  find  that  it  had  any  octave. 

16, 16.  A  feast  to  celebrate  the  victory  of  the  Maccabees  over  the  people  of  Bethsan,  1  Mac  v:  52; 
xii:  40,  41.     (Megill,  Taamth,) 

17.  A  feast  for  the  taking  of  Caesarea  by  the  Asmoneans;  who  drove  the  pagans  from  thence,  and 
settled  the  Jews  there.     (MegilL  Taanith.) 

22.  A  fast  in  memory  of  the  prohibition  by  Jeroboam,  son  of  Nebat,  to  his  subjects,  forbidding  them 
to  carry  their  first-fruits  to  Jerusalem,  1  Kings  xh:  27. 

25.  A  fast  in  commemoration  of  the  death  of  the  rabbins,  Simeon,  son  of  Gamaliel,  Ishmael,  son  of 
Elisha,  and  Chanina,  the  high  priest's  deputy. 

A  feast  in  memory  of  the  solemn  judgment  pronounced  in  favor  of  the  Jews  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
against  the  Ishmaelites,  who,  by  virtue  of  their  birthright,  maintain  a  possession  of  the  land  of  Canaan, 
against  the  Canaanites,  who  claimed  the  same  as  being  the  original  possessors,  and  against  the  Egyptians, 
who  demanded  restitution  of  the  vessels  and  other  things,  borrowed  by  the  Hebrews,  when  they  left 
Egypt  {vide  Megillath  Taanith.)  But  the  Gemara  of  Babylon  (Tit.  Sanhedrim  ch.  11.)  puts  the  day  of 
this  sentence  on  Nisan  14.    f  Comp.  Chisleu  21.) 

27.    A  fast,  because  rabbi  Chanina,  the  son  of  Thardion,  was  burnt  with  the  book  of  the  law. 

30.    The  first  new  moon  of  the  month  Thammuz. 

THAMMUZ,  or  TAMUZ. 

The  tenth  month  of  the  civil  year;  the  fourth  month  of  the  holy  year.    li  has  but  twenty-nine  days^  and 

answers  to  the  moon  offune.  • 

Day  1.    New  moon. 

14.  A  feast  for  the  abolition  of  a  pernicious  book  of  the  Sadducees  and  Bethusians,  by  which  they 
endeavored  to  subvert  the  oral  law  and  all  the  traditions.     {Megill.  Taanith,) 

17.  A  fast  in  memory  of  the  tables  of  the  law,  broken  by  Moses,  Exod.  xxxii:  19. 

On  this  day  the  city  of  Jerusalem  was  taken.  The  perpetual  evening  and  morning  sacrifice  was  sus- 
pended during  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus.  Epistemon  tore  the  book  of  the  law  and  set  up  an  idol 
m  the  temple.  It  is  not  said  whether  this  happened  under  Nebuchadnezzar,  Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
or  the  Romans. 

AB. 

The  eleventh  month  of  the  civil  year;  the  fifth  month  of  the  sacred  year.    It  has  thirty  days  and  answers 

to,  the  moon  of  July. 

1.    New  moon.    A  fast  for  the  death  of  Aaron,  the  high  priest. 

5.  A  commemoration  of  the  children  of  Tethuel,  of  the  race  of  Judah,  who,  after  the  return  from 
the  captivity,  furnished  wood  to  the  temple.     \MegilL  Taanith, ) 

9.  A  fast  of  the  fifth  month,  in  memory  of  God's  declaration  to  Moses  on  this  day,  that  none  of  the 
murmuring  Israelites  should  enter  the  land  of  promise,  Numb,  xiv:  29,  31. 

On  the  same  day  the  temple  was  taken  and  burned;  Solomon's  temple  first  by  the  Chaldeans; 
Herod's  temple  afterwards  bv  the  Romans. 

18.  A  fast,  because  in  the  time  of  Ahaz  the  evening  lamp  went  out 

21.  Xylophoria;  a  feast  on  which  they  stored  up  the  necessary  wood  in  the  temple.  (Selden,  vidt 
Josephus,  ae  Bello^  lib.  ii:  cap.  17. )    Scahger  places  this  festival  on  the  22d  of  the  next  month. 

24.  A  feast  in  memory  of  the  abolition  by  the  Asmoneans,  or  Maccabees,  of  a  law  which  had  beer 
introduced  by  the  Sadducees,  enacting  that  both  sons  and  daughters  should  alike  inherit  the  estates  ot 
their  parents.     {Megill,  Taanith.) 

30.    The  first  new  moon  of  the  month  Elul. 

ELUL. 

The  twelfth  month  of  the  civil  y ear ^  and  the  seventh  month  of  the  ecclesiasticcU year.    It  has  but  twenty* 
nine  days  and  answers  to  the  moon  of  August, 
Day  1.    New  moon. 

7.  Dedication  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  by  Neliemiah,  Neh.  xii:  27.  We  read  in  Neh.  vi:  15,  that 
these  walls  were  finished  Elul  25.  But  as  there  still  remained  many  things  to  be  done,  to  complete  this 
work,  the  dedication  might  have  been  deferred  to  the  7th  of  Elul  of  the  year  following.    iMegtlL  Seld, ) 

17.    A  fast  for  the  death  of  the  spies,  who  brought  an  ill  report  of  the  l?.iid  of  promise.  Numb,  xiv:  36. 

A  feast  in  remembrance  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Romans  (rather  the  Greefo)  who  would  have  pre- 
vented the  Hebrews  from  marrying,  and  who  dishonored  the  daughters  of  Israel.  When  they  intended 
to  use  violence  towards  Judith,  the  only  daughter  of  Mattathias,  ne,  with  the  assistance  of  sons,  over- 
came them,  and  delivered  his  country  from  meir  yoke.  In  commemoration  of  which  deliverance  this 
festival  was  appointed. 

21.  Xylophoria:  a  feast  in  which  they  brought  to  the  temple  the  necessary  provision  of  wood  for 
keeping  up  the  fire  of  the  altar  of  burnt-sacrifices.  The  calendar  of  Scaliger  places  this  feast  on  the  22d 
{vide  me  21st  of  the  foregoing  month). 

22.  A  feast  in  memory  of  the  punishment  inflicted  on  the  wicked  Israelites,  whose  insolence  could 
not  t)e  otherwise  restrained  than  by  putting  them  to  death;  for  then  Judea  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
Gentiles.  They  allowed  these  wicked  Israelites  three  days  to  reform,  but  as  they  showed  no  signs  of 
repentance,  they  were  condemned  to  death.    ( Megill.  Taanith, ) 

[From  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  this  month,  the  comet  is  sounded  to  warn  of  the  approaching 
new  year.] 


42 


TABLES  OF 


Weights,  Measures  and  Money  Mentioned  in  the  Bible. 


WEIGHTS. 


AVOIRDUPOIS. 


TKOT. 


The  gerah,  one-twentieth  of  a  shekel 

lOgerahs,  Ibekah 

2  bekahs,  1  shekel 

60  shekels,  1  maneh , 

5Q  manehs,  1  talent 


lbs. 


2 

102 


oz. 


0 
13 


0.439 

4.39 

8.78 

14.628 

11.428 


lbs. 


•  •  • 


2 
125 


oc 


6 
0 


dwL 

... 

6 

10 

0 

0 


12 

0 
0 
0 
0 


MEASURES. 

MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 

Adi^orfinfi:er Her.  lii.  21) • • 

4  dieits,  1  paun (Ex.  xxv.  25) ••••••••.•••• 

3  palms,  1  span (Ex.  xxviii.  16) 

2  spans,  1  cubit (Gen.  vi.  15) 1 

4  cubits,  1  fathom (Acts  xxvii.  28) 7 

1.5  fathoms,  1  EzekiePs  reed •. ( Ezek.  xl.  3,  5)    • .  • 10 

13.3  reeds,  a  schoenus  or  measuring  line. .  (Ezek.  xl.  3) •  •  145 

^        LAND  MEASURE. 

A  cubit ■• • . . .  • 

400  cubits,  a  stadium  or  furlong (Luke  xxiv.  13) 145 

5  furlongs,  a  Sabbath  day's  journey (John  xi.  18 ;  Acts  i.  12) 729 

10  furlongs,  an  Eastern  mile (Matt  v.  41)  ••••••••••        1       399 

24  miles,  a  day's  journey 83         76 


Incbei. 

0.912 

3.648 

10.944 

9.888 

3.552 

11.328 

11.04 


feet 

1.824 

4.6 

3. 

1. 

4. 


LIQUID  MEASURE. 


A  caph , 

1.3  caphs,  1  lo^ (Lev.  xiv.  10)  < 

4  logs,       1  cab 

3  cabs,       1  hin (Ex.  xxx.  24) 

2  bins,       1  seah 


3  seahs,     1  bath  or  ephah  . . . .  f  1  Kings  vii.  26 :  John  ii.  6) 
10  ephahs,  1  cor  or  homer (Isa.  v.  10 ;  Ezek.  xlv.  14) . . 


gait. 


1 

2 

7 

75 


pts. 

0.625 

0.833 

3.333 

2. 

4. 

4.5 

5.25 


DRY  MEASURE. 


A  gachal 

20 gachals,l  cab (2Kings  vi.  25;  Rev.  vi.  6) 

1.8  cabs,     1  omer (Ex.  xvi.  36) 

3.3  omers,  1  seah (Matt.  xiii.  33) 

8  seahs,      1  ephah  (Ezek.  xlv.  11)  

5  ephahs,    1  letech   (Hos.  iii.  2) 

2  letechs,    1  cor  or  homer. .  (Num.  xi.  32 ;  Hos.  iii.  2) . . 


peeks. 


1 

3 
16 
32 


gals. 


0 
0 
0 
0 


pts. 
0.1416 
2.8333 
5.1 
1. 
3. 
0 
0 


Note.— Many  passages  in  the  Bible  may  be  explained  by  consulting  these  tables ;  that  is  especially  true  of  those  which 
are  enclosed  in  parentheses.  Notice,  for  instance,  Isa.  v.  10,  *'  Yea,  ten  acres  of  vineyard  shall  yield  one  oath,  and  the  seed  of 
an  homer  shall  yield  an  ephah."  This  was  a  curse  upon  avarice,  that  the  vineyard  of  the  covetous  man  containing  ten  acres 
should  produce  but  seven  gallons  of  wine,  that  is,  less  than  three  quarts  to  each  acre;  and  that  four  bushels,  or  thirty-two  pecks, 
of  seed  should  yield  only  three  pecks,  so  that  the  harvest  should  amount  to  but  one-tenth  of  the  quantity  of  seed  sown. 


NIGHT  (Ancient). 

First  Watch,  till  midnight  (Lam,  ii.  19). 
Middle  Watch,  till  3  A.  M.  (Judg.  vii.  19). 
Mommg  Watch,  till  6  A.  M.  (Ex.  xiv.  24). 

NIGHT  (New  Testament). 

First  Watch,  evening,  from  6  to  9  P.  M. 
Second  Watch,  midnight,  from  9  to  12  P.  M. 
Third  Watch,  cock-crowing,  from  12  to  3  A.  M. 
Fourth  Watch,  morning,  from  3  to  6  A.  M. 


TIME. 

DAY  (Ancient). 

The  Morning  was  till  about  10  A.  M. 
The  Heat  of  Day  was  till  about  2  P.  M. 
The  Cool  of  Day  was  till  about  6  P.  M. 

DAY  (New  Testament). 

The  Third  Hour  was  from  6  to  9  A.  M. 
The  Sixth  Hour  was  from  9  to  12  M. 
The  Ninth  Hour  was  from  12  to  3  P.  M. 
The  Twelfth  Hour  was  from  3  to  6  P.  M. 


From  sunrise  to  sunset  was  the  Natural  Day, 
From  sunset  to  sunrise  was  the  Natural  Night, 

From  sunset  one  evening  to  sunset  of  the  next  was  the  Citnl  Day;  see  Gen.  i.  5,  "And  the  evening 
and  the  morning  were  the  first  day." 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES  AND  MONEY— Continued. 


43 


JEVISH  MONEY. 

American.  Sterling. 

I         cents.  £       t.  d. 

Agerah  (Ex.  XXX.  13} *. 2.73  1.36 

10  gerahs,  1  bekah  (Ex.  xxxviii.  26) ...  27.37  ...  1  1.68 

2  bekahs,  1  shekel  (Ex.  XXX.  13 ;  Isa.  vii.  23) 51.74  .   .  2  8.37 

50  shekels,  1  maneh  27  37.60  5  14  0.76 

60  manehs,  1  talent  of  silver 1,642  50  342  8  9 

Agoldshekel 8  76  1  16  6 

A  talent  of  gold 26.280          0  6,475  0  0 

NoTB.— Tlie  purchasing  power  of  money  in  Bible  times  was  probably  about  ten  times  as  great  as  at  the ;.  resent  time. 
To  illustrate :  One  Roman  penny,  amounting  to  about  17  cents,  was  fair  compensation  for  a  day^s  labor.  In  the  New  Testament 
period  Jewish  money  seems  to  have  been  but  little  in  use.  The  coins  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  are,  for  the  moat  part. 
Roman  money,  values  of  which  are  given  in  the  following  table : 

ROMAN  MONEY. 

American.   Sterling, 
cents.  d. 

The  ''faithine,*' ^iM»ih»ir  (Matt  V.  26),  nearly  eqiials .25  0.125 

A  ''farthing,'^  4  ftMr^ra»/^x  (Matt  X.  29),  nearly  equals 1.  0.45 

A  "  penny,     denarius  (Matt  xxii.  19)  nearly  equals 17.  8.5 

J  The  widow's  mite,  mentioned  in  Mark  xil.  42,  was  less  than  a  farthing,  only  a  fractional  part  of  a  penny.) 
t  may  be  observed  that : 

The  Queen  of  Sheba's  gift  to  King  Solomon  amounted  to  over  |1 ,000,000,  equal  to  /'200,000. 

The  debtor  whom  Jesus  mentions.  Matt,  xviii.  24,  had  been  for^ven  10,000  talents,  that  is,  114,400,000,  equal  to  ^,000,0001 
He  refused  to  forgive  his  fellow  servant  100  pence,  that  is,  |i7.00,  equal  to  /3,  lOs,  lOd. 

Judas  received  for  the  betrayal  of  his  Master,  '*  thirty  pieces  of  silver,"  that  is,  |10.06,  equal  to  £1^  10a,  8d. 


Plan  for  Reading  the 


through  in  one  Yean 


The  following  plan  is  worthy  of  a  place  here  where  it  can  be  easily  referred  to : 

Read  three  chapters  daily  and  five  on  the  Sabbath  ;  that  is,  two  chapters  in  the  Old  Testament,  and 
one  daily  in  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  Solomon's  Song  and  the  New  Testament— three  on  the 
Sabbath. 

The  Old  Testament,  without  these  four  books,  contains  two  chapters  a  day  for  the  year :  and  the  New 
Testament,  with  the  four  books,  has  one  chapter  a  day,  and  three  for  Sabbath  days,  less  eight  chapters. 

Read  Psalm  119  as  eleven  chapters,  of  two  divisions  each,  and  connect  the  short  Psalms,  117  and  131, 
with  the  next,  and  133  and  134  together— thus  adding  eight  chapters  to  complete  the  year. 


January, 

1. 

Genesis, 

1, 

Psalms, 

1 

8, 

IC 

15, 

44 

10 

16, 

<l 

29, 

l« 

19 

22, 

II 

43, 

«« 

28 

29. 

Exodus, 

7, 

«« 

37 

February,  6, 

«< 

21. 

«« 

46 

12, 

41 

35, 

tl 

55 

19, 

Leviticus, 

9, 

«• 

64 

26, 

41 

23, 

«• 

73 

March, 

5, 

Nimnbers, 

10, 

«« 

82 

12. 

4( 

24, 

tl 

91 

19, 

Deut, 

2, 

II 

100 

26, 

41 

16» 

•  1 

109 

April, 

2, 

II 

30. 

•  I 

118 

9. 

Joshua, 

10, 

II 

V. 

119 
145 

16, 

14 

24, 

41 

127 

23, 

Judges, 

14. 

II 

138 

30, 

1  Sam., 

3. 

II 

147 

May, 

7, 

44 

17. 

Prov., 

6 

M. 

41 

31. 

44 

15 

21, 

2  Sam., 

14. 

44 

24 

28, 

\  Kings, 

4. 

Eccles., 

2 

June, 

4, 

44 

18, 

41 

11 

11, 

2  Kings, 

10, 

S.  Song, 

8 

18, 

44 

24, 

Matt, 

9 

». 

1  Chron., 

13. 

cc 

IS 

July,  2, 

9, 

16, 
23, 
30, 

August,  6, 
13, 
20, 
27, 

September,  3, 
10, 
17, 
24, 

October,     1, 

8. 
16, 
22, 
29, 

November.  6, 
12, 
19, 
26, 

December,  H. 
10. 
17, 
24, 

ai. 


1  Chron., 

2  Chron., 


It 


Ezra, 
Neh., 
Esther, 
Job, 


44 
41 


Isaiah, 


14 
II 
II 


Jer., 


41 
II 
II 


Ezekiel, 


44 
44 


44 


Daniel, 

Hosea, 

Amos, 

Neh., 

Zech., 

Mai., 


27, 

Matt, 

27 

12, 

Mark, 

8 

26, 

Luke, 

1 

4, 

« 

10 

8, 

•I 

19 

9. 

John, 

4 

13, 

<• 

13 

27, 

Acts, 

1 

41, 

<« 

10 

13, 

•< 

19 

27, 

II 

28 

41. 

Romans, 

9 

». 

ICor., 

2 

3, 

II 

11 

17. 

2  Cor, 

4 

31. 

44 

13 

46, 

Ephes., 

3 

2, 

Coloss., 

2 

16, 

2Thess., 

2 

30, 

2  Tim., 

2 

44, 

Hebrews, 

3 

10, 

44 

11 

11. 

1  Peter, 

8 

9, 

1  John, 

4 

1. 

Rev., 

6 

6, 

41 

14 

4, 

<« 

22 

^  TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  PROPHETS, 

SHOWING  THE  PERIODS  DURING  WHICH  IT  IS  SUPPOSED  THEIR  PROPHECIES 

WERE  DELIVERED. 


KINGS  OF 
JUDAH. 

B.  C. 

• 

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•  •  .  • 

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s 

H 

fit 
H 

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0 

"< 

•  •  •  • 

• 

:                                                                                                                                                                                  Zechariah. 

• 

X 

u 

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.J 
<< 

KINGS  OF 
ISRAEL. 

Amaziah,  839. 

ft9A                            * 

•   •   •   • 

Jeroboam  II 
825. 

ftIA 

Uzziah.810. 

70A  < 

4  VU 

nam,  784. 

^^A 

Menahem, 
7T2. 

TAA 

Pekahiah, 
761. 

Jothani,758. 

Pekah.  750. 

Ahaz,  742. 

^JA 

780 

Anarchy  ,739. 

Hezekiah, 

-^«     727. 

720 

Hoshea,  730. 

TIA 

£? 

•o 

*mm 

<^ 

O 

•«» 

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w 

g 

1 

f 

1 

o 
3 

I 

5* 

S 

9 
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<        £ 

i:  ^ 

•       • 

TAA 

Manasseh, 

ftflA 

ff7A 

AiiA 

Amos,  648. 
^^^  Josiah.041. 

A9A 

Jehoahaz, 

Jehoaikim, 
800     •^^ 

Jeconiah, 
600     ^^- 

f 

Baitnfltiiaof 
J«..la.t88. 

ft7A 

•  •  •  « 

ftAA 

&&A 

ftIA 

Zerubbabel, 
MO      ^^' 

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lAA 

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If  hit 

»  3.    °-S.S  % 


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ill  I 


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IIIL 


46    SYMBOLICAL  LANGUAGE  USED  BY  THE  POETS  AND  PROPHETS. 


TEXTS. 


ier.  iii:  8,  9|  v:  7. 
lev.  i:  20;  li:  1,  etc. 
Psalms  x:  15. 
Ezek.  XXX :  21,  etc. 

Job  vi:  4. 
lev.  xvii:  6,  9. 
Daniel  vii:  17. 
Job  xxx:  30. 

Joel  ii;  6. 
Isaiah  xxix:  18. 

Romans  xi:  25. 
Isaiah  xxxiv:  3. 

Ezek.  xxxii:  6. 
Job  xviii:  15. 

Rev.  xiv:  10. 
Rev.  xxi:  9. 
John  iii:  29. 
rsalms  xxii:  12,  etc. 
Rev.  ii:  10. 
Psalms  Ixviii:  17,  etc 
James  i:  12. 

Rev.  ii:  10. 
Psalms  xxiii:  5. 

Isaiah  li:  17. 
Isaiah  Ix:  2 

Amos  iv:  13. 

Romans  xiii:  12. 
Isaiah  xxxiv:  8,  etc 

Rev.  ii:  10,  etc 

1  Thess.  v:  5,  etc 
Matt,  xv:  26. 

Rev.  xxii:  15. 

Psalms  xxii:  16. 
1  Cor.  xvi:  9. 
Rev.  xii:  9. 
Isaiah  xxix:  9. 
Rev.  vi:  12,  etc 
Pro  v.  XV :  3,  etc 
Psalms  xiii:  1,  etc 
Ten  v:  28. 
Isaiah  xiii:  25,  etc 
Rev.  vii:  3,  etc. 
Jer.  xi:  4. 
Rev.  iii:  4,  etc 
Psalms  cxlvii:  13. 
Job  xii:  18: 
Matt  xxv:  33. 
Ezek.  xxxviii:  2. 

—  xxxix:  11. 
Rev.  XX :  8. 

Rev.  viii:  7. 

—  xi:  19. 
Psalms  xviii:  35. 

—  Ixxiii:  23. 
Ezek.  viii:  1. 
Joel  iii:  13,  etc 
Ephes.  i:  22,  etc 
Isaiah  xiii:  13. 

Hag.  u:  6,  21. 
Zech.  ix:  10. 
Matt  v:  6. 
Rev.  v:  8. 
Psalms  cxxii:  6. 

Heb.  xii:  22,  etc 
Rev.  i:  18. 
1  Kings  xv:  4. 

Psauns  cxxxii:  17. 
Esther  viii:  16. 

Isaiah  viii:  20. 
Ephes.  v:  8,  etc 

Zech.  iv:  7. 

Isaiah  ii:  2. 
Romans  xvi:  25,  etc 


SYMBOLS. 


Adultery. 

Angel. 

Arm. 

Arrows. 
Babylon. 
Beast 
Black. 

Blindness. 

Blood. 

Brimstone. 

Bride. 

Bridegroom. 

Bulls. 

Candlesticks. 

Chariots. 

Crown. 


Cup. 
Darkn 

Day. 

Dogs. 


Door. 

Dragon. 

Drunkenness; 

Earthquakes. 

Eyes. 

Face. 

Fat 

Fire. 

Forehead. 

Furnace. 

Garments. 

Gates. 

Girdles. 

Goats. 

Gog  and  Magog. 


Grass.         •*♦ 
Hail. 
Hand,  right 

Hand  of  the  Lord. 
Harvest 
Head. 
Heavens. 

Horse. 

Hunger  and  thirst 

Incense. 

Jerusalem. 

Keys, 
Lamp. 

Light 

Moon. 

Mountains. 

Mystery. 


MEANINGS. 


Idolatry. 

Messenger,  hence  minister. 

Power. 

Judgments. 

Rome. 

A  b^nnical  heathen  monarch. 

Affliction  —  anguish. 

Ignorance. 

Slaughter — depth. 

Desolation  —  torments. 

The  church  of  God. 

Christ,  wedded  to  hb  charch. 

Violent  enemies. 

Church. 

Heavenly  hosts. 

Victory — reward. 

Divine  blessings. 

Divine  judgments. 

Misery — adversity — ignorance. 

An  indefinite  time — a  prophetic  year — gospel  period. 

Gentiles — impure  persons—  persecutocs. 


An  opening. 

Satan. 

Effects  of  Divine  judgments. 

Revolutions. 

Knowledge. 

The  Divine  favor. 

Abundance. 

Judgments. 

A  public  profession. 

Affliction. 

Outward  appearance. 

Power — security. 

Strength. 

Wicked  persons. 

God*s  enemies. 


The  lower  orders,  opposed  to  trees,  the  h^er  orders. 
Divine  vengeance. 
Protection — support 

Divine  influence. 

A  time  of  destruction. 

Rule  or  ruler. 

Political  or  ecclesiastical  governments. 

War  and  conquest 
Spiritual  desires. 
Prayer. 

Church  of  God. 
The  heavenly  state. 
Power  and  authority,^ 
A  successor  or  offspring. 

Joy — prosperit>r. 
Knowledge  —  bitterness. 
Reflected  light 

A  state — Christ's  church. 

Not  a  thing  unintelligible,  but  never  before  made  plain. 


SYMBOLICAL  LANGUAGE  USED  BY  THE  POETS  AND  PROPHETS.    « 

(Continued.) 


TKXTl. 


Rev.  iii:  17. 
Isaiah  xxi:  12. 
Rev.  xxi:  25. 
Isaiah  ii:  13. 
Psalms  xxiii:  5. 

—  xcii:  10,  etc 
Rev.  vii:  9. 
Luke  xxiii:  43. 

Rev.  ii:  7. 
Psalms  xviii:  2. 

—  ii:  9,  etc 
Job  IX :  34,  etc 

Coloss.  iv:  6,  etc 

Deut.  xxix:  23. 
Ezek.  xxvi:  3. 
Sol.  Songs  iv:  12. 

Isaiah  xxix:  11. 
Gen.  iii:  1,  etc 

2  Cor.  xi:  3. 

Rev.  xii:  9. 
John  x:  11, 16,  etc 
Nahmn  iii:  18. 

Ezek,  xxxiv:  2,  etc 
Psalms  Ixxxiv:  9. 

Ephes.  vi:  10. 
1  Thess.  iv:  14. 
Isaiah  i:  6,  etc 
Num.  xxiv:  17,  etc. 
loel  ii:  31,  etc 
Isaiah  xxxiv:  6. 

Ezek.  xxi:  3,  etc. 
Deut  xxviii:  13. 
Prov.  XXX :  14. 
Psalms  cxxii:  5,  etc 
Jer.  iv:  31. 

Gal.  iv:  19. 
Rev.  vii:  3. 
Psalms  Ixxx:  8,  etc 
Isaiah  v:  1,  etc 
Ezek.  iii:  17. 
Psalms  Ixix:  1. 

Isaiah  viii:  7.  etc 

—  Iv:  1. 
Daniel  ix:  24. 
Rev.  xii:  6. 
Isaiah  xxvii:8. 

Jer.  Ii:  1. 
Isaiah  xxv:  8. 

—  Iv:  1,  etc 
Psalms  Ix:  3,  etc 

Isaiah  Ixiii:  8. 

Rev.  xiv:  19. 
Psalms  xvii:  8,  etc 
Isaiah  xi:  0. 

—  Ixv:  25. 
Ezek.  xxvi:  2,  8. 

Rev.  xii:  1. 
Deut  xxviii:  48. 
Matt  xi:  29,  80. 
Lam.  iii:  27. 


SYMBOLS. 


Naked. 
Night 

Oaks. 
Oil. 

Palms. 
Paradise. 

Rock. 
Rod. 

Salt 

Sea  in  commotioii. 
SeaL 

Serpent 


Sheep. 
Shepnerds. 

Shield. 

Sleep. 

Sores. 

Star. 

Sun,  moon  and  stars. 

Sword. 

Tafl. 
Teetft 
Throne, 
TravaH 

Trees. 

Vine 

Vineyard. 

Watchman. 

Waters. 


Week. 
Wilderness. 
Wind.  • 

Wine. 


Winepi 

Wings. 
Wolves. 

Woman. 

Yoke. 


MEANINGSi 


In  the  sinful  state  of  nature. 
Adversity — affliction — ignorance. 

Men  of  rank  and  power. 
Abundance — fertility — joy. 

Victory. 
Heaven. 

A  secure  refuge. 
Authority  —  correction. 

Purity — barrenness. 

An  army. 
Security — secrecy. 

The  deviL 


Christ's  disciples. 

Rulers,  civil  or  ecdesiasticaL 

Defence — protection. 

Death. 

Spiritual  maladies. 

A  prince  or  ruler. 

The  various  governors  in  a  state. 

War  and  slaughter. 

Subjection — degradation. 

Cruelty. 

Kingdom  or  government 

Anguish — anxiety. 

The  great  and  noble. 
The  church  of  God. 

(C  •(  <l  II 

The  prophets. 

Afflictions — multitudes — ordinanoesL 


Seven  years. 

Afflicted  state. 

Judgments  — r  destructive  war. 

Spiritual  blessings— Divine  judgments. 


Slaughter. 

•        » ■* 

Protection. 

Furious,  ungodly  persons. 

City,  or  body  politic 
The  Church  ot  Christ 
Labor — resttraint 


48 


WORDS  OF  SCRIPTURE  REQUIRING  EXPLANATION. 


COMMON  VBRSfON. 


Kine. 
Shoes. 
Borrow. 
Inn. 
Let. 
Tale. 

Harnessed. 
Bonnets. 
Whoring. 
Seethe. 
Wist. 
Taches. 
Apothecary. 
Habergeon. 
Meat  offerings. 
Polls. 

Champaign. 
Coast 
Rereward. 
Children  of  Am- 
nion. 
Unwittingly. 
Stricken  m  age. 

Covereth  hisfeet 

Host. 

Fellow. 

Sheets. 

Foxes. 

Children  of  Dan. 

Daughter   of 

Belial. 
Seven. 

Sons  of  Belial. 
Kick. 

Every  whit 
Secret  parts. 
Ear. 

Spoilers. 
Coulter. 
Carriage. 
Sore. 

Assayed. 

Footman. 

Pitched. 

Cruse. 

Agone. 

League. 

Utterly  melt 

Prevented. 

Cursed. 

Go  out  or  come 

in. 
Princes. 
Knop^. 
Chapiters. 
Quick. 
Let 

Concupiscence. 
Mortify. 
Laud. 
Ensamples. 
Unworthy. 
Damnation. 
Charity. 
Conversation. 
Sin. 
Do  you  to  wit 

Prevent 

Divers. 

Person. 


MODBRN  MEANING. 


WHBRB  POUND. 


Heifers. 

Sandals. 

Ask. 

Lodging  place. 

Hinder. 

Number. 

In  ranks. 

Turbans. 

Astray. 

Boil. 

Knew. 

Clasps. 

Perfumer. 

Coat  of  mail. 

Wheat  offerings. 

One  by  one. 

Plain. 

Districts. 

Rear. 

Ammonites. 

Unintentionally. 
Advanced  in 

years. 
Reposeth. 
Camp,  army. 
Comrade. 
Shirts. 

iackals. 
>anites. 

Worthless    wo- 
man. 

Many. 

Worthless  men. 

Spurn. 

Every  thing. 

Inwardly. 

Till. 

Foragers. 

Spade. 

Biaggage. 

Exceedingly, 
greatly. 

Attempted. 

Guard. 

Encamped. 

Jug. 
Ago. 

Covenant 
Be   utterly   dis- 
mayed. 
Surrounded. 
Reviled. 
Conduct  affairs. 

Chief  officers. 

Knobs. 

Capitals. 

Living. 

Hindered. 

Evil  desires. 

To  kill. 

Celebrate. 

Examples. 

Irreverently. 

Condemnation. 

Love. 

Behavior. 

Sin  offering. 

Make  known  to 

you. 
Go  up  before. 
Various. 
Substance. 


Gen.  xli:  2. 
Exod.  iii:  6. 

22. 

-iv:Si. 

—  v:4. 

—  v:8. 

—  xiii:  18. 

—  xxviii:  40. 

—  xxxiv:  16. 

26. 

29. 

—  xxxv:  11. 

—  xxxvii:  29. 

—  xxxix:  23. 
Lev.  ii:  1. 
Numb,  i:  2. 
Deut  xi:  30. 

—  xvi:  4. 
Josh,  vi:  9. 

—  xiii:  25. 

—  xx:3. 

—  xxiii:  1. 

Jud^.  iii:  24. 

—  vii:10. 
13. 

—  xiv:  13. 

—  xv:  4. 

—  xviii:  2. 

1  Sam.  i:  16. 

—  ii:  6. 

—  ii:12. 
29. 

—  iii:  18. 

—  v:9. 

—  viii:  12. 

—  xiii:  17. 
20. 

—  xvii:  22. 
24. 

39. 

—  xxii:  17. 

—  XX vi:  6. 

—  xxvi:ll. 

—  XXX :  13. 

2  Sam.  iii:  12. 

—  xvii:  10. 

—  xxii:  6. 

1  Kings  ii:  8. 

—  m:  7. 

—  iv:  2. 

—  vi:18. 

—  vii:  16. 
Acts  x:  42. 
Romans  i:  13. 

—  vii:  8. 

—  viii:  13. 

—  xv:  11. 

1  Cor.  x:  11. 

—  xi:29. 

—  xm:  1. 

2  Cor.  i:  12. 

—  v:  21. 

—  vui:  1. 

1  Thess.  iv:  15. 
Heb.  i:  1. 

—  i:3. 


COMMON  VERSION. 


Sanctifieth. 
Rulers  of  Char- 
iots. 
Bestowed. 
Howbeit 
Charge. 
Cracknels. 
Pavilions. 
Servitor. 
Tower. 
Craftsmen. 
Provoked. 
Magniffcal. 
Habergeons. 
Perfect. 
Eschewed. 
Prevent 
Daysman. 
Habergeon. 
Leasing. 
Pate. 
Soul"  in  HeU. 

Dragons. 
Prevent 

Prevent 

Minished. 

Prevent 

Travail. 

Wimples. 

Crispmg  pins. 

Silverlings. 

Ear. 

Holpen. 

Delectable. 

Rentest  thy  face. 

Fray. 

Bruit 

Sew  pillows. 

Hosen. 

My  fellows. 

Fan. 

Publicans. 
Mammon. 
Garnished. 
Anon. 
Listed. 
Haply. 
Wist 

Audience. 
Hale. 
Trow. 
Passion. 
Jesus. 
Pricks. 
Assayed. 
Jesus. 

Governor  listeth. 
Good   conversa- 
tion. 
Sincere. 
Eschew. 
Ensue. 
Slack. 
Hasting  unto. 

Lust 

Unction. 

Witness. 

Candlestick. 

Garnished. 


MODERN  MEANING. 


Expiateth. 
Charioteers, 

Stationed. 
Notwithstanding. 

Imposts. 

Cakes. 

Booths. 

Servant 

Secret  place. 

Carpenters. 

Proved. 

Magnificent 

Breast  plates. 

Sincere. 

Avoided. 

Receive. 

Umpire. 

Javelin. 

Falsehood,  lying. 

Crown. 

Body  in   the 

grave. 

Serpents. 

Come  before,  or 

give  timely  aid. 

Succor. 

Diminished. 

Anticipate. 

Labor. 

Shawls. 

Purses. 

Pieces  of  silver. 

Till. 

Helped. 

Delightful. 

Distend  thine 
eyes. 

Scare. 

Rumor. 

Apply  cushions. 

Upper  garments. 

United  to  me. 

Winnowing 
shovel. 

Tax  gatherers. 

Riches. 

Set  in  order. 

Immediately. 

Chose. 

Perhaps. 

Knew. 

Hearing. 

Drag. 

Think. 

Suffering. 

Joshua. 

Goads. 

Attempted. 

Joshua. 

Pilot  chooseth. 

Consistent  con- 
duct. 

Unadulterated. 

Avoid. 

Pursue. 

Slow. 

Earnestly  desir- 
ing. 

Desire. 

Anointing. 

Testimony. 

Lamps. 

Adorned. 


WHERE  POOIID. 


Heb.  ii:ll. 

1  Kings  ix:  22. 

—  x:  26. 

—  xi:22. 

—  xi:28. 

—  xiv:  3. 

—  xx:12,  16. 

2  Kings  iv:  43. 

—  v:24. 

—  xxiv:  16. 

1  Chron.xxi:  1. 

—  xxii:  6. 

2  Chrti.  xxvi:  14 
Job  i:  1. 

—  iii:  12. 

—  ix:33. 

—  xii:  26. 
Psalms  iv:  2. 

—  vii:  16. 

—  xvi:  10, 

— xliv:  19. 

—  lix:  10. 

—  Ixxix:  8. 

—  cvii:39. 

—  cxix:  148. 
Eccles.  iv:  4 
Isaiah  iii:  22. 

—  vii:  23. 

—  xxx:24. 

—  xxxi:  3. 

—  xliv:  9. 
Jer.  iv:  30. 

—  vii:  33. 

—  x:22. 
Ezek.  xiii:  18. 
Dan.  iii:  21. 
Zech.  xiii:  7. 
Matt  iii:  12. 

—  v:46. 

—  vi:24. 

—  xii:  44. 

—  xiii:  20. 

John  iii:  8. 
lark  xi:  18. 
Luke  ii:  49. 

—  vu:  1. 

—  xii:  68. 

—  xvii:  9. 
Acts  i:  3. 

—  vii:  45. 

—  ix:  5. 

—  ix:26. 
Heb.  iv:  8. 
James  iii:  4. 
13. 

1  Peter  ii:  2. 

—  iii:  11. 


2  Peter  iii:  ft 

—  iu:  12. 

1  John  ii:  17. 
20. 

—  v:  6,  8,  9. 
Rev.  i:  13. 

—  xxi:  19. 


PRAYERS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


« 


BY  WHOM  OFFERBO. 

WHBRB  RBCORDBD. 

Abraham. 

Gen.  xviii:  23-33. 

Abraham. 

Gen.  xx:  17, 18. 

AbnkiB'i  Btnut 

Isaac 
Jacob. 
Moses. 

Gen.  xxiv:  12-14. 
Gen.  xxv:  21. 
Gen.  xxxii:  9-12. 
Exod.xxxii:  31-35. 

Moses. 

Exod.  xxxiii:  12-18 

Moses. 

Numb,  xii:  13. 

Moses. 

Numb,  xiv:  13-19. 

Moses. 

Deut  iii:  23-26. 

Samson. 

Judges  xvi:  28. 

Hamiah. 
David. 

1  Samuel  i:  11. 

2  Samuel  vii:  18-29 

Solomon. 

1  Kings  viii:  23-62. 

Elijah. 

1  Kings  xviu:  36,37 

Hezekiah. 

2  Kmgs  xw:  15-20. 

Asa. 

2  Chron.  xiv:  11. 

Jehoshaphat 

2  Chron.  xx:  6-12. 

Hezekiah. 

2Chron.xxx:18,19 

Nehemiah. 

Nehemiah  i:  5-11. 

Daniel 

Daniel  be:  4-19. 

Jonah. 

Jonah  ii:  2-9. 

FOR  WHAT  FURPOSB  OFFBRBD. 


To  avert  God's  wrath  from  the 

cities  of  the  plain. 
That  God  would  remove  the 

barrenness  of   Abimelech's 

wives. 
For  the  success  of  his  mission. 
For  children. 
Protection  against  Esau. 
Foigiveness  for  idolatrous  Is- 
rael. 
That  God  would  continue  with 

His  people. 
For  Miriam  when  stricken  with 

leprosy. 
For  pardon  for  the  unbelief  of 

the  spies'  report 
That  he  may  see  the  Promised 

Land. 
For  vengeance  on  his  enemies. 

For  a  son. 

Thanksgiving  after   Nathan's 

message. 
Dedication  of  the  Temple. 

That  God  would  triumph  over 

Baal. 
Protection  against  Sennacherib. 

For  aid  in  the  battle  with  the 
Ethiopians. 

For  protection  against  his  ene- 
mies. 

For  pardon  for  those  who  had 
eaten  the  Passover  unsancti- 
fied. 

For  the  remnant  in  captivity. 

For  the  restoration  of  Jerusalem. 
For  deliverance  from  the  whale. 


HOW  ANSWBRBD. 


The  offer  to  save  Sodom,  if  ten  right* 

eous  men  could  be  found  in  it 
Abimelech's  household  healed. 


Ret)ekah  makes  herself  known. 
Jacob  and  Esau  are  bom. 
The  brothers  are  reconciled. 
The  anger  of  God  is  restrained. 

God's  presence  is  not  withdrawn. 

Miriam  is  healed  after  seven  days. 

The  nation  is  pardoned. 

God  shows  the  land  to  Moses  before 

his  death. 
He  triumphs  over  the  Philistines  at 

his  death. 
Samuel  is  bom. 
David's  house   continues  to   hold 

the  scepter. 
The  glory  of  God  descends  upon 

the  nouse. 
Fire  from  Heaven  kindles  Elijah's 

sacrifice. 
The   angel   of   God   destroys   the 

Assyrian  army. 
God  destroys  the  Ethiopian,  army. 

The  Ammonite  and  Moabite  armies 

are  overthrown. 
God  heals  the  people. 


Permission  dven  to  rebuild  the  wall 

of  Jerusalem. 
Daniel  is  informed  of  the  Seventy 

Weeks. 
The  whale  vomits  Jonah  forth  upon 

land. 


SPECIAL  PRAYERS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


BY  WHOM  OFFBRBD. 


Jesus. 
Jesus. 
Jesus. 
Pharisee. 
The  Publican. 
The  dying  thief. 

fesus. 
esus. 
esus. 
Jesus. 
The  Apostl 
Tke  Ktrlj  Ckmk. 
Stephen. 


WHBRB  RBCORDBD. 


Matt  xi:  25-27. 
Matt  XX vi:  39, 42. 
Matt.  XX vii:  46. 
Luke  xviii:  11, 12. 
Luke  xviii:  13. 
Luke  xxiii:  42. 
Luke  xxiii:  34. 
John  xi:  41,  42. 
John  xii:  27,  28. 
John  xvii. 
Acts  i:  24,  26. 
Acts  iv:  24-30. 
Acts  vii:  00. 


FOR  WHAT  PURPOSB  OFFBRBD. 


Thanksgiving. 

For  strength  to  bear  affliction. 

Under  suspension  of  Divine  consolation. 

To  set  forth  his  own  righteousness. 

For  forgiveness. 

To  be  remembered  by  Tesus. 

For  forgiveness  of  his  slayers. 

Thanksgiving  for  Father's  acceptance  of  prayer. 

Imploring  his  Father's  aid. 

For  unity  of  Himself,  his  Apostles  and  all  believers. 

For  Divine  aid  in  choosing  an  Apostle. 

For  protection  under  persecution. 

Conmiendation  of  his  soul  to  God ;  forgiveness  of  his  murderers. 


W     THE  PRINCIPAL  MIRACULOUS  EVENTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE 

OLD  TESTAMENT. 


EVENTS. 


WHBRB  RBCORDIOli 


1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7, 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 
32. 
33. 
34. 
35. 
36. 
37. 
38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 
46. 
47. 
48. 


The  deluge •  • 

The  confusion  of  tongues • 

Des6iiction  of  the  cities  of  the  plain 

The  bumin&^bush  .: ••••.•••• 

Aaron's  rod  changed  to  a  serpent •  •  • 

The  River  Nile  changed  to  a  stream  of  blood. . 

The  plague  of  frogs 

The  plague  of  lice .••••• 

The  plague  of  flies 

The  plague  of  murrain •  • 

The  plague  of  boils 

The  plague  of  thunder  and  hail 

The  plague  of  locusts 

The  plague  of  darkness 

Death  of  the  first-born ••••••.•... 

Passage  of  the  Red  Sea ..•••• 

The  waters  of  Marah  made  sweet 

Manna  sent  from  heaven .••..••• 

Water  drawn  from  the  rock 

Destruction  of  Nadab  and  Abihu *  • . . 

The  brazen  serpent 

The  ass  speaks •• 

Passage  of  the  Jordan  by  the  Israelites 

Destruction  of  the  walls  of  Jericho 

Sun  and  moon  obey  Joshua 

Philistines  slain  before  the  ark  ...*. 

Uzzah  killed • 

Jeroboam's  hand  is  withered .••• 

The  widow's  meal  increased •  • . 

The  widow's  son  raised  from  the  dead 

Elijah's  sacrifice  consumed  by  fire  from  heaven 

Elijah  obtains  rain 

The  Jordan  divided  before  Elijah 

Water  provided  for  Jehoshaphat's  army 

The  cruse  of  oil  does  not  fail 

Shunammite's  son  restored  to  life • 

One  hundred  men  fed  with  twenty  loaves 

Naaman  healed  in  the  Jordan 

Gehazi  stricken  with  leprosy 

Iron  does  not  sink  in  water .•••• 

The  Assyrian  army  overthrown • .  •  • 

A  dead  body  revived  by  Elisha's  bones •  • 

Destruction  of  Sennacherib's  army 

The  sun  goes  back  on  the  dial •  •  •  • 

Uzziah's  leprosy 

The  fiery  furnace  harmless 

Daniel  is  not  hurt  by  the  lions. 

Jonah  lives  three  days  in  the  belly  of  the  whale 


Gen.  viL 

—  xL 

—  xix. 
Ex.  iii:  2. 

—  vii:10,  11 

—  vii:  20, 25. 

—  viii:  5, 14. 

—  viii:  16, 18. 

—  viii:  20,  24. 

—  ix:  3,  6. 

—  ix:  8,  11. 

—  ix:22,  28. 

—  x:13, 19. 

—  x:21,  23. 

—  xu:29,  30. 

—  xiv:21,81. 

—  xv:  23,  25. 

—  xvi:14,  35. 

—  xvii:  5,  7. 
Lev.  x:  1,  2. 
Num.  xxi:  8,  9. 

—  xxu:  21,  Sfk 
Josh,  iii:  14,  16. 

—  vi:  6,  20. 

—  x:  12, 14. 

1  Sam.  v:  1,  12. 

2  Sam.  vi:  7. 

1  Kings  xiii:  4,  6. 

—  xvii:  14.  la 

—  xvii:  17,  24. 

—  xviii:  30,  38. 

—  xviii:  41,  4ft. 

2  Kings  ii:  7,  8,  14. 

—  iii:  16,  20. 

—  iv:  2,  7. 

—  iv:  32,  37. 

—  iv.  42,  44. 

—  v:  10,  14. 

—  v:  20,  27. 

—  vi:  5,  7. 

—  vi:  18,  2a 

—  xiii:  21. 

—  xix:  35. 

—  xx:  9,  11. 

2  Chron.  xxvi:  16,  21. 
Dan.  iii:  19,  27. 

—  vi:16,23. 
Jonah  ii:  1,  10. 


NAMES  AND  TITLES  OF  THE  HOLY  SPIRIT. 


John  iii:  6,  The  Spirit 

1  Tim.  iv:  1. 

Gen.  i:  2,  The  Spirit  of  God. 

Gen.  xli:  38. 

Ephes.  iv:  30.  The  Holy  Spirit  of  God. 

Rev.  iv:  5,  The  seven  Spirits  of  God. 

Isaiah  xi:  2,  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord. 

Acts  v:  9. 

2  Cor.  iii:  17. 

Heb.  ix:  14,  The  Eternal  Spirit 
Matt,  x:  20,  The  Spirit  of  the  Father. 
Isaiah  vi:  8,  The  Voice  of  the  Lord. 

Job  xxxiii:  4,  The  Breath  of  the  Almighty, 
-uke  i:  35,  The  Power  of  the  Highest 

Psalms  Ii:  12,  Free  Spirit 
Neh.  ix:  20,  Good  Spirit 
Psalms  cxliii:  10. 


Romans  viii:  9,  Spirit  of  Christ 

1  Peter  i:  11. 

Gal.  iv:  6,  Spirit  of  the  Son. 

John  xiv:  16,  26,  The  Comforter. 

John  XV :  26. 

Romans  viii:  15,  Spirit  of  Adoption. 

1  Peter  iv:  14,  Spint  of  Glory. 

Heb.  x:  29,  Spirit  of  Grace. 

Romans  i:  4,  Spirit  of  Holiness. 

Romans  viii:  2,  Spirit  of  Life. 

Rev.  xi:  11. 

Romans  xv:  30,  Spirit  of  Love. 

Ephes.  i:  13,  Spint  of  Promise. 

John  xiv:  17,  Spirit  of  Truth. 

John  «v:  26,  etc. 

Matt  xxviii:  19,  Holy  Ghost 

1  Thess.  iv:  8  ;  Luke  xi:  13,  Holy  Spirit> 


NAMES,  TITLES  AND  OFFICES  OF  JESUS  CHRIST. 


51 


Adam,  the  Last,  1  Cor.  xv:  45. 

Advocate,  1  John,  ii:  1. 

Alpha  ui  Ome^a,  Rev.  i:8;  xxii:l3. 

Amen,  Rev.  iii:  14. 

Angel,  Isaiah  Ixiii:  9. 

Ancient  of  Days,  Dan.  vii:  22. 

Anointed,  Psalms  ii:  2. 

Apostle,  Heb.  iii:  1. 

Author  and  Finisher  of  our  Faith, 

Heb.  xii:  2. 
Author   of    Eternal    Salvation, 

Heb.  v:  9. 

Babe,  Luke  ii:  16. 

Beginning  of  the  Creation  of  God, 

Kev.  ui:  14. 
Begotten  of  the  Father,  John  i:  14. 
Beloved,  Cant,  i:  13;  i:  14. 

Ephes.  i:  6. 
Bishop,  1  Peter  ii:  26. 
Brancn,  Zech.  iii:  8. 

••      The,  Zech.  vi:  12. 
Bread  of  Life.  John  vi:  48-5L 
Bread  of  God,  John  vi:  33. 
Bridegroom,  Matt,  ix:  15.   - 
Bright  and  Morning  Star,  Rev. 

xxii:  16 
Brightnessof  the  Father's  glory, 

Heb.  i:  3. 

Captain,  Josh,  v:  14. 

Captain  of  our  Salvation,  Heb. 

ii:  10. 
Child,  Isaiah  ix:  6. 
Chosen,  Matt,  xii:  18. 
Chosen  of  God,  Luke  xxiii:  35. 
Christ,  Matt,  i:  16;  ii:  4. 
Consolation  of  Israel,  Luke  ii:25. 
Comer,  Head  of  the,  1  Peter  ii:  7. 
Comer  Stone,  the  Chief,  Ephes. 

ii:  20. 
Covenant,  Isaiah  xlii:  6. 
Counsellor,  Isaiah  ix:  6. 
Covert,  Isaiah  xxxii:  2. 
Creator  of  Israel,  Isaiah  xliii:  15. 

David,  Jer.  xxx:  9. 
David,  Hosea  iii:  5. 
David,  Son  of,  Luke  xviii:  38. 
Daysman,  Job  ix:33. 
Day  star,  2  Peter  i:  19. 
Dayspring,  Luke  i:  78. 
Deliverer,  Romans  xi:  26. 
Desire  of  all  nations,  Hag.  ii:  7. 
Diadem,  Isaiah  Ixii:  3. 
Door  of  sheep,  John  x:  7. 

Elect,  Isaiah  xlii:  1. 
Emmanuel,  Matt,  i:  23. 
Ensign,  Isa^  xi:  10. 
Eternal  life,  1  John  v:  20. 
Everlasting  Father,  Isaiah  ix:  6. 
Express  image,  etc.,  Heb.  i:  3. 

Faithful  witness.  Rev.  i:  5. 

Rev.  iii:  14. 
Frithful  and  true.  Rev.  xix:  11. 
Father,  the   everlasting,   Isaiah 

ix:  6. 
Feeder,  Isaiah  xl:  11. 
First  b^:otten  of  the  Dead,  Rev. 

i:5. 
First  fmits,  1  Cor.  xv:  23. 
First  and  last,  Rev.  ii:  8. 
Flesh,  John  i:  14. 
Foundation,  Isaiah  xxviii:  16. 
Fountain,  Zech.  xiii:  1. 
Forerunner,  Heb.  vi:  20. 
Friend  of  sumers,  Matt  xi:  19. 


Gift  of  God,  2  Cor.  ix:  15. 
Glory  of  God,  Isaiah  xl:5. 
God,  John  i:  1. 

1  Tim.  iv:  10. 
God  blessed  forever,  Rom.  ix:  5. 
Governor,  Matt  ii:  6. 
Guide,  Psalms  xlviii:  14. 

Head  of  the  Church,  Coloss.  i:18. 
Heir  of  all  things,  Heb.  i:  2. 
Highest,  Psalms  xviii:  13. 

Luke  i:  32. 
High  Priest,  Heb.  iii:l. 
High,  Most,  Lukeviii:28. 
Holy  one  of  God,  Mark  i:  24. 
Holy  one  of  Israel,  Isaiah  xii:  14. 
Holy  child.  Acts  iv:  30. 
Holy  thing,  Luke  i:  35. 
Hope,  Acts  xxviii:  20. 

1  Tim.  i:l. 
Horn  of  salvation,  Psalms  xviii:  2. 

Image  of  God,  Heb.  i:3. 
Immanuel,  Isaiah  vii:  14. 
Immortal,  1  Tim.  i:  17. 
Invisible,  1  Tim.  i:  17. 
Israel,  Isaiah  xlix:3. 

Tah,  Psalms  Ixviii:  4. 
Jehovah,  Isaiah  xxvi:  4. 
Jesus,  Matt  i:  21. 

1  Thess.  i:  10. 
[udah,  Rev.  v:  5. 
fudge.  Acts  x:  42. 
lust  One,  Acts  iii,  14;  vii:  62; 
Acts  xxii:  14. 

King,  Matt  xxi:  5;  xxv:  34. 
King  of  the  Jews,  Matt  ii:  2. 
King  of  Kings,  1  Tim.  vi:  15. 

Rev.  xvii:  14. 

Rev.  xix:  16. 

Ladder,  Gen.  xxviii:  12. 

Lamb  of  God,  John  i:  29. 

Lamb,  Rev.  v:  6.  ^ 

Lawgiver,  James  iv:  12. 

Leader,  Isaiah  Iv:  4. 

Light,  True,  John  i:  9. 

Light  of  the  World,  John  viii:  12. 

John  ix:  5. 
Life,  John  xiv:  6. 
Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  Rev. 

v:  5. 
Living  Stone,  1  Peter  ii:  4. 
Lord,  Romans  i:  3. 
Lord  God  Almighty,  Rev.  xv:  3. 
Lord  of  all,  Acts  x:  36. 
Lord  of  Glory,  1  Cor.  ii:  8. 
Lord  of  lords,  1  Tim.  vi:  15. 
Lord,    our    Righteousness,   Jer. 

xxiii:  6. 

Maker  and  Preserver  of  all  things, 

John  i:  3,  10. 
Man,  Acts  xvii:  34;  1  Tim.  ii:  5. 
Master,  Matt,  xxiii:  8. 
Mediator,  1  Tim.  ii:  5. 
Melchisedec,  Heb.  vii:  17. 
Messenger  of  the  Covenant,  Mai. 

ui:  1. 
Messiah,  Daniel  ix:  25;  John  i:  41. 
Michael,  Rev.  xii:  7. 
Mighty  God,  Isaiah  ix:  6. 
Minister,  Heb.  viii:  2. 
Morning  star.  Rev.  xxii:  16. 

Nazarene,  Matt  ii:  23. 


Offspring  of  David,  Rev.  xxii:  16. 
Only  begotten,  John  i:  14. 

Passover,  1  Cor.  v:  7. 
Plant  of  renown,  Ezek.  xxxiv:  29. 
Potentate,  1  Tim.  vi:  15. 
Priest,  Heb.  iv:  14;  vii:  26. 
Priest  forever,  Heb.  v:  6. 
Prince  of  Life,  Acts  iii:  15. 
Prince,  Acts  v:  31. 
Prince  of  Peace,  Isaiah  ix:  6. 
Prophet,  Acts  iii:  22. 
Propitiation,  1  John  ii:  2;  iv:  10. 
Power  of  God,  1  Cor.  i:  24. 
Purifier,  Mai.  iii:  3. 
Physician,  Matt,  ix:  12. 

Ransom,  1  Tim.  ii:  6. 
Redeemer,  Isaiah  lix:  20;  Ix:  16. 
Resurrection,  John  xi:  25. 
Refiner,  Mai.  iii:  3. 
Refuge,  Isaiah  xxv:  4. 
Righteousness,  1  Cor.  i:  30. 
Rock,  Deut  xxxii:  15;  1  Cor.x:  4. 
Rod  and  branch,  Isaiah  xi:  1. 
Root  of  David,  Rev.  xxii:  16. 
Rose  of* Sharon,  Cant  ii:  1. 
Ruler  in  Israel,  Micah  v:  2. 

Sacrifice,  Ephes.  v:  2. 

Salvation,  Luke  ii:  30. 

Same  yesterday,  to-day  and  for- 
ever, Heb.  xiii:  8. 

Sanctifiration,  1  Cor.  i:  30. 

Sanctuary,  Isaiah  viii:  14. 

Saviour,  Luke  ii:  11. 

Seed  of  Abraham,  Gal.  iii:  29. 

Seed  of  David,  2  Tim.  ii:  8. 

Seed  of  the  woman,  Gen.  iii:  16. 

Second  man,  1  Cor.  xv:  47, 

Servant,  Isaiah  xlii:  1, 19. 

Shepherd,  John  x:  11. 

Shepherd  of  the  Sheep,  Heb. 
xiii:  20. 

Shield,  Gen.  xv:  1. 

Shiloh,  Gen.  xlix:  10. 

Son  of  God,  Matt,  viii:  29. 

Son  of  man,  Matt  viii:  20. 

Son  of  David,  Matt,  ix:  27. 

Son  of  the  Highest,  Luke  i:  32. 

Son,  only  begotten,  John  i:  14, 18. 

Spirit,  1  Cor.  XV :  45. 

Star,  bright  and  morning,  Rev. 
xxii:  16. 

Star  and  Scepter,  Num.  xxiv:  17. 

Stone  refused,  Matt,  xxi:  42. 

Strength  of  Israel,  1  Sam.  xv:  29. 

Son  of  Righteousness,  Mai.  iv:  2. 

Surety,  Heb.  vii:  22. 

Tabernacle,  Heb.  viii:  2;  ix:  IL 
Teacher,  John  iii:  2. 
Temple,  Mark  xlv:  58. 
Testator,  Heb.  ix:  16,  17. 
Tree  of  Life,  Rev.  ii:  7. 
Truth,  John  xiv:  6. 

Vine,  The,  John  xv:  5. 
Vine,  True,  John  xv:  1, 

Wall  of  fire,  Zech.  ii:  6. 
Way,  John  xiv:  6. 
Well  of  living  waters,  John  iv:  14. 
Wisdom  of  God,  1  Cor.  i:  24. 
Witness,  Rev.  iii:  14. 
Wonderful,  Isaiah  ix:  6. 

Isaiah  xxviii:  29. 
Word  of  God,  Rev.  xix:  13. 


62 


TABULATED  HARMONY  OF  THE  GOSPELS. 


EVBNTS. 


Placb. 


Datb. 


Matt. 


Makk. 


LUKB. 


John. 


Period  op  Childhood  and  Preparation^Prom  B.C.  6  to  A.D.  f7. 


, »» 


The**  Logos 

The  Annunciation 

Birth  of  John 

Christ  Bom 

Presentation  in  the  Temple 

Visit  of  Wise  Men 

The  ilieht  into  Egypt • 

The  Child  Tesus  in  the  Temple. . . . 
John  Preaching  in  the  Wilderness. 

Baptism  of  Jesus 

Temptation  to  the  Wilderness 


Nasareth 

Judea 

Bethlehem 

Jerusalem 

Nazareth 

(or  Bethlehem) 

Jerusalem 

Near Jordan 

River  Jordan 

Judea 


March  B.C.  6 

June  B.C.  5 

December  B.C.  6 

January  B.C.  4 

B.C.4 

B.C.4 

April  A.D.  8 

A.D.  26 

A.D.  27 

A.D.  27 


1:1M» 

2:1.12 
2:18-15 

8:1-12 
8: 18-17 
4:  Ml 


1:1-8 
1:0-11 
1:  12,18 


1:26.88 
1:5&^ 
2:1-20 
2:21-40 


2:41-60 

8:  1-18 

8:  21. 22 

4:  1-18 


1:  1-14 


1:15.34 
1:3^34 


First  Year  of  Pubuc  Ministry  — A.D.  27  and  28. 


The  First  Disciples  Chosen  ... 

The  First  Miracle 

First  Cleansing  of  the  Temple. 

fesus  and  Nicodemus 
esus  and  John  Baptizing 
The  Woman  at  the  Well 

The  Return  to  Galilee 

Healing  the  Nobleman's  Son.. 


Rejected  at  Home...., 

The  Draught  of  Fishes 

The  Unclean  Spirit , 

Peter's  Wife's  Mother  Restored 

The  Sermon  on  the  Mount 

Cleansing  the  Leper 

Healing  the  Palsied  Man 

The  Call  of  Matthew 

The  Woman  Healed  and  Jairus*  Daugh- 
ter Raised  

Two  Blind  Men  Restored 


Near Jordan 

Cana  of  Galilee 

Jerusalem 

Jerusalem 

Jordan  Valley 

Samaria 

Cana  and  Caper*. 

naum 

Nazareth 

Near  Capemanm 

Capernaum 

Capernaum 

Horns  of  Hattln 

Galilee 

Capernaum 


February 
February 

April 

April 
Summer 
December 


A.D.88 


^8: 14, 15 
Ch«>s.  5,6,7 

0:1-8 
0:0 

0:184B6 
0:27-81 


1:21-28 
l:204tl 

1:40-45 
2:  1-12 
2:13-14 

6:2M8 


4:1&« 
5:  Ml 
4:8»^ 
4:  88,30 
6:20-^ 
5:  12-16 
5:17-26 
5:27,28 

8:41-66 


1:35«1 
2:  Ml 
2:  18-17 
3:1-21 
3:22-24 
4:1-42 
4:43^5 
e46M 


Second  Year  op  Public  Ministry— A.D.  28  and  20. 


At  the  Pool  of  Bethesda 

The  Lord  of  the  Sabbath 

The  Withered  Hand  Restored. 

The  Chosen  Twelve •  •« 

The  Sermon  on  the  Plain 


The  Centurion's  Great  Faith 

The  Widow's  Son  Raised 

Christ's  Reply  to  John  the  Baptist 

Mary  Magdalene 

Discourse  on  the  Unpardonable  Sin  • .. 

**Afy  Mother  and  My  Brethren  " 

Parables  of  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven.  . 


The  Tempest  Stilled 

Devils  Cast  out  of  Demoniac  ••  • 

Second  Visit  to  Nazareth 

The  Commission  of  the  Twelve 

John  »he  Baptist  Beheaded 

Five  Thousand  Fed 

J^us  Walking  on  the  Sea 

The  Bread  of  Life 


Jerusalem 

Near  Capernaum 

Near  Capernaum 

Horns  of  Hattin 

Beach  Near  Cli* 

pemaum 

Capemanm 

i^ata 

Galilee 

Near  Nain 

Capernaum  (?) 

Capernaum 

Seaside  near  Ca* 

pemaum 

Sea  of  Galilee 

Gadara 

Nazareth 

GalUee 

Perea 

Near  Bethsaida 

Sea  of  Galilee 

Capernaum 


A.D.28 


AJ>.tO 


12:1-8 

2:23^ 

6:1-5 

12: 0-14 

8:1-6 

6:6-11 

10:24 

8:18-10 

6: 13-16 
6:2040 

8:6-18 

7:  MO 
7:  11-17 

n:2-10 

7:18-35 
7:86.50 

12:24-37 

8:22^ 

12:4^60 

8:  31-85 

8:10421 

13:1-63 

4:1-34 

8:4-18 

8:23-27 

4:85-41 

8:2240 

8:2&M 

5:  M5 

8:27-85 

13:54-68 

6:1-6 

10:1-42 

6:7-13 

0:1-6 

14:  1-12 

6:14-20 

0:7-0 

14: 18-21 

6:3044 

0: 12-17 

6iM8 

14:2I^^6 

6:45^ 

6:l&4ei 
6:2^71 

fcwr 


Third  Year  of  Pubuc  Ministry»A.D.  20  and  SQL 


Discourse  on  Jewish  Traditions  ••••••. 

The  Iraoortunate  Woman •••• 

Capernaum 
Near  Tyre 
Decapolis 
Decapolis 
Bethsaida 
Caesarea  Philippi 

Mt.  Hermon 
Caesarea  Philippi 

Capernaum 
Jerusalem 

Temple 

Temple 
Jerusalem 
Jerusalem 

Judea 

judea 
Jerusalem 

M 

Perea 

Perea 
Bethany 
Samaria 

Galilee 

Perea 

Perea 
Jericho 

« 

A.D.20 

44 
t* 
M 

M 
M 

« 
M 

M 
M 
M 
M 

A.D.  20  Antnmn 
A.D.20 

M 
M 
— 

M 

AJX80 

M 

« 

« 
M 
M 
« 
M 
M 

15:  1-20 
15:  21-28 

15:82-30 

16: 13-20 
17: 1-13 
17: 14-21 

18:144 
lSi8446 

10:16^ 
20:2O4» 
20:20-34 

7:1-23 

7:24-30 

7:31-87 

8:1-0 
8:22-26 
8:27-30 

0:2-18 
0:14-20 

0:S^«r 

10:17-22 
10:8645 
10:4^62 

0:28^ 
0:87-43 

0:4648 
0:51-62 

10:1-24 
10:25.37 
11:87-64 
12:  18-21 

18:6^ 

18: 10-17 

1&-16:81 

17:  IMO 

18:  M4 
18:18«8 

18:85-48 
10: 1-10 
10:  11-28 

The  Deaf  and  Dumb  Man  Cured 

PeedinfiT  the  Four  Thousand  .... •••. .. 

The  Blind  Man  of  Bethsaida 

The  Great  Confession •• 

The Transfiaruration  .................. 

The  Lunatic  Child 

^IVho  is  the  Greatest  in  the  Kingdom 
of  Heavenf** 

Piith  Visit  to  Jerusalem 

7:2-10 

Christ  Teaches  in  the  Temole 

7: 11<46 

The  Woman  Taken  in  Adultery 

The  Seventy  Sent  Forth.. 

8:l-'l 

The  Good  ^maritan 

Christ  Denounces  Pharisaism ......... 

The  Rich  Fool 

Parable  of  the  Barren  Fig  Tree 

Man  Blind  from  Birth  Healed 

0:141 

The  Good  Sheoherd •••. 

10:1-28 

The  Woman  with  an  Infirmity 

Parables  of  Lost  Sheep,  the  Lost  Coin, 
the  Prodigal  Son,  the  Unjust  Steward, 
the  Rich  Man  and  Lazarus ••... 

The  Raisins  of  Lazarus  •...........•■. 

11:146 

The  Ten  Leoers  CleanscKl 

Parables  of  the  Unrighteous  Judge  and 

of  the  Pharisee  and  Publican 

The  Rich  Younsr  Ruler 

A  Mother's  Ambition.. 

Blind  Bartimeus. •...••.•.. 

Zaccheus ....•......*...•••... 

Parable  of  the  Pounds....... 

HARMONY  OF  THE  GOSPELS— Continued 


53 


EVBHTS. 

Place. 

Date. 

Matt. 

Mark. 

Luke. 

John. 

Passion  Week 

—  A.D.  80,  April  1 

TO  7. 

Sat.      The  Anointing  at  Bethany 

Sun.    The  Triumphal  Entry 

Bethany 
Jerusalem 

M 

Mount  of  Olives 
Temple 

M 
M 

M 

Mount  of  Olives 
lemsaleni 

M 
« 
M 
M 

Mount  of  Olives 

Mount  of  Olives 

Jerusalem 

M 
M 
•< 

M 

■ 

• 
• 

«• 
Golfptba 

m 
m 

M 

■ 
• 

• 
m 
« 

Jerusalem 
Golgotha 

M 

Garden  near 
Calvary 

Sat.,  Apr.  1 
Sun.,  Apr.  2 
Sun.,  Apr.  2 
Mon.,  Apr.  8 
Tues.,  Apr.  4 
<« 

M 
M 
«• 

M 

« 

Tim.,  Apr.  0 

ThiL,  Apr.  0,  Eve. 

M 

PrL,  Apr.  7,  Early 

M 

PtLMomlog 

M 

M 
M 
« 

M 

m 

M 

« 

M 

« 
M 

M 

«• 
•« 

Fft.il|Nr.7.M 

M 
M 
M 
M 
M 

"  84  P.M. 

26:6-18 
21:  1-11 

21: 12-17 
21:18«8 

21:28-22:14 
23:1-83 

84:1-51 

25:1-80 
26: 17-19 

26: 21-25 
26:26-29 

26:81^ 
26:47-60 
26:69-75 

26:57-68 

27:1.2 

27:8-10 

27:26 
27:29 

27:12 

27:15-18 
27:19 
27:24 
27:26 

27:26 

27:82 

27:84 

27:85 

27:87 

27:85 
27:89-44 

27:45 
27:40 
27:48 

27:51 
27:62 
27:54 
27:55 

27:57-66 
27:65.66 

14:8-9 
11:  1-11 

11: 15-19 
11:20^ 

11:27-12:12 
12:41-44 
18:1-37 

14: 12-16 

14: 18-21 
14:22-25 

14:82-42 
14:  4^^ 
14:66-72 

14:5345 
15:1 

15:15 
15:17 

15: 18, 14 

15: 0-15 

15: 15 
15:15 
15:21 

15:28 

15: 24. 25 

15:26 

15:24 
15:29-32 

15:88 
15:84 
15:86 

15:88 

15:89 
15:40 

15:42-47 

19:29^ 
19:  41-44 
19:45-48 

20: 1-19 
21:1-4 
21:5-36 

22: 7-13 

22:2123 
22:15-30 

22:89-46 
22:  47-53 
22:54-62 

22:54,6345 
23:1 

23:2 

23:  Ml 
28: 13-17:  20 

23:25 

23:25 

23:26 

23:  27-31 
23:36 
23:33 
28:38 

23:34 
23:34 

23:35 
23:40-42 

23:43 
23:44,45 

23:46 
23:45 

23:47 
23:49 

23:50^ 

12:14 
12: 12-19 

Christ  Weeping  over  Jerusalem. 
Mon.  Second  Cleansmeof  the  Temple 

Tues.  The  Fig  Tree  \^^thered 

Greeks  Would  See  Jesus 

Parables  of  the  Two  Sons,  the 

Heir,  and  the  Great  Supper  .. 

Scribes  and  Pharisees  Denounced 

The  Widow's  Mite 

Destruction  of  Temple  and  Sec- 
ond Coming  Foretold 

Parables  of  the  Virgins  and  Tal- 
ents  

12:2040 

•Thii.  The  Passover  Preoared • 

Washing  the  Disciples'  Feet  ... 

The  Traitor  Revealed 

The  Lord's  Supper  Instituted  •• 
The  Last  Discourse  of  Jesus..., 

Last  Prayer  for  Disciples 

Pri.     The  Agony  in  Gethsemane ..... 
The  Betrayal .•• 

18:  W7 
13: 21-80 
13:1-38 

14-16 
17. 

18:1 
18:  2-12 

Peter's  Denial  .....•.•••...•.••• 

18: 15-27 

Before  Annas ••..••••. 

18: 12. 18 

Trial  Before  Caiaohas. .....•••• 

18: 19-24 

Before  Pilate ••• 

18*28 

Remorse  of  Judas 

Pilate  Inquires  Concerning thdr 

Accusation , 

Pilate  Questions  Jesus ••• 

Jesus  ocourged .....••• 

18:2942 

18:3348 

19*  1 

Jesus  Crowned  with  Thorns.... 

Pilate  Presents  Him  to  the  Peo- 
ple.   **  Behold  the  Man  ** 

People  Formally  Accuse  Him  .. 

Jesus   Before   Herod,  Mocked, 
Arraved in  Purole ..••• 

19:2 
19:4,6 

Pilate  Seeks  to  Release  Him.... 
The  Dream  of  Pilate's  Wife  .... 

Pilate  Washes  his  Hands 

Rnmhbns  Relea;;^ 

19:12 

Jesus  Delivered  Up  to  be  Cru- 
cified  

19:  M 

Simon  of  Cyrene  Compelled  to 
Cany  the  Cross 

Jesus  Speaks  to  the  Lamenting 
Women 

They  Give  H  im  Vinegar  and  GaU 
The  Crucifixion 

19:18 

The  Superscription 

The  Sbvbn  Words  on  the  Cross. 

t    ^^ Father,  forgive  them  " 

Casting  Lots  for  His  Raiment 

The  Crowd  and  the  Two  Thieves 
Mock  Him 

19:19 
19:28,24 

The  Penitent  Thief 

2.    **  To-day  shaM  thou  be  with  me  in 
Paradise*^ 

8.    **iydMan,deholdthyson** 

Darkness  from  the  Sixth  to  Ninth 
Hours  ........................... 

19:26,27 

4.    **A^  God,  my  God^  why  hast  thou 
/orsaken  tnef**  .... ......  ..■•••■• 

5.    **Ithirst** •• 

19*28 

Receives  Vinegar 

«.    **JlisJlttished^ 

T.    **  Father  J  into  thy  hands  I  commend 
mv sbtrit** ^ ...................... 

19:29 
19:80 

The  Veil  Rent 

The  Graves  Ooened 

Testimony  of  Centurion 

Women  Look  on  from  a  Distance.. 
A  Soldier  Pierces  his  Side .  .*....... 

19:84 

The  Burial  of  Christ 

Stone  Sealed  and  Guard  set 

19:8M8 

*  The  above  arrangement  of  time  is  according  to  the  generally  accepted  opinion,  but  many  students  believe  that,  agreeable 
to  the  prophecy  that  Christ  should  be  '*  three  days  and  three  nights  **  in  tne  grave,  the  crucifixion  occurred  on  Thursday  instead 
of  Friday. 

After  the  Resurrection— A.D.  30,  April  9  to  Mav  18. 


The  Resurrection 

Garden  near 
Calvary 

At  Sepulchre 

At  Sepulchre 
Jerusalem 

At  Sepulchre 

Jerusalem 
At  Sepulchre 

Sun.  Apr.  9 
Sun.  Apr.  9,  Early 

M 
M 

m 

28:2-4 
28:1 
28:2 
28:8 

28:  IMS 

28:9 

10:  M 
Ift9 

24:1 

24:9-11 
24:12 

Women  Visit  the  Sepulchre 

They  Find  the  Stone  Rolled  Away 
Women  Report  the  Resurrection  . 

Peter  and  John  at  the  Tomb 

The  Guards  Report  to  the  Chief 
Priests  

20:14 

20:8-10 

Appearances  of  Christ  After  the 
Resurrection. 

1-    To Marv  Maedalene. ............. 

20:14-17 

*'AllhatI/'*  ^Fear  not.**  ''Touch 
menot'* 

20:17 

54 


HARMONY  OF  THE  GOSPELS  —  Continued 


Events. 


Place. 


Date. 


Matt. 


Mark. 


Luke. 


John. 


After  the  Resurrection— A.D.  30,  April  9  to  May  \%— Continued, 


8. 
4. 
5. 


7. 


8. 


9. 

10. 
11. 
12. 


TotheOther  Women 

**  Go  tell  my  brethren  that  they  go 
into  Gottlee:  there  shall  they  see 
tne** 

To  Peter jV Cor.*  16: 6*)' '.'/.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

To  Two  Disciples 

To  Ten  Apostles 

**Peace  be  unto  you.*'  *^As  my 
Father  hath  sent  me^  even  so 
send  I  you  ** , 

**  Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost " 

To  the  Eleven  Apostles  (Thomas 
Present)  

**  Peace  be  unto  you*' 

To  Thomas :  — 

**  Reach  hither  thy  finger  " 

^* Blessed  are  they  that  have  not 
seen^  and  yet  have  believed  " . . . . 

To  Seven  Apostles  at  the  Sea  of 
Tiberias 

To  Peter  i—''Feed my  sheep ".... 

To  Eleven  Apostles  on  a  Moun- 
tain in  Galilee  (1  Cor.  15:5) 

**j4ll  power  is  given  unto  me  in 
heaven  and  in  earth  " 

•*  Go  ye  and  teach  all  nations  •' 

*'Z<>,  I  am  with  you  atway'* 

To  500  Disciples  on  a  Mountain  in 
Galilee  (I  Cor.  15:6} 

To  James  (1  Cor.  15: 7) 

THE  ASCENSION 

To  Paul  (1  Cor.  15:8) 


At  Sepulchre 


Way  to  Emmaus 
Jerusalem 


Sun.  Apr.  9,  Early 


Sun.  afternoon 
Sun.  evening 


28:9 


28:10 


Jerusalem 


Tiberias 


Galilee 


Galilee 

Jerusalem 

Mt.  of  Olives 

Way  to  Damascus 


Sun.  Apr.  18 


April  or  May 
April  or  May 


April  or  May 
May  18 


28:10 

28:18 
28:19 
28:20 


18:12 


24:34 
24:18-32 
24:3M9 


18:14 


16:19 


24:50^1 


20:19;» 

20:21 
20:22;» 

20:26 
20:26 

20:27 

20:29 

21:]<23 
21: 15-17 


MIRACLES  OF  JESUS  CHRIST. 


MIRACLES. 


Matt.      Mark. 


Luke.       John. 


FOUND  IN  ONE  GOSPEL  ONLY. 


Two  Blind  Men  Restored 

Healing  of  the  Dumb  Demoniac 

Tribute  Money  in  the  Mouth  of  a  Fish 

The  Deaf  ana  Dumb  Man  Cured 

A  Blind  Man  Healed 

Jesus  Escapes  Unseen  from  His  Pursuers 

The  Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes 

The  Widow  of  Nain*s  Son 

The  Woman  with  an  Infirmity  Healed 

Man  with  Dropsy  Cured  

Ten  Lepers  Cleansed 

The  Ear  of  the  High  Priest's  Servant  Restored 

Water  Turned  into  Wine 

The  Nobleman's  Son  Healed  of  Fever 

Impotent  Man  at  the  Pool  of  Bethesda 

The  Man  Blind  from  Birth  Healed 

The  Raising  of  Lazarus 

Second  Draught  of  Fishes 


9;  27-31 

9:  32,33 

17:  24-27 


7:  31-37 
8:22-26 


4:30 
6: 1-ll 
7: 11-17 

13: 10-17 

14: 1-6 

17:  11-19 

22: 50,51 


2;  1-11 

4:46-54 

5: 1-16 

9:1-41 

11:1-46 

21: 1-11 


FOUND  IN  TWO  GOSPELS. 


The  Unclean  Spirit  Cast  Out 

Centurion's  Servant  Healed 

The  Blind  and  Dumb  Demoniac 

Daughter  of  Syrophenician  Woman  Cured 

Four  Thousand  Fed 

The  Fig  Tree  Cursed 


8:5-13 
12:22 
15:  21-28 
15:  32-39 
21 :  18-22 


1:23-26 


7:24-30 
8:1-9 
11:12-14 


4:  33-37 
7: 1-10 
11:14 


FOUND  IN  THREE  GOSPELS. 


Cleansing  a  Leper 

Peter's  Wife's  Mother  Cured 

The  Tempest  Stilled 

Devils  Cast  into  Swine 

Palsied  Man  Cured 

HealingWoman  with  the  Issue  of  Blood 
Jairus'  Daughter  Brought  to  Life 


The  Withered  Hand  Restored  on  the  Sabbath 

Jesus  Walks  on  the  Sea 

The  Lunatic  Child 

Blind  Bartimeus  (Two  Blind  Men,  Matt. ) . . .   . 


8:1-4 

8: 14,15 

8:  23-27 

8:28-34 

9:1-8 

9:20-22 

9:23-25 

12: 10-13 
14:  22-32 
17: 14-18 
20:  30-34 


1:40-45 
1:  30,31 
4:36-41 
5:1-20 
2:  3-12 
5:25-34 
5: 22-24 
35-43 
3:1-5 
6: 47-51 
9: 17-29 
10:  46-52 


5: 12-15 
4:38,39 
8:  22-25 
8:26-40 
5:18-26 
8:43-48 
8:41.42 
49-56 
6:6-10 

9:  37-42 
18:35-43 


6: 16-21 


FOUND  IN  ALL  FOUR  GOSPELS. 


Feeding  the  Five  Thousand 14: 15-21    6:  34-44      9: 12-17     6:  5-13 


PARABLES  OF  JESUS  CHRIST. 


65 


PARABLES. 


Matt.      Mark.      Luke. 


Spiritual  Lessons  Taught, 


FOUND  IN  ONE  GOSPEL  ONLY. 


••••••• 


The  Good  Seed  and  the  Tares.  •  • . 
Treasure  Hid  in  the  Field 
The  Pearl  of  Great  Price. 
The  Draw-net 


The  Wicked  Servant 

The  Laborers  in  the  Vineyard. 
The  Two  Sons 


The  Man  Without  a  Weddmg  Gar- 
ment  

The  Wise  and  Foolish  Virgins  • . . . 
The  Talents 


The  Judgment 


The  Imperceptible  Growth  of  Seed 
The  Porter  Commanded  to  Watch 
The  Two  Debtors 


The  Good  Samaritan.. 
The  Persistent  Friend  . 
The  Foolish  Rich  Man 
Servants  Watchin 


The  Faithftil  and  Wise  Steward 


Wi 


The  Barren  Fig  Tree 

The  Great  Supper,  and  Excuses  • . 
To  Illustrate  Counting  the  Cost . . . 
The  Lost  Coin 


The  Prodigal  Son 


»« • 


The  Un j  ust  Steward 

The  Rich  Man  and  Lazarus 

Unprofitable  Servants • . 

The  Persevering  Woman  and  the 

Unjust  Judge 

The  Pharisee  and  the  Publican.  • .  • 
The  Ten  Pounds 


13:24-30 
13:44 
13: 45, 46 
13: 47,  48 

18:23-34 
20: 1-16 
21:28-30 


22:2-14 
25: 1-13 
25:14-30 

25: 81-46 


4:26-29 
13:34 


7:41,42 

10:30^35 
11:5-8 
12: 16-21 
12:35-40 
12:42-48 

13:6-9 
14: 16-24 
14:28-33 
15: 8-10 

15: 11-32 

16:1-8 
16: 19-31 
17:  7-10 

18:2-5 
18: 10-14 
19: 12-27 


The  good  and  evil  at  the  Judgment 
The  Gospel,  the  great  treasure. 
Sacrificing  sdl  for  Christ 
Separation  of  the  wicked  from  the 

righteous  at  the  Judgment 
Forgive  and  ye  shall  be  forgiven. 
God  is  debtor  to  no  man. 
Will  of  God  performed  in  deed,  not  in 

word. 

Necessity  of  preparation. 

Be  ye  therefore  ready. 

Faithfulness  required  even  in  small 
thin|^. 

A  service  to  **  the  least "  is  a  service  to 
Christ. 

Gradual  growth  of  Christ's  kingdom. 

Watchfulness. 

Gratitude  proportionate  to  extent  of 
forgiveness. 

A  helper  in  time  of  need  is  a  neighbor. 

Perseverance  in  prayer. 

Heaven  a  safe  treasure  house. 

Reward  to  those  found  watching. 

Increased  knowledge,  increased  re- 
sponsibility. 

The  unfruitful  life  rejected. 

No  excuse  for  unfulfilled  duty. 

Count  the  cost 

Joy  in  heaven  over  repentance  of  sin- 
ners. 

Fatherly  love  toward  repentant  chU' 
dren. 

Wisdom  of  preparing  for  the  future 

Righteous  judgment  in  the  future. 

All  our  service  belongs  to  God. 

Power  of  persistent  prayer. 
Humility  commended. 
Rewarded  according  to  diligence. 


FOUND  IN  TWO  GOSPELS  ONLY. 


Houses  Built  upon  a  Rock  and 

upon  the  Sand 

Leaven  in  the  Meal 


The  Lost  Sheep. 


6: 47-49 
13: 20, 21 

15:4-6 


Necessity  of  a  good  foundation. 
Pervading  influence  of  the  kingdom  of 

God. 
The  Father's  anxiety  over  the  lost 


POUND  IN  THREE  GOSPELS. 


The  Light  Under  a  Bushel. 


New  Cloth  on  an  Old  Garment. . . . 

New  Wine  in  Old  Bottles 

The  Sower 

The  Mustard  Seed 

The  Wicked  Husbandmen.  ....... 

Fig  Tree  the  Sign  of  Spring 


5:15 

9:16 

9:17 
13:3-8 
13: 31, 82 
21:33-41 
24:32,33 


4:21 


2: 
2: 
4: 
4: 

12; 

13; 


21 

22 

3-8 

30-32 

1-9 

28.29 


8: 

16 

11: 

33 

5: 

36 

5: 

37, 38 

8: 

5-8 

13: 

18,19 

20: 

9-16 

21: 

29-32 

Let  your  light  shine. 

\  Inability  of  old  prejudices  to  contain 

j     Christ's  new  doctrine. 

Take  heed  how  ye  hear. 

The  growth  of  the  kingdom. 

Sin  of  rejecting  Christ 

Watch  for  his  coming. 


A  PRONOUNCING  DICTIONARY 


•  •  Ov  •  •  • 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


Aalar 

Aaron 

Aaronites 

Abacuc 

Abaddon 

Abadias 

Abagtha 

Abal 

Abana 

Abarim 

Abnron 

Abba 

Abdn 

Abdeel 

AIkU 

Abilias 

Alxliel 

AlHlon 

AltedneffO 

Al)cl 

Al>cll)ethmaa- 

AlH'tinuim 

AlK'hneholah 

AlH'lmixraim 

AlHlHhittim 

At»rimn 

AtHi« 

Abi 

Abirt 

AtiUh 

AtiiallHUi 

Abia'trti^h 

Abi'Ulmr 

Abib 

AbiiU 

Ai»uUb 

AbuUu 

Abu^l 

Ai»U'*cr 

AbUAiUo 

AI»iu.Ml 
A^'Muil 
AWii^vi 

A^ii.^ii 
A^n*ku\ 

A^'iK  uo 

At'Ui\».uu 

A^'^avu 

A^'M\»u 
A*"..i 

A^i  'U  ki 


A) 


I'   1 1 


)vUU 


{\\n  -livui 


A'a-tar 

A'rort 

A'^rott'Oes 

Ab'a-kuk 

A'bad'don    • 

Ad'a-di'as 

A-bag'thah 

A'bal 

Ab'a-nah 

Ab'a-rim 

Ab'a-ron 

Ab'baA 

Ab'dah 

Ab'de^l 

Ab'di 

Ab-dy*az 

Ab'de^l 

Ab'don 

A^-bed'ne-go 

A'bel 

A' bel-beth-^na' • 

a-kah 
A'be/'fHa'im 
A' bel-fne-ho' lah 
A '  bel-miz '  ra-im 
A' bel'shU' iim 
Ab'be^san 
A'bex 
A'by 

A-Sy'ah 
A-be-at  ban 
A^i'a^qf 
A^i' author 
A' bib 
A'by' da 
A-bi'doM 
Ab'i'dan 
A'bi^fi 
A'bt^'srr 
A'bt^i-s'rUt 
Ab't^eaU 
Ab'tiaU 
Abv'kH 
A6ykHd 
A^v'/ak 
A  ^y  jitm 
Ab  c-U'm^ 
-  /  bhu '  «-*■/ 
A'bim'c-itk 
A  bma-dab 
*ib'  i'H^ 
/I'biH'o-am 
^l  bi' ram 
,  I  bv'fvm 
Ab  i-Ar'i 
Ab  btski^ 

.  lb  bc-\/iav'Mar 
,  if  V\A'«i  hm 
,i  M\b  u  if 


JLE  AND  APOCRYPHA  PRONOUNCED  PHC 

Abishur 

A-by'shur 

Adida 

Abisum 

Ab'y-sum 

Adiel 

Abital 

Ab'e-tal 

Adin 

Abitub 

Ab'y-tub 

Adina 

Abiud 

A-bi'ud 

Adino 

Abner 

Ab'ner 

Abraham 

A'bfa-Aam 

Adinus 

Abram 

A'bram 

Adithaim 

Abrech 

Ab'rek 

Adlai 

Absalom 

Ab'sa-lam 

Admah 

Absalon 

Ab'sa-lon 

Admatha 

Abubus 

A-bu'bus 

Adna 

Acaron 

Ak'a-ron 

Adnah 

Acatan 

Ak'a-tan 

Adonibezek 

Accad 

Ak'kad 

Adonican 

Accarob 

Ak'ka-ron 

Adonijah 
Adonikam 

Accho 

Ak'koh 

Accos 

Ak'kos 

Adoniram 

Accoz 

Ak'koz 

Adonis 

Aceldama 

A'sei' da-fnah 

Adonizedek 

Achaia  (ya) 

A'kay'yah 

Adora 

Achaicus 

A'kay'e-kus 

Adoraim 

Adian 

A'kan 

Adoram 

Achar 

A'kar 

Adramelech 

Achaz 

A'knz 

Adrammelech 

Achbor 

Ak'bor 

Adramyttium 

Achiacharus 

A'ke-ak'a-rus 

Adria 

Achias 

A'ky'as 

Adriel 

Achim 

A'kim 

Aduel 

Achimelecfa 

A-JHm'e-UJt 

Adullam 

Achior 

A'ke-ar 

Adullamite 

Achish 

A'kish 

Adummim 

Achitob 

Aki'tob 

Aedias 

Achitophel 

A'kU'o^fel 

iEneas  (Or. 

Achmetha 

Ak'tne-thah 

Atviaq) 

Achor 

A'kor 

iEnon 

Achsa 

Ak'sa 

iEon 

Achsah 

Ak'sah 

iGthiopia 

Achshaph 

Ak'shaf 

Agaba 

Achzib 

Ak'zib 

Agabus 

Acipha 

As'e-/aA 

Agag 

Acitho 

As'e-tho 

Agagite 

Acua 

Ak'wa 

Agar 

Acub 

Ak'ub 

Agarenes 

Adadah 

Ad'a-dah 

Agate 

Adadezer 

Ad-ad-e'zer 

Agee 

Adadrimmon 

Ad-ad-rim '  man 

Aggeus 

Adah 

A'dak 

Agrippa 

Adaiah 

Ad'a-i'ah 

Agur 
Ahab 

Adalia 

Ad'a-li'a 

Adam 

Ad' am 

Aharah 

Adamah 

Ad'a-fnah 

Aharhel 

Adami 

Ad'a-mi 

Ahasai 

Adar 

A'dar 

Ahasbai 

Adasa 

Ad'a-sa 

Ahasuerus 

Adbeel 

Ad'be-el 

Ahava 

Addan 

Ad' dan 

Ahaz 

Addar 

Ad'dar 

Ahaziah 

Addi 

Ad'dy 
Ad' do 

Ahban 

Addo 

Aher 

Addon 

Ad' don 

Ahi 

Addus 

Addus 

Ahiah 

Ader 

Ader 

Ahiam 

Ad'i'da 
A'de-el 
A'din 
Ad'i-nah 
Ad'i-no  or 
A-di'no 
Ad'i-wis 
Ad'e-tha'im 
Ad'la-i 
Ad'mah 
Ad'ma-iha 
Ad' nay 
Adnah 
A-do' ni'be' zek 
A-don'i-kan 
Ad'o-ni'jah 
A-don'ikam 
Ad-o-ny'ram 
A-do'nis 
A-don' i-ze' dek 
A-do'ra 
Ad-o-ray'tfH 
A-do'ram 
A-dram'  e-lek 
A-dram '  me-leck 
Ad-ra-^mit'  ie-um 
A'dre-ah 
A'dre-el 
A-du'el 
A-dul'lam 
A-dul'lam4U 
A-dum'mim 
A'e^'as 

A'ne-as 

A'non 

A'on 

E-the-o* pe-a 

Az'a-ba 

j^'a-bus 

A^£rag 

A'gag'ite 

A' gar 

Ag'a-renez 

Ag'aU 

Ag'e^e 

Ag'ge'us 

A- grip' pah 

A'gur 

A'hab 

A-har'ah 

A-har'el 

A-has'a-i 

A-has'ba-i 

A-has-u-e' rus 

A'hay'vah 

A'haz 

A'ha-zi'ah 

Ah' ban 

A'her 

A'hy 

A-hy'ah 

A-hy'am 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


57 


Ahhin 

Ahiezer 

Ahihud 

Ahiiah 

Ahikam 

Ahilud 

Ahimaaz 

Ahiman 

Ahimelech 

Ahimoth 

Ahinadab 

Ahinoam 

Ahio 

Ahira 

Ahiram 

Ahiramites 

Ahisamach 

Ahishahar 

Ahishar 

Ahisham 

Ahithophel 

Ahitub 

Ahlab 

Ahlai 

Ahoah 

Ahohite 

Aholah 

Aholiab 

Aholibah 

Aholibamah 

Ahumai 

Ahuzam 

Ahuzzath 

Ai 

Aiah  or  Ajah 

Aiath 

Aija 

Aijalon 


A'hy-e'zer 

A'hy'ud 

A-hy'jah 

A'hy'  kam 

A-hyiud 

A'him'a-az 

A'hy'fpian 

A'him' me*Uk 

A'he'moth 

A'hin*na-dab 

A-hin'  fUHitn 

A'hy'o 

A-hy'rah 

A'hy' ram 

A-hy'  ram-iies 

A'his'  a-tnak 

A'hish '  a-har 

A'hy'  shar 

A'hy-shatn 

A-hit'o-fel 

A'hy' tub 

Ah'lab 

Ah' lay 

A- ho' ah 

A'ho'hiie 

A' ho' I  ah 

A'ho'le-ab 

A'ho'  le-bah 

A*  ho-Hb'  a-mah 

A-hu'inO't 

A-hew'  zam 

A'huz'  zath 

At 

A-i'ah 

A'i'ath 

A-i'jah 

A'Jal'On 


Aijeleth  Shahar  Aj '  e-leth  sha '  - 

har 


Ain 

Airus 

Ajah 

Aialon 

Akan 

Akkub 

Akrabattine 

Akrabbim 

Alameth 

Alammelech 

Alamoth 

Alcimus 

Alema 

Alemeth 

Alexander 

Alexandria 

Alexandrians 

Aliah 

Alian 

Allom 

Allon 

Allonbachuth 

Alniodad 

Almon 

Almondibla- 

thaini 
Alnathan 
Aloth 
Alpha 
Alphaeus,  or 

Alpheus 
Altaneus 
Altaschith 
Aiush 
Alvah 
Alvan 
Amad* 
Amadatha 


A'in 

A'i'rus 

A'Jah 

Af  a-lon 

A'  kan 

Ak'kub 

Ak'  ra-bat-tV  ne 

A'krab'  bim 

Al'  e-meth 

A'iam' tne-lek 

Al'  a-moth 

Al'  si-mus 

Al'e-ma 

Al'  e-tneth 

Al'Cgz'  an-der 

Al-ex-an'  dre-a 

Al-ex-an '  dre-ans 

A-li'ah 

A-li'an 

Al'lom 

Al'lon 

Al'lon-bak'uth 

Al'tno'dad 

Al'tnon 

Al'tnoH'dib'la' 

tha'itn 
Al'na-than 
A'loth 
Al'fa 

Al-fe'us 
AVta-ne'us 
Al'las'kilh 
A' lush 
Al'vah 
Al'  van 
A'mad 
A-inad' d'thah 


Amadathus 

Amal 

Amalek 

Amalekite 

Amam 

Aman 

Amana 

Amariah 

Amarias 

Amasa^ 

Amasai 

Amashai 

Amasiah 

Amathas 

Amatheis 

Amathis 

Amaziah 

Amedatha 

Amen 

Ami 

Amidol 

Aminadab 

Amittai 

Amizabad 

Ammah 

Ammedatha 

Ammi 

Ammiel 

Ammihud 

Amminadab 

Amminadib 

Ammishaddai 

Ammizabad 

Ammon 

Ammonite 

Ammonitess 

Amnon 

Amok 

Amon 

Amorite 

Amos 

Amoz 

Amphipolis 

Amplias 

Amram 

Amramites 

Am  raphe! 

Amzi 

Anab 

Anael 

Anah 

Anaharath 

Anaiah 

Anak 

Anakim 

Anamim 

Anammelech 

Anan 

Anani 

Ananiah 

Ananias 

Ananiel 

Anath 

Anathoth 

Andrew 

(andru) 
Andronicus 
Anem 
Anen 
Aner 

Anethothite 
Anetothite 
Aniam 
Anim 
Anna 
Annaas 
Annas 
Annuus 


A-mad'O'^hHS 

A'mal 

Am'a'Uk 

Atn'a-Uk-dte 

A'mam 

A'tnan 

Am-a'nah 

Am-a-fy'ah 

Am'a-fy'as 

Am'a-sa 

A'tnas^a-i 

A'mash'a-i 

Atn'a-si'ah 

Am'  a-thas 

Am'a'the'is 

Am'a-this 

Am'  a-zy'  ah 

A-med'a-thah 

A'men 

A' my 

Am'i-doi 

A-min'  a-dab 

A-mii'lay 

A-miz'  a-bad 

Am'mah 

Am-med'  a-thay 

Am.' my 

Am'me-el 

Am-my'hud 

Am-min' a-dab 

Am-min'  a-dib 

Am'mi'Shad'da-y 

Am'miz'  a-bad 

Am'mon 

Am'mon-nle 

Am'mon-Ue'es 

Am'non 

A'mok 

A'mon 

Am'o-riU 

A'mos 

A'moz 

Am-fip'o-lis 

Am'ple-as 

Am' ram 

Am'  ram-ites 

Am'ra-fel 

Am'  zy 

A'nab 

An'a-el 

A'nah 

An-a-hay' rath 

An'a-i'ah 

A'nak 

An'a'kim 

An'a-fnim 

A-nam'me-Uk 

A  nan 

A-na'ny 

An-a-ny'  ah 

An-a-ny'as 

A-nan'i-el 

A'naih 

An'a-thoth 

An'dru 

An-dro-ny*  kus 

A'nem 

A'nen 

A'ner 

An' C'thoth' iU 

An' e-toth' ite 

A'ny'am 

A' mm 

An'nah 

An'na-as 

An'nas 

An-nu'uz 


Ano3 

Antichrist 

Antilibanus 

Antioch 

Antiochia 

Antiochians 

Antioch  is 

Antiochus 

Antipas 

Antipater 

Antipatris 

Antonia 

Antothijah 

Antothite 

Anub 

Anus 

Apame 

Apelles 


A*nos 

An'fy'Chrisi 
An' ty-lib' a-nus 
An'fy'Ok 
An'  li'O-ki'a 
An'  ly-o'  ki'ans 
An-ty'o-kis 
An-fy'  O'kus 
An'ty-pas 
An'tip'  a'ter 
An-ltp'  a-lris 
An-to'  ny'tt 
An'  to-thi' jah 
An'toth'Ue 
A'nub 
A'nus 
A'pa'me 


A-pel'les 
Apharsachites    A-far' sak-ites 
Apharsathchites  A-far '  sath-kUes 


Apharsites 

Aphek 

Aphekah 

Apherema 

Apherra 

Aphiah 

Aphik 

Aphrah 

Aphses 

Apol  Ionia 

Apollonius 


A-far'  sites 

A'fek 

A-fe'kah 

A-fer'  e^mah 

A-fer'rah 

A-fi'ah 

A'fik 

A/rah 


A  f  sees  - 
Ab' pol-lo' ne-a 
Ap' pol'lo' ne-us 

Aix>l  lophanes    At>  'pol-lof  a-neei 

Apollos  A'PoV  las 

Apoliyon  (or 
apolyon) 

Appaim 

Apphia 

Apphus 

Appii  Forum 

Aquila 

Ar 

Ara 

Arab  fa  city) 

Arabati 

Arabatthane 
( arabaththane  ^Ar '  a-baih-tha '  m 


A-pol-ly'on 

Ap'pay-im 

Afe-ah 

Affus 

Ab'pey  fo'rum 

Ak'  quil-ah 

Ar 

A'rah 

A'rab 

Ar'a-bah 


Arabattine 

Arabia 

Arabian 

Arad 

Aradus 

Arab 

Aram 

Aramitess 


Ar'a-bat-fy'ne 

A-ray'be-a 

A-ray'  be-an 

A'rad 

Ar'a-dus 

A'rah 

A' ram 

A'ram-i'tes 


Aramnaharaim  A' ram-na' hay- 

ra'im 


Aramzobah 

Aran 

Ararat 

Ararath 

Arathes 

Araunah 

Arba 

Arbah 

Arbathite 

Arbattis 

Arbela  (^in 

Palestme) 
Arbite 
Arbonai 
Archelaus 
Archevites 
Archi 
Archippus 
Archite 
Arcturus 
Ard 
Ardath 


A'ram-zo'bah 

A' ran 

Ar'a-rat 

Ar'a-rath 

A-ra'thes 

A-raw'nah 

Ar'bah 

Ar'bah 

Ar'bath-Ue 

Ar-bat'Hs 

Ar-bee'lah 

Ar'bite 

Ar-bo'na-i 

Ar-ke-lay'us 

Ar'  ke-vites 

Ar'ki 

Ar-kip'pus 

Ar'kUe 

Ark-too'rus 

Ard 

Ar'daih 


58 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


Ardites 

Ardon 

Areli 

Arelites 

Areopagite 

Areopagus 

Ares 

Aretas 

Areus 

Argob 

Anarathes 

Aridai 

Aridatha 

Arieh 

Ariel 

Arimathsea 

Arimathea 

Arioch 

Arisai 

Aristarchus 

Aristobulns 

Arkite 

Armageddon 

Armenia 

Armoni 

Ama 

Aman 

Amon 

Arod 

Arodi 

Arodites 

Aroer 

Aroerite 

Arom 

Arpad 

Arphad 

Arphaxad 

Arsaces 

Arsareth 

Artaxerxes 

Artemas 

Aruboth 

Arumah 

Arvad 

Arvadite 

Arza 

Asa 

Asadias 

Asael 

Asahel 

Asahiah 

Asaiah 

Asana 

Asaph 

Asarael 

Asareel 

Asarelah 

Asbazareth 

Ascalon 

Aseas 

Asebebia 

Asebia 

Asenath 

Aser 

Aserer 

Ashan 

Ashbea 

Ashbel 

Ashbelites 

Ashchenaz 

Ashdod 

Ashdodites 

Ashdothites 

Ashdothpisgah 

Asher 

Asherites 

Ashima 

Ashkelon 


Ard'iUs 

Ar'  don 

A-re'li 

A-re'lites 

Ar-e-op'  a-giU 

Ar-e-op*  a-gus 

A'rez 

Ar'-e-las 

A-re'us 

Ar'gob 

A*  r^-a-ra' thez 

A-tid'a-i 

A-rid'  a-thah 

A-ty'eh 

A'ry-el 

Ar-e-ma-the' ah 

Ar-e-ma-the'  ah 

A're-ok 

A-ris'  a-i 

Ar-is-tar' kus 

Ar-iS'to-bew '  lus 

Ark'iU 

Ar'  tna-ged'  don 

Ar-me'ne-a 

Ar-mo'ni 

Ar'nah 

Ar'nan 

Ar'non 

A'rod 

Ar'o-dy 

A' rod-ties 

Ar'o-er 

Ar'o-er-Ue 

A'rom 

Ar'pad 

Ar'/ad 

Ar-jax'ad 

Ar'sa-sez 

Ar'sa-reth 

Ar-tag'Zerk'  zez 

Ar'te^mas 

Ar'U'boih 

A-ru'mah 

Ar'  vad 

Ar'  vad'iU 

Ar'  zah 

A'sah 

As-a-dy'as 

As'a-el 

As'a-hel 

As'a-hy'ah 

As'  a-y'ah 

As'a-nah 

A'saf 

A'Sar'a-el 

A'Sar'  e-el 

As-a-re'  lah 

As-baz'  a-reth 

As'  ka-lon 

A'Se'as 

A-seb'  e-by'  ah 

As'e-by'ah 

As'  e-naih 

A'ser 

A'Se'rer 

A'shan 

Ash'be-ah 

Ash' be  I 

Ash'bel'ites 

Ash'  ke^naz 

Ash'dod 

Ash'dod-iies 

Ash'  doih-ites 

Ash '  doth'pis '  gah 

Ash'  er 

Ash'er-ites 

Ash '  e-mah 

Ash'  ke-lon 


Ashkenaz 

Ash'ke-naz 

Ava 

Ashnah 

Ash'nah 

Avaran 

Ashpenaz 

Ash'pe-naz 

Avaron 

Ashriel 

Ash' re-el 

Aven 

Ashtaroth 

Ash'ta-roth 

Avim 

Ashtemoh 

Ash'te-tno 

Avims 

Ashterathite 

Ash'  te-rath-ite 

Avites 

Ashteroth  Kar 

'  Ash' te-roth-kar' ' 

Avith 

naim 

na-im 

Azael 

Ashtoreth 

Ash'to-reth 

Azaelus 

Ashur 

Ash'ur 

Azah 

Ashurites 

Ash'ur-ites 

Azal 

Ashvath 

Ash'vath 

Azaliah 

Asia 

A'shi-ah 

Azaniah 

Asibias 

As'i-by'as 

Azaphion 

Asiel 

A'sy-el 

Azara 

Asipha 

As'i-fah 

Azarael 

Askelon 

As'  ke-lon 

Azareel 

Asmadai 

As' ma-da 

Azariah 

Asmaveth 

As'ma-veth 

Azarias 

Asmodeus 

As'mo-de'us 

Azaz 

Asmoneans 

Azazel 

(Josephus) 

As' mo-ne' anz 

Azaziah 

Asnah 

As'nah 

Azbazareth 

Asnapper 
Asocnis 

As-nap'per 

Azbuk 
Azekah 

(Josephus) 

A-so'kis 

Azel 

Asom 

A'som 

Azem 

Aspatha 

As'pa-thah 

Azephurith 

Asphar 

As'phar 

Azetas 

Aspharasus 
Asriel 

As-phar' a-sus 
As  re-el 

Azg:ad 
Azia 

Asrielites 

As' ri-el-Ues 

Aziei 

Assabias 

As'sa-by'as 

Aziel 

Assalimoth 

As'Sal' i-molh 

Aziza 

Assanias 

As'sa-ny'as 

Azmavelh 

Assaremoth 

As' sa-re' ntoth 

Azmon 

Asshur 

Ash'ur 

Aznothtabor 

Asshurim 

Ash-shu'  rim 

Azor 

Assideans 

As'si-de'ans 

Azotus 

Assir 

As' sir 

Azrjel 

Assos 

As' SOS 

Azrikam 

Assuerus 

As'su-e'rus 

Azubah 

Assur 

As'sur 

Azur 

Assyria 

As-sir'e-a 

Azuran 

Assyrian 

As-sir'e-an 

Azzah 

Astaroth 

As'  ta-roth 

Azzan 

Astath 

As'iath 

Azzur 

Astyages 

As-ty'a-^es 

Asuppim 

A-sup'ptm 

Asyncritus 

A-sin'  kre-tus 

Atad 

A'tad 

Baal 

Atarah 

At'  a-rah 

Baa  lah 

Atargatis 

A-lar'ga-Hs 

Baalath 

Ataroth 

At'a-roth 

Baalathbeer 

Atarothadar 

At'  a-roth-a '  dar 

Baalberith 

Atarothaddar 

At'  a-roth-ad'  dar 

Baale 

Ater 

A'ter 

Baalgad 

Aterezias 

At' e-re-zi' as 

Baalhamon 

Athach 

A'thah 

Baalhanan 

Athaiah 

Ath'a-i'ah 

Baalhazor 

Athaliah 

Ath'a-ly'ah 

Baalhermon 

Atharias 

Ath'  a-ry'  as 

Baali 

Athenians 

A-the'ny-ans 

Baalim 

Athenobius 

Ath' e-no' by-US 

Baalis 

Athens 

Ath'ens 

Baalmeon 

Athlai 

Ath'lay 

Baalpeor 

Atipha 

At'i-fa 

Baalperazim 

Atroth 

At' roth 

Baalshalisha 

Attai 

At' lay 

Attalia 

At'ta-ly'ah 

Baaltamar 

Attains 

At'ta-lus 

Baalzebub 

Attharates  (ath 

\- 

Baalzephon 

tharateez) 

At-thar' a-tez 

Baana 

Augia 

Aw'gy-ah 

Baanah 

Augustus 

Azo-gus'  tus 

Baanias 

Auranus 

Aw-ray'nus 

Baara 

Auteas 

Aw-te'as 

Baaseiah  (-ya) 

A'vah 

Av'a-ran 

Av'a-ron 

A'ven 

A'  mm 

A'  vimz 

A'zntes 

A'vith 

Az'a-el 

Az'a-e'lus 

A'zah 

A'zal 

Az-a-ly'ah 

Az-a-ny'  ah 

A-za'fi-un 

Az'a-ra 

A-za'ra-el 

A-za' re-el 

Az-a-ry'ah 

Az-a-ry'  as 

A'zaz 

A-za'  zel 

Az-a-zy'ah 

Az-baz'  a-reth 

Az'buk 

A-ze'kah 

A'zel 

A'  zem 

Az-ze-few'  rUh 

A-ze'tas 

Az'  gad 

A-zy'  ah 

A-zy'e-i 

A'zy-et 

A-zy'  za 

Az-may'  veth 

Az'mon 

Az' noth-tay' bof 

A'  zor 

A-zo'tus 

Az'ry-el 

Az-ry'kam 

A-zu'bah 

A'  zur 

A-zu'ran 

Az'  zah 

Az'  zan 

Az'  zur 

B 

Bay'al 
Bay'  al-ah 
Bay'al-ath 
Bay '  al-ath-be '  er 
Bay' al-be' rith 
Bay'  a-lee 
Bay'  al-gad 
Bay '  al-nah '  mon 
Bay '  al-hah '  nan 
Bay'  al -hah'  zor 
Bay '  al-her-mon 
Bay'al-i 
Bay'al'im 
Bay'  a-lis 
Bay'  al-me'  on 
Bay'  al-pe'  or 
Bay'  al-per'  a-zim 
Bay' al-shal' i- 

shah 
Bay'  al-ta'  mar 
Bay'  al-ze'  boob 
Bay'  al-ze'fon 
Ba'  a-nah 
Ba'  a-nah 
Ba'a-ny'qs 
B  a'  a-rah 
Ba'  a-se' yah 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


59 


Baasha 

Baasiah 

Babel 

Babi 

Babylon 

Babylonians 

Babylonish 

Baca 

Bacchides 

Bacchus 

Bacenor 

Bacchums 

Bachrites 

Bago 

Bagoas 

Bagoi 

Bananimite 

Bahumus 

Bahurim 

Baiith 

Bakbakkar 

Bakbuk 

Bakbukiah 

Balaam 

Balac 

Baladan 

Balah 

Balak 

Balamo 

Balasamus 

Balnuus 

Balthasar 

Bamah 

Bamoth 

Bamothbaal 

Ban 

Bananias 

Banaias 

Bani 

Banid 

Bannaia 

Bannus 

Banuas 

Barabbas 

Barachel 

Barachiah 

Barachias 

Barak 

Barhumite 

Bariah 

Baqesus 

Banona 

Barkos 

Barnabas 

Barodis 

Barsabas 

Bartacus 

Bartholomew 

Bartimaeus 

Bartimeus 

Baruch 

Barzelai 

Barzillai 

Basaloth 

Bascama 

Bashan 

Bashan  havoth- 

jair 
Bashemath 
Basil  is 
Baslith 
Basmath 
Bassa 
Bastai 
Bathrabbim 
Bathsheba 
Bathshua 
Bathzacharias 


Ba'a-shak 

Bavai 

Bav'a-i 

Berodachbala- 

Ba'a-sy'ah 

Bazlith 

Baz'lith 

dan 

Ba'bel 

Bazluth 

Baz'tuth 

Beroea 

Ba'H 

Bealiah 

Be'a-li'ah 

Beroth 

Bab'e-ion 

Bealoth 

Be'a-loth 

Berothah 

Bab'  e-lo'  ne-ans 

Bean 

Be' an 

Berothai 

Bab' e-lo' nish 

Bebai 

Beb'a-i 

Berothite 

Ba'kah 

Becher 

Be'ker 

Berretho 

Bak'ki-dez 

Bechoratfa 

Be-ko'rath 

Berzelus 

Bak'kus 

Bectileth 

Bek'H'Uth 

Besai 

Ba^se'nor 

Bedad 

Be'dad 

Besodeiah 

Bak'ku'rus 

Bedaiah 

Bed'a-i'ah 

Besor 

B ok' rites 

Bedan 

Be' dan 

Betah 

Ba'go 

Bedeiah 

Be-de'ya 

Betane 

Ba-go'as 

Beeliada 

Be'el-t'tt-dah 

Beten 

Bag' (hi 

Beelsarus 

Be-el'  sa-rus 

Bethabara 

Ba-ha'  rum-He 

Beeltethmus 

Be' el'teth'mus 

Bethanath 

Ba-hu'tnus 

Beelzebub 

Be-eVze-bub 

Bethanoth 

Ba-hu'rim 

Beer 

Be'er 

Bethany 

Ba'jith 
Bak-bak'ker 

JJeera 

Be-e'rah 

Betharabah 

Beerah 

Be-e'rah 

Betharam 

Bakbuk 

Beerelim 

Be'er-e'lim 

Betharbel 

Bak'buk-i'ah 

Beeri 

Be-e'ry 

Bethaven 

Bay'  iam 

Beerlahairoi 

Be '  er-la-hay '  roy 

Bethazmaveth 

Bay'lak 

Beeroth 

Be-e'roth 

Bethbaalmeon 

Bal'a-dan 

Beerothites 

Be-e'  roth-ites 

Bay'lah 

Beersheba 

Be' er-she' bah 

Bethbarah 

Bay'lak 

Beeshterah 

Be-esh'  te-rah 

Bethbasi 

Bal'a-nio 

Behemoth 

Be'  he-moth 

Bethbirei 

Ba-las'  a-tnus 

Bekah 

Be'kah 

Bethcar 

Bal-nu'us 

Bel 

Bel 

Bethdagon 

Bal'tha'  sar 

Bela 

Be' la 

Bethdiblathaim 

Ba'mah 

Belah 

Be'lah 

B  a' moth 

Belaites 

Be' ladles 

Betheden 

Ba'  moth'bay'  al 

Belemus 

Bel'e-mus 

Bethel 

Ban 

Belial 

Be'li-al 

Bethelite 

Ban'  an-i'  as 

Belmaim 

Bel'ma-im 

Bethemek 

Ban'  a-i'  as 

Belmen 

Bel'men 

Bether 

Ba'ny 

Belshazzar 

Bel-shaz'ar 

Bethesda 

Ba'nid 

Belteshazzar 

Bel-te-shaz'  ar 

Bethezel 

Ban-na'ya 

Ben 

Ben 

Bethgader 

Ban'nus 

Benaiah 

Be-na'yah 

Bethramul 
Bethhaccerem 

Ban'u-as 

Benammi 

Ben-am' mi 

Ba-rab'bas 

Beneberak 

Ben'e-be'rak 

Bethharan 

Bar'a-ket 

Benejaakan 

Ben'  e-jay'  a-kan 

Bethhogla 

Bar'a-ky'ah 

Benhadad 

Ben'ha'dad 

Bethhoglah 

Bar*a-fy'as 

Benhail 

Benhail      • 

Bethhoron 

Ba'rak 

Benhanan 

Ben'  ha'  nan 

Bethjeshimotfa 

Bar-hu'  mite 

Beninu 

Ben'  e-nu 

Bethiesimoth 
Bethlebaoth 

Ba-ry'ah 

Benjamin 

Ben'jay-min 

Bar-je'sus 

Benjamite 

Ben' jay-mite 

Bethlehem 

Bar-jo'nah 

Beno 

Be'no 

Bethlehem 

Bar'kos 

Benoni 

Ben'  o'ni 

Ephratah 

Bar'na-bas 

Bennui 

Ben'nu-i 

Betnlehemite 

Ba-ro'dis 

Benzoheth 

Ben'zo'heth 

Bethlehemju- 

Bar'  sa-bas 

Beon 

Be*on 

dah 

Bar'ta-kus 

Beor 

Be' or 

Bethlomon 

Bar-thoV  o-mew 

Bera 

Be' rah 

Bethmaachah 

Bar'  te-ma'  us 

Berachah 

Ber'a-kah 

Bethmarcaboth 

Bar'  te-me'  us 

Berachiah 

Ber'a-ky'ah 

Bay'ruk 

Berah 

Be' rah 

Bethmeon 

Bar-zeV  a-i 

Beraiah 

Ber'a-i'ah 

Bethnimrah 

Bar-zil'  la-i 

Berea 

Bethoron 

Bas'a-loth 

(Gr.   Bcp^a) 

Be're-a 

Bethpalet 

Bas'  ka-ma 

I  Mace.  ix.  4 

• 

Bethpazzez 

Ba'  shan 

Berea 

Bethpeor 

Ba'  shan-hay 
voth-jay'tr 

(Gr.  Bcpofrx) 

Be-re'ah 

Beth  phage 
Bethphelet 

2  Afacc.xin,4 

• 

Bash'  e-math 

Acts  xvii.  ID 

f 

Bethrapha 
Bethrehob 

Bas'i-Hs 

13,  and  XX.  4 

m 

Bas'lUh 

Berechiah 

Ber'e-ki'ah 

Bethsaida 

Bas' math 

Bered 

Be' red 

Bethsamos 

Bas'  sah 

Beri 

Be'ry 

Bethsan 

Bas'ta-i 

Beriah 

Be-ry'ah 

Bethshan 

Bath'rab'bim 

Beriites 

Be-ry'ites 

■  Bethshean 

Bath' she' bah 

Berites 

Be'rites 

Bethshemesh 

Bath'shu'ah 

Berith 

Be'rith 

Bethshemite 

Bath '  zak-a-ry '  as 

Bemice 

Ber-ny'se 

Bethshittah 

Be-ro '  dack-bal'  • 

a-dan 
Be-re'a 
Be' roth 
Be-ro' thah 
Ber'o-thay 
Be'ro-thite 
Be-re'tho 
Ber-ze'  lus 
Be' say 
Bes'o-de'ya 
Be'  sor 
Be'lah 
Bet'  a-ne 
Be' ten 

Beth-ab' a-rah 
Beth'a'nath 
Beth'a'noth 
Beth' a-ny 
Beth' ar' a-bah 
Beth' a' ram 
Beth' ar'bel 
Beth'  a' V en 
Beth'  az'  ma-veth 
Beth' ba'al- 

me'on 
Beth'ba'rah 
Beth'ba'si 
Beth' bir'e-i 
Beth' car 
Beth' da' gon 
Beth' dib'la- 

tha'im 
Beth'e'den 
Beth'el 
Beth' el-ite 
Beth'e'mek 
Be'ther 
Be-thes'dah 
Beth' e'zel 
Beth' gay' der 
Beth'  gay'  mul 
Beth '  hak '  se-rem 
Beth'ha'ran 
Beth'hog'la 
Beth'hog'lah 
Beth'ho'ron 
Beth  'jesh '  i-moth 
Beth  'jes'i-moth 
Beth' Ub' a-oth 
Beth'  le-hem 
Beth' le' hem-ef  • 

ra-tah 
Beth'  U-hem-iie 
Beth' le-hem-ju' ' 

dah 
Beth-lo'  mon 
Beth '  may '  a-kah 
Beth' mar' ka- 

both 
Beth' me*  on 
Beth' nim' rah 
Beth-o'ron 
Beth' pa' Ut 
Beth' paz'zez 
Beth' pe' or 
Beth' f ay- je 
Beth' fe' let 
Beth'ra'/ah 
Beth' re' hob 
Beth' say' dah 
Beth'  sa'  mos 
Beth' san 
Beth' shan 
Beth' she' an 
Beth'  she'  mesh 
Beth'  she' mite 
Beth' shit' tah 


60 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


Bethsura 

Bethtappuah 

Bethuel 

Bethul 

Bethulia 

Bethzur 

Betolius 

Betomasthem 

Betomestham 

Betonim 

Beulah 

Bezai 

Bezaleel 

Bezek 

Bezer 

Bezeth 

Biatas 

Bichri 

Bidkar 

Big:tha 

Bigthan 

Bigthana 

Bigvai 

Birdad 

Bileam 

Bilgah 

Bilgai 

Bilha 

Bilhah 

Bilhan 

Bilshan 

Bimhal 

Binea 

Binnui 

Birsha 

Birzavith 

Bishlam 

Bithiah 

Bithron 

Bithynia 

Bizjothjah 

Biztha 

Blastus 

Boanerges 

Boaz 

Boccas 

Bocheni 

Bochim 

Bohan 

Borith 

Boscath 

Booz 

Bosor 

Bosora 

Bosrah 

Bozez 

Bozkath 

Bozrah 

Bukki 

Bukkiah 

Bui 

Bunah 

Bunni 

Buz 

Buzi 

Buzite 


Cabbon 

Cabul 

Caddis 

Cades 

Cadesbame 

Cadesh 

Cadmiel 

Caesar 

Csesarea 


BeWsu'rah 

Beth' tap' pew-ah 

Be-thew'el 

Be'thul 

Beth'u-li'a 

Beth' zur 

Be-te'  ly^us 

BeV  (MHOS'  them 

Bet'  a-mes'  tham 

Bet'o-fdm 

Bu'lah 

Be'zay 

Be-zat'e-el 

Be'zek 

Be'  zer 

Be'zeth 

By'a-tas 

Bik'ry 

Bid'kar 

Bi^'thah 

Bt^'  than 

Btg'tha-nah 

Big'va-i 

Bit' dad 

Bit'  e-am 

Bii'gah 

BU'gayA 

BU'hah 

Bit' hah 

BU'han 

Bil'shan 

Bimhal 

Bin'  e-ah 

Bin'U'i 

Bir'shah 

Bir'  zay-vith 

Bish '  lam 

Bi-thy'ah 

Bithron 

Bi'thin'e-a 

Biz-joth'yah 

Biz' t ha 

Blas'tus 

Bo'a-ner'jeez 

Bo'az 

Bok'kas 

Bok'e-ru 

Bo'  kim 

Bohan 

Bo'rith 

Bos'cath 

Bo'oz 

Bo'  sor 

Bos'  o-rah 

Bos' rah 

Bo'  zez 

Boz'kath 

Boz'rah 

Buk'ki 

Buk'ky'ah 

Bui 

Bu'nah 

Bun'ni 

Buz 

Buzi 

Buz*  He 


Kab'bon 

Kay'bul 

Kad'dis 

/Ca'dez 

Ka'  de Z-bar'  ne 

Ka'desh 

Kad'  me-el 

Se' zar 

Ses'a-re'a 


Caesarea  Philip- 5i?5'fl-r^a //-/»>'- 

pi  pi 

Caiaphas  Kd'ya-fas 

Cain  Kain 

Cainan(KaZuav)  K<^'nan 


Calah 

Calamolalus 

Calamus 

Calcol 

Caldea 

Caldeans 

Caldees 

Caleb 


Kay'lah 

Kal'  a-moV  a-ltts 

Kal'a-^mus 

Kal'kol 

Kal'de'a 

Kal'de*  am 

Kal-deez' 

Kay'leb 


Calebephratah   Kay' leb-^f  ra-tah 


Kal'y^tas 
Kal'lis' the-nez 
Kal'neh 
Kal' no 
Kal'fy 
Kal'  va-re 
Kay' man 
Kay'nah 

Kay' nan 


Calitas 

Callisthenes 

Calneh 

Calno 

Calphi 

Calvary 

Camon 

Cana 

Canaan  (kanan, 

or  kanaan) 
Canaanite(-nan, 

or  -naan )        Kay '  nan-ite 
Canaanitess 

( -nan,  or-naan )  Kay '  nan-ii-es 
Canaanitish 

( -nan,  or-naan )  Aizy '  «a«-i ' /wA 
Candace  Kan-day '  se 

Canneh  Kan ' neh 

Canticles  Kan' te-kels 

Capernaum        Ka-per' na-um 
Capha.*salama    Kaf  ar-saV  a- 

mah 


Caphenatha 

Caphira 

Caphthorim 

Caphtor 

Caphtorim 

Caphlorims 


Cappadocia  ( -do- 


Ka-fen'  e-tha 
Ka-fy'rah 
Kaftho-rim 
Kaf  tor 
Kaf  to-rim 
Kaf  to-rimz 


shia 
Carabasion 
Carcas 
Carbuncle 
Carchamis 
Carchemish 
Careah 
Caria 

Carmanians 
Carme 
Carmel 
Carmelite 
Carmelitess 
Carmi 
Carmites 
Camaim 
Camion 


Kap-pa-do '  she-a 
Kar-a-bay '  ze-on 
Kar'kas 
Kar'bun-kel 
Kar'  ka-mis 
Kar'  ke-mish 
Kay'  re-ah 
Ka'ry-ah 
Kar-ma' ny-atis 
Kar' me 
Kar' met 
Kar'mel'He 
Kar' mel-V  less 
Kar' my 
Kar'  mitz 
Kar'  na-im 
Kar'ny-on 


Carphasalama    Kar' Jay-sal' a^ 

ma 
Kar*pus 
Kar*she-nah 


Carpus 

Carshena 

Casiphia 

Casleu 

Casluhim 

Cashea 

Casphon 

Casphor 

Caspis 

Castor 

Cathua 

Cedron 

Ceilan 

Celosyria 

Cenchrea 

Cendebeus 


Ka-sif  i-a 
Kas' lew 
Kas'lew-him 
Kash '  e-a 
Kas' f on 
Kas' for 
Kas' pis 
Kas'tor 
Ka-thu'a 
Se'  dron 
Se'  Ian 
Set'  o-syr'  i-a 
Sen'  kre-ah 
Sen-de-be' us 


Cephas  Se'/as 

Ceras  Se'ras 

Cesar  Se' zar 

Cesarea  Ses-a-re '  ah 

Cesarea  Philip-  Ses-a-re' ah-fil 


Cesil 

Cetab 

Chabris 

Chadias 

Chaereas 

Chalcol 

Chaldea 

Chaldean 

Chaldees 


Hp'jn 
Ses'tl 
Se'tab 
Ka'bris 
Ka'dy-as 
Ke're-CLS 
Kal'kol 
Kal-de'ah 
Kal-de'an 
Kal-dez' 


Chanaan  (kanan 

or  kanaan)     Ka'na-an 
Chanaanite(ka- 

nanit,  or  kana- 


anit) 

Ka'nan-iU 

Channuneus 

Kan'nu-ne*us 

Chanoch 

Ka'nok 

Charaathalar 

Kar'  a-ath '  a^iop 

Charara 

Kar'a-ka 

Charashim 

Kar'a-shim 

Charasim 

Kar'a-sim 

Charchamis 

Kar'  ka-mis 

Charchemis 

Kar' kermis 

Charcus 

Kar'kus 

Charea 

Ka're-a 

Charmis 

Kar' mis 

Charran 

Kar' ran 

Chaseba 

Kas'e-bah 

Chavah 

Ka'vah 

Chebar 

Ke'bar 

Chedorlaomer 

Ked-er-lay-o' mer 

Chelal 

Ke'lal 

Chelcias 

fCel' she-OS 

Chellians 

Kel'li-onz 

Chelluh 

Kel'lu 

Chellus 

Kel'lus 

Chelod 

Ke'lod 

Chelub 

Ke'lub 

Chelubai 

Ke-lew'bay 

Chemarims 

Kem'a-rimz 

Chemosh 

Ke'mosh 

Chenaanah 

Ke-nay'  a-nah 

Chenani 

Ken'  a-ni 

Chenaniah 

Ken-a-ny'  ah 

Chepharhaam- 

Ke  'far-ha-am '  o^ 

monai 

nay 

Chephirah 

Ke-fi'rah 

Cheran 

Ke'ran 

Chereas 

Ke're-as 

Cherethim 

Ker'  eth-im 

Cherethims 

Ker'  eth-imz 

Cherethites 

Ker'eth-ites 

Cherith 

Ke'rilh 

Cherub  (a  city)  Ke'n^ 

Cherub 

Cher*ub 

Cherubim 

Cher'u-bim 

Chesalon 

Kes'a-lon 

Chesed 

Ke'sed 

Chesil 

Ke'sil 

Chesulloth 

Ke-sul'loth 

Chethiim 

Ke-thy'im 

Chettiim 

Ket-ty'im 

Chezib 

Ke'zib 

Chidon 

Ky'don 

Chileab 

Kil'e-ab 

Chilion 

KU'i-on 

Chilmad 

Kit' mad 

Chimham 

Kim'hom 

Chinnereth 

Kin'ne-reth 

Chinneroth 

Kin'ne-roth 

Chios 

Kyos 

Chisleu 

Kis'lu 

Chislon 

Kis'lon 

SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


61 


Chisloth 

Chislothtabor 

Chittim 

Chiun 

Chloe 

Choba 

Chobai 

Chorashan 

Chorazin 

Chosameus 

Chozeba 

Christ 

Christian 

Chrysolite 

Chrysoprasus 

Chub 

Chun 

Chusa 

Chushanrisha- 

thaim 
Chusi 
Chuza 
Cilicia 
Cimah 
Cinnereth 
Cinneroth 
Cirama 
Cis 
Cisai 
Citims 
Clauda 
Claudia 
Claudius 
Clement 
Cleopas 
Cleopatra 
Cleophas 
Cloe 
Clopas 
Cnidus 
Coelosyria 
Cola 
Colhozeh 
Colius 
Colosse 
Colossians 
Conaniah 
Coniah 
Cononiah 
Coos 
Corbe 
Core 
Corinth 
Corinthians 
Corinthus 
Cornelius 
Cos 
Cosam 
Coutha 
Coz 
Cozbi 
Crates 
Crescens 
Crete 
Cretes 
Cretians 
Crispus 
Cush 
Cushan 
Cushanrisha- 

thaim 
Cushi 
Cuth 
Cutha 
Cuthah 

Cyamon 
Cyprians 


Kis'loth 

KU' loth'ta' bor 

Kit'  Hm 

Ky'un 

Klo'e 

Ko'bah 

Kob'a-i 

Ko-ray'  shan 

Ko-ray'  zin 

Kos'a-ine'us 

K(hze'  bah 

Krist 

Kris'  chan 

Kris' (hliie 

Kri'Sop^ra-sus 

Kub 

Kun 

Kew'sah 

Ku '  shan-rish-a- 

iha'im 
Ku'sy 
Ku'za 
Si-lish '  e-a 
Si'mah 
Sin'ne-reth 
Sin'  ne-rolh 
Sir'  a-mah 
Sis 

Sy'say 
Sit'  itnz 
Ktaw'  dah 
Klaw'de-a 
Klaw'  de-US 
Kletn'ent 
Kle'o-pas 
Kle'o^a'tra 
Kle'chfas 
Klo'e 
Klo'pas 
Ny'dus 
Set' o-syr' i'Oh 
Ko'lah 
Kot'ho'zeh 
Ko'  ly-us 
Ko-los'se 
Kchlosh'  e-anz 
Kon'a-ny'ah 
Kchny'ah 
Kon-o-ny'ah 
Ko'os 
Kor'be 
Ko're 
Kor'inth 
Kchrinth*  e-^mz 
Ko-rin'  thus 
Kor-ne'li'US 
Kos 

Ko'  sam 
Kow*tha 
Koz 
Koz'by 
Kra'tez 
Kres'sem 
Kreet 
Kreetz 
Kree'she-anz 
Kris' pus 
Kush 
Ku'  shan 
Ku'Shan-rish-a 

tha'im 
Ku'shi 
Kuth 
Ku'tha 
Ku'thah  or 

Kuth' ah 
Sy'  a-tnon 
Sip'ri-anz 


Cyprus 

Cyrama 

Cyrene 

Cyrenian 

Cyrenius 

Cyrus 


Dabareh 

Dabbasheth 

Daberath 

Dabria 

Dacobi 

Daddeus 

Da^on 

Daisan 

Dalaiah 

Dalmanutha 

Dalmatia 

Dalphon 

Damans 

Damascenes 

Damascus 

Dan 

Daniel 

Danites 

Danjaan 

Dannah 

Daphne 

Dara 

Darda 

Darius 

Darkon 

Dathan 

Dathema 

David 

Debir 

Debora 

Deborah 

Decapolis 

Dedan 

Dedanim 

Dehavites 

Dekar 

Delaiah 

Delilah 

Delus 

Demas 

Demetrius 

Demophon 

Derbe 

Dessau  (Gr. 

Deuel 

Deuteronomy 

Diana 

Diblaim 

Diblath 

Diblathaim 

Dibon 

Dibon  Gad 

Dibri 

Didymus 

Diklah 

Dilean 

Dimnah 

Dimon 

Dimonah 

Dinah 

Dinaites 

Dinhabah 

Dionysius 

Dioscorinthius 

Diotrephes 

Dishan 

Dishon 


Sy'prus 

Syr'a-mah 

Sy-re'ne 

Sy-re'  ne-an 

Sy-re'ne-us 

Sy'rus 

D 

Dab'  a-re 

Dab^ba-sheth 

Dab'  e-rath 

Da '  bry-ah 

Da-fco'by 

Dad'de'us 

Da'  gon 

Day'  san 

DaVa-y'  ah 

Dal' tna-nu'  thah 

Dal-ma'  shi-ah 

Dal'fon 

Dam'a-ris 

Dam' a-seens' 

Da-mas'  kus 

Dan 

Dan' y el 

Dan'ites 

Dan-jay' an 

Dan'na 

Dafne 

Da'rah 

Dar'  dah 

Da-ry'us 

Dar'  kon 

Da' than 

Dath'  e-mah 

Da'vid 

De'ber 

Deb'o-rah 

Deb'o-rah 

De-kap'  o-lis 

De'  dan 

Ded'  a-nim 

De-hay' vites 

De'kar 

Del'a-i'ah 

Del'  e-lah 

De'lus 

De'mas 

De-me'tri'US 

Dem'  o-fon 

Derbe 

Des'sa-u 

De-yew' el 

Du'  ter-on*  o-my 

Dy^a'nah 

Dib '  lay-im 

Dib'lath 

Dib' la-tha' im 

Dy'bon 

Dy'  bon-gad 

Dib'ry 

Did'  e-mus 

Dik'lah 

Dil'e-an 

Dim'nah 

Dy'mon 

Dy-mo'nah 

Dy'nah 

Dy'nay-ites 

Din-hay'  bah 

Di' o-nis' i-us 

Di'  os'ho-rin '  thy* 

us 
Di-ot'  re-fez 
Di'  shan 
Di'shon 


Dizahab 

Docus 

Dodai 

Dodanim 

Dodavah 

Dodo 

Doeg 

Dophkah 

Dor 

Dora 

Dorcas 

Dorymenes 

Dositheus 

Dothaim 

Dothan 

Drusilla 

Dumah 

Dura 


Eanes 

Ebal 

Ebed 

Ebedmelech 

Ebenezer 

Eber 

Ebiasaph 

Ebronah 

Ecanus 

Ecbatana 

Ecbatane 

Ecclesiastes 

Ecclesiasticus 

Ed 

Edar 

Eddias 

Eden 

Eder 

Edes 

Edna 

Edom 

Edomite 

Edrei 

Eglah 

Eglaim 

Eglon 

Egypt 

Egyptian 

Ehud 

Eker 

Ekrebel 

Ekron 

Ekronites 

Ela 

Eladah 

Elah 

Elam 

Elamites 

Elasah 

Elath 

Elbethel 

Elcia 

Eldaah 

Eldad 

Elead 

Elealeh 

Eleasa 

Eleasah 

Eleazar 

Eleazurus 

El-Elohe-Israel 

Eleph 
Eleutherus 


Diz*arhab 

Do'kus 

Dod'a-y 

Dod'  a-nim 

Dod'  a-vah 

Do'do 

Do'eg 

Dofkaf 

Dor 

Do' rah 

Dor'  has 

Do-rym'  e-nez 

Do-sith'  e-us 

Do'  tha-im 

Do' than 

Dru-sil'lah 

Du'mah 

Du'rah 


E'a-neez 

E'bal 

E'bed 

E'bed-me'lek 

Eb-en-e'zer 

Eber 

E-by'a-saf 

E-bro'nah 

E'fca'nus 

Ek-bat'  a-nah 

Ek-bat'  a-neh 

Ek-kle '  zi-as '  tez 

Ek-kle'  zi-as*  ty» 

kus 
Ed 
E'dar 
Ed-dy'as 
E'  den 
E'der 
E'dez 
Ed'nah 
E'  dom 
E'  dom-ite 
Ed're-i 
Eg'lah 
Eg'  lah-im 
Eg'  Ion 
E'jipt 
E-jtp'  shan 
E'hy 
Ehud 
E'ker 
Ek' re-be  I 
Ek'ron 
Ek'ron-iiz 
E'lah 
El'  a-dah 
E'lah 
E'lam 
E'  lam-itz 
El'a-sah 
E'lath 
El-beth'el 
El'shi-ah 
El'day-ah  or 

El  day' ah 
El' dad 
E'le-ad 
E'le-a'leh 
E-le'a-sah 
E-le'a-sah 
E'  le-a'zar 
E'  fe-a-zu' rus 
El'e-lo'he^' 

ra-el 
E'lef 
E-lu'the-rus 


62 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


Eleuzai 

Elhanan 

Eli 

Eliab 

Eliada 

Eliadah 

Eliadas 

Eliadun 

Eliah 

Eliahba 

EHaka 

Eliakim 

Eliali 

Eliam 

Eliaonias 

Elias 

Eliasaph 

Eliashib 

Eliasib 

Eliasis 

Eliatha 

Eliathah 

Elidad 

Eliel 

Elienai 

Eliezer 

Elihaba 

Elihoenai 

Elihoreph 

Elihu 

Elijah 

Elika 

Elim 

Elimelech 

Elioenai 

Elionas 

Eliphal 

Eliphalat 

Eliphaleh 

Eliphalet 

Eliphaz 

Elipheleh 

Eliphelet 

Elisabeth 

Elissus 

Eliseus 

Elisha 

Elishah 

Elishama 

Elishamah 

Elishaphat 

Elisheoa 

Elishua 

Elisimus 

Eliu 

Eliud 

Elizaphan 

Elizeus 

Elizur 

Elkanah 

Elkosh 

Elkoshite 

Ellasar 

Ehnodam 

Elnaam 

Elnathan 

Elohim 

Eloi 

Elon 

Elonbethhanan 

Elonites 

Eloth 

Elpaal 

Elpalet 

Elparan 

Eltekeh 

Eltekon 


E'lu'za-i 

El-hay' nan 

E'ly 

E'ly'ab 

E'ly'a-dah 

E'ly'  a-dah 

E'ly'  a-dUis 

E'ly'a'dun 

E'ly'ah 

E'ly'ah'bah 

E'ly'Q'kah 

E'ly'a-kim 

E'lya-li 

E'ly' am 

E'ly' a-o-f^*  as 

E'ly' as 

E'ly'a-saf 

E'ly'a-shib 

E'ly'  a- sib 

E'ly'a'Sis 

E'ly'a-lhah 

E'ly'a-thah 

E'ly' dad 

E'ly'Cl 

E'  fy'e'nay 

E'ly-e'zer 

E'ly'  ha-bah 

El'  e-ho-e' nayA 

EVe-ho'ref 

E'ly'hu 

E'ly'jah 

EVi'kah 

E'lim 

B-litn'  C'lek 

E'ly' o-e' fui'i 

E'lyo'tias 

El'e'fal 

E'li/a-lat 

E'ltfa-Uh 

E'ltfa'Ut 

El'e'faz 

E'life-leh 

E'ltfe-let 

E'liz'  abeth 

El-e-say'us 

El-e-se'us 

E'ly' shah 

E'ly'  shah 

E'lish'  a-mah 

E'lish'  a-mah 

E'lish'  a-f at 

E'lish'  e-bah 

El-e-shu'ah 

E'lis'  e-mus 

E'ly'u 

E'fy'ud 

E'liz' a-fan 

El'C'Ze'us 

E'ly'  zur 

El'  kay-nah 

EPkosh 

El'  kosh'ite 

El'  lay-sar 

El'tno  dam 

El'  nay'am 

El'  nay-than 

El'  o-him 

E'lo'i 

E'lon 

E' lou'beth' hay ' 

nan 
E'  lon-Uz 
E'loth 
El'pay-al 
El'pay'Ut 
El^ay'ran 
EVU'keh 
El'te-kon 


Eltolad 

Elul 

Eluzai 

Elymais 

Elytnas 

Elymeans 

Elzabad 

Elzaphan 

Emims 

Emmanuel 

Emmaus 

Emmer 

Emmor 

Enam 

Enan 

Enasibus 

Endor 

Eneas 

Eneglaim 

Enemessar 

Enenius 

Engaddi 

Engannim 

Engedi 

Enhaddah 

Enhakkore 

Enhazor 

Enmishpat 

Enoch 

Enon 

Enos 

Enosh 

Enrimmon 

Enrogel 

Enshemesh 

Entappuah 

Epaenetus 

Epaphras 

Epaphroditus 

Epenetus 

Ephah 

Ephai 

Epher 

Epbesdammim 

Ephesian 

Ephesus 

Ephlal 

Ephphatha 

Ephraim 

Ephraimite 

Ephrain 

Ephratah 

Ephrath 

Ephrathite 

Ephron 

Epicureans 

Epiphanes 

Epiphi 

Er 

Eran 

Eranites 

Erastus 

Erech 

Eri 

Erites 

Esaias 

Esarhaddon 

Esau 

Esay 

Esdraelom 

Esdraelon 

Esdras 

Esdrelom 

Esdrelon 

Esebon 

Esebrias 

Esek 

Eshbaal 


El'to'lad 
E'lul 
E'lu'  za-% 
EV  C'may'is 
El'  C'mas 
El'e-me'anz 
El'  za-bad 
El'  za-fan 
E'  mimz 
Em-man' u-^l 
Em' ma-US 
Em'mer 
Em'mor 
E'nam 
E'nan 
E-nas'e'bus 
En'  dor 
E'ne-as 
En-eg'  lay-im 
En'  e-mes'  sar 
E'ne'  ny-us 
En'gad'  di 
En-gan'nim 
En-ge'di 
En-had' dah 
En-hak'  ko-re 
En-hay'  zor 
En-mtsh'pai 
E'nok 
E'non 
E'nos 
E'nosh 
En-rim' mon 
En-ro'gel 
En-she'  mesh 
En'tap' peithah 
EfhC'ne'  tus 
Ep'  a-fras 
E-paf  ro-dy '  lus 
E-pen'e-lus 
E'/ah 
E'fay 
E'fer 
E^/es-dam '  mim 

zhan 

sus 


Effa-thah 

E'/ra-im 

E'fra-im-ile 

E  fra'tn 

Efra-tah 

Efralh 

Ef  ruth-ite 

E'fron 

Ep'  e-ku-re'  anz 

E-pif  a'nez 

E£i'fy 

E'ran 

E'  ran^ites 

E-ras'tus 

E'rek 

E'ry 

E' riles 

Ez-zay'yas 

E'  sar-had'  don 

E'  saw 

E'  zav 

Es'  dray-e'  lom 

Es' dray-e' Ion 

Ez'dras 

Es-dre'lom 

Es-dre'  Ion 

Es'  ebon 

E-se'bry-as 

E'sek 

Esh'bay-al 


Eshban 

Eshcol 

Eshean 

Eshek 

Eshkalonltes 

Eshtaol 

Eshtaulites 

Eshtemoa 

Eshtemoh 

Eshton 

Esli 

Esora 

Esril 

Esrom 

Esthaol 

Esther 

Etam 

Etham 

Ethan 

Ethanim 

Ethbaal 

Ether 

Ethiopia 

Ethiopian 

Ethma 

Ethnan 

Ethni 

Euasibus 

Eubulus 

Euergetes 

Eumenes 

Eunatan 

Eunice 

Euodias 

Eupator 

Euphrates 

Eupolemus 

Euroclydon 

Eutychus 

Eve 

Evi 

Evilmerodach 

Exodus 

Ezar 

Ezbai 

Ezbon 

Ezechias 

Ezecias 

Ezekias 

Ezekiel 

Ezel 

Ezem 

Ezer 

Ezerias 

Ezias 

Eziongaber 

Eziongeber 

Eznite 

Ezra 

Ezrahite 

Ezri 

Ezron 


Felix 

Festus 

Fortunatus 


Gaal 

Gaash 

Gaba 

Gabael 

Gabatha 

Gabbai 

Gabbatha 


Esh'ban 

Esh'kol 

E'she-an 

E'shek 

Esh '  hay-lon-iUs 

Esh'lay-ol 

Esh'  lay-ul-iles 

Esh'le-mo'ah 

Esh*te-moh 

Eshton 

Es'ly 

E- so' rah 

Es'ril 

Es'rom 

Est'ha'Ol 

Es'ter 

E'tam 

E'tham 

E'than 

Elh'a-nim 

Eth'bay-al 

E'ther 

E' thy-o' Py-ah 

E' thy-o' Py-an 

Eth'mah 

Eth'nan 

Eth'ny 

Yew-as'  e-bus 

Yetv-bew'  lus 

Yew-er' je-tez 

Yew'me-nez 

Yew' nay-tan 

Yew'nis 

Yetu-o'  dy-as 

Yew' pay-tor 

Yew' fray' tees 

Yew^l'e-nms 

Yezthrok'  ly-don 

Yew'te-kus 

Eve 

E'vy 

E*  vil-me-ro '  dah 

Ex'o-dus 

E'zar 

Ez'bay-i 

Ez'bon 

Ez'  e-ky'  as 

Ez'e-sy'as 

Ez' e-ky' as 

E-ze'  ky-el 

E'zel 

E'  zem 

E'zer 

Ez'  e-ry'  as 

E-zy'  as 

E' zy-on-gay  'bet 

E'  zy-on-gey '  ber 

Ez'nite 

Ez'rah 

Ez'ra-hile 

Ez'ry 

Ez'ron 


Fe'lix 

Fes'tus 

For' iu-may*  his 


Gay' at 

Gay' ash 

Gay' bah 

Gab'a-el 

Gab'a-thah 

Gab'ba-i 

Gab'ba-thah 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


63 


Gabdes 

Gabrias 

Gabriel 

Gad 

Gadara 

Gadarenes 

Gaddi 

Gaddiel 

Gadi 

Gadite 

Gaham 

Gahar 

Gaius 

Galaad 

Galal 

Galatia 

Galatians 

Galeed 

Gal^ala 

Galilsan 

Galilean 

Galilee 

Gallim 

Gallio 

Gamael 

Gamaliel 

Gammadims 

Gamul 

Gar 

Gareb 

Garizim 

Garmite 

Gashmu 

Gatatn 

Gath 

Gathhepher 

Gathrimmon 

Gaza 

Gazara 

Gazathites 

Gazer 

Gazara 

Gazez 

Gazites 

Gazzam 

Geba 

Gebal 

Geber 

Gebim 

Gedaliah 

Geddur 

Gedeon 

Geder 

Gederah 

Gederathite 

Gederite 

Gederoth 

Gederothaim 

Gedor 

Gehazi 

Gehenna 

Geliloth 

Gemalli 

Gemariah 

Genesareth 

Genesis 

Gennesar 

Gennesaret 

Genneus 

Gentile 

Genubath 

Geon 

Gera 

Gerah 

Gerar 

Gergesenes 

Gergesites 


Gab'dez 

Ga'bry-as 

Gay' ore-el 

Gad 

Gad'  a-rah 

Gad'  a-reens 

Gad'dy 

Gad'dy-el 

Ga'dy 

Gad'ite 

Gay'  ham 

Gay'  har 

Gay'yus 

Gal'a-ad 

Gay'lal 

Ga-lay'  she-ah 

Ga-lay'  she-anz 

GaVe-ed 

GaV  gay-lah 

Gal'e-le'an 

Gal'  e-U*  an 

Gal'e-Ue 

Gal'lim 

Gal'ly-o 

Gam'a-el 

Ga-ntay'  ly-el 

Gam '  may-dims 

Gay'mul 

Gar 

Gay'reb 

Gar'  e-zim 

Gar'  mite 

Gash '  mu 

Gay'  tem 

Gath 

Gath'he'fer 

Gath'  rim'  man 

Gay'  zah 

Ga-zay'  rah 

Gay'  zath'ites 

Gay'zer 

Ga-ze'rah 

Cay'zez 

Gay'  zites 

Gaz'zam 

Ge'bah 

Ge'bal 

Ge'ber 

Ce'bim 

Ged'a-ly'ah 

Ged'dur 

Ged'  e-on 

Ge'der 

Ge-deWah 

Ged' e-rath-iU 

Ged'e-rite 

Ge-de'roth 

Ged' dey-roth-a* 

im 
Ge'dor 
Ge-hay'  zy 
Ge-hen'  nah 
Gel'e-loth 
Ge-mal'ly 
Gem'  a-ry'  ah 
Ge-nes'  a-reth 
Jen'e-sis 
Gen-ne'  sar 
Gen-nes'  a-rtt 
Gen-ne'  us 
Jen'fyle 
Ge-nu'bath 
Ge'on 
Ge'rah 
Gerah 
Ge'rar 
Ger'  ge-seens' 
Get  'ge-sites 


Gerizim 

Gerrhenians 

Gershom 

Gershon 

Gershonite 

Gerson 

Gerzites 

Gesem 

Gesham 

Geshem 

Geshur 

Geshuri 

Geshurites 

Gether 

Gethsemane 

Geuel 

Gezer 

Gezrites 

Giah 

Gibbar 

Gibbethon 

Gibea 

Gibeah 

Gibeath 

Gibeathite 

Gibeon 

Gibeonite 

Giblites 

Giddalti 

Giddel 

Gideon 

Gideon! 

Gidom 

Gihon 

Gilalai 

Gilboa 

Gilead 

Gileadite 

Gilgal 

Giloh 

Gilonite 

Gimzo 

Ginath 

Ginnetho 

Ginnethon 

Girgashite 

Girgasite 

Gispa 

Gittahhepher 

Gittaim 

Gittile 

Gittith 

Gizonite 

Gizrites 

Gnidus 

Goath 

Gob 

Gog 

Golan 

Golgotha 

Goliath 

Gomer 

Gomorrah 

Gomorrha 

Gorgias 

Gortyna 

Goshen 

Gotholias 

Gothoniel 

Gozan 

Graba 

Grecia 

Grecian 

Greece 

Greek 

Greekish 

Gudgodah 

Gum 


Ger'  e-zim 

Ger-re'  ny-ans 

Ger'shom 

Ger'  shan 

Ger'  shonite 

Ger'  son 

Ger'  zytes 

Ge'sem 

Ge'  sham 

Ge'  shem 

Ge'shur 

Gesh'u-ri 

Gesh'u-rytes 

Ge'ther 

Geth-sem'  a-ne 

Ge-yew'el 

Ge-zer 

Gez'rytes 

Gy'ah 

Gib' bar 

Gib'be-than 

Gib'e-ah 

Gib'e-ah 

Gib'e-ath 

Gib' e-ath-iU 

Gib'  e-on 

Gib'  e-on-ite 

Gib'lytes 

Gid-daVH 

Gid'del 

Gid'  e-on 

Gid'e-o'ni 

Gy'dom 

Gy'  han 

Gil'  a-lay-i 

Gil-bo'  ah 

Gil'e-ad 

Gil'e-ad-iU 

Git'  gal 

Gy'loh       . 

Gy'  lo-nyte 

Gim'  zo 

Gy'nath 

Gin'ne-tho 

Gin'ne-thon 

Gir*  ga-shyte 

Gir'  ga-syte 

Gis'pa 

Git' tah-he'/er 

Git'  tay-im 

Git'tyte 

Git'tith 

Gy'  zo-nyte 

Giz'rytes 

Ni'  dus 

Go'ath 

Gob 

Gog 

Go'  Ian 

Gol'go-thah 

Go-ly'  ath 

Go'mer 

Go  mor'  rah 

Go-mor'rah 

Gor'j'y-as 

Gor-fy'nah 

Go'shen    ' 

Goth'o-ly'as 

Go-thon' y-el 

Go'  zan 

Gra'bah 

Gre'she-a 

G  re' shan 

Grees 

Greek 

Greek' is h 

Gud'go-dah 

Gew'fd 


Gunites 

Gezv'nytes 

Gur 

Gur 

Gurbaal 

Gur'bay'ai 

* 

H 

Haahashtar! 

Hay  a-hash*  la- 

• 

Haammonai 

n 
Hay-am '  mo-nay 

Habaiah 

Hay-bay' yah 

Habakkuk 

Hab^a-kuk  or 

Hab-bak'uk 

Habaziniah 

Hab '  a-zy-ny '  ah 

Habbacuc 

Hab'ba-kuk 

Habor 

Hay'bor 

Hachaliah 

Hak'a-ly'ah 

Hachilah  ^ 

Hak'e-lah 

Hachmoni 

Hak'mo-ni 

Hachmonite 

Hak'mo-nyte 

Hadad 

Hay'dad 

Hadadezer 

Had'ad-e'  zer 

Hadadrimmon 

Hay' dad-rim' " 

man 

Hadar 

Hay'  dar 

Hadarezer 

Had'  ar-e'  zer 

Hadashah 

Had'  a-shah 

Hadassah 

Ha-das'sah 

Hadattah 

Ha-dat'tah 

Hadid 

Hay  did 

Hadlai 

Had'la-i 

Hadoram 

Ha-do'ram 

Hadrach 

Haydrak 

Hagab 

Hay' gab 

Hagaba 

Hag'a-bah 

Hagabah 

Hag'a-bah 

Hagar 

Hay' gar 

Hagarenes 

Hay'  gar-eens 

Hagerite 

Hay'  ger-ite 

Haggai 

Hag'ga-i 

Haggeri 

Hag'ge-ri 

Haggi 

Hag'gi 

Haggiah 

Hag- gy'ah 

Haggites 

Hag'gytes 

Haggith 

Hag'gith 

Hagia 

Hay'gy-ah 

Hai 

Hay't 

Hakkatan 

Hak'ka-tan 

Hakkoz 

Hak'koz 

Hakupha 

Ha-kew'fa 

Halah 

Hayiah 

Halak 

Hayiak 

Halhul 

Hal' hut 

Hali 

Halt 

Halicamassus 

Hal' i-kar-nas*  ^ 

sus 

Halloesh 

Hal-lo'esh 

Hallohesh 

Hal-lo'hesh 

Halohesh 

Ha-lo'hesh 

Ham 

Ham 

Haman 

Hay' man 

Hamath 

Hay' math 

Hamathite 

Hay'  math-ite 

Hamathzobah 

Hay'  math-zo'' 
bah 

Hamital 

Ham'e-tal 

Hammahlekoth  Ham '  mah-le '  - 

koth 

Hammath 

Ham' math 

Hammedatha 

Ham-med'  a-thah 

Hammelech 

Ham'me-lek 

Hammoleketh 

Ham-mot'  e-keth 

Hammon 

Ham' man 

Hammothdor 

Ham' moth-dor 

Hammonah 

Ham-mo' nah 

Hamongog 

Hay'  mon-gog 

Hamor 

Hay' mor 

Hamoth 

Hay'moth 

Hamuel 

Hay-mew' el 

64 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


Hamul 

Hamulites 

Hamutal 

Hanameel 

Hanan 

Hananeel 

Hanani 

Hananiah 

Hanes 

Haniel 

Hannah 

Hannathon 

Hanniel 

Hanoch 

Hanochites 

Hanun 

Hapharaim 

Haphraim 

Hara 

Haradah 

Haran 

Hararite 

Harbona 

Harbonah 

Hareph 

Hareth 

Harhaiah 

Harhas 

Harhur 

Harim 

Hariph 

Hamepher 

Harod 

Harodite 

Haroeh 

Harorite 

Harosheth 

Harsha 

Harum 

Harumaph 

Haruphite 

Haruz 

Hasadiah 

Hasenuah 

Hashabiah 

Hashabnah 

Hashabniah 

Hashbadana 

Hash  em 

Hashmonah 

Hashub 

I  lashubah 

Hashum 

Hashupha 

Hasrah 

Hassenaah 

Hasshub 

Hasupha 

Hatach 

Hathath 

Hatipha 

Hatita 

Hattaavah 

Hatticon 

Hattil 

Hattush 

Hauran 

Havilah 

Havothjair 

Hazael 

Hazaiah 

Hazaraddar 

Hazarenan 

Hazargaddah 

Hazarha^^licon 

Hazarmaveth 


Hay*mul 

Hay' mul'ites 

Hay-mew'  tal 

Hay-nam'  e-el 

Hay' nan 

Hay-nan'  e-el 

Hay-nay' ni 

Han'  a-ny'  ah 

Hay'nez 

Han'  e-el 

Han'nah 

Han'  na-thon 

Han'ny-el 

Hay' no  k 

Hay'  nok-ites 

Hay' nun 

Haf  a-ray'im 

Haf-ray'im 

Hay' rah 

Har'a-dah 

Hay' ran 

Hay'  ra-ryle 

Har-bo'nah 

Har-bo-nah 

Hay' re/ 

Hay'reth 

Har'  hay-i'ah 

Har'has 

Har'  hur 

Hay' rim 

Hay'  rif 

Har'  ne-fer 

Hay' rod 

Hay'  rod-ite 

Har'  o-eh 

Hay'  ro-rite 

Hay-ro'  sheth 

Har'  shah 

Hay' rum 

Hay -re  w'  maf 

Hay-rew'fyte 

Hay'ruz 

Has'a-dyah 

Has'e-new'ah 

Hash'  a-by'  ah 

Hay-shab'nah 

Hash'ab-^y'ah 

Hash-bad'  a-nah 

Hay'shem 

Hash-mo'nah 

Hay'shub 

Hay-shew'bah 

Hay'shum 

Hay-shew'/ah 

Has'rah 

Has'se-nay'ah 

Has'shub 

Hay-sew'/ah 

Haytak 

Hay'thath 

Hay-ty'fah 

HaVe-tah 

Hat-tay*  a-vah 

HaVty-kon 

Hat'Hl 

Hat'tush 

Hazv'ran 

Hav'e-lah 

Hay'  voth-jay'ir 

Haz'a-el 

Ha-zay'yah 

Hay'zar-ad'dar 

Hay'zar-e'nan 

Hay' zar-gad' dak 

Hay' zar-haf  fy- 

kon 
Hay'zar-may'' 

veth 


Hazarshual 

Hay'zar-shew'al 

Hezeki 

Hazarsusah 

Hay'zar-su'sa 

Flezekiah 

Hazarsusim 

Hay' zar-su' sim 

Hezion 

Hazazontamar 

Haz'a-zon-tay'- 

Hezir 

mar 

Hezrai 

Hazelelponi 

Haz'e-lel-po'ni 

Hezro 

Hazerim 

Ha-ze'rim 

Hezron 

Hazeroth 

Ha-ze'roih 

Hezronites 

Hazezontamar 

Haz '  e-zoft-lay '  - 

Hiddai 

mar 

Hiddekel 

Haziel 

Hay'zy-el 

Hie! 

Hazo 

Hay'zo 

Hierapolis 

Hazor 

Hay'zor 

Hiereel 

Hazorhadattah 

Hay'zor-ha-dat^' 

Hieremoth 

lah 

Hierielus 

Hazubah 

Haz'zew-bah 

Hiermas 

Hazzurim 

Haz'  zew-rim 

Hieronymus 

Heber 

He'ber 

Hierusalem 

Heberites 

He'ber-ites 

Hebrew 

He'bru 

Higgaion 
Hilen 

Hebrewess 

He'bru-ess 

Hebron 

He'bron 

Hilkiah 

Hebronites 

He'bron-iles 

Hillel 

Hegai 

Heg'ay-i 

Hinnom 

Heee 
Helah 

He'ge 

Hirah 

He'lah 

Hiram 

Helam 

He'lam 

Hirranus 

Helbah 

Hel'bah 

Hittite 

Helbon 

Hel'bon 

Hivite 

Helchiah 

Hel-ki'ah 

Hizkiah 

Helchias 

Hel-ki'as 

Hizkijah 

Heldai 

Hel'da-i 

Hoba 

Heleb 

He'leb 

Hobab 

Heled 

He'led 

Hobah 

Htlek 

He'Uk 

Hobaiah 

Helekites 

He'lek-iies 

Hod 

Helem 

He'lem 

Hodaiah 

Heleph 

He'lef 

Hodaviah 

Helez 

He'lez 

Hodesh 

Heli    . 

He'li 

Hodevah 

Helias 

He-ly'as 

Hodiah 

Heliodorus 

He'ly-o-do'rus 

Hodijah 

Helkai 

Hel'ka-i 

Hoglah 

Helkath 

Hel'kath 

Honam 

Helkathhazzu- 

Hel'kaih-haz'zu- 

Holofemes 

rim 

rim 

Holon 

Helkias 

Hel-ky'as 

Homam 

Helon 

He'lon 

Hophni 

Hemam 

He'mam 

Hophra 

Heman 

He'man 

Hor 

Hemath 

He'math 

Horam 

Hemdan 

Hem'dan 

Horeb 

Hen 

Hen 

Horem 

Hena 

He'nah 

Horhagidgad 

Henadad 

Hen'a-dad 

Hon 

Henoch 

He'nofc 

Horims 

Hepher 

He'fer 

Horite 

Hepherites 

He'fer-iUs 

Hormah 

Hephzibah 

Hefzy-bah 

Horonaim 

Hercules 

Her'ku-leez 

Horonite 

Heres 

He'reez 

Hosa 

Heresh 

He'resh 

Hosah 

Hermas 

Her*mas 

Hosea 

Hermes 

Her'meez 

Hoshaiah 

Hermogenes 

Her-mog' e-neez 

Hoshama 

Hermon 

Her'mon 

Hoshea 

Hermonites 

Her*mon-iles 

Hotham 

Herod 

Her'od 

Hothan 

Herodians 

He-ro'dy-anz 

Hothir 

Herod  ias 

He-ro'dy-as 

Hukkok 

Herod  ion 

He-ro'dy-on 

Hukok 

Hesed 

He'sed 

Hul 

Heshbon 

Hesh'bon 

Huldah 

Heshmon 

Hesh'mon 

Humtah 

Hesron 

Hes'ron 

Hupham 

Hesronites 

Hes'ron-ites 

Huphamites 

Heth 

Heih 

Huppah 

Hcthlon 

Heth'hn 

Huppim 

Hez*e-ky 

Hez'e-ky'an 

He'zy-on 

He'zer 

Hez'ra-i 

Hez'ro 

Hez'ron 

Hez'ron-iUi 

Hid'da-i 

Hid'de-kel 

Hy'el 

Hy'e-raP'o-lis 

Hy-er'e-el 

Hy-er^e-moth 

Hy-er*re-e'lus 

Hy-er*mas 

Hy'  e-ron'y-mus 

Hy'e-rew'say- 

lem 
Hig-ga'yon 
Hy'len 
Hil-ky'ah 
Hil'lel 
Hin'nom 
Hy'rah 
Hy'ram 
Her-ka'nus 
Hiffyle 
Hy'vile 
Hiz'ky'ah 
Hiz-ky'jah 
Ho'bah 
Ho'bab 
Ho'bah 
Ho-bay'yah 
Hod 

Hod'a-i'ah 
Hod'a-vi'ah 
Ho'desh 
Ho-de'vah 
Ho-dy'ah 
Ho-ay'jah 
Hog'lah 
Ho'ham 
Hol'o-fer'neez 
Ho'lon 
Ho'mam 
Hofni 
Hofrah 
Hor 
Ho'ram 
Ho'reb 
Ho'rem 

Hor*  hay-gid' gad 
Ho'ri 
Ho'rimz 
Ho'ryte 
Hor'mah 
Hor'o-nay'im 
Hor'o-nyle 
Ho'sah 
Ho'sah 
Ho-ze'ah 
Hosh'a-i'ah 
Hosh'a-mah 
Ho-she'ah 
Ho'tham 
Ho'than 
Ho'thir 
Huk'kok 
Hew'kok 
Hul 
Hul'dah 
Hum'tah 
Hew'fam 
HeWfam-ites 
Hup'pah 
Hup'pim 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER   NAMES 


65 


Hur 

Hurai 

Huram 

Hurt 

Hushah 

Hushai 

Husham 

Hushathite 

Hushim 

Huz 

Huzoth 

Huzzab 

Hydaspes 

Hymenaeus 

Hymeneus 


Ibhar 

Ibleam 

Ibneiah 

Ibnijah 

Ibri 

Ibzan 

Ichabod 

Iconium 

Idalah 

Idbash 

Iddo 

Iduel 

Idumaea 

Idumaeans 

Idumea 

Idumeans 

Igal 

Igdaliah 

I^eal 

Iim 

Ijeabarim 

lion 

ikkesh 

Ilai 

Illyricum 

Imla 

Imlah 

Immah 

Immanuel 

Immer 

Imna 

Imnah 

Imrah 

Imri 

India 

Indian 

Iphedeiah 

Ir 

Ira 

Irad 

I  ram 

Iri 

Irijah 

Imahash 

Iron 

Irpeel 

Irshemesh 

Iru 

Isaac 

Isaiah 

Iscah 

Iscariot 

Isdael 

Ishbah 

Ishbak 

Ishbibenob 

Ishbosheth 

Ishi 


Hur 

Hew'ray-i 

Hew' ram 

Hew'ri 

Hew' shah  ^ 

Hew'shay-i 

Hew'sham 

Hew' shath'ite 

Hew'shim 

Huz 

Hew'zoth 

Huz'zab 

Hv'das'peez 

My'me-ne'us 

Hy'tne-ne'us 

I 

Ib'har 

Ib'le-atn 

Ib-ne'yah 

Ib-ny'jah 

Ib'ri 

Ib'zan 

Ik'a-bod 

I'ko'ny-um 

I-day'lah 

Id'bash 

Id'do 

Id'u-el 

Id'u-me'ah 

Id'u-me'ans 

Id'U'tne'ah 

Id'u-me'ans 

I'gal 

Ig'da-ly'ah 

jg'e-ai 

rim 

Ij' e-ab' a-rim 

rjon 

Ik'kesh 

Play 

Il'lyr'e'kum 

Im'lah 

Im'lah 

Im'mah 

Im'man'u-el 

Im'mer 

Im'nah 

Im'nah 

Im'rah 

Im'ri 

Ind'yah^  or 

In'dy-ah 
Ind'yan^  or 

In'dy-an 
IPe-dPyah 

I'rah 

I'rad 

I'ram 

I'H 

Fry'jah 

Ir-nay'hash 

Pron 

Tr^pe-el 

Ir'she'mesh 

Prew 

Pzak 

I-za'yah 

Is'kah 

Is-kar'e-oi 

Is'da-el 

Ish'bah 

Ish'bak 

Ish'by-be'nob 

Ish'bo'sheth 

Pshi 


Ishiah 

Ishijah 

Ishma 

Ishmael 

Ishmaelite 

Ishmaiah 

Ishmeelite 

Ishmerai 

Ishod 

Ishpan 

Ishtob 

Ishuah 

Ishuai 

Ishui 

Ismachiah 

Ismael 

Ismaiah 

Ispah 

Israel 

Israelite 

Israelitish 

Issachar 

Isshiah 

Istalcurus 

Isuah 

Isui 

Italian 

Italy 

Ithai 

Ithamar 

Ithiel 

Ithmah 

Ithnan 

Ithra 

Ithran 

Ithream 

Ithrite 

Ittahkazin 

Ittai 

Ituraea 

Iturea 

Ivah 

Izehar 

Izeharites 

Izhar 

Izharites 

Izrahiah 

Izrahite 

Izreel 

Izri 


aakan 
\  aakobah 
\  aala 
\  aalah 
\  aalam 

aanai 


aareoregim 
aasau 
aasiel 
aazaniah 

iaazer 
aaziah 
^  aaziel 
\  abal 
\  abbok 
\  abesh 
\  abeshgilead 
^  abez 
\  abin 

abneel 

abneh 

achan 

achin 


I'Shy'ah 
I-shy'jah 
Ish'mah 
Ish'ma-el 
Ish'ma'el'iie 
Ish'ma-i'ahf  or 
Ish-may'yah 
Ish'tne-el'tte 
Ish'me-ray 
Pshod 
Ish'pan 
Ish'tob 
Ish'u-ah 
Ish'u-ay 
Ish'uri 
Is'ma-ky'ah 
Is' ma-el 
Is'ma-i'ah 
Is'pah 
Iz'ra-el 
Iz'ra-el-ile 
Iz' ra-el'i' tish 
Ts'sa-kar 
Is-shy'ah 
Is'lal-ku'rus 
Is'u-ah 
Is'U'i 
I'lal'yan 
It'a-le 
Ith'a-i 
Ith'a-mar 
Ith'e-el 
Ith'mah 
Ith'nan 
Ith'rah 
Ith'ran 
Ith're-am 
Ilh'ryte 
If  tah-kay' zin 
Il'tay-i 
Ifu-re'ah 
Il'u-re'ah 
Pvah 
Iz'e-har 
Iz'e-har-iles 
Iz'har 
Iz'har-ites 
Iz'ray-hy'ah 
Iz'ray-hyle 
Iz're-el 
Iz'ry 


Jay'a-kan 

Jay-ak'o-bah 

Jay-a'lah 

Jay-a'lah 

Jay-a'lam 

Jay'a-nay^  or 

Jay-a'nay 
Jay-ar' e-or*  e-gim 
Jay'a-saw 
Jay-a'se-el 
Jay-az'a-ny'ah 
Jay-a'zer 
Jay'a-zy'ah 
Jay-a'zy-el 
Jay'bal 
Jab'bok 
Jay'besh 
Jay'besh-gil'e-ad 
Jay'bez 
Jay' bin 
Jab'ne-el 
Jab'neh 
Jay'kan 
Jay'kin 


[achinites 

facob 

(acobus 

[ada 

[adau 

[addua 

[adon 

[ael 

ir' 

Jahalelel 

Jahath 

jahaz 

Jahaza 

Jahazah 

iahaziah 
ahaziel 
Jahdai 
Jahdiel 
[ahdo 
Jahleel 
Jahleelite* 
Jahmai 
Jahzah 
Jahzeel 
fahzeelites 
(ahzerah 
[ahziel 
[aier 


Jay'ktn-dtes 
Jay-kob 
Jay-ko'bus 
Jay'dah 
Ja-day'yew 
Jad-dew'ah 
Jay'don 
Jay' el 
Jay'gur 
Jah 

Ja-hal'e-lel 
Jayfhath 
Jay'haz 
Ja-hay'zah 
Ja-hay'zah 
Jay'ha-zy'ah 
Ja-hav'z^-el 
/ah'aay-i 
Jah'dy-el 
Jah'do 
Jah'le-el 
Jah'  le-el-Ues 
.  Jah'tna-i 
Jah'zah 
Jah'ze-el 
Jah'ze-el-iUs 
Jah'ze-rah 
Jah'zy-el 
Jay'er 
Jay'e-ryte 


Jairite 
Jairus   (Gr. 

'lazpof),  Es- 

ther  XI,  2        Jay'e-rus 
Jairus  (Gr.'Idf/- 

p«f),    New 


Test, 
[akan 
[akeh 
[akim 
Jalon 
Jambres 
jambri 
James 

iamin 
aminites 
Jamlech 
Jamnia 
Jamnites 
[anna 
[annes 
[anoah 
[anohah 
[anum 
[apheth. 
[aphia 
[aphlet 
[aphleti 

\  apho 

\  arah 

\  areb 

\  ared 

\  aresiah 

\  arha 

'  arib 

\  arimoth 

'  armuth 

\  aroah 

\  asael 

'  ashen 

] asher 

\  ashobeam 

\  ashub  Jash'ub 

\  ashubilehem    Jash'u-by-le'hem 

\  ashubites         Jash'yewb-iies 

\  asiel  Jay'sy-el 

\  ason  Jay' son 

'  asubus  Ja-sew'bus 


Ja-i'rus 

Jay'kan 

Jay'keh 

Jay'kim 

Jay'lon 

Jam'breez 

Jam'bri 

Jamez 

Ja'min 

Jay'min-iUs 

Jam'lek 

Jam-ny'ah 

Jam'nyles 

Jan'nah 

Jan'nez 

Ja-no'ah 

Ja-no'hah 

Jay'num 

Jay'feth 

Ja-fy'ah 

Jaflet 

JafU'H,  or 

Jaf-le'ti 
Jay'fo 
Jay'rah 
Jay'reb 
Jay-red 
Jar'e-sy'ah 
Jar'hah 
Jay'rib 
Jar'e-moih 
Jawr'mulh 
Ja-ro'ah 
Jas'a-el 
Jay'shen 
Jay'sher 
Ja-sho'be-am 


66 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


Jayial 

Jath*rty-el 

Jat'ter 

Jay' van 

Jay'zar 

Jay-zer 

Jay'zy-el 

Jay'ziz 

Je'a-rim 

Jeat'e-ray 

Je-ber*e-iy'ah 

Je'bus 

Je-bew^si 

Jeb'ursyte 

Jek'a-my'ah 

Jek'chly'ah 

Jekfo-ny'as 

Jek'o-ly'ah 

Jek'o-ny'ah 

Jek'<hnyas 

Je-dayyah 

Jed'du 

Je-^eyah 

Je-de'us 

Je-dy'a-el 

Jed'e-daw 

Jed'e-dy'ah 

Je'dy-el 

Jed'u-thun 

Je-e'li 

Je-e'lus 

Je-e'zer 

Je-ef  zer-Ues 

Jegarsahadutha  Je' gar-say' ha^ 

dew'thah 


atal 

athniel 

attir     • 

avan 

azar 

azer 

aziel 

aziz 

earim 

eaterai 

eberechiah 

ebus 

ebusi 

ebusite 

ecamiah 

echoliah 

echonias 

ecoliah 

econiah 

econias 

edaiah 
]  eddu 

edeiah 

edeus 

ediael 
\  edidah 
\  edidiah 
\  ediel 
\  eduthun 
]eeli 
'  eelus 

eezer 
jeezerites 


\  ehaleel 
\  ehaleleel 
\  ehalelel 
\  ehdeiah 
\  ehezekel 
\  ehiah 
\  ehiel 

ehieli 
^  ehizkiah 
\  ehoadah 
\  ehoaddan 
\  ehoahaz 
' ehoash 

ehohanan 


Je-hay'le-el 

Je'ha-le'le-el 

Je'hal'e-lel 

Jeh'de'yah 

Je-hez'e-M 

Je-hy'ah 

Je-hyel 

Je-hyje-li 

Je'hiz'ky'ah 

Je-hO'a'dah 

Je'ho-ad'dan 

Je-ho'a-haz 

Je-ho'ash 

Je'ho-hay'nan^  or 

Je-ho'ha-nan 
Je-hoy'a-kin 
Je-hoy'a-dah 
Je-hoy'a-kim 
Je'hqy'a-rib 
Je-hon'a-dab 
Je-hon' a-ihan 
Je-ho'ram 
ehoshabeath    Je' ho-shab' e-ath 


\  ehoiachin 
\  ehoiada 
'  ehoiakim 
\  ehoiarib 
\  ehonadab 
\  ehonathan 
'  ehoram 


^ehoshaphat 
\  ehosheba 
\  ehoshua 
'  ehoshuah 


Je-hosh' a-fat 

Je-hosh' e-bah 

Je-hosh'u-ah 

Je-hosh'u-ah 

Je-ho'vah 

Je-ho'vah-jy'reh 

Je-ho'vah-nis'si 

\  ehovahshalotH  Je-ho'vah-sha'- 

lorn 

Jehovahsham-  Je-ho'vah-sham'' 
mah  mah 

Jehovahtsidke-  Je-ho'vah-sid'ke- 


EHOVAH 

\  ehovahjireh 
ehovahnissi 


nu 
\  ehozabad 
\  ehozadak 
^ehu 

\ ehubbah 
\  ehucal 
\  ehud 
\  ehudi 


new 
Je-hoz'a-bad 
Je-hoz'a-dak 
Je'hew 
Je-hub'bah 
Je'hu'kal 
Je'hud 
Je-hew'di 


[ehudijah 

[ehush 

feiel 

[ekabzeel 

[ekameam 

[ekamiah 

[ekuthiel 

[emima 

Temnaan 
'  emuel 
;ephthae 
\  ephthah 
\  ephunne 
\  ephunneh 
]  erah 
'  erahmeel 
\  erahmeelites 
\  erechus 
I  ered 
'  eremai 
;eremiah 
'  eremias 
;  eremoth 
\  eremy 
,  eriah 
\  eribai 
\  ericho 
'  eriel 
\  erijah 
\  erimoth 
\  eriolh 

eroboam 

eroham 

erubbaal 
]  erubbesheth 
"  erubesheth 
\  cruel 
\  erusalem 

erusha 
;  erushah 
\  esaiah 
\  eshaiah 
\  eshanah 
\  esharelah 
\  eshebeab 

esher 
;eshimon 
]  eshishai 
\  eshohaiah 
\  eshua 
\  eshuah 
'  eshurun 


\  esiah 
\  esimiel 
]esse 
]essue 

\  esui 
'  esuites 
]  esurun 

"  ESUS 

'  ether 
'  etheth 
;  ethlah 
\  ethro 
]  etur 
\  euel 
\  eush 
]euz 
'  ew 
]  ewess 
'  ewish 
\  ewry 
\  ezaniah 
\  ezebel 
\  ezelus 


Jchurdyjah 

Je'hush 

Je-i'el 

Je-kab'ze-el 

Jefc'a-me'am 

Jek'a-my'ah 

Je-kew'thy-el 

Je-my'tnah^  or 

Jetft'e-tnah 
Jem'na-an 
Je-mew'el 
Jeftha-e 
Jefthah 
Je-fun'ne 
Je-fun'neh 
Je'rah 

Je'raWme-el 
Je-raw'nte'el'Ues 
Jer^e-kus 
Je'red 
Jer*e'tnay 
Jer'e-my'ah 
Jerfe-myas 
Jerfe-fHoth 
Jerfe-my 
Je-ri'ah 
Jer*e'bay 
Jer^e-ko 
Je'ry-el 
Je-ry'jah 
JeT'e-moth 
Je'ry-oth 
Jer'chbo'am 
Jer*o-ham 
Je-rub'ba-al 
Je-rub'be-sheth 
Je-rub' e-sheth 
Jer*u-el 
Je-roo'sa-lem 
Je-roo'shah 
Je-roo'shah 
Je-say'yah 
Je-shayyah 
Jesh'a-nah 
Je-shar*  e-lah 
Je-sheb'e-ab 
Je'sher 
Jesh'e-mon 
Je'Shish'a-i 
Jesh'o-hay-i'ah 
Jesh'u-ah 
Jesh'u-ah 
Jesh'u-run^  or 

Jesh'U'run 
Je-sy'ah 
Je'sym'e-el 
Jes'se 
Jes'seiv-e 
Je'sew 
Jes'u4 
Jes'U'Ues 
Jes'u-run 
Je*zus 
Je*ther 
Je'theth 
Jeth'lah 

Je'thro.QX  Jeth'ro 
Je'tur 

Je'u-ely  oxje-u'el 
Je'ush 
Je'uz 

Ju'ess 

JuHsh 

Ju'ry 

Jez'a-ny'ah 

Jez'e-bel 

Je-ze'lus 


ezer 

ezerites 
]  eziah 
,  eziel 

ezliah 

ezoar 
\  ezrahiah 
\  ezreel 

ezreelite 

ezreelitess 

ibsam 
\  idlaph 

imna 

imnah 

imnites 

iphtah 

iphthahel 

oab 

oachaz 

oachim 

oacim 

oadanus 

oah 

oahaz 

oakim 

oanan 

oanna 

oannan 

oarib 

cash 

oatham 

oazabdus 

ob 

obab 

ochebed 

oda 

oed 

oel 

oelah 

oezer 

ogbehah 

ogli 

ona 

ohanan 

ohannes 

ohn 

oiada 

oiakim 

oiarib 

okdeam 

okim 

okmeam 

okneam 

okshan 
\  oktan 
'  oktheel 

ona 

onadab 

onah 

onan 
^  onas 
\  onathan 
\  onathas 
]  onathelemre- 
chokim 

oppa 

oppe 

orah 

oral 

oratn 

ordan 

oribas 

oribus 

orim 

orkoam 

osabad 

osaphat 

osaphias 


Je'zer 

Je'zer-Ues 

Je-zyah 

Je'zy-el 

Jez'ly'ah 

Jez'o-ar 

Jez'ra-hy'ah 

Jez're-el 

Jez're-el'ite 

Jez're-eH'Uss 

Jib'sam 

Jid'laf 

Jim'nah 

Jim'nah 

Jim'nytes 

Jiftah 

Jtpthah-el 

fo'ab 

Jo'a-kaz 

Jo^a  kim 

Jo'a-sim 

Jo'a-daynus 

Jo'ah 

Ja'a-haz 

Jo'a-kim 

Jo-a'nan 

Jo-an'nah 

Ja-an'nan 

Jo'a-rib 

Jo'ash 

Ja'a-tham 

Jo'a-zab'dus 

Jobe 

Jo'bab 

Jok'e-bed 

Jo'dah 

Jo'ed 

Jo'el 

Jo-e'lah 

Jo-e'zer 

Jog'be-haw 

Jog'H 
Jo'hah 

J&hay'nan 

Jo-han'nez 

Jon 

Jqy'a-dah 

Joya-kim 

Joy'a-rib 

Jok'de-am 

Jo'kim 

Jok'me-am 

Jok*ne-am 

Jofc'shan 

Jok'tan 

Jok'the-el 

Jo'nah 

Jon'a-dab 

Jo'nah 

Jo'nan 

Jo'nas 

Jon'a-than 

Jon'a-thas 

Jo'nath-e'letnr-re^ 

ko'kim 
Jop'pah 
Jop'pe 
Jo'rah 
Jo'ra-i 
Jo'ratn 
Jor'dan 
Jor'e-bas 
Jor'e-bus 
Jo*rim 
Jor*ko-atn 
Jos'a-bad 
Jos'a-fai 
Jos'ajy'as 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


67 


ose 

[  osedec 
I  bsedech 
\  oseph 
\  osephus 
'  OSes 
]  oshabad 
]  oshah 
]  oshaphat 
]  oshaviah 
]  oshbekashah 
[  oshua 
[  osiah 
[  osias 
]  osibiah 
]  osiphiah 

otbah 
;  otbath 
\  otbathah 
]  otham 
]  ozabad 
]  ozachar 
]  ozadak 
'  ubal 
,  ucal 
]  uda 
\  udaea 
]  udah 
[  udaism 
]  udas 
[  ude 

udea 
'  udith 
Juel 

iulia 
ulius 
lunia 
fupiter 
[ushabhesed 

iustus 
uttah 


Kabzeel 
Kades 
Kadesh 
Kadeshbamea 

Kadmiel 

Kadmonites 

Kallai 

Kanah 

Kareah 

Karkaa 

Karkor 

Kamaim 

Kartah 

Kartan 

Kattath 

Kedar 

Kedemah 

Kedemoth 

Keder 

Kedesh 

Kedesh  Naph- 

tali 
Kehelathah 
Keilah 
Kelaiah 
Kelita 
Kemuel 
Kenan 
Kenath 
Kenaz 
Kenezite 
Kenite 


Jo*se 

Josfe-dek 

Jos^e-dek 

Jo^zef 

Jo-se'fus 

Jo'sez 

Josh'a-bad 

Jo'shah 

Joshua-fat 

Josh'a-vyah 

Josh-bek^a-shaw 

Josh*u-ah 

Jo-sy'ah 

Jo-sy'as 

Jos'e-by'ah 

Jos'e-fy^ah 

Joi'bah 

Jot'bath 

JoVba-thah 

Jo*  (ham 

Joz^a-bad 

Joz'a-kar 

Joz'a-dak 

Jew'bal 

Jew'kal 

JeWdah 

Jeiihde^ah 

JeW'dah 

Jew^da-istn 

JeWdas 

Jewd 

JeW'de'ah 

Jew'dith 

Jewel 

JewUy-ah 

Jew'fy-us 

Jew'ny-a 

Jew*Py-ier 

Jew'shab-he'sed 

Jus'tus 

JiWtah 

K 

Kab'ze^el 
Ka*dez 
Ka*desh 
Ka^desh-bar'nC' 

ah 
Kad^my-el 
Kad'mon-ites 
KaVla-i 
Kay'nah 
Ka-re^ah 
Kar*ka-ah 
Kar*kor 
Kar^nay-tm 
Kar*tah 
Kar*tan 
KaVtath 
Ke^dar 
Ked^e-mah 
Ked'e-moth 
Ke'der 
Ke^desh 
Ke^desh  nafta-li 

Ke-heV  a-thah 
Kylah 
Ke-layyah 
Kel'e-tah 
Ke-mu'el 
Ke*nan 
Ke^nath 
Ke^naz 
Ken*ez*iU 
KenHUy  or  A>'- 
ttUe 


Kenizzites 

Kerenhappuch 

Kerioth 

Keros 

Keturah 

Kezia 

Keziz 

Kibrothhattaa- 

vah 
Kibzaim 
Kidron 
Kinah 
Kir 

Kirharaseth 
Kirhareseth 
Kirharesh 
Kirheres 
Kiriath 
Kiriathaim 
Kiriathiarius 

Kirioth 

Kirjath 

Kiqathaim 

Kiqatharba 

Kirjatharim 

Kirjathbaal 

Kirjathhuzoth 

Kirjathjearim 

Kir^athsannah 

Kinathsepher 

Kish 

Kishi 

Kishion 

Kishon 

Kison 

Kithlish 

Kitron 

Kittim 

Koa 

Kohath 

Kohathites 

Kolaiah 

Korah 

Korahite 

Korathites 

Kore 

Korhite 

Koz 

Kushaiah 


Ken'tz-ziies 

Ker*  en-hap* puk 

Ke^ry-oth 

Ke*roz 

Ke-tu*rah 

Ke-zy'ah 

Ke'ziz 

Kib'roih-hat-tay'' 

a-vah 
Kib'zay-itn 
Kid^ron 
Ky'nah 
Kir 

Kir-har'a-seih 
Kir-har*  e-seth 
Kir-hay'resh 
Kir-he'res 
KirU-ath 
Kirfe-a-thay'im 
Kir*  e-aihf  e-ay-re- 

us 
Kir'e-oth 
Kir^jath 
Kir-jath-a*im 
Kir^jath-ar'bah 
Kir*jath-a'rifn 
Kir*jaih-bayal 
Kir^jath-heW- 

zoth 
Kir-jath-je*a-rim 
Kir-jath-san'nah 
Kirfjath-sefer 
Kish 
Kish'i 
Kish'e-on 
Kyshon 
Ky^son 
Kith'lish 
Kit'ron 
KiViim 
Ko'ah 
Ko*hath 
Ko'hath-iles 
Kol-a-i'ah 
Ko^rah 
Ko*rah-ite 
Ko'rath-ites 
Ko're 
Kor*hife 
Koz 
Kush-ay^ah 


Laadah  Laya-dah 

Laadan  Lay'a-dan 

Laban  Layban 

Labana  Lab'a-nah^  or  Lxi- 

ba*nah 
Lacedemonians  Las'e-de-fno'f^ 

anz 


Lachish 

Lacunus 

Ladan 

Lael 

Lahad 

Lahairoi 

Lahman 

Lahmi 

Laish 

Lakum 

Lamech 

Laodicea 

Laodiceans 

Lapidoth 

Lasea 

Lasha 

Lasharon 


Laykish 

Lay-ku'nus 

Lxiydan 

LxLyel 

Lay*had 

La-hay*roy 

Lah'tnan 

Lah'mi 

Lay*ish 

Lay'kutn 

Lay^mek 

La-od*e-se'ah 

La-dd*e-se*am 

Lap'e-doth 

Zji-se'ah 

Layshah 

Lorshay'ron 


Lasthenes 

Latin 

Lazarus 

Leah 

Leannoth 

Lebana 

Lebanah 

Lebanon 

Lebaoth 

Lebbaeus 

Lebbeus 

Lebonah 

Lecah 

Lehabim 

Lehi 

Lemuel 

Leshem 

Lettus 

Letushim 

Leummim 

Levi 

Leviathan 

Levis 

Levite 

Levitical 

Leviticus 

Libanus 

Libertines 

Libnah 

Libni 

Libnites 

Libya 

Libyans 

Lignaloes 

Likhi 

Linus 

Loammi 

Lod 

Lodebar 

Lois 

Loruhamah 

Lot 

Lotan 

Lothasubus 

Lozon 

Lubim 

Lubims 

Lucas 

Lucifer 

Lucius 

Lud 

Ludim 

Luhith 

Luke 

Luz 

Lycaonia 

Lycca 

Lycia 

Lydda 

Lydia 

Lydians 

Lysanias 

Lysias 

Lysimachus 

Lystra 


Maacah 
Maachah 
Maachathi 
Maachathite 
Maadai 
Maadiah 
Maai 

Maalehacrab- 
bim 


Las'the-nez 
Lat'in 
Laz'a-rus 
Le'ah 
Le-an*oth 
Leb'a-nah 
Leb'a-nah 
Leb'a-non 
Leb*a-oth 
Leb-be*us 
Leb-be'us 
Le-bo'nah 
Le'kah 
Le'ha-bim 
Le'hi 
Lem*u-el 
Le*shem 
LeVtus 
Le-tew^shim 
Le-um*nttm 
Le'vi 

Le-vy'a-lhan 
Le*vis 
Le^vite 
Le-viVik-al 
Le-vit^e-kus 
Lib'a-nus 
Lib'er-Hnz 
Lib'nah 
Lib'ni 
Lib^nites 
Liby-ah 
Lib*y-anz 
Line-al'oze 
Lik'hi 
Ly*nus 
Lo-am'mi 
Lod 

Lo-de*bar 
Ix>'is 

Lo-ru'ho-mah 
Lot 
Lo'tan 

Loth'a-su^bus 
Lo*zon 
Lew'bim 
Lew*bitnz 
Lew*kas 
Lew'se-fer 
Lew'she-us 
Lud 

Lew'dim 
Lew'hith 
Luke 
Luz 

Lik*a-o^fiy-ah^  or 
Ly-ka-o*ne-a    . 
Lik*kah 
Lish'e-ah 
Lid'dah 
Lid'e-ah 
Lid*e-anz 
Ly-sayne-as 
l2sh*e-as 
Ly-stm'a-hus 
Lis'trah 

M 

May*a-kah 
May*a-kah 
May-ak'a-thi 
May-ak'a-thite 
May-ad^ay 
May-a-dyah 
May-a*i 

May-a^  e-a-krab'' 
bim 


68 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


Maanai 

Maaneas 

Maani 

Maarath 

Maaseiah 

Maasiai 

Maasias 

Maath 

Maaz 

Maaziah 

Mabdai 

Macalon 

Maccabaeus 

Maccabees 

Maccabeus 

Macedonia 

Macedonian 

Machaenis 

Machbanai 

Machbenah 

Machi 

Machir 

Machirites 

Machmas 

Machnadebai 

Machpelah 

Macron 

Madai 

Madiabun 

Madiah 

Madian 

Madmannah 

Madmen 

Madmenah 

Madon 

Maelus 

Magbish 

Magdala 

Magdalen 

Magdalene 

Magdiel 

Maged 

Magi 

Magiddo 

Magog 

Magormissabib 

Magpiash 

Manalah 

Mahalaleel 

Mahalath 

Mahal  i 

Mahanaim 

Mahanehdan 

Maharai 

Mahath 

Mahavite 

Mahazioth 

Mahershalal- 

hashbaz 
Mahlah 
Mahli 
Mahlites 
Mali  Ion 
Mahol 
Makaz 
Maked 
Makheloth 
Makkedah 
Maktesh 
Malachi 
Mai  achy 
Malcham 
Malchiah 
Malchiel 
Malchielites 
Malchijah 
Malchiram 


May^a-nay 

Ma-an^e-as 

May^a-ni 

May'a-rath 

May'a-se'yah 

May-as'e-ay 

May^a-sy'as 

May'ath 

May'az 

May-a-zy^ah 

Mab'day-i 

Mak'a-lon 

Mafc'ka-be'us 

Mak'ka-beez 

Mak'ka-be'us 

Mas'se-do'ne-ah 

Mas'se-do^ny-an 

Mak-e'rus 

Makfbay-nay 

Makfbe-nah 

May'ki 

May'kir 

May'kir-ites 

Mafc'vtas 

Mak'  nay-de'bay 

Mak-pe'lah 

May'kron 

Mad'a-i 

Ma-dy'a-bun 

Ma-dy'ah 

May'de-an 

Mad'fnan'nah 

Mad'men 

Mad-me'tiah 

May'don 

Ma-e'lus 

Mag'bish 

Mag'da-lah 

Mag'da-len 

Mag'da-Wne 

Afag'de-el 

May'ged 

May'gi 

Ma-gid'do 

May'gog 

May'gor-mis'' 

say-bib 
Mag'pe-ash 
Ma-hay'lah 
Ma-hay' lay-le' el 
May'hay-lath 
May'hay-li 
May' hay-nafim 
May' hay-neh'dan 
May-har'a-i 
May'hath 
May' hay-vite 
Ma-hay' ze-oth 
May' her-shal' al- 

hash'baz 
Mah'lah 
Mah'ii 
Mah'liies 
Mah'lon 
May'hol 
May'kaz 
May'ked 
Mak-he'loth 
Mak'ke'dah 
Mak'tesh 
Mal'a-ki 
Mal'a-ki 
Mal'katn 
Mal-ky'ah 
Mal'ky-el 
Mal'-ky-el'iies 
Mal-ky'jah 
Mai- ky' ram 


Malchishua 

Mal'ky-shu'ah 

Malchus 

Mal'kus 

Maleleel 

Ma-le'le-el 

Mallos 

Mal'los 

Mallothi 

Mal'lo-lhi 

Malluch 

Mal'luk 

Mamaias 

Ma-may'yas 

Mammon 

Mam'mon 

Mamnitanaimusi^aw-»y'/a-«qy'- 

mus 

Mamre 

Mam're 

Mamuchus 

Ma-mew'kus 

Manaen 

Man'a-en 

Manahath 

Man'a-hath 

Manahethites 

Ma-nay' heth-iles 

Manasseas 

Man'as-se'as 

Manasseh 

Ma-nas'seh 

Manasses 

Ma-nas'sez 

Manassites 

Ma-nas'siles 

Maneh 

May'neh 

Mani 

May'ni 

Manlius 

Man'ly-us 

Manoah 

Ma-no'ah 

Maoch 

May'ok 

Maon 

May'on 

Maonites 

May'on-iles 

Mara 

May'rah 

Marah 

May'rah 

Maralah 

Mar'a-lah 

Maranatha 

Mar*a-nay'lhah 

Marcus 

Mar'kus 

Mardocheus 

Mar-do-ke'us 

Maresha 

Ma-re'shah 

Mareshah 

Ma-re'shah 

Marisa 

Mar'e-sah 

Marimoth 

Mar'e-moth 

Mark 

Mark 

Marmoth 

Mar*  moth 

Maroth 

May'roth 

Marsena 

Mar'se-nah 

Mars'  Hill 

Marz'  hil 

Martha 

Mar^thah 

Mary 

May'ry 

Masaloth 

Mas'a-loth 

Maschil 

Mas'kil 

Mash 

Mash 

Mashal 

May'shal 

Masias 

Ma-sy'as 

Masman 

Mas' man 

Maspha 

Mas'/ah 

Masrekah 

Mas're-kah 

Massa 

^fas'sah 

Massah 

Mas'sah 

Massias 

Mas-sy'as 

Mathanias 

Math'a-ny'as 

Mathusala 

Ma-thu' sa-lah 

Matred 

May'tred 

Matri 

May'tri 

Mattan 

Mat'tan 

Mattanah 

Mat'ta-nah 

Mattaniah 

Mat'ta-ny'ah 

Mattatha 

Mat'ta-thah 

Mattathah 

Mat'ta-thah 

Mattathias 

Mat' ta-thy' as 

Mattenai 

Mat'te-nay'i 

Matthan 

Mat'than 

Matthanias 

Mal'thay-ny'us 

Matthat 

Mat' that 

Matthelas 

Mat-the'las 

Matthew 

Math'yew 
Mat-tny'as 

Matthias 

Mattithiah 

Mat'ti-thi'ah 

Mattock 

Mat'tok 

Mazitias 

Maz'e-ty'as 

Mazzaroth 

Maz'za-roth 

Meah 

Me'ah 

Meani 

Me-a'ni 

Mearah 

Me-a'rah 

Mebunnai 

Mecharath 

Mecherathite 

Medaba 

Medad 

Medan 

Medeba 

Mede 

Media 

Median 

Meeda 

Megiddo 

Megiddon 

Mehetabeel 

Mehetabel 

Mehida 

Mehir 

Meholah 

Meholathite 

Mehujael 

Mehuman 

Mehunim 

Mehunims 

Mejarkon 

Mekonah 

Melatiah 

Melchi 

Melchiah 

Melchias 

Melchiel 

Melchisedec 

Melchizedek 

Melchishua 

Melea 

Melech 

Melicu 

Melita 

Melzar 

Memmius 

Memphis 

Memucan 

Menahem 

Menan 

Mene 

Menelaus 

Menestheus 

Meonenim 

Meonothai 

Mephaath 

Mephibosheth 

Merab 

Meraiah 

Meraioth 

Meran 

Merari 

Merarites 

Merathaim 

Mercurius 

Mered 

Meremoth 

Meres 

Meribah 

Meribah  Ka- 

desh 
Meribbaal 
Merodachbala- 

dan 
Merom 
Meronothite 
Meroz 
Meruth 
Mesech 
Mesha 
Meshach 
Meshech 
Meshelemiah 
Meshezabeel 
Meshezabel 


Me-bunffu^ 

Mek'e-rath 

Mek' e-ralh-iU 

Med'a-bah 

Me'dad 

Me' dan 

Med' e  bah 

Meed 

Me'de-ah 

Me'de-an 

Me-e'dah 

Me-gid'do 

Me-gid'don 

Me-net'a-beel 

Me-het'a-bel 

Me-hy'dah 

Me'hir 

Me-ho'lah 

Me-hol'ath-ite 

Me-hew'ja-el 

Me-hew'man 

Me-hew'nim 

Me-hevi'nimz 

Me-jar'kon 

Mek'o-nah 

Mel'a-tyah 

Mel'H 

Mel-ky'ah 

Mel-ky'as 

Mel'ky-el 

Mel-kiz' e-dek 

Mel-kiz' e-dek 

Mel'ky-shu'ah 

Me'le-a 

Me'lek 

Mel'e-kew 

Mel'e-tah 

Mel'zar 

Mem'me-4is 

Mem'fis 

Me-meWkan 

Men'a-hetn 

Me'nan 

Me'ne 

Men'e-lay'us 

Me-nes'the-us 

Me-on'e-nim^ 

Me-on'o-thay 

Mefa-ath 

Me-fib'  o-sheth 

Me'rab 

Mer^a-i'ah  ^ 

Me-ray'yc  '' 

Me'ran 

Me-ray'ri 

Mer'a-rites 

Mer' a-thayHfn 

Mer-kew're-us 

Me'red 

Mer'e-moth 

Me'rez 

Merfe-bah 

Mer'e-bah    Kay^- 

desh 
Mer*ib-bay'al 
Me-ro' dak-baP  a- 

dan 
Me'rmn 
Me-ron' o-lhiie 
Me'roz 
Me'rutk 
Me*sek 
Me'shah 
Me'shak 
Me'shek 

Me-shel'e-my*ah 
Me-shez' a-beel 
Me-shez'a-bel 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


Meshillemith 

Meshillemoth 

Meshobab 

Meshullam 

Meshullemeth 

Mesobaite 

Mesopotamia 

Messiah 

Messias 

Meterus 

Methegammah 

Methoar 

Melhusael 

Methuselah 

Meunim 

Mezahab 

Miamin 

Mibhar 

Mibsam 

Mibzar 

Micah 

Micatah 

Micha 

Michael 

Michah 

Michaiah 

Michal 

Micheas 

Michmas 

Michmash 

Michmethah 

Michri 

Mich  tarn 

Middin 

Midian 

Midianite 

Midianitish 

Migdalel 

Migdalgad 

Migdol 

Micron 

Mijamin 

Mikloth 

Mikneiah 

Milalai 

Milcah 

Milcom 

Miletum 

Miletus 

Millo 

Miniamin 

Minni 

Minnith 

Miphkad 

Miriam 

Mirma 

Misael 

Misgab 

Misnael 

Mishal 

Misham 

Misheal 

Mishma 

Mishmannah 

Mishraites 

Mispar 

Mispereth 

Misrephothma- 

im 
Missabib 
Mithcah 
Mithnite 
Mithredath 
Mithridates 
Mitylene 
Mizar 
Mi7p<ah 


Me'ShiVU-mith 

Me-shil' le-moth 

Me-sho'bab 

Me-shul^latn 

Me-shuV  le-meth 

Mes'o-bay'ite 

Mes'o-po-tay'me- 

ah 
MeS'Sy'ah 
MeS'Sy*as 
Me-te'rus 
Me'theg-am^mah 
Meih'o-ar 
Me-thew*  sa-el 
Me-thew*  se-lah 
Me-yew'nim 
Mez'  a-hab 
Afyja-min 
Mib'har 
Mib*sam 
Mib'zar 
My*kah 
My-kayfyah 
My'kah 
My'ka-el 
My'kah 
My-kay'yah 
My'kal 
My-ke'as 
Mik'mas 
Mik'mash 
Mik'me-thah 
Mik'ri 
Mik'tatn 
Mid'din 
Mid'e-an 
Afid'e^n-iU 
Mid' e-an-i'tish 
Mig'dal-el 
Mtg'dal'gad 
Mi^'dol 
Ang'ron 
Mtj'a-min 
Mtk'loth 
Mik-ne'yah 
Mil'a-lay'i 
Mil'kah 
Mii'kom 
AK-le'tum 
Mi'le'tus 
mi'lo 
Mi-ny'a-tnin 
Min'ni 
Min'nith 
Mifkad 
Aftr'e-atn 
Aftr^mah 
Mis'a-el 
Mis'gab 
Mish'a-ei 
My'shai 
My'sham 
My^she-al 
Afish'mah 
Mish'tnan'nah 
Mish'ra'ites 
Mis'par 
Mis'pe-reih 
Mis'  re-/oih-tnay'' 

im 
Mis'sa-bib 
mth'kah 
mth'niU 
Mtth're-dath 
Mith'ry-day'iez 
Mit'e-le'ne 
My'zar 
Miz'pah 


Mizpar 

Miz*par 

Nahbi 

Mizpeh 

Miz'peh 

Nahor 

Mizraim 

Miz'ra-im 

Nahshon 

Mizzah 

Aftz'zah 

Nal\um 

Mnason 

Nay'son 

Naidus 

Moab 

Mo'ab 

Nain 

Moabite 

Mo'ab-iie 

Naioth 

Moabitess 

Mo'ab-i'tes 

Nanea 

Moabitish 

Mo'ab-i'iish 

Naomi 

Moadlah 

Mo'a-dyah 

Naphish 

Mochmur 

Mok'mur 

Naphisi 

Modin 

Mo'din 

Naphtali 

Moeth 

Mo'eth 

Naphthar 

Moladah 

Mol'a-dah 

Naphtuhim 

Molech 

Mo'lek 

Narcissus 

Moli 

Mo'li 

Nasbas 

Molid 

Mo'lid 

Nashon 

Moloch 

Mo'lok 

Nasith 

Momdis 

Mom'dis 

Nasor 

Moosias 

Mo'o-sy'as 

Nathan 

Morasthite 

Mo'raS'thite 

Nathanael 

Mordecai 

Mor*de'kay 

Nathanias 

Moreh 

Mo'reh 

Nathanmelech 

Moreshethgath  Mor* esh-eth-gath 

Naum 

Moriah 

Mo-ry'ah 

.  Nave 

Morians 

Mo'ry-anz 

Nazarene 

Mosera 

Mo-se'rah 

Nazareth 

Moseroth 

Mo-se'roth 

Nazarite 

Moses 

Mo'zez 

Neah 

Mosollam 

Mo-sol' lam 

Neapolis 

Mosollamon 

Mo-sol' lay-mon 

Neariah 

Moza 

Mo'zah 

Nebai 

Mozah 

Mo'zah 

Nebaioth 

Muppim 
Musni 

Mup'ptm 
Mew'shi 

Nebaioth 
Neballat 

Mushites 

Mew'shiles 

Nebat 

Muthlabben 

Mulh-lab'ben 

Nebo 

Myndus 

Min'dus 

Nebuchadnez- 

Myra 

My' rah 

zar 

Mysia 

Mish'e-ah 

Nebuchadrez- 

N 

zar 
Nebushasban 

Naam 

Nay'am 

Nebuzaradan 

Naamah 

Nay'a-mah 

Naaman 

Nay'a-man 

Necho 

Naamathite 

Nay'a-ma-lhile 

Necodan 

Naamites 

Nay'a-miUs 

Nedabiah 

Naarah 

Nay'a-rah 

Neemias 

Naarai 

Nay'a-ray 

Neginotli 
Nehelamite 

Naaran 

Nay'a-ran 

Naarath 

Nay'a-rath 

Nehemiah 

Naashon 

Na-ash'on 

Nehemias 

Naasson 

Na-as'son 

Nehiloth 

Naathus 

Nay'a-lhus 

Nehum 

Nabal 

Nay'bal 

Nehushta 

Nabarias 

Nab'a-ry'as 

Nehushtan 

Nabatheans 

Nab'a-lhe'anz 

Neiel 

Nabathites 

Nay'bath-ites 

Nekeb 

Naboth 

Nay'both 

Nekoda 

Nabuchodono-  Nab'U'ko-don'o- 

Nemuel 

sor 

sor 

Nemuelites 

Nachon 

Nay'kon 

Nepheg 

Nachor 

Nay'kor 

Nephi 

Nadab 

Nay'dab 

Nephis 

Nadabatha 

Na-dab'a-lhah 

Nephish 

Nagge 
Nahalal 

Nag'ge 
Nay'ha-lal 

Nephishesim 

Nephthali 

Nahaliel 

Na-hay'le-el 

Nephthalim 

Nahallal 

Na-hal'lal 

Nephtoah 

Nahalol 

Nay'ha-lol 

Nephusim 

Naham 

Nay'ham 

Nepthali 

Nahamani 

Na-ham'a-ni 

Nepthalim 

Naharai 

Na'har*a-i 

Ner 

Naharaim 

Nay'ha-ray'im 

Nereus 

Nahari 

Nay'ha-ri 

Nergal 

Nahash 
Nahath 

Nay'hash 
Nay'haih 

Nergalsharezer 

Nah'bi 

Nay'hor 

Nah'shon 

Nay'hum 

Nay'e-diis 

Nay'in 

Nay'yoth 

Na-ne'ah 

Na-o'mi 

Nay' fish 

Nafe-si 

Nafia-H 

Nafthar 

Naf  tu-him 

Nar-sis'sus 

Nas'bas 

Nay'  shon 

Nay'sith 

Nay'  sor 

Nay'  Ihan 

Na-lhan'  a-el 

Nalh'  a-ny'  as 

Nay '  Ihan-me '  lek 

Nay'  um 

Nay've 

Naz'  a-reen 

Naz'  a-relh 

Naz'a-rile 

Ne'ah 

Ne-ap'o-lis 

Ne'  a-ry'  ah 

Neb'a-i 

Ne-bay  'yolh 

Nebay'joth 

Ne-bal'  lat 

Ne'bat 

Nebo 

Neb'yew-kad^ 

ftfz'zar 
Neb'yew-kad' 

re z' zar 
Neb'yew-shas'' 

ban 
Neb  yew-zar-a '  • 

dan 
Ne'ko 
Ne-ko'  dan 
Ned'a-by'ah 
Ne'  e-my'  as 
Neg'  e-noth 
Ne-hel'  a-mite 
Ne'  he-fny'  ah 
Ne'  he-my'  as 
Ne'he-lolh 
Ne'  hum 
Ne-hush '  lah 
Ne-hush'  tan 
Ne'e-el 
Ne'keb 
Ne-ko'dah 
Ne-meWel 
Ne-mew'el-ites 
Ne'feg 
Ne'/t 
Ne'fis 
Ne'fish 
Ne-fish'e-sim 
Neftha-H 
Neftha-lim 
Neflo-ah 
Ne-few'sin 
Nep'/ha-li 
Nep'tha-lim 
Ner 

Ne're-us 
Ner*gal 
Ner'gal-sha-re' 

zer 


70 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


Neri 

Neriah 

Nerias 

Nero 

Nethaneel 

Nethaniah 

Nethinims 

Netophah 

Netophathi 

Netophathite 

Neziah 

Nezib 

Nibhaz 

Nibshan 

Nicanor 

Nicodemus 

Nicolaitans 

Nicolas 

Nicopolis 

Niger 

Nimrah 

Nimrim 

Nimrod 

Nimshi 

Nineve 

Nineveh 

Ninevites 

Nisan 

Nisroch 

No 

Noadiah 

Noah 

Noamon 

Nob 

Nobah 

Nod 

Nodab 

Noe 

Noeba 

Noga 

Nogah 

Nonah 

Nomades 

Non 

Noph 

Nophah 

Numenius 

Nun 

Nymphas 


Obadiah 

Obal 

Obdia 

Obed 

Obededom 

Obeth 

Obil 

Oboth 

Ochiel 

Ocidelus 

Ocina 

Ocran 

Oded 

OdoUam 

Odonarkes 


Ohj 


Ohad 

Ohel 

Olamus 

Olivet 

Olofemes 

Olympas 

Olympius 

Omaerus 

Omar 


Ne^ti 

Om^a 

Ne-ry^ah 

Ne-ryfas 

Omri 

Ne'ro 

On 

Ne'thanfe-el 

Onam 

Neth^a-ny^ah 

Onan 

Neth'e-nimz 

Onesimus 

Ne-to^fah 

Onesiphorus 

Ne-tofa-tM 

Oniares 

Ne-tofa-thiU 

Onias 

Ne-zy*ah 

Ono 

Ne'zib 

Onus 

Nib'haz 

Ophel 

Nib'shan 

Ophir 

Ny'kay*nor 

Ophni 

Nik'o-de'mus 

Ophrah 

Nik-a-lay^  e-tanz 

Oreb 

Nik»o-las 

Oren 

Ny-kop'o-lis 

Orion 

Nyjer 
Nim*rah 

Oman 
Orpah 

Nim'rim 

Orthosias 

Nim'rod 

Osaias 

Nim'shi 

Osea 

Nin^e-ve 

Oseas 

Nin'ne'veh 

Osee 

Nin'e-viUs 

Oshea 

Nv'san 
ifis'rok 

Othni 

No 

Othniel 

No'a-dyah 

Othonias 

No*ah 

Ox 

No-a*mon 

Ozem 

Nob 

Ozias 

No'bah 

Oziel 

Nod 

Ozni 

No'dab 

Oznites 

No»e 

Ozora 

No-e'bah 

No'ga 

No^zah 
NoHiah 

Paarai 

Notn'd'dfz 

Padan 

Non 

Padanaram 

No/ 

Padon 

No'/ah 

Pagiel 
Pahathmoab 

New'tne'ne'us 

Nun 

Pai 

Nim'/as 

Palal 

Palestina 

r\ 

Palestine 

O 

Pallu 

Palluites 

O'ba'dyah 

Palti 

O'bal 

Paltiel 

Ob-dyah 

Paltite 

O'bed 

Pamphylia 

O^bed-efdotn 

Pannag 

O'beih 

Paphos 

O'bU 

Paradise 

O'both 

Parah 

O'keel 

Paran 

Os^e-de'lus 

Parbar 

Os'e-nah 

Parmashta 

Ok'ran 

Parmenas 

O^ded 

Pamach 

O-dot/am 

Parosh 

Od'o-nar*keez 

Parshandatha 

Og 

Parthians 

O'had 

Paruah 

O'hel 

Parvaim 

OVa-mus 

Pasach 

Ol^e-vet 

Pasdammim 

Ol'o-fer^neez 

Paseah 

O'lim'pas 

Pashur 

0-lim'pe-us 

Patara 

Chn'a-e'rus 

Patheus 

O'mar 

Pathros 

O'tne-ga  or 
O-me'gah 

Otn'ri 

On 

O'nam 

O'nan 

O-nes'-e-mus 

On' e-sif  o-rus 

O-ny'  a-reez 

O-ny'as 

O'no 

O'nus 

O'/el 

O'fir 

Ofni 

Ofrah 

O'feb 

O'ren 

O-ry'on 

Or*  nan 

Or'pah 

Or'thO'Sy*as 

O'Zay'yas 

O-ze'ah 

O-ze'as 

O'zee 

O'She'ah  or 
O'she-ah 

Oth-ni 

Oth*ny-el 

Oth'o-ny'as 

Ox 

O'zem 

O'Zy'as 

O'zy^l 

Oz'ni 

Oz*niies 

O-zo'rah 


Piaya-ray 

Pay*  dan 

Play'  dan^' ram 

Pay'  don 

Payge-el 

Pay  hath-mo*  ab 

Payi 

Puy'lal 

PalUS'fy'nah 

Pal'  es'tyne 

Painew 

Pal'  Uw-ites 

Pal'fy 

Pal'te-el 

Pal'HU 

Pam-fil^e-ah 

Pan*nag 

Pay' f OS 

Par^a-dise 

Pay*rah 

Payran 

Par*bar 

Par-maskHah 

Par*tne-nas 

Par*nak 

Pay'rosh 

Par-shan*  da-thah 

Par^the-anz 

Par^oo-ah 

Par-vayHm 

Pay'sak 

Pas-dam*  tnim 

Pa-se'ah 

Pash'ur 

PaVa-rah 

Pd-lhe'us 

Palh*ros 


Pathrusim 

Patmos 

Patrobas 

Patroclus 

Pau 

Paul 

Paulus 

Pe  (Ps.  cxix) 

Pedahel 

Pedahzur 

Pedaiah 

Pekah 

Pekahiah 

Pekod 

Pelaiah 

Pelaliah 

Pelatiah 

Peleg 

Pelet 

Peleth 

Pelethites 

Pelias 

Pelonite 

Peniel 

Peninnah 

Pentapolis 

Penuel 

Peor 

Perazim 

Peres 

Peresh 

Perez 

Perezuzza 

Perezuzzah 

Perga 

Perg;amos 

Perida 

Perizzite 

Permenas 

Persepolis 

Perseus 

Persia 

Persian 

Persis 

Peruda 

Peter 

Pethahiah 

Pethor 

Pethuel 

Peulthai 

Phaath  Moab 

Phacareth 

Phaisur 

Phaldaius 

Phaleas 

Phalec 

Phaleg 

Phallu 

Phalti 

Phaltiel 

Phanuel 

Pharacim 

Pharaoh 

Pharaoh-hoph- 

ra  (faro   or 

farao^ 
Pharaon-ne- 

choh  (faro 

^rfarao) 
Pharathoni 
Phares 
Pharez 
Pharira 
Pharisee 
Pharosh 
Pharpar 
Pharzites 


Pathrew^sim 
Pafmos 
PaPro-bas 
Pa-tro^klus 
Pay^yew 
Pawl 
PawUus 
Pee 

Ped'a-hel 
Pe-daJi'  zur 
Pe-dey'yah 
Pe'kah 
Pek'a-hy'ah 
Pe'kod 
Pel'a-i'ah 
Pel'a'ly'ah 
Pel'a'ty'ah 
Pe'Ug 
Pe'Ut 
Pe^leth 
Pe'leth'iUs 
Pe-ly'as 
Pel'o-nUe 
Pe-ny'el 
Pe-nin'nah 
Pen-tap' o-Hs 
Pe-new'el 
Pe'or 
Per'a-zim 
Pe'res 
Pe'resh 
Pe'rez 

Pe' rez-uz*  zah 
Pe'  rez-uz'  zah 
Per'gah 
Per'  ga-mos 
Pe-ry'dah 
Per'  iz-ziU 
Per'me-nas 
Per-sep'  o-lis 
Per'  se-us 
Per'  she-ah 
Per'  she-an 
Per' sis 
Pe-rew'dah 
Pe'ter 
Peih'a-hyah 
Pe'thor 
Pe'thew'el 
Pe-ul'thay 
Fay'  ath-mo*  ab 
Fak'a-reth 
Fay'  sur 
Fal-day'yus 
Fal-le'as 
Fa*Uk 
Fa'leg 
FaV  lew 
Fal'H 
Fal'te-el 
Fa-new'  el 
Far'  a-sim 
Fay' ro  or  Fay' ' 
ra-o 

Fay' ro-hof  raTe 
or  Fay' ra-o 

Fay' ro-ne' koh  or 

Fay' ra-o 
Far'  a-tho'ni 
Fa'reez 
Fa'rez 
Fa-ry'ra 
Far'  e-see 
Fa'rosh 
Far' par 
Far'  zites 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


73 


Phaseah 

Phaselis 

Phasiron 

Phassaron 

Phebe 

Phenice 

Phenicia 

Pheresites 

Pherezite 

Phibeseth 

Phichol 

Philadelphia 

Philarches 

Philemon 

Philetus 

Philip 

Philippi 

Philippians 

Philistia 

Philistim 

Philistine 

Philologus 

Philometor 

Phineas 

Phinees 

Phinehas 

Phison 

Phlegon 

Phoros 

Phrygia 

Phrygian 

Phurah 

Phurim 

Phut 

Phuvah 

Phygellus 

Physon 

Pibeseth 

Pihahiroth 

Pilate 

Pildash 

Pileha 

Pileser 

Pilneser 

Piletha 

Piltai 

Pinon 

Pira 

Piram 

Pirathon 

Pirathonite 

Pis^h 

Pisidia 

Pison 

Pispah 

Pithom 

Pithon 

Pleiades 

Pochereth 

Pollux 

Pontius  Pilate 

Pontus 

Poratha 

Porcius 

Portius  Festus 

Posidonius 

Potiphar 

Potipherah 

Prisca 

Priscilla 

Prochonis 

Ptolemais 

Ptolemee 

Ptolemeus 


Fa-se'ah  or  Fay*- 

se-ah 
Fa-se'  lis 
Fas'  e-ron 
Fas'sa-ron 
Fe'be 
Fe-ny'  se 
Fe-nish'  e-ah 
Fer'e-sites 
Fer'  e-zite 
F^'be' seth  or 

Fib'e-seth 
Fy'kol 

FiVa-deVfe-ah 
Fe-lar'keez 
ly-le'mon 
Fy-le'tus 
FiV  ip 
Fil'lip'pi 
Fil'hp'pe-anz 
Fe-lis'  te-ah 
Fe-lis'  Hm 
Fe-lis'teen 
Fe-lol'  o-gus 
FiV  o-me*  tor 
Fin'  e-as 
Fin'  e-es 
Fin'  e-has 
Fy'  son 
Fie'  gon 
Fo'ros 
Fridj'e-ah 
Friafe-an 
Fud 

Few'rah 
Few' rim 
FUt  (as  nut) 
Few'vah 
Fe-jeV  lus 
Fy'  son 

f-be'  seth 
'  ha-hy'roth 
'lai 
Pil'dash 
PiVa-hah 
Py-le'  zer 
Pil-ne'  zer 
PiVe-thah 
Pil'tay 
Py'non 
Py'rah 
fyratn 
Pir'a-thon 
Pir*a-ihon'ile 
Piz'^ah 
^  -sid'  e-ah 
'son 

Hs'pah 
I\' thorn 
Py'thon 
Ple'ya-deez 
Pok'e-reth 
Pol'  lux 

Pon '  she-US  py*  lot 
Pon'tus 
Por'a-thah 
Por'  she-US 
Por' she-US  fes'' 

tus 
Pos'  e-do' ne-us 
Pot'i-far 
Po-tife-rah 
Pris'ka 
PriS'Sil'lah 
ProJf  o-rus 
Tot'  e-may'is 
Tol'e-mee 
Tot'  e-tne'  us 


Pua 

Phv'ah 

Puah 

Pew'ah 

Publius 

Pub'le-us 

Pudens 

Pew'  denz 

Puhites 

Pew'hites 

Pul 

/W( as  dull) 

Punites 

Pew'ftUes 

Punon 

Pew'non 

Pur 

Pur  (as  fur) 

Purim 

Pew' rim 

Put 

Put  (as  nut) 

Puteoli 

Pew-te'o-li 

Pudel 

Pew'te-el 

Pygarg 

Pi'garg 

Suartus 
uatemion 
Quintus  Mem- 
mius 


Quar'tus 
Qua-ter*  ne-on 
Quin'tusmem' 
tne^us 


Raamah 

Raamiah 

Raamses 

Rabbah 

Rabbath 

Rabbi 

Rabbith 

Rabboni 

Rabmag 

Rabsaces 

Rabsaris 

Rabshakeh 

Raca 

Racha 

Rachab 

Rachal 

Rachel 

Raddai 

Ragau 

Rages 

Ragtia 

Raguel 

Rahab 

Raham 

Rahel 

Rakem 

Rakkath 

Rakkon 

Ram 

Rama    • 

Ramah 

Ramath 

Ramathaim 

Ramathaim- 

Zophim 
Ramathem 
Ramathite 
Ramathlehi 
Ramathmizpeh 

Rameses 
Ramiah 
Ramoth 
Ramoth-gilead 

Rapha 

Raphael 

Raphaim 

Raphon 

Raphu 

Rasses 


Ray'a-mah 

Ray*  a-my'ah 

Ra-am'seez 

Rab'bah 

Rab'bath 

Rab'bi 

Rab'biih 

Rab-bo*td 

Rab'mag 

Rab'sa-seez 

Rab'sa-ris 

Rab'  sha-kee 

Ray'ka 

Ray'kah 

Ray'kab 

Ray'kal 

Ray'chel 

Rad'da-i 

Rayfgaw 

Ray' gee z 

Rag*yeuMih 

Ra-gew'el 

Ray' hob 

Ray'  ham 

Ray'hel 

Ray'  kem 

Rak'kath 

Rak'kon 

Ram 

Ray'mah 

Ray'mah 

Ray' math 

Ray '  -math-a '  im 

Ray '  math-a '  im- 

zo'fim 
Ram'a-them 
Ray'  math-iie 
Ray' math-le' hi 
Ray '  math-miz '  - 

pah 
Ra-me'siz 
Ra-my'ah 
Ray' moth 
Ray' moth-gU' ' 

e-ad 
Ray '/ah 
Ray' fa-el 
Rafa-im 
Ray' f on 
Ray^few 
Ras'seett 


Rathumus 

Ra-thew'mus 

Razis 

Ray'zis 

Reaia 

Re'a-i'ah 

Reaiah 

Re'a-i'ah 

Reba 

Re' bah 

Rebecca 

Re-be k'kah 

Rcbekah 

Re-be k' ah 

Rechab 

Re'kab 

Rechabites 

Re' kab-ites^  or 

Rek'  ah-bites 

Rechah 

Re'kah 

Reelaiah 

Re'el-a'yah 

Reelius 

Re-el'  e-us 

Reesaias 

Re-e-say'yas  . 

Regem 

Re  gem 

Regemmelech 
Renabiah 

Re'  getn-me'  lei 
Re'ha-by'ah 

Rehob 

Re' hob 

Rehoboam 

Re'ho-bo'am 

Rehoboth 

Re-ho'both 

Rehu 

Re'hew 

Rehum 

Re-hum 

Rei 

Rei 

Rekem 

Re'  kem 

Remaliah 

Rem'a-ly'al$ 

Remeth 

Remeth 

Remmon 

Rem'mon 

Remmonmeth 

Rem'  mon-meth* 

oar 

o-ar 

Remphan 

Rem' fan 

Rephael 

Re'fa-el 

Re^fah 

Refa-i'ah 

Rephah 

Rephaiah 

Rephaim 

Refa-im 

Rephaims 

Refa-ims 

Rephidim 

Refi-dim 

Resen 

Re' sen 

Resheph 

Re'shef 

Reu 

Re' yew 

Reuben 

Ru'ben 

Reubenitej 

Ru'ben-ites 

Reuel 

Re-yew' el 

Reumah 

Rumah 

Rezeph 

Re'zef 

Rezia 

Re-zy'ah 

Rezin 

Re'zin 

Rezon 

Re'  zon 

Rhegium 

Re'je-um 

Rhesa 

Re'sah 

Rhoda 

Ro'dah 

Rhodes 

Rodz 

Rhodocus 

Rod'o-kus 

Rhodus 

Ro'dus 

Ribai 

Ry'bay 

Riblah 

Rib'lah 

Rimmon 

Rim '  mon 

Rimmon- 

Rim '  mon-meth  * 

methoar 

o-ar 

Rimmonparaz 

Rim' mon-pay* ' 

reez 

Rinnah 

Rin'nah 

Riphath 

Ry'faih 
RUUah 

Rissah 

Rithmah 

RUh'mah 

Rizpah 

Riz'pah 

Roboam 

Rob'o-am 

Rodanim 

Rod'  a-nim 

Rogelim 
Rohgah 

Ro-ge'lim 
Ro'gah 

Roimus 

Ro'  e-mus 

Romamtiezer 

Ro-mam'te-e'  ze 

Roman 

Ro'man 

Rome 

Rome 

Rosh 

Rosh 

Rufus 

Rew'fus 
Rew  ha-mah 

Ruhamah 

Rumah 

Rew'mah 

Ruth 

Rewth 

J 


72 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


Sabachthani 
Sabaoth 

Sabaeans 

Sabat 

Sabateas 

Sabateus 

Sabatus 

Sabban 

Sabbatheus 

Sabbeus 

Sabdi 

Sabeans 

Sabi 

Sabie 

Sabta 

Sabtah 

Sabtecha 

Sabtechah 

Sacar 

Sadamias 

Sadas 

Saddeus 

Sadduc 

Sadducees 

Sadoc 

Sahadutha 

Sala 

Salah 

Salamis  ^ 

Salasadai 

Salathiel 

Salcah 

Salchah 

Salem 

Salim 

Sallai 

Sallu 

Sallum 

Sallumus 

Salma 

Salmah 

Salmanasar 

Salmon 

Salmone 

Salom 

Salome 

Salu 

Salum 

Samael 

Samaias 

Samaria 

Samaritan 

Samatus 

Sameius 

Sam^amebo 

Sami 

Samis 

Samlah 

Sammus 

Samos 

Samothracia 

Sampsames 

Samson 

Samuel 

Sanabassar 

Sanabassanis 

Sanasib 

Sanballat 

Sansannah 

Saph 

Saphat 

Saphatias 

Sapheth 

Saphir 


s 

Sapphira 

Saf-fy'rah 

Sesis 

Sara 

Say'rah 

Sesthel 

Say '  bak'thay '  ni 

Sarabias 

Sar'a-by'as 
Say'rah 

Seth 

Sab' a-oth  or 

Sarah 

Sethur 

Sa-bay'oth 

Sara! 

Say' ray 

Shaalabbin 

Sa-be'anz 

Saraia 

Sar'a-i'ah 

Shaalbim 

Say' bat 

Saraiah 

Sar'a-i'ah 

Shaalbonite 

Sab'a-te'as 

Saraias 

Sa-ray'yas 

Shaaph 

Sab'a-te'us 

Saramel 

Sar'  a-mel 

Shaaraim 

Sab'a-ius 

Saraph 
Sarchedonus 

Say'raf 

Shaashgaz 

Sab' ban 

Sar-ked' o-nus 

Shabbethai 

Sab' ba-the' us 

Sardeus 

Sar-de'us 

Shachia 

Sab-be' us 

Sardis 

Sar'dis 

Shaddai 

Sab'di 

Sardites 

Sar'  dites 

Shadrach 

Sa-be'anz 

Sarea 

Say're-ah 

Shage 
Shanar 

Say'bi 

Sarepta 

Sa-rep'tah 

Say'be-e 

Sarp^on 

Sar'  gon 

Shaharaim 

Sab'tah 

Sand 

Say' rid 

Shahazimah 

Sab'tah 

Saron 

Say'ron 

Shahazimath 

Sab'te-kah 

Sarothie 

Sa-ro'the 

Shalem 

Sab'te-kah 

Sarsechim 

Sar-se'kim 

Shalim 

Say' kar 

Saruch 

Say'ruk 

Shalisha 

Sad'a-my'as 

Satan 

Say'  Ian 

Shallecheth 

Say'  das 

Sathrabuzanes 

Sath^ra-beTV-zayf' 

Shallum 

Sad-de'us 

neez 

Shallun 

Sad'duk 

Saul 

Sawl 

Shalmai 

Sad'  dew-seez 

Satyr 

Say'ter 

Shalman 

Say' do k 

Savaran 

Sav'a-ran 

Shalmaneser 

Say'  ha-dew' thah 

Savias 

Say've-as 

Shama 

Say'lah 

Saviour 

Sav'yer 

Shamariah 

Say'lah 

Sceva 

Se'vah 

Shamed 

Sara-mis 

Scythian 

Sith'e-an 

Shamer 

Sal'a-sad'a-i 

Scythopolis 

Sy-ihop' o-lis 

Shamgar 
Shamhuth 

Sa-lay' the-el 
Sal'kah 

Scythopolitans 
Seba 

Sith '  o-poV  e-tanz 

Se'bah 

Shamir 

Sal'kah 

Sebat 

Se'bat 

Shamma 

Say'  lent 

Secacah 

Sek'a-kah 

Shammah 

Say' lint 

Sechenias 

Sek'e-ny'as 

Shammai 

Sal'la-i 

Sechu 

Se'kew 

Shammoth 

Sal' lew 

Secundus 

Se-kun'dus 

Shammua 

Sal'lum 

Sedecias 

Sed'e-sy'as 

Shammuah 

Sal-lew' ntus 

Segub 

Se'gub 
Se'tr 

Shamsherai 

Sal'mah 

Seir 

Shapen 

Sal'mah 

Seirath 

Se'e-rath 

Shapham 

Sal'man-a'sar 

Sela 

Se'lah 

Shaphan 

Sal'  tnon 

Selah 

Se'lah 

Shaphat 

Sal-mo' ne 

Selahammahle 

'  Se '  la-ham '  mah- 

Shapher 

Say' lorn 

koth 

I e' koth 

Sharai 

Sa-lo'me 

Seled^ 

Se'led 

Sharaim 

Say'  lew 

Selemia 

Set'  e-my'  ah 

Sharar 

Say'  lum 

Selemias 

Set'  e-my'  as 
Se-lu' she-ah,  or 

Sharezer 

Sam'  a-el 

Seleucia 

Sharon 

Sa-may'yas 

SeVu-sVa 

Sharonite 

Sa-may*re-ah 

Seleucus 

Se-lu'kus 

Sharuhen 

Sa-mar'  e-tan 

Sem 

Sent 

Shashai 

Sam'  a-tus 

Semachiah 

Sem'a-ky'ah 
Sem'a-t'ah 

Shashak 

Sa-me'yus 

Semaiah 

Shaul 

Sam'  gar-ne'bo 

Seme!  ^ 

Sem'e-i 

Shaulites 

Say' -mi 

Semellius 

Se-meV  le-us 

Shaveh 

Say' mis 

Semis 

Se'mis 

Shaveh  Kiria 

Sam'lah 

Senaah 

Se-nay'ah 

thaim 

Sam'mus 

Seneh 

Se'neh 

Shavsha 

Say'mos 

Senir 

Se'nir 

Sheal 

Sam '  o-thray'she- 

Sennacherib 

Sen-nak'  e-rib^  or 

Shealtiel 

ah 

Sen'na-kee'rib 

Sheariah 

Samp'  sa-meez 

Senuah 

Se-new'ah 

Shearjashub 

Sam'  son 

Seorim 

Se-o'rim 

Sheba 

Sam'yeTV-el 

Sephar 

Se'far 
Sefa-rad 

Shebah 

San' a-bas' sar 

Sepharad 

Shebam 

San' a-bas*  sa-rus 

Sepharvaim 

Sef  ar-vay*im 

Shebaniah 

San'a-sib 

Sepharvites 

Se'/ar-vites 

Shebarim 

San-bal'lat 

Sephela 

Se-fe'lah 

Sheber 

San-san^tmh 

Serah 

Se'rah 

Shebna 

Saf 

Seraiah 

Ser'a-i'ah 

Shebuel 

Say'fat 

Sered 

Se'red 

Shecaniah 

Safa-ty'as 

Sergius 

Ser'  ge-us 

Shechaniah 

Say'feth 

Seron 

Se'ron 

Shechem 

Saffir 

Serug 

Se'rug 

Shechemites 

Se'  sis 
Ses'thel 
Seth 
Se'thur 
Shay'  al-ab' bin 
Sha-aV  bim 
Sha-aV  bo-nite 
Shay' a/ 
Shay'  a-ray'  im 
Sha-ash'  gaz 
Shab-beth' a-i 
Shak'  e-ah 
Shad'da-i 
Shay'  drak 
Shay'  ge 
Shay' har 
Shay '  ha-ray '  im 
Sha-haz'  e-mah 
Sha-haz '  e-math 
Shay'  I  em 
Shay'  lim 
Shal'  e-shah 
Shdl'  le-keth 
Shal'  lum 
Shal'  lun 
Shal'  ma-i 
Shal'  man 
Shal' ma-ne'  zet 
Shay'mah 
Sham'  a-ry'  ah 
Shay'  med 
Shay'mer 
Sham  'gar 
Sham'  huth 
Shay'  mir 
Sham'mah 
Sham'mah 
Sham' ma-i 
Shatn^moth 
Sham-mew'  ah 
Sham-mew'  ah 
Sham'  she-ray'  i 
Shay' pen 
Shay '/am 
Sliay  fan 
Shay' fat 
Shay'fer 
Shar'a-i 
Shar'a-im 
Shay'rar 
Sha-re'  zer 
Shair' on 
Shait'  on-ite 
Sha-rew'  hen 
Shash'a-i 
Shay' shak 
Shay'ul 
Shay'ul-ites 
Shay'  veh 
Shay'veh  Ker*V 

a-thay'im 
Shav'  shah 
She' at 
She-al'te-el 
She'  a-ry' ah 
She '  ar-jay '  shub 
She'ba 
She' bah 
She'  bam 
Sheb'  a-ny'  ah 
Sheb'a-rim 
She'ber 
Sheb'nah 
Sheb'  yew-el 
Shek'  a-ny'  ah 
She k'  a-ny'  ah 
She'  kem 
She'  kem-ites 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


73 


Shedeur 

Shed'e^r 

Shehariah 

She'ha-ry'ah 

Shelah 

Sf^'lah 

Shelanites 

She'lan-Ues 

Shelemiah 

Shel'  e-my'  ah 

Sheleph 

She'Uf 

Shelesh 

She'lesh 

Shelomi 

Shero-mi 

Shelomith 

SheVo^ith 

Shelomoth 

SheVo-moth 

Shelumiel 

She-lew*  tne-e I 

Shem 

Shem 

Shema 

She'mah 

Shemaah 

She-may' ah 

Shemaiah 

Shem'a-Vah 

Shemariah 

Shem'  a-ry'  ah 

Shemeber 

Shem'  e-her 

Shemer 

She'mer 

Shemida 

She-my'dah 

Shemidah 

She-my'dah 

Shemidaites 

She-my '  da-ites 

Sheminith 

Shem'  e-nith 

Shemiramoth 

She-mir'  a-moth 

Shemuel 

She-mew'  el 

Shen 

Shen 

Shenazar 
Shenir 

She-nay' zar 
She'ntr 

Shepham 

She' f am 

Shephathiah 

Shefa-thy'ah 

Shephatiah 

Shefa-ty'ah 

Shephelah 

Shef-e'lah 

Shephi 

She'fi 

Shepho 

She'fo 

Shephuphan 

She-few' fan 

Sherah 

She' rah 

Sherebiah 

Sher'e-by'ah 
She' res h 

Shereeh 

Shere^er 

She-re' zer 

Sheshach 

She'shak 

Sheshai 

She'shay 

Sheshan 

She' Shan 

Sheshbazzar 

Shesh-baz'  zar 

Sheth 

Shelh 

Shethar 

She'thar 

Shetharboznai 

She'thar-boz  *  na-i 

Sheva 

She'vah 

Shibboleth 

Shib'bo-lelh 

Shibmah 

Shib'mah 

Shicron 

Shy'  kron 

Shig^aion 

Shi^-gay' yon 

Shigionoth 
Shinon 

Sht'gy'  o-noth 

Shy'  hon 

Shihor 

Shy' hor 

Shihorlibnath 

Shy' hor-lib'nath 

Shilht 

Shir  hi 

Shilhim 

Shir  him 

ShUlem 

Shil'lefn 

Shillemites 

Shir  lem-iies 

Shilo 

Shy-loh 

Shiloah 

Shi-h^ah 

Shiloh^ 

Shy'loh 

Shiloni 

Shi-lo'ni 

Shilonite 

Shy'lo-nite,  or 

Shi-lo'nile 

Shilshah 

Shir  shah 

Shimea 

Shim'  e-ah 

Shimeah 

Shim'  e-ah 

Shimeam 

Shim'  e-am 

Shimeath 

Shim'  e-ath 

Shimeathites 

Shim' e-alh-iles 

Shimei 

Shim'  e-i 

Shimeon 

Shim'  e-on 

Shimhi 

Shim' hi 

Shim! 

Shy'mi 

Shimites 

Shim'iles 

Shimma 

Shim'mah 

Shimon 

Shy'mon 

Shimrath 

Shim'rath 

Shimri 

Shimrith 

Shimrom 

Shimron 

Shimronites 

Shimronmeron 

Shimshai 

Shinab 

Shinar 

Shion 

Shiphi 

Shiphmite 

Shiphrah 

Shiphtan 

Shisha 

Shishak 

Shitrai 

Shittim 

Shiza 

Shoa 

Shoah 

Shobab 

Shobach 

Shobai 

Shobal 

Shobek 

Shobi 

Shocho 

Shochoh 

Shoco 

Shoham 

Shomer 

Shophach 

Shophan 

Shoshannim 

Shoshannim- 

eduth 
Shua 
Shuah 
Shual 
Shubael 
Shuham 
Shuhamites 
Shuhite 
Shulamite 
Shumathites 
Shunammite 
Shunem 
Shuni 
Shunites 
Shupham 
Shuphamites 
Shuppim 
Shur 
Shnshan 
Shushaneduth 
Shuthalhites 
Shuthelah 
Sia 
Siaha 
Siba 
Sibbecai 
Sibbechai 
Sibboleth 
Sibmah 
Sibraim 
Sichem 
Sicyon 
Siadim 
Side 
Sidon 
Sidonians 
Sigionoth 
Sihon 
Sihor 
Silas 
Silla 
Siloah 


Shim'ri 

Shim'rilh 

Shim'ram 

Shim'ron 

Shim' ron-ites 

Shim '  ron-me '  ron 

Shim'  shay 

Shy' nab 

Shy'nar 

Shy' on 

Shy; ft 

Shifmile 

Shtfrah 

Shtfian 

Shy'  shah 

Shy'  shak 

Shit'ra-% 

ShU'tim 

Shy'za 

Sho'ah 

Sho'ah 

Sho'bab 

Sho'bak 

Sho'ba4 

Sho'bal 

Sho'bek 

Sho'bi 

Sho'ko 

Sho'koh 

Sho'ko 

She'  ham 

Sho'fner 

Sho'fak 

Sho  fan 

Sho-shan*nim 

Sho-shan '  nim-e '  - 

duth 
Shu' ah 
Shu' ah 
Shu'  al 
Shu'ba-el 
Shu'  ham 
Shu'hamrites 
Shu'hite  ^ 
Shu'  lam-ile 
Shu' math-ites 
Shu'nam-mite 
Shu'nem 
Shu'ny 
Shu'mles 
Shu* f am 
Shu  fam-ites 
Shup'pim 
Sher 
Shu'shan 
Shu'  shan-e' duth 
Shu' thal-hiUs 
Shu'the-lah 
Sy'ah 
Sy'a-hah 
Sy'bah 
Sib'be-kay 
Sib'be-kay 
Sib' bo-let h 
Sib'mah 
Sib'ra-im 
Sy'kem 
Sis h' e-on 
Sid' dim 
Sy'de 
Sy'don 
Sy-do'ne-anz 
Se-gy' o-noth 
Sy'hon 
Sy'hor 
Sy'las 
SU'lah 
Si-lo'ah 


Siloam 

Siloe 

Silvanus 

Simalcue 

Simeon 

Simeonites 

Simon 

Simri 

Sin 

Sina 

Sinai 

Sinim 

Sinite 

Sion 

Siphmoth 

Sippai 

Sirach 

Sirah 

Sirion 

Sisamai 

Sisera 

Sisinnes 

Sitnah 

Sivan 

Smyrna 

So 

Socho 

Sochoh 

Socoh 

Sodi 

Sodom 

Sodoma 

Sodomites 

Sodomitish 

Solomon 

Sopater 

Sophereth 

Sophonias 

Sorek 

Sosipater 

Sosthenes 

Sostratus 

Sotai 

Spain 

Sparta 

Stachys 

Stephanas 

Stephen 

Stoics 

Suah 

Suba 

Subai 

Succoth 

Succoth-benoth 

Suchathites 

Sud 

Sudias 

Sukkims 

Suph 

Suphah 

Sur 

Susa 

Susanchltes 

Susanna 

Susi 

Sychar 

Sychem 

Sychemite 

Syelus 

Syene 

Syntiche 

Syracuse 

Syria 

Syriamaachah 

Syriac 

Syrian 

Syrion 

Syrophenidan 


^'lo'am 
Si-lo' e,  or  Sifi 
Sil-vay'nus 
Sy'mal-kew'e 
Sim' e-on 
Sim' e-on-iies 
J^'mon 
Sim'ri 
Sin 

Sy'nah 
Sy'nay 
Sy'nim 
Sin'iU 
Sy'on 
Sifmoth 
Stp'pay 
Sy'rak 
Sy'rah 
Sir'  e-on 
Si-sam'a-i 
Sis'  e-rah 
Si-sin' neez 
Sit'nah 
Sy'van 
Smir'nah 
So 

So'ko 
So'koh 
So'koh 
So'di 
Sod'om 
Sod'o-mah 
Sod'om-ites 
Sod' om-i' tish 
Sol'o-mon 
Sop'a-ter 
Sof  e-reth 
Sofo-ny'as 
So'rek 
So-sip'  a-ter 
Sos'the-neez 
Sos'tra-tus 
So'ta^ 
Spane 
Spar'tah 
Stay'kis 
Stef'a-nas 
Ste'vn 
Sto'ihs 
Su'ah 
Su'bah 
Su'ba-i 
Suk'koth 
Suk' koth-be' noth 
Su'kath-ites 
Sud 

Su'de-as 
Suk'  ke^imz 
Suf 
Sufah 
Sur  (as  fur) 
Su'sah 
Su'san-kites 
Su-zan'nah 
Su'si 
Sy'kar 
'kem 
yy'hem-iU 
S^e'lus 
Sjhe'ne 
Sin'te-ke 
Sir'a-kuse 
Sir' e-ah 

Sir^  e-a-may  a-kah 
Sir'  e-ak 
Sir'  e-an 
Sir'  e-on 
Sy*ro-fe-nish'e-am 


r4 


SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


T 

Taanach 

Tay'amak 

Taanath-shiloh 

Tay'ornaihrsky'' 

loh 
Tab'a-oih 

Tabaoth 

Tabbaoth 

Tab'boroth 

Tabbath 

Tab'baih 

Tabeal 

Tay'be-al 

Tabeel 

Tay'be-el 

Tabellias 

Ta-bel'ly-us 

Taberah 

Tab^e-rah 

Tabitha 

Tab'e-thah 

Tabor 

Ta'bor 

Tabrimon 

Tab' ry -man 

Tachmonite 

Tak'tniMtyte 

Tadmor 

Tad'tnor 

Tahan 

Tay'han 

Tahanites 

Tay'han-ites 

Tahapanes 
Tahath 

Ta-hap'  a-neez 
Toy' hath 

Tahpanhes 

Tah^pan-heez 

Tahpenes 

Tah'pe-neez 

Tahrea 

Tah're-ah 

Tahtimhodshi 

Tahfiim'hodfshi 

Talithacumi 

TaV  e-thah'ku*mi 

Talmai 

TaVmay 

Talmon 

Tar  men 

Talsas 

Tal'sas 

Tamah 

Tay'mah 

Tamar 

Tay'mar 

Tammuz 

Tam'fHuz 

Tanach 

Tqy'nah 

Tanhumeth 

TanffiettMneih 

Tanis 

Tay'nis 

Taphath 

Tay'fath 

Taphnes 

Taf  neez 

Taphon 

Tay'fon 
Tap^puroh 

Tappuah 

Tarah 

Tay'rah 

Taralah 

Tar'a-lah 

Tarea 

Tay're-ah 

Tarpelites 

Tar'pel-iUs 

Tarshis 

Tar' Shis 

Tarshish 

Tar'shish 

Tarsus 

Tar'sus 

Tartak 

Tar'tak 

Tartan 

Tar' tan 

Tatnai 

Tat'na-i 

Tebah 

Tebah 

Tebaliah 

Teb'a-fy'ah 
Te'be^ 

Tebeth 

Tehaphnehes 
Tehinnah 

Te-haP  ne-heez 
Te-htn'nah 

Tekel 

Tetkel 

Tekoa 

Te-kofah 

Tekoah 

Te-fcCah 

Tekoite 

Te-koHU 

Telabib 

TePorbib 

Telah 

Te»lah 

Telaifii 

TePorim 

Telassar 

Te'las*sar 

Telem 

Te'lem 

Telharesha 

TePhar^e-shah 

Telharsa 

TePhar'sah 

Telmela 

Tel-fne'lah 

Telmelah 

Tel-me'lah 

Tema 

Te*mah 

Teman 

Teffnan 

Temani 

Tem'a-fm 

Temanite 

Te'tnan-ite 

Temeni 

TenVe^ 

Terah 

Te*rah 

Teraphim 

Ter*a'fim 

Teresh 

Te*resh 

Tertius 

Tertshy-us 

Tertullus 

Ter-tuPIus 

Teta 

Teftah 

Thaddsus 
Thaddeus 

Thahash 

Thamah 

Thamar 

Thamnatha 

Thara 

Tharra 

Tharshish 

Tharsus 

Thassi 

Thebez 

Thecoe 

Thelasar 

Thelersas 

Theman 

Theocanus 

Theodotus 

Theophilus 

Theras 

Thermeleth 

Thessalonians 

Thessalonica 

Theudas 

Thimnathah 

Thisbe 

Thomas 

Thomoi 

Thrada 

Thraseas 

Thummim 

Thyatira 

Tiberias 

Tiberius 

Tibhath 

Tibni 

Tidal 

Tiglath-pileser 

Tigris 

Tikvah 

Tikvath 

Tilgathpilneser 

TUon 

Timsus 

Timeus 

Timna 

Timnah 

Timnath 

Timnathah 

Timnathheres 

Timnathserah 

Timnite 

Timon 

Timotheus 

Timothy 

Tiphsah 

Tiras 

Tirathites 

Tirhakah 

Tirhanah 

Tina 

Tirshatha 

Tirzah 

Tishbite 

Titans 

Titus 

Tizite 

Toah 

Tob 

Tobadonijah 

Tobiah 

Tobias 

Tobie 

Tobiel 

Tobijah 

Tobit 


Thad-de'us 
Th€ut'de*us,  or 

ThacPde-us 
Thay'hash 
Thay'mah 
Thay'tnar 
Tham'na-thah 
Thayrah 
Thar^rah 
Thar^skish 
Thar^sus 
Thas»si 
The*bez 
The-kofe 
The-tayfsar 
The-ier'sas 
The'tnan 
The-oh'd-nus 
The-od'o-tus 
The-ofe-Ius 
The*ras 
Ther*me'leth 
Thes^  sa'lo»fiy^ns 
Thes'sa-lo-^ka 
Thu'das 
Thim'na-thah 
Tkis*be 
Tom^as 
Tatn'<hi 
Thraysky-ah 
Tlira-se^as 
Thum^frtim 
Thy^a-fy^rah 
be^ry-^is 
-be^ry-us 

tb'hath 
Tib'fd 
jydal 

Tigf  lath-py-le*  zer 
ly/gris 
lik'vah 
Tik'vath 
TiPgath-pil-nee*' 

zer 
Tyion 
'us 


te'us 
t'nah 
Tim'nah 
Tim'nath 
Tim'na'thah 
Titnfnath-he*reez 
IHrnfftath'Se'rah 
nrnfftyte 
f'mon 
f'tno'the-us 

'o-thy 
ysah 
ly'ras 
TPrath-ites 
TUr'ha-kah 
TUr'  ha-nah 
TUr'e-ah 
TUr'sha-ihah 
Tiir'zah 
Tish'byte 
~'tam 
'tus 
'zite 
"h'ah 
Tob 

Tob' ad' (hnyfjah 
To-4iy'ah 
To-byas 
To'be 
To'by^l 
To^yjah 
Tobit 


Todien 

To'ken 

Tc^armah 

To-gar*mah 
To'hew 

Toi" 

To'i 

Tola 

To'tah 

Tolad 

To'lad 

Tolaites 

To'laMes 

Tolbanes 

Tol'ba-neez 

Tophel 

To'fel 

Tophet 

To'fet 

Topheth 

To'/eth 

Tou 

Tou 

Trachonitis 

Trak' o^ny*  tis 

Tripolis 

THp'o-Hs 

Troas 

Tro'as 

Trogyllium 
Tropnimus 

Tro-jyPly-um 

Trcf  e-wus 

Tryphena 

Try-fe'nah 

Tryphon 

Try-fon 

Tryphosa 

Try-fo'sah 
TU'bal 

Tubalcain 

Tu'bal'kain 

Tubieni 

Tu'by-e'fd 

Tychicus 

T\k^e-kus 
Try-ran'nus 

Tyrannus 

Jy^ 

Tyer 

Tyrians 

'fyr'e-ans 
'ly'rus 

Tyrus 

u 

Ural 

Yew'kal 

Uel 

Yew'el 

Ulai 

Yew'laA 

Ulam 

Yew' lam 

Ulla 

UP  loh 

Ummah 

Um'mah 

Unni 

CM'ni 

Upharsin 

Yew' far'  sin 
Yewfaz 

Uphaz 

Ur 

Ur 

Urbane 

Ur'bane 

Uri 

Yew'ri 

Uriah 

YenMry'ah 

Urias 

Yew-ry'as 

Uriel 

Yew'ry-el 

Urijah 

Yew-ry'jah 

Unm 

Yew' rim 

Uta 

Yew'iah 

Uthai 

Yew'tha-i 

Uthi 

Yew'thi 

Uz 

Uz 

Uzai 

Yew'za-i 

Uzal 

Yew'zal 

Uzza 

Uz'zah 

Uzzah 

Uz'zah 

Uzzensherah 

Uz' zert^he' tah 

Uzzi 

Uzzi 

Uzzia 

Uz'Zyah 

Uzziah 

UZ'Zy'ah 

Uzziel 

Uz'zi'el 

Uzzielites 

Uz'Sy*  el-4tes 

V 

Vajezatha 

Va-jez' tt-thah 

Vaniah 

Ya-ny'ah 
Vash'ni 

VashnI 

Vashti 

Vash'H 

Voph^ 

VofH 

X 

Xanthicus 

Zan'tf^kus 

SCRIPTURE  PROPER  NAMES 


75 


Zaanaim 

Zaanan 

Zaanannim 

Zaavan 

Zabad 

Zabadaeans 

Zabadaias 

Zabadeans 

Zabbai 

Zabbud 

Zabdeus 

Zabdi 

Zabdiel 

Zabud 

Zabulon 

Zaccai 

Zacchsus 

Zacchetis 

Zacchur 

Zaccur 

Zachariah 

Zacharias 

Zachary 

Zacher 

Zadok 

Zaham 

Zair 

Zalaph 

Zalmon 

Zalmonah 

2^1munna 

Zambis 

Zambri 

Zamoth 

Zamzummims 

Zanoah 

Zaphnathpaa- 

neah 
Zaphon 
Zara 
Zaraces 
Zarah 
Zaraias 
Zareah 
Zareathites 
Zared 
Zarephath 
Zaretan 
Zarethshahar 

Zarhites 

Zartanah 

Zarthan 

Zathoe 

Zatthu 


Zay^ornay'itn 

Zay'a-nan 

Zay' a-nan*  nim 

Zay'  a-van 

Zay  bad 

Zab*a'de*ans 

Zab*  a-day' yas 

Zab*a'de'  ans 

Zab'bc^ 

Zab'bud 

Zab-de'us 

Zab'di 

Zab'dy-el 

Zay' bud 

Zab'urlon 

Zak'ka4 

Zak'ke'us 

Zak'ke'us 

Zak'kur 

Zak'kur 

Zak'a-ry'ah 

Zak*  a-ry'as 

Zak'a-ry 

Zay'ker 

Zay'dok 

Zay' ham 

Zay'er 

Zay' la/ 

Za/'fHon 

Zal-mo'nah 

Zal-mun'nah 

Zam'bis 

Zam'bri 

Zay' moth 

Zam-zurn'mifHS 

Za-no'ah 

Zaf  nath-pay' a- 

ne'ah 
Za'/on 
Za'rah 
Zar'a-sez 
Zay'rah 
Zar^-a-i'ds 
Zay're-ah 
Zay' re-ath'iUs 
Zay' red 
Zar'e-fath 
Zar'e-tan 
Zav'teth'Shay'- 

har 
Zar'hytes 
Zar'  ta-nah 
Zaf'ihan 
Zaih'ihe 
Zat'thew 


Zathui 

Zattu 

Zavan 

Zaza 

Zebadiah 

Zebah 

2^baim 

Zebedee 

Zebina 

Zoboiim 

2^boim 

Zebudah 

2^bul 

Zebulonites 

Zebulun 

2^bulunite 

2^echariah 

Zedad 

Zedechias 

Zedekiah 

Zeeb 

Zelah 

Zelek 

Zelophehad 

Zelotes 

Zelzah 

Zemaraim 

Zemarite 

2^mira 

Zenan 

2^nas 

Zephaniah 

Zephath 

Zephathah 

Zephi 

Zepho 

2^phon 

Zephonites 

Zer 

Zerah 

Zerahiah 

Zeraiah 

Zered 

Zereda 

Zeredathah 

2^rerath 

2^resh 

Zereth 

Zen 

Zeror 

Zeniah 

Zenibbabel 

2^niiah 

Zetham 

Zethan 

Zethar 

Zia 


Zorthew'i 

Zai'iu 

Zay' van 

Zay'zah 

Zeb'a-dy'ah 

Ze'bah 

Ze^ay'tm 

Zeb'be^e 

Ze-by'nah 

Ze-boy'im 

Ze-bo'im 

Ze-bew'dah 

Ze'bul 

Zeb'U'lonAUs 

Zeb'U'lun 

Zeb'u-iun-iie 

Zek*  a-ryah 

Ze'dad 

Zed'e-ky'as 

Zed'e-ky'ah 

Ze'eb 

Ze'lah 

Ze'iek 

Ze-lo'/e-had 

Ze-lo'Uez 

Zel'zah 

jSem' a-ray' hn 

jZem'a-rite 

Ze-my'ra 

Ze'nan 

Ze'nas 

Zefa-ny'dh 

Ze'fath 

Zefa-ihah 

Ze'fi 

Ze'fo 

Ze'fon 

Zejron-iUs 

Zer 

Ze'rah 

Zer'a-hy'ah 

Zer'a-i'ah 

Ze'red 

Zer'e-dah 

Ze' red' a-thah 

Zer'e-raih 

Ze'resh 

Ze'reth 

Ze'H 

Ze'ror 

Ze-ru'ah 

Ze-rud' ba-be/ 

Zer'u-i'ah 

Ze'tham 

Ze'than 

Ze'ihar 


Ziba 

Zibeon 

Zibia 

Zibiah 

Zichri 

Ziddim 

Zidkijah 

Zidon 

Zidonlans 

Zif 

Ziha 

Ziklag 

Zillah 

Zilpah 

Zilthai 

Ziininah 

Zimran 

Zimri 

Zin 

Zina 

Zion 

Zior 

Ziph 

Ziphah 

Ziphims 

Ziphion 

Ziphites 

Ziphron 

Zippor 

Zipporah 

Zithri 

Ziz 

Ziza 

Zizah 

Zoan 

Zoar 

Zoba 

Zobah 

Zobebah 

Zohar 

Zoheleth 

Zoheth 

Zophah 

Zophai 

2U>phar 

2U>phiin 

2U>rah 

2U>rathite8 

Zoreah 

Zorites 

Zorobabel 

Zuar 

Zuph 

Zur 

Zuriel 

Zurishaddal 

Zoirinis 


^'bah 
ZWe-OH 
Zib'e-ah 
Zib'e-ah 
Zik'ri 
Zid'  dim 
Zid'ky'jah 
"  'don 

fdo'ne-ans 

Zy'hah 

Zik'lag 

Zil'laJi 

Zil'pah 

ZU'thay 

Zim'mah 

Zim'ran 

Zim'ri 

Zin 

^'nah 

Zy'on 

fyor 

^'/ah 
Zifimz 
Ztfe-on 
£tfiies 

t'fron 
ypor 
Zip-po'rah 
ZUh'ri 
Ziz 

Zy'zah 
:^'zah 
Zo'am 
Zo'ar 
Zo'bah 
Zo'bah 
Zo-be'bah 
Zo'har 
Zo'he-ietk 
Zo'heih 
Zo'/ah 
Zo^ay 
Zojar 
Zo'fim 
Zo'rah 
Zo'rath-Hes 
Zo're-ah 
Zo'riUs 
Zo^ob'a-bei 
Zu'ar 
Zuf 
^r    * 
Zu're-^i 
Zu'ry^shad' 
Zm'xittu 


INDEX  TO  THE  ATLAS  OF  BIBLE  LANDS 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


Abimael F-7 

Accad  • E-6 

Africa   F-2,  3,  4 

Almodad  F-6 

Anamim E-5 

Arabia   F-6 

Arabian  Sea  F-5 

AralSea   D-7 

Aram   E-6 

Arphaxad   E-6 

Ashkenaz   D-5 

Ashkenaz,  Sea  of   ...  D-5 

Asshur D-6 

Axenus,  Sea  of C-5 

Babel E-6 

British  Isles B-3 

Calah E-6 

Calneh   E-6 

Canaan E-5 

Caphtorim D-5 

Casluhim E-5 

Caspian  Sea D-7 

Cush G-5 


Cush E-6 

Dedan F-7 

Diklah F-6 

Dodanim D-5 

Eber D-5 

Elam E-7 

Elishah D-4 

Erech   E-6 

Europe C-4,  5 

Gentiles,  Isles  of  the  .C-3 

Gether E-5 

Gomer C-6 

Hadoram G-C 

Havilah F-6 

Hindustan F-9 

Hul  E-5 

Indian  Ocean .  .G-8,  9,  10 

Iavan D-4 
enah G-7 
ohab G-7 
oktan F-6 
Cittim E-5 

Lehabim E-4 


Lubim E-4 

Lud D^ 

Ludim F-5 

Ludim E-4 

Lybia E-4 

Lydia E-4 

Madai E-7 

Magog C-6,  7 

Mash D-6 

Mesha F-6 

Meshech D-6 

Mizraim F-6 

Naphtuhim  E-5 

Nineveh E-6 

North  Atlantic  Ocean  . . . 

A,  B-1,2 

Obal G-6 

Ophir  G-6 

Pathrusim F-5 

Persian  Gulf E-6 

Philisdm E-5 

Phut.... E-4 

Raamah F-7 


Rehoboth E-6 

Resen E-6 

Riphath C-4 

Sabtah  G-6 

Sabtechah F-7 

Scandinavia B-5 

Scythia C-8,9 

Seoa F-5 

Sephar,  Mt G-7 

Serica D-9 

Sheba G-6 

Sheba F-7 

Sheleph G-6 

Shinar E-6 

Sidon E-5 

Sinim  ...     D-12 

Tarshish D-5 

Tarshish,  Sea  of . . .  D-3,  4 

Tiras C-5 

Togarmah D-6 

Tubal D-5 

Uz  E-6 

Uzal G-6 


CONQUEST  OF  CANAAN 


AbelShittim H-4 

Accho D-3 

Achzib C-3 

Adullam 1-2 

Ai  H.3 

Ajalon  Valley H-2 

Aphek D-5 

Ar J-5 

Arad T-3 

Amon,  Brook J-6 

Aroer j-5 

Ashdod ..H-1 

Ashkelon I-l 

Ashtaroth  D-6 

Ashteroth  Kamaim  ..C-6 

Ataroth  1-5 

Azekah 1-2 

Beeroth H-3 

Beersheba J-2 

Beth  Baal  Meon 1-5 

Bethel H-3 

BethHaran H-4 

Beth-horon H-3 

Beth  Jeshimoth H-4 

Beth  Nimrah H-5 

Beth  Rehob C-4 

Beth-shean F-4 

Betonim G-6 


Bezek H-2 

Bezer T-5 

Bilsam F-3 

Bozrah  E-7 

Chephirah H-3 

Cherith,  Brook H-4 

Chinnereth,  Sea  of. .  .D-4 

Dan C-4 

Debir J-2 

Dibon 1-5 

Dimon 1-5 

Dium E-5 

Dor E-2 

Edrei D-7 

Ep^lon I-l 

Eidun E-5 

Ekron H-2 

Elealah H-5 

Ephraim,  Mt F,  G-3 

Faria,  Waters  of G-4 

Fikrah,  Waters  of L-3 

Gath 1-2 

Gath-hepher E-3 

Gaza I-l 

Gedor 1-3 

Gerash G-6 

Gibeon H-3 


Gilead,  Mt G-6 

Gilgal H-4 

Gilgal  G-2 

Ham H-6 

Harosheth E-3 

Hazor C-3 

Hebron  1-3 

Heshbon H-5 

Hieromox,  River E-6 

Hormah L-1 

Ibleam... F-3 

abbock,  River G-5 

abesh  Gilead F-5 

ahaz J-5 

armuth 1-2 

azer H-5 

ebus  H-3 

ericho H-4 

,oppa G-2 

Jordan,  River F-4 

Judah,  Mtsof....I,  J,  K-3 

Kedesh C-4 

Kedron,  Brook 1-4 

Kiriathaim   1-5 

Kirjath-Jearim H-3 

KirofMoab K-5 

Kishon,  Brook E-3 


Kitron D-3 

Lachish I-l 

Laish C-4 

Lestib F-5 

Libaah 1-2 

Mahanaim  F-5  ' 

Makkedah 1-2 

Medeba 1-5 

Megiddo E-3 

Merom,  Waters  of  . .  .C-4 

Midian 1-7 

Moab J-5 

Nahalal E-3 

Naphtali,  Mt D-3 

Nebo,  Mt H-5 

Pis^ah,  Mt H-5 

Plains,  Sea  of  the  I,  J,  K-4 

Rabbath J-5 

Rabbath  Ammon H-6 

Ramoth  Gilead G-6 

Sharon,  Plain  of  • .  .F,  E-2 

Shechem G-3 

Shiloh G-3 

Shimron E-3 

Tirzah F.3 

Tyre C-3 

Zered,  Brook K-4 


PALESTINE  UNDER  THE  JUDGES 


Abarim,  Mt H,  1-4,  5 

Abel-Meholah F-4 

Accho D-3 

Achzib D-3 

Aijalon D-3 

Ammon H-6 

Arad J-3 

Amon,  River J-5 

Aroer J-5 

Ashdod I-l 

Askelon I-l 

Beer H-3 

Beer-Sheba K-2 


Beth-Barah  Peniel  . .  .G-4 

Beth  Dagon G-4 

Beth  Dagon D-3 

Beth  Dagon H-2 

Bethel H-3 

Bethlehem E-3 

Bethlehem 1-3 

Beth-shean F-4 

Bezek H-2 

Camon F-5 

Carmel,  Mt E-2 

Chinnereth,  Sea  of. .  .D-4 
Damascus B-6 


Dan C-4 

Debir J-2 

Dor E-2 

Ebenezer 1-2 

Ekron H-2 

Endor E-4 

Ephraim F,  G-3 

Eshtaol H-2 

Fords  of  Moab H-4 

Gath 1-2 

Gaza J-1 

Gezer H-2 

Gibeah H-3 


Gilboa,  Mt F-4 

Gilead,  Mt F-5 

Gilgal H-4 

Hadad-rimmon F-3 

Harosheth E-3 

Hazor C-3 

Hebron 1-3 

Hermon,  Mt B-5 

Heshbon H-5 

abbok.  River G-6 

abesh  Gilead F-4 

armuk.  River E-4 

Jebus 1-3 


INDEX  TO  THE  ATLAS  OF  BIBLE  LANDS— Continued 


77 


PALESTINE  UNDER  THE  JUDGES  —  CONTINUED 


Iericho H-4 
okbekah H-6 
oppa H-2 
ordan,  River D-4 
udah,  Mts.  of 1-4 
Carkor F-7 

Kedesh C-4 

Kishon,  River E-3 

Lebanon,  Mt B-4 

Lehi  1-2 

Abana,  River F-4 

Abel  Beth  Maachah..F-3 

Aleppo • B-5 

Antioch B-4 

Aphek G-4 

Arad 1-3 

Argob G-5 

Amon,  River 1-4 

Aroer 1-3 

Aroer 1-4 

ArRabbath 1-4 

Arvad D-4 

Azekab H-3 

Baalah H-3 

Baalbek E-4 

Bashan,  Hills  of G-5 

Bered 1-2 

Berothah E-3 

Bethel H-3 

Bethlehem H-3 

Beth-shean G-3 

Bezer 1-4 

Bozrah J-4 

Bozrah u-4 

Byblos D-4 

Cabul G-3 

Carmel,  Mt G-3 

Carmel 1-3 

Chinnereth,  Sea  of. .  .G-3 


Megiddo E-3 

Merom,  Waters  of  . .  .C-4 

Minnith  H-5 

Mizpeh G-5 

Moreh,  Hill E-3 

Naphtali,  Mt D,  C-4 

Nebo,  Mt 1-6 

Ophrah G-3 

Pirathon G-3 

Plain,  Sea  of  the. I,  J,  K-4 


Ramah H-3 

Rinunon H-3 

Saul H-3 

Shamir F-3 

Shechem G-3 

Shiloh G-3 

Sorek H-2 

Succoth  ..• G-4 

Taanach F-3 

Tabbath F-4 


Tabor,  Mt E-4 

Thebez F-4 

Timnath 1-2 

Tob E-6 

Tyre C-8 

Zaanaim E-4 

Zephath  L-1 

Zidon B-4 

Zorah .....1-2 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  DAVID  AND  SOLOMON 


Egypt,  River  of J-1 

Ekron H-3 


Damascus F-4 

Dan F-4 

gyp 

kroi 

Elath K-3 

Emesa D-5 

Endor G-3 

Engedi 1-3 

Epiphania D-5 

Euphrates,  River B-6 

Ezion  Geber K-3 

Gath H-3 

Gaza 1-2 

Gebal D-4 

Gezer H-3 

Gibeon H-3 

Gilgal H-3 

"Great  River" A-6 

Hamath D-6 

Haran F-5 

Hazar-enan E-5 

Hebron 1-3 

Helam C-6 

Helbon F-4 

Heliopolis E-4 

Hermon,  Mt F-4 

Heshbon H-4 

Hor.  Mt .1-3 

Hor,Mt E-4 


Hormah 1-2 

Ijon F-4 

abesh  Gilead G-4 

azer H-4 

ericho H-3 

erusalem H-3 

ezreel G-3 

oppa H-3 

ordan.  River G-3 

udah,  Wilderness  of   1-3 

edesh F-3 

Kenath G-6 

KirMoab 1-4 

Lachish  1-2 

Lebanon,  Mt E-4 

Leontes,  River F-3 

Libnah 1-3 

Maacah F-6 

Mahanium G-5 

Medeba H-4 

Mizpeh H-3 

Moab  1-4 

Molada 1-3 

Nebo,  Mt H-4 

Nobah G-5 

Orontes,  River C-4 

Palmyra D-7 

Paran,  Wilderness  of ... . 
K,L-1 


Pharpar,  River F-4 

Pisgah,  Mt H-4 

Rabbath H-4 

Rabbath  Ammon ....  H-4 

Ramoth  Gilead H-4 

Red  Sea L-3 

Rehob E-5 

Rezeph C-7 

Riblah D-5 

Ruad  Island D-4 

Salcah G-5 

Salt  Sea h$ 

Samaria H  3 

Seir,  Mt T-4 

Sela J-3 

Shalem H-3 

Shechem H-3 

Shiloh H-3 

Sidon F-3 

Succoth H-4 

Tadmore D-7 

Thapsacus C-7 

Tiphsah C-7 

Tirzah H-3 

Tripolis E-4 

Tyre F-3 

Ziklag 1-2 

Zin,  Wilderness  of . . . .  T-3 
Zobah E-4 


PALESTINE  AS  DIVIDED  AMONG  THE  TWELVE  TRIBES 


Abana,  River A-7 

Abdon C-4 

Abel-beth-maachah  .  .C-5 

Abel-mehola G-5 

Abila E-6 

Accho  Ptolemais    . . .  D-3 

Achshaph C-4 

Achzil D-3 

Adamah C-4 

Adjlun,  Waters  of  . .  .G-6 

Adoraim J-3 

Adullam J-3 

Ai J-4 

Ain  K-3 

Ajalon  1-3 

Aialon,  Valley  of 1-3 

Aiammelech D-3 

Amatha E-6 

Anah K-3 

Anathoth 1-4 

Aner F-3 

Anti-Lebanon,  Mts.  of.  A-6 

Antipatris G-3 

Aphek E-4 

Aphek B-5 

Aphek .1-3 

Aphek E-6 

ApoUonia G-2 

Ar K-5 


Arab,  Waters  of F-5 

Arad K-3 

Arbela     E-7 

Arbela E-5 

Archelais H-4 

Argob D-5 

Anmathea 1-2 

Amon,  River K-5 

Aroer K-6 

Aroer L-3 

Aroer 1-6 

Ascalon J-1 

Ashdod .J-2 

Ashteroth  Kemaim  ..C-7 

Atharoth H-3 

Audjeh,  River H-2 

Azotus J-2 

Baalgad B-5 

Baal-meon T-6 

Baal-shalisha H-3 

Bareh,  Waters  of  . . .  .F-5 

Beer-Sheba L-2 

Belus.  River D-3 

Beraah,  Waters L-5 

Besor,  Brook K-1 

Betarhela E-4 

Betha  G-3 

Bethabara 1-5 

Bethany 1-4 


Bethdagon E-4 

Beth  Dagon H-2 

Bethel 1-4 

Beth-haglah  1-5 

Beth-haran  1-5 

Beth-horon 1-3 

Beth  Jesimoth 1-5 

Bethmeron D-4 

Beth-nimrah 1-5 

Beth  Peor j-5 

Bethphaee 1-4 

Bethsaic& D-5 

Bethsaidi E-5 

Bethshemesh D-d 

Bethshemesh 1-3 

Bethshittah G-4 

Beth-tappuah J-3 

Bethzur J-3 

Betopim 

Bezek G-4 

Bezer T-6 

Bochan H-4 

Bostrenus,  River  . . . .  A-5 

Cabul C-4 

Caesarea F-3 

Caesarea  Philippt  . . .  .C-5 

Calamon E-3 

Callirhoe .1-5 

Cana E-4 


Capernaum D-5 

Carmel K-3 

Carmel,  Mt E-3 

Cherith,  Brook 1-6 

Chinnereth E-6 

Chorazin D-5 

Dabbasheth E-3 

Daberath E-4 

Damascus A-7 

Dan ...C-5 

Dead  Sea K-5 

Debir K-3 

Debir F-7 

Dibon J-6 

Dimnah  E-4 

Dor E-3 

Dothan G-4 

Ebal.  Mt G-4 

Ecdippa D-3 

Eglon J-2 

Ekron 1-2 

Elealeh 1-6 

Eleutheropolis T-2 

Emmaus  1-3 

Emmaus E-5 

Endor E-4 

Engannim F-4 

Engedi K-4 

Enhaddah F-3 


78 


INDEX  TO  THE  ATLAS  OF  BIBLE  LANDS — Continued 


PALESTINE  AS  DIVIDED  AMONG  THE  TWELVE  TRIBES  —  CONTINUED 


Ephraim H-3 

Ephraim,  Mt 1-3 

Eshtaol  J-3 

Eshtemoa K-3 

Etam 1-3 

Faria,  Waters  of  . . .  .H-5 

Gaash,  River H-3 

Gabara D-4 

Gabe    G-4 

Gadara E-6 

Gadara,  River E-6 

Galilee,  Sea  of  E-5 

Gamala E-5 

Gath 1-2 

Gath-hepher E-4 

Gathrimmon J-2 

Gathrimmon G-3 

Gaza K-1 

Geba H-4 

Gedar J-3 

Gederoth 1-2 

Gennesaret,  Lake  of.  D-5 

Gerar K-2 

Gerasa G-7 

Gergesa E-5 

Genzim,  Mt H-3 

Geshur D-6 

Geshur C-5 

Gezer H-2 

Gibbethon 1-2 

Gibeah J-3 

Gibeah 1-4 

Gibeon 1-3 

Gilboa F-5 

Gilboa,  Mt F-4 

Gilead,Mt H-6 

Gilgal ....1-5 

Gilgal G-3 

Gischala D-4 

Golan E-6 

Hadadrimmon F-4 

Hadid 1-2 

Halhul j-3 

Hammon B-5 

Hammoth  Dor D-4 

Haphraim F-4 

Harosheth E-3 

Haroseth D-5 

Hasbeiyah B-5 

Hazon C-5 

Hazor J-2 

Hazor 1-4 

Hazor H-4 

Hebron ; J-3 

Heldua A-6 

Helkath D-4 

Hepha E-3 

Herod,  Baths  of J-6 


Herodium J-4 

Hermon,  Mt B-6 

Hermon,  Little,  Mt .  .F-4 

Heshbon 1-6 

Hill  Country K-4 

Ibleam F-3 

Israel,  Mts.  of  .  .H-4,  G-4 
abbock.  Waters  of .  .G-6 

abes.  Waters  of F-5 

abesh  Gilead F-6 

abneel C-5 

acob'sWell G-4 

air  D-6 

amnia 1-2 

aphia E-4 

arkon,  Waters  of    . .  .1-2 

armouk E-7 

armuth J-3 

armiith   F-3 

attir K-3 

azer 1-6 

ebel  Shihan,  Mt . . .  .K-6 

ericho 1-4 

erusalem  1-4 

ezreel.  Plain  of F-4 

ezreel F-4 

ogbehab H-6 

OKneam E-3 

onoah H-4 

oppa H-2 

oraan.  River. ...C-5,  1-5 

otopata D-4 

udah,  Mts.  of. .  .K-3,  J-3 
udea,  Wilderness  of.  K-4 

uhaz   J-6 

ulias D-5 

uttah K-3 

Kairah F-3 

Kanah C-4 

Kanah,  River G-2 

Kamaim F-6 

Kartan D-5 

Kartan E-5 

Kedemoth .J-6 

Kedesh C-5 

Kedron,  Brook J-4 

Keilah  J-3 

Kelt,  Waters  of 1-5 

Kenath-nobah C-6 

Kerek,  Brook L-6 

Kerak  Kir-moab L-6 

Kirjathaim  J-6 

Kirjathaim D-5 

Kinathjearim 1-3 

Kishbon,  River E-3 

Lachish .J-2 

Ladebar F-7 

Laish C-5 


Lasharon H-2 

Lebanon,  Mt A-5 

Lebanon,  Valley  of 

B-5,  A-6 

Lebanon,  Waters  of   .   . . 

B-5,  A-6 

Lebonah  H-3 

Leontes,  River C-4 

Libnah J-2 

Libnath E-3 

Lydda 1-3 

Machaerus J-6 

Magdala E-5 

Mahanaim G-6 

Makkedah J-3 

Malib,  Waters  of  . . .  .G-5 

Maon.     K-3 

Maon,  Wilderness  of. K-4 

Mareshab .J-2 

Masada L-4 

Mashita .1-7 

Megiddo F-4 

Megiddo,  Valley  of. .  .F-4 

Mearah B-4 

Medeba J-6 

Merom,  Waters  of . .  .D-5 

Michmetah  G-4 

Migdalel C-5 

Misheal E-3 

Mishmash . . 1-4 

Mizpeh 1-3 

Mizpeh  F-7 

Modjeb,  Waters  of. .  .K-5 

Moladah L-2 

Nain E-4 

Nazareth E-4 

Neballat H-3 

Nebo,  Mt 1-6 

Neve D-6 

Nezib J-3 

Nimrim L-5 

Olives,  Mount  of 1-4 

Ophrah G-5 

Ophrah 1-4 

Omithopolis B-4 

Paran,  Desert  of L-2 

Pella E-6 

Peniel G-5 

Perphyrion A-5 

Phiala,  L C-6 

Phaselus H-4 

Pirathon G-3 

Pisgah,Mt 1-6 

Plains,  Sea  of K-5 

Rabbath  Ammon 1-6 

Rabbath-moab K-5 

Ramah D-4 

Ramah 1-4 


Ramoth  Gilead H-6 

Rehob B-5 

Reisan,  Waters  of F-6 

Riblah B-6 

Rimmon K-2 

Rimmon E-4 

Ro^^elin G-6 

Salim  G-5 

Salt  Sea K-5 

Samaria G-3 

Saphir .J-2 

Sarepta B-4 

Schaib,  Waters  of . . . .  H-6 

Seir,  Waters  of 1-6 

Seirath H-5 

Sepphoris E-4 

Shanazimah F-3 

Shalem G-4 

Shamir G-4 

Sharon,  Plain  of.  .1-2,  G-2 

Sharon H-2 

Shechem  or  Sy char,  .G-4 

Shiloh H-4 

Shimron E-4 

Shittim 1-5 

Shunem .F-4 

Sidon B-4 

Socoh K-3 

Solomon's  Pools T-3 

Sorek,  Brook J-1 

Succoth F-5 

Taanach F-4 

Tabor.  Mt E-4 

Tamyras,  River A-5 

Tappuah G-5 

Taviehece  E-5 

Tekoah   .J-4 

Thamara  L-3 

Thebez G-4 

Tiberias  E-5 

Tiberias,  Sea  of D-5 

Tijon B-5 

Timnath 1-3 

Timnathserah H-3 

Tiphsah G-4 

Tyre C-4 

Ummah C-4 

Zerephath B-4 

Zaretan G-5 

Zephathah,  Valley  of.  J-2 

Zin,  Desert  of L-4 

Ziph K-3 

Ziph,  Wilderness  of  .  .1-4 

Zoar  K-5 

Zoar 1-6 

Zurka,  Waters  of G-6 

Zurka  Mam,  Waters  of.  1-6 


BIBLE  LANDS.  SHOWING  PAUL'S  MISSIONARY  JOURNEYS 


Accad G-14 

Accad E-12 

Adramyttium D-6 

Adriatic  Sea  . . . .  A-1,  B-2 

^olian  Islands D-1 

Ain F-10 

Alexandria H-7 

Amasis C-10 

Amida  D-12 

Amphipolis C-5 

Anc^rra C-9 

Antioch D-8 

Antioch E-10 


Apamea F-10 

Apollonia G-4 

Apollonia C-5 

Apollonia C-3 

Appenine  Mts B-1 

Appii  Forum C-1 

Ararat,  Mt C-13 

Argos D-4 

Artaxata C-14 

Arvad F-10 

Arzes  D-13 

Ascalon H-9 

Asshur  F-13 


Assos D-6 

Athens D-5 

Attalia E-8 

Ava G-13 

Baalbec  G-10 

Baal  Zephon 1-8 

Babylon G-14 

Bagdad G-14 

Barium C-2 

Beer-sheba H-9 

Berea , C-4 

Berea E-11 

Berenice G-3 


Berytus G-IO 

Betaglia B-4 

Bethlehem H-IG 

Black  Sea 

A,  B-7,  8,  9,  10,  11 

Boas,  River C-12 

Boreo H-3 

Bosphorus C-7 

Bozra  G-11 

Brundusium C-2 

Brusa C-7 

Caesarea G-9 

Caesarea D-10 


INDEX  TO  THE  ATLAS  OF  BIBLE  LANDS  —  Continued 


79 


BIBLE  LANDS,   SHOWING  PAUL'S  MISSIONARY  JOURNEYS  —  CONTINUED 


:3 


Cairo 1-8 

Calah .E-13 

Caprus,  River  ....  .F-18 

Carchecnish F-12 

Carmel,  Mt G-9 

Carpathos,  Is.  of F-6 

Caucasus,  Mts 

A-12,  B-13,  14 

Cenchrea D-4 

Cephalonia,  Is.  of . . .  .D-3 

Chebar,  River E-12 

Chios,  Is.  of D-6 

Choaspes,  River. ...G-15 

Clauda,  Is.  of F-5 

Cnidus  E-6 

Colosse D-7 

Constantinople C-7 

Corcyra,  Is.  of D-3 

Corinth D-4 

Cos,  Is.  of E-6 

Crete,  Is.  of F-5 

Ctesiphon  Calneh . . .  G-14 

Cyprus,  Is.  of F-9 

Cyrene  .   G-4 

Cyrus C-16 

Cyrus,  River  of C-14 

Cythera,  Is.  of E-4 

Damascus G-10 

Dan G-10 

Daphne E-IO 

Dead  Sea H-10 

Derbe E-9 

Doryleum D-7 

Dura H-14 

Eden,  Garden  of  (Sup- 
posed site  of) H-16 

Edrei G-10 

Egypt,  River  of H-9 

Ekhmin J-8 

Elana,  Gulf  of 1-9 

Elath 1-9 

Elim 1-9 

Ellasar H-14 

Ephesus D-6 

Erech H-14 

Etna,  Mt D-1 

Euboea,  Is.  of D-6 

Euphrates,  River  . .  D-12 
Eziongeber 1-9 


Fair  Havens F-5 

Gaza H-9 

Gebal F-10 

Gordium C-8 

Goshen  H-8 

Gyndes,  River F-14 

Hadrianople B-6 

Haemus,  Mts. . .  .B-4,  6,  6 

Halys,  River C-9 

Hamath  F-10 

Hanes 1-8 

Hara F-14 

Haran G-10 

Haran E-11 

Hazar-enan F-11 

Hebron H-10 

Helbon E-10 

Heraclea C-8 

Heroopolis,  Gulf ....  1-8 

Heshbon H-10 

Holman  F-15 

Hor,  Mt H-10 

Horeb,Mt 1-9 

Iconium D-9 

Iskenderoonlssicus  Sinus, 

Gulf  of E-10 

Issus E-10 

abaz ..H-10 

erusalem H-10 

oppa H-9 

ordan,  River. H-10,  G-10 

iupiter,  Oasis  of 1-5 
Cadesh-bamea H-10 

Laodicea D-7 

Lasea F-5 

Leontes,  River   . . .  .G-10 

Leucadia,  Is.  of D-3 

Lychnitus  Palus  . . .  .C-14 

Lvstra E-9 

Malta,  Is.  of E-1 

Marah 1-9 

Mareods,  Lake H-7 

Meander,  River D-7 

Median  Wall F-13 

Melita,  Is.  of E-1 

Messina D-1 

Miletus E-6 

Mitylene,  Is.  of D-6 

Morris,  Lake  1-7 


Mosul E-13 

Myra E-7 

Naples C-1 

Naxuana D-14 

Nazareth G-10 

Neapolis C-d 

Nicomedia C-7 

Nicopolis D-3 

NUe,  River 1-8 

Nile  River,  Mouth  of. H-7 

Nineveh E-13 

Olympus,  Mt * ...  e-7 

Ooroomiah D-14 

Orontes,  River F-10 

Palmyra  Tadmor. . .  .F-11 
Pamphylia,  Sea  of . . . .  E-8 

Paphos ..F-9 

Paran,  Wilderness  of.  H-9 

Patara E-7 

Patmos,  Is.  of E-6 

Perga E-8 

Pergamos D-6 

Pessinus D-8 

Phenice F-6 

Philadelphia D-7 

Philippi C-5 

Physcus,  River E-11 

Ptolemais G-10 

Puteoli  C-1 

Rameses H-8 

Rehob F-10 

Rehoboth     H-9 

Rehoboth F-12 

Rephidim  1-9 

Resen E-13 

Rezeph F-12 

Rhegium D-1 

Rhodes,  Is.  of E-6 

Ri-beseth H-8 

Riblah F-10 

Rome B-1 

Salamis F-9 

Samaria G-10 

Samos,  Is.  of D-6 

Samosata D-11 

Sang^us C-8 

Sebaste D-10 

Seir,  Mt H-10 

Seleucia E-9 


Seleucia E-10 

Sepharvium G-IS 

Shihor,  the  River  of 

Eg^ypt J-8 

Shittim H-10 

Sicily^  Is.  of E-1 

Sidon G-10 

Sin H-8 

Sinai,  Mt 1-9 

Sinope B-10 

Smyrna D-6 

Sparta E-4 

St  Paul's  Bay E-1 

Suez 1-8 

Sura B-13 

Syracuse E-1 

Syrian  Gates E-10 

Tarentum,  Gulf  of . .  .C-2 

Tarentum C-2 

Tarsus E-9 

Tattea  Palus D-9 

Taurus,  Mts E-9,  10 

Tavium C-9 

Thebes I>5 

Thessalonica C-5 

Three  Taverns B-1 

Thyatira D-6 

Tiber,  River B-1 

Tigris,  River F-13 

Tiphsah  F-12 

Trapezus  C-12 

TripoUs F-10 

Troas C-6 

Tyre G-10 

Ur E-U 

Ur H-15 

Van,  Lake D-13 

Vesuvius,  Mt C-1 

Water  Salt D-15 

Zabatus,  River E-14 

Zacynthus,  Is.  of  . . .  .D-3 

Zagros,  Mts E-14 

Zenobia F-11 

Zephath H-9 

Zeugnia  E-11 

Zitmara  D-11 

Zoan H-8 

Zoar H-10 


PALESTINE  IN  THE  TIMES  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 


ss 


Abana,  River A-7 

Abarim,  Mt  of. .  .K-6^  1-5 
Abel-beth-maachah  ..C-5 

Abila E-6 

Accho-Ptolemais D-3 

Achzil D-3 

Adamah C-4 

Adjlun,  Waters  of . . . .  G-5 

Ai 1-4 

Ain K-3 

Aiya C-4 

Ajalon 1-3 

Ajalon,  Valley  of 1-3 

Amatha E-5 

Amwas 1-3 

Anti-Lebanon  Mts.  of  A-6 

Antipatris G-3 

Aphek T-3 

Aphek B-5 

Appollonia G-2 

Ar K-5 

Arab,  Waters  of F-5 


Arad K-3 

Arbela E-5 

Arbela E-7 

Argob D-5 

Anmathea 1-2 

Amon,  River K-6 

Aroer K-6 

Aroer 1-6 

Aroer L-3 

Ascalon 

Ashdod 

Ashteroth-Kemaim 

Atharoth H-3 

Audjeh,  River H-2 

Azotus T-1 

Baalgad A-5 

Baal-meon T-6 

Bareh,  Waters  of F-5 

Beer-Sheba L-2 

Belus,  River D-3 

Beraah,  Waters  of. . .  .L-6 
Besor,  Brook K-1 


V.C-7 


Bethabara 1-5 

Bethany 1-4 

BethDagon H-2 

Bethel 1-4 

Beth-haglah 1-5 

Beth-haran 1-5 

Beth-horon 1-3 

Beth-Jesimoth 1-5 

Bethlehem J-3 

Beth-nimrah 1-5 

Beth  Peor 1-5 

Bethphs^e 1-4 

Bethsai(£ D-5 

Bethsaidi E-5 

Bethshemesh D-4 

Bethshittah G-4 

Beth-tappuah J-3 

Bezek G-4 

Bezer J-6 

Bostrenus,  River A-5 

Cabul C-4 

Caesarea F-2 


Caesarea  Philippi    . .  .C-5 

Callirhoe .1-6 

Cana E-4 

Capernaum E-6 

Carmel K-3 

Carmel,  Mt E-3 

Cherith,  Brook 1-4 

Chinnereth E-5 

Chorazin D-5 

Damascus A-7 

Dan C-6 

Dead  Sea L-4  to  1-4 

Debu- K-3 

Debir F-7 

Dibon .J-6 

Dor E-3 

Dothan G-4 

Ebal,  Mt G-4 

Ecdippa. D-3 

Edrei D-7 

Eglon J-2 

Ekron 1-2 


80 


INDEX  TO  THE  ATLAS  OF  BIBLE  LANDS— Continued 


PALESTINE  IN  THE  TIMES  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  —  CONTINUED 


Elealeh 1-6 

Eleulheropolis .1-2 

Emtnaus E-5 

Emmaus 1-2 

Emmaus 1-3 

Endor E-4 

Engedi K-4 

Epnraitn H-3 

Ephraim,  Mt....  *...  .H-3 

Eshtaol T-2 

Etam T-3 

Faria,  Waters  of H-6 

Gaash,  River H-3 

Gabara D-4 

Gadara E-5 

Gadara,  River.* E-6 

Galilee E-5 

Gamala E-5 

Gath 1-2 

Gaza K-1 

Geba H-3 

Gennesaret,  Lake  of. .  E-5 

Gerar K-2 

Geresa G-7 

Gerp:esa E-5 

Genzim,  Mt G-4 

Geshur D-6 

Gibeah 1-4 

Gibeah T-3 

Gibeon 1-3 

Gilboa F-4 

Gilboa,  Mt F-4 

Gilead,  Mt H-6 

Gilga G-3 

Gilgal 1-4 

Gischala D-4 

Golan E-6 

Gophno 1-3 

Hadadrimmon F-3 

Hadid 1-2 

Halhul J-3 

Hammon A-5 

Harosheth D-5 

Hasbeiyah B-5 

Hazor C-5 

Hazor 1-4 

Hazor J-l 

Hebron .J-3 

Hepha E-3 

Heldua A-5 

Hermon.  Mt B-6 


Hermon,  Mt.  Little  . .  F-4 

Herod,  Baths  of T-6 

Herodium J-4 

Heshbon 1-6 

Hill  Country K-3 

Ibleam F-3 

Israel,  Mts.  of  H-4  to  G-4 
Jabbok,  Waters  of . .  .G-6 

Jabes,  Waters  of F-5 

Jabesh  Gilead F-6 

Jabneel C-5 

Jacob's  Well G-4 

Jamnia 1-2 

arkon.  Waters 1-2 

armouk E-7 

armuth J-3 

attir K-3 

azer 1-6 

ebel  Shihan,  Mt. . .  .K-5 

ericho 1-4 

erusalem  1-3 

ezreel F-4 

oppa H-2 

ordon,  River  .C-5  to  L-6 

iotopata D-4 
udea,  Wilderness  of . . . 

K,J-4 

Julias D-5 

Juttah K-3 

Kanah C-4 

Kanah G-2 

Kamaim F-6 

Kedemoth J-6 

Kedesh C-5 

Kedron,  Brook J-4 

Keilah  J-3 

Kelt,  Waters  of 1-4 

Kenath-nobah C-6 

Kerek,  Brook L-5 

Kerak  Kir-moab L-5 

Kirjathaim  .J-5 

Kishon,  River E-3 

Lachish .1-2 

Ladebar F-7 

Laish C-5 

Lasharon H-2 

Lebanon,  Mt A-5 

Lebanon,  Waters  of.  .B-5 

Lebonah. H-3 

Leontes,  River B-4 

Libnah J-2 


Lvdda 1-2 

Machaerus .1-5 

Magdala E-5 

Makkedah J-3 

Maleb,  Waters  of  . . .  .G-5 

Maon  K-3 

Maon,  Wilderness  of  .K-4 

Mareshab .1-2 

Masada L-4 

Mashita .1-7 

Mearah B-4 

Medeba .1-6 

Megiddo F-3 

Megiddo,  Valley  of  .  .F-3 
Merom,  Waters  of  . .  .C-5 

Migdalel C-4 

Misheal E-3 

Mizpeh F-7 

Modjeb,  Waters  of. .  .K-5 

Moladah L-3 

Nain E-4 

Nazareth E-4 

Neballat H-2 

Nebo,  Mt 1-6 

Nezib j-3 

Nica]X)lis 1-2 

Nimrim L-5 

Olives,  Mt.  of 1-4 

Omithopolis  B-4 

Paran,  Desert  of L-2 

Pella E-6 

Fella  F-5 

Peniel G-5 

Perphyrion A-4 

Phiala,  L C-6 

Pilgrims*  Road  to  Mecca 

K-7toI-7 

Pis^,  Mt 1-6 

Plains,  Sea  of  the 

L-4toI-4 

Rabbath  Ammon 1-6 

Rabbath-moab K-6 

Ramah 1-3 

Ramah D-4 

Ramah B-4 

Ramoth  Gilead H-6 

Riblah B-6 

Rimmon K-2 

Rimmon E-4 

Rogelim » , .  .G-6 


Roman  Road  .  .L-5  to  1-6 

Rubin,  River 1-2 

Salim  G-5 

Salt  Sea L-4  to  J-4 

Samaria G-3 

Saphir  .1-2 

Sarepta 6-4 

Schaib,  Waters  of 1-5 

Scythopolis F-5 

Sebaste G-3 

Sechem G-4 

Seir,  Waters  of 1-5 

Sepphoris E-4 

Shalem G-4 

Shamir G-4 

Sharon H-2 

Sharon,  Plain  of.  H-2,  G-2 

Shiloh H-4 

Shimron E-4 

Shittim 1-5 

Shunem  ...^ F-4 

Sidon  A-4 

Solomon's  Pools 1-.T 

Sorek,  Brook .1-1 

Succoth F-5 

Sychar G-4 

Tabor,  Mt E-4 

Tamyras,  River A-5 

Tappuah  G-5 

Taviehece. . .  • E-5 

Tekoah J-4 

Thamara L-3 

Thebez G-4 

Tiberias E-5 

Tiberias,  Lake  of E-5 

Tunnath 1-2 

Tirzah G-4 

Tjon B-5 

Tyre C-4 

Zarephath B-4 

Zaretan G-5 

Zebulon D-4 

Zephathah 1-2 

Zin,  Desert  of L4 

Ziph K-3 

Ziph,  Wilderness  of . . .  1-4 

Zoar K-5 

Zoar 1-5 

Zurka,  Waters  of G-6 

Zurka  Main,  Waters  of.  J-6 


B 


H 


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PALESTINE 

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MAMZ.CUMC* 


Copyright,  1901. 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


.  .  OF .  . 


THE  MAN  OF  GALILEE 


THE  LIFE  OF  JESUS,  THE  CHRIST,  IN  THE  EXACT 
WORDS  OF  THE  FOUR  EVANGELISTS 


ARRANGED   UNDER   SPECIAL   HEADINGS   AND  TOPICS 


Illustrated  by  the  Finest  Productions  of  Modern  Art 


Dedication. 

(Cuke* 1: 1.)  forasmuci)  as  manp  baoe  taken  In  band  to  set  forti)  In  order  a 
declaration  of  those  tMngs  loMcb  are  most  surelp  believed  amon  j  us,  eoen  as  tbep 
delivered  tbem  unto  us,  lobicb  from  tbe  beginning  were  epeuHtnesses,  and  ministers 
of  tbe  word;  It  seemed  good  to  me  also,  baoins  bad  perfect  understanding  o^  all 
tbings  from  tbe  oerp  first,  to  lorlte  unto  tbee  In  order,  most  excellent  Cbeopbilui^,  tbat 
tbou  migbtest  know  tbe  certaintp  of  tbose  tbings,  wberein  tbou  bast  been  Instructed. 


CHICAGO 
THE  HOWARD-SEVERANCE  COMPANY 

1908 


prologue. 


(John  !:1.)  In  the  beginning  was  the  Word,  and  the  Word  was  with  God,  and  the 
Word  was  God.    The  same  was  in  the  beginning  with  God.  > 

All  things  were  made  by  him ;  and  without  him  was  not  anything  made  that  was 
made.  In  him  was  life ;  and  the  life  was  the  light  of  men.  And  the  light  shineth  in 
darkness ;  and  the  darkness  comprehended  it  not. 

There  was  a  man  sent  from  God  whose  name  was  John.  The  same  came  for  a 
witness,  to  bear  witness  of  the  Light,  that  all  men  through  him  might  believe.  He 
was  not  that  Light,  but  was  sent  to  bear  witness  of  that  Light.  That  was  the  true 
Light,  which  lighteth  every  man  that  Cometh  into  the  world.  He  was  in  the  world, 
and  the  world  was  made  by  him,  and  the  world  knew  him  not.  He  came  unto  his  own, 
and  his  own  received  him  not.  But  as  many  as  received  him,  to  them  gave  he  power 
to  become  the  sons  of  God,  even  to  them  tliat  believe  on  his  name,  which  were  born, 
not  of  blood,  nor  of  the  will  of  the  flesh,  nor  of  the  will  of  man,  but  of  God.  And 
the  Word  was  made  flesh,  and  dwelt  among  us  (and  we  beheld  his  glory,  the  glory  as 
of  the  only  begotten  of  the  Father),  full  of  grace  and  truth. 

John  bare  witness  of  him,  and  cried,  saying,  **  This  was  he  of  whom  I  spoke, '  He 
that  Cometh  after  me  is  preferred  before  me;*  for  he  was  before  me."  And  of  his 
fulness  have  all  we  received,  and  grace  for  grace.  For  the  law  was  given  by  Moses, 
but  grace  and  truth  came  by  Jesus  Christ.  No  man  hath  seen  God  at  any  time ;  the 
only  begotten  Son,  which  is  in  the  bosom  of  the  Father,  he  hath  declared  him. 


Cpnrrit:ht.IMl.by 
i  MrrcHBLL  How  Ann 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


THE  PERIOD  OF  PREPARATION. 

IToBlM  of  til*  Birth  ot  J«bD  tk*  B^MIat  ta  tli*  BafliuilnB  at  Christ'*  MlaMir. 


Zbe  39trtb  ol  9obn  |)romf0eo. 

r,  B.  C.  «.  Al  Jerusalem. 

(Luke  i:  5.)  There  was  in  the  days  of  Herod, 
the  king  of  Judea,  a  certain  priest  named  Zacha- 
rias,  of  the  course  of  Abia:  and  his  wife  was  of  the 
daughters  of  Aaron,  and  her  name  was  Elizabeth. 
And  they  were  both  righteous  before  God.  walking 
in  all  the  commandments  and  ordinances  of  the 
Lord  blameless.  And  they  had  no  child,  because 
that  Elizabeth  was  barren,  and  they  both  were  now 
well  stricken  in  years. 

And  it  came  to  pass,  that  while  he  executed  the 
priest's  office  before  God  in  the  order  of  his  course, 
according  to  the  custom  of  the  priest's  office,  his  lot 
was  to  bum  incense  when  he  went  into  the  temple 
of  the  Lord.  And  the  whole  multitude  of  the  peo- 
ple were  praying  without  at  the  time  of  incense. 
And  there  appeared  unto  him  an  <ingcl  of  the  Lord 
standing  on  the  right  side  of  the  altar  of  incense. 
And  when  Zacharias  saw  him,  he  was  troubled, 
and  fear  fell  upon  him.  But  the  angel  said  unto 
him,  "  Fear  not,  Zacharias;  for  thy  prayer  Is  heard; 
and  thy  wife  Elizabeth  shall  bear  thee  a  son,  and 
thou  shall  call  his  name  John.  And  thou  shall 
have  joy  and  gladness;  and  many  shall  rejoice  at 
his  birth.  For  he  shall  be  great  in  the  sight  of  the 
Lord,  and  shall  drink  neither  wine  nor  strong 
drink,  and  he  shall  be  tilled  with  the  Holy  Ghost, 
even  from  his  mother's  womb.  And  many  of  the 
children  of  Israel  shall  he  turn  to  the  Lord  their 
God.  And  he  shall  go  before  him  in  the  spirit  and 
power  of  Elijah,  to  turn  the  hearts  of  the  fathers 
to  the  children,  and  the  disobedient  to  the  wisdom 
of  the  just;  to  make  ready  a  people  prepared  for 
the  Lord." 

And  Zacharias  said  unto  the  angel,  "Whereby 
shall  I  know  this?  for  I  am  an  old  man,  and  my 
wife  well  stricken  in  years."  And  the  angel  answer- 
ing said  unto  him,  "  I  am  Gabiiel,  that  stand  in  the 
presence  of  God;  and  am  sent  to  speak  unto  thee, 
and  to  show  thee  these  glad  tidings.  And,  behold, 
thou  shah  be  dumb,  and  not  able  to  speak  until 
the  day  that  these  things  shall  be  performed, 
because  thou  believest  not  my  words,  which  shall 
be  fulfilled  in  their  season." 

And  the  people  waited  for  Zacharias.  and  mar- 
veled that  he  tarried  so  long  in  the  temple.  And 
when  he  came  out,  he  could  not  speak  unto  them: 
and  they  perceived  that  he  had  seen  a  vision  in  the 
temple:  for  he  (reckoned  unto  them,  and  remained 
speechless.  And  it  came  to  pass  that,  as  soon  as 
the  days  of  his  ministration  were  accomplbhed,  he 
departed  to  his  own  house.  And  after  those  days 
his  wife  Elizabeth  conceived,  and  hid  herself  five 
months,  saying,  "Thus  hath  the  Lord  dealt  with 


me  in  the  days  wherein  he  looked  on  me,  to  take 
away  my  reproach  among  men." 

Cbe  annunctatton. 

Maich,  B.  C.  S.  Al  N«i»reUi. 

(Luke  i:  26.)  In  the  sixth  month  the  angel 
Gabriel  was  sent  from  God  unto  a  city  of  Galilee, 
named  Nazareth,  to  a  virg^in  espoused  to  a  man 
whose  name  was  Joseph,  of  the  house  of  David; 
and  the  virgin's  name  was  Mary.  And  the  angel 
came  in  unto  her,  and  said,  "Hail,  thou  that  art 
highly  favored,  the  Lord  is  with  thee!  blessed  art 
thou  among  women!"  And  when  she  saw  him, 
she  was  troubled  at  his  saying,  and  cast  in  her 
mind  what  manner  of  salutation  this  should  be. 


THE  ANNUNCIATION. 

And  the  angel  said  unto  her,  "  Fear  not,  Mary:  for 
thou  hast  found  favor  with  God;  and,  behold, 
thou  shalt  conceive  in  thy  womb  and  bring  forth  a 
son.  and  shalt  call  his  name  JESUS.  He  shall  be 
great,  and  shall  be  called  the  Son  of  the  Highest; 
and  the  Lord  God  shall  give  unto  him  the  throne 
of  his  father  David;  and  he  shall  reign  over  the 
house  of  Jacob  forever;  and  of  his  kingdom  there 
shall  be  no  end."  Then  said  Mary  unto  the  angel, 
"How  shall  this  be,  seeing  I  know  not  a  man?" 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


And  the  anget  answered  and  said  unio  her,  "  The 
Holy  Ghost  shall  come  upon  thee,  and  the  power 
of  the  Highest  shall  overshadow  thee:  therefore 
also  that  holy  thing  which  shall  be  boni  of  thee 
shall  be  called  the  Son  of  God.  And.  behold,  thy 
cousin  Elizabeth,  she  hath  also  conceived  a  son  in 
her  old  Kge;  and  this  is  the  sixth  month  with  her, 
who  was  called  barren.  For  with  God  nothing 
shall  be  impossilile."  And  Mar>'  said,  "Behold 
the  handmaid  of  the  Lord;  be  it  unto  me  accord- 
ing to  thy  word."  And  the  angel  departed  from 
her. 

Aac^'fl  IDlflfi  to  E[i3abetb. 

March,  B,  C.  b.  la  Ihc  Hill  CDunlry  of  Judo. 

(Luke  i;  'i'K)  And  Mary  arose  in  those  days, 
and  went  into  the  hill  country  with  haste,  into  a 
city  of  Juda;  and  entered  into  the  house  of  Zach- 
arias,  and  saluted  Elizabeth.  And  it  came  to  pass 
that,  when  Elizab<^lh  heard  the  salutation  of  Mary, 
the  bnlie  leaped  in  her  womb;  and  Elizabeth  was 
filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost;  and  she  spake  out  with 


should  come  to  mef  For,  lo,  as  soon  as  the  voice 
of  thy  salutation  sounded  in  mine  ears,  the  babe 
leaped  in  my  womb  for  joy.  And  blessed  is  she 
that  believed:  for  there  shall  be  a  performance  of 
those  things  which  were  told  her  from  the  Lord." 

Zbe  Aagnlffcat. 
And  Mary  said,  "My  soul  doth  magnify  the 
Lord,  and  my  spirit  hath  rejoiced  in  God  my 
Savior.  For  he  hath  regarded  the  low  estate  of 
his  handmaiden:  for,  behold,  from  henceforth  all 
generations  shall  call  me  blessed.  For  he  that  is 
mighty  hath  done  to  me  great  things;  and  holy  is 
his  name.  And  his  mercy  is  on  them  thai  fear  him 
from  generation  to  generation.  He  hath  showed 
strength  with  his  arm;  he  hath  scattered  the  proud 
in  the  imagination  of  their  hearts.  He  hath  put 
down  the  mighty  from  their  seats,  and  exalted 
them  of  low  degree.  He  hath  filled  the  hungry 
with  good  things;  and  the  rich  he  hath  sent  empty 
away.  He  hath  helped  his  servant  Israel,  in 
remembrance  of  his  mercy;  as  he  spoke  to  our 
fathers,  to  Abraham,  and  to  his  seed  forever." 
And  Mary  abode  with  her  about  three  months,  and 
returned  to  her  own  house. 


ELIZABETH  GREETING  MARY. 

a  loud  voice  and  said.  "Blessed  art  thou  among 
women,  and  blessed  is  the  fruit  of  thy  womb  And 
whence  is  this  to  me,  that  the  mother  of  my  Lord 


Vbe  aSirtb  o(  3obn. 

June,  B.C.  E.  Inlhc  Hill  Coantry  si  Jndea 

(Luke  i:  67.)  Now  Elizabeth's  full  time  camt 
that  she  should  be  delivered;  and  she  brought 
forth  a  son.  And  her  neighbors  and  her  cousins 
heard  how  the  Lord  had  showed  great  mercy  upon 
her;  and  they  rejoiced  with  her.  And  it  came  to 
pass,  that  on  the  eighth  day  they  came  to  circum- 
cise the  child;  and  they  called  him  Zacharias,  after 
the  name  of  his  father.  And  his  mother  answered 
and  said,  "Not  so;  but  he  shall  be  called  John." 
And  they  said  unto  her,  "There  is  none  of  thy 
kindred  that  is  called  by  this  name."  And  they 
made  signs  to  his  father,  how  he  would  have  him 
called.  And  he  asked  for  a  writing  table,  and 
wrote,  saying.  "His  name  is  John."  And  they 
marveled  all.  And  his  mouth  was  opened  imme- 
diately, and  his  tongue  loosed,  and  he  spoke,  and 
praised  God.  And  fear  came  on  all  that  dwelt 
round  about  them:  and  all  these  sayings  were 
noised  abroad  throughout  all  the  hill  countrj'  of 
Jude.".,  and  all  they  that  heard  them  laid  them  up 
in  their  hearts,  saying,  "  What  manner  of  child 
shall  this  be] "  And  the  hand  of  the  Lord  was 
with  him. 

And  his  father  Zacharias  was  filled  with  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  prophesied,  saying,  "  Blessed  be 
the  Lord  God  of  Isiael;  for  he  hath  visited  aitd 
redeemed  his  people,  and  hath  raised  up  an  horn 
of  salvation  for  us  in  the  house  of  his  servant 
David;  as  he  spoke  by  the  mouth  of  his  holy 
prophets,  which  have  been  since  the  world  began: 
that  we  should  be  saved  from  our  enemies,  and 
from  the  hand  of  all  that  hate  us;  to  perform  the 
mercy  promised  to  our  fathers,  and  to  remember 
his  holy  covenant;  the  oath  which  he  swore  to  our 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


father  Abraham,  that  he  would  grant  unto  us,  ihat 
we  being  delivered  out  of  the  hand  of  our  enemies 
might  serve  him  without  fear,  in  holiness  and 
righteousness  before  him,  all  the  days  of  our  life. 
And  thou,  child,  shalt  be  called  the  prophet  of  the 
Highest:  for  thou  shalt  go  before  the  face  of  the 
Lord  to  prepare  his  wajs;  to  give  knowledge  of 
salvation  unto  his  people  by  the  remission  of  their 
sins,  through  the  tender  mercy  of  our  God; 
whereby  Ihe  dayspring  from  on  high  hath  visited 
us;  to  give  light  to  them  that  sit  in  darkness  and 
in  the  shadow  o(  death,  lo  guide  our  feet  into  the 
way  of  peace."  And  ihe  child  grew,  and  waxed 
Strong  in  spirit,  and  was  in  the  deserts  till  the  day 
of  his  showing  unto  fsrael. 

5o0ei)b  aseutet). 

Ausust.  B.  C.  5,  At  Naiareih. 

(Matthew  i:  18.)  Now  the  birth  of  Jesus 
Christ  was  on  this  wise;  When  as  his  mother  Mary 
was  espoused  to  Joseph,  before  they  came  together, 
she  was  found  with  child  of  the  Holy  GhosL 
Then  Joseph  her  husband,  being  a  just  man,  and 
not  willing  to  make  her  a  public  example,  was 
minded  to  put  her  away  privily.  But  while  he 
thought  on  these  things,  behold,  the  angel  of  the 
Lord  appeared  unto  him  in  a  dream,  saying, 
"Joseph,  thou  son  of  David,  fear  not  to  take  unto 
thee  Mary  thy  wife;  for  that  which  is  conceived  in 
her  is  of  the  Holy  Ghost.    And  she  shall  brine 


this  was  done  that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was 
spoken  of  the  Lord  by  the  prophet,  saying, 
"  Behold,  a  virgin  shall  be  with  child,  and  shall 
bring  forth  a  son,  and  they  shall  call  his  name 
Emmanuel,  which  being  interpreted  is,  God  with 
us."  Then  Joseph  being  raised  from  sleep  did  as 
[he  angel  of  the  Lord  had  bidden  him,  and  took 


THE  A 


0  THE  SHEPHERDS. 


JOSEPH  ASKING  SHELTER  FOR  MARY. 

forth  a  son,  and  thou  shalt  call  his  naj 
he  shall  save  his  people  from  their  si 


unto  him  his  wife;  and  knew  her  not  till  she  had 
brought  forth  her  firstborn  son:  and  he  called  his 
name  JESUS. 

Cbtlsl  JSotn. 

Decemtwr.  B.  C.  &.  At  Bcihlehem. 

(Luke  ii;  L)  And  it  came  to  pass  in  those 
days,  that  there  went  out  a  decree  from  Caesar 
Augustus,  that  all  the  world  should  be  taxed 
(And  this  taxing  was  first  made  when  Cyrenius 
was  governor  of  Syria. )  And  all  went  to  be  taxed, 
every  one  into  his  own  city.  And  Joseph  also 
went  up  from  Galilee,  out  of  the  city  uf  Nazareth, 
into  Judea,  unto  the  city  of  David,  which  is  called 
Bethlehem,  (because  he  was  of  the  house  and 
lineage  of  David.)  lo  be  taxed  with  Mary  his 
espoused  wife,  being  great  with  child.  And  so  it 
was,  that,  while  they  were  there,  the  days  were 
accomplished  that  she  should  be  delivered.  And 
she  brought  forth  her  firstborn  son,  and  wrapped 
him  in  swaddling  clothes,  and  laid  him  in  a  man- 
ger; b.ecause  there  was  no  room  for  them  in  the 

Cbe  anflcle  an{>  tbc  SbepberDe. 

Deiember.  B.  C.  fi.  Near  Belhlehem. 

(Luke  ii;  8.)  And  there  were  in  the  same 
JESUS;  for  country  shepherds  abiding  in  the  field,  keeping 
"    Now  all      watch  over   their    flock    by  night.    And  lo,  the 


Oft 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


angel  of  the  Lord  came  upon  them,  and  the  glory 
of  the  Lord  shone  round  about  them;  and  they 
were  sore  afraid.  And  the  angel  said  unto  them, 
"Fear  not:  for,  behold,  I  bring  you  good  tidings 
of  great  joy,  which  shall  be  to  all  people.  For 
unto  you  is  bom  this  day  in  the  city  of  David  a 
Savior,  which  is  Christ  the  Lord.  And  thL<;  shall 
be  a  sig;n  unto  you;  ye  shall  find  the  babe  wrapped 
in  swaddling  clothes,  lying  in  a  manger."  And 
suddenly  there  was  with  the  angel  a  multitude  of 
the  heavenly  host  praising  God,  and  saying, 
"Glory  to  God  in  the  highest,  and  on  earth  peace, 
good  will  toward  men." 

And  it  came  to  pass,  as  the  angels  were  gone 
away  from  them  into  heaven,  the  shepherds  said 


preeeittatlon  In  tbe  Cemple. 

January,  B.  C.  4.  At  Jcniuloa. 

(Luke  ii:  21.)  And  when  eight  days  were 
accomplished  for  the  circumcising  of  the  child,  his 
name  was  called  JESUS,  which  was  so  named  of 
the  angel  before  he  was  conceived  in  the  womb. 
And  when  the  days  of  her  purification  according 
to  the  law  of  Moses  were  accomplished,  they 
brought  him  to  Jerusalem  to  present  him  to  the 
Lord;  (as  it  is  written  in  the  law  of  the  Lord, 
"Every  male  that  openeth  the  womb  shall  be 
called  holy  to  the  l^ord";)  and  to  offer  a  sacrifice 
according  to  that  which  is  said  in  the  law  of  the 
Lord,  "A  pair  of  turtledoves,  or  two  young 
pigeons." 


one  lo  anothei,  Let  us  now  go  even  unto  Beth- 
lehem, and  see  tnis  thing  which  is  come  to  pass. 
which  the  Lord  hath  made  known  unto  us."  And 
they  came  with  haste,  and  found  Mary,  and  Joseph, 
and  the  babe  lying  in  a  manger.  And  when  they 
had  seen  it,  they  made  known  abroad  the  saying 
which  was  told  them  concerning  this  child.  And 
all  they  that  heard  it  wondered  at  those  things 
which  were  told  them  by  the  shepherds.  But 
Mary  kept  all  these  things,  and  pondered  them  in 
her  heart.  And  the  shepherds  returned,  glorifying 
and  praising  God  for  all  the  things  that  they  had 
heard  and  seen,  as  it  was  told  unto  them. 


And,  behold,  there  was  a  man  in  Jerusalem 
whose  name  was  Simeon;  and  the  same  man  was 
just  and  devout,  waiting  for  the  consolation  of 
Israel;  and  the  Holy  Ghost  was  u|X)n  him.  And 
it  was  revealed  unto  him  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  that 
he  should  not  see  death  before  he  had  seen  the 
Lord's  Christ.  And  he  came  by  the  spirit  into  the 
temple:  and  when  the  parents  brought  in  the  child 
Jesus,  to  do  for  him  after  the  custom  of  the  law, 
then  took  he  him  up  in  his  arms,  and  blessed  God, 
and  said,  "Lord,  now  lettest  thou  thy  servant 
depart  in  peace,  according  to  thy  word:  for  mine 
ejes  have  seen  thy  salvation,  which  thou  ha;  pre- 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


97 


pared  before  the  face  of  all  people;  a  light  to 
lighten  the  gentiles,  and  the  glory  of  thy  people 
IsraeV 


And  Joseph  and  his  mother  marveled  at  those 
things  which  were  spoken  of  him.    And  Simeon 


again  of  many  in  Israel;  and  for  a  sign  which  shall 
be  spoken  against;  {yea,  a  sword  shall  pierce 
through  thy  own  soul  also;)  that  the  thoughts  of 
many  hearts  may  be  revealed." 

And  there  was  one  Anna,  a  prophetess,  the 
daughter  of  Phanuel,  of  the  tribe  of  Asher:  she 
was  of  great  age,  and  had  lived  with  an  husband 
seven  years  from  her  virginity;  and  she  was  a 
widow  of  about  fourscore  and  four  years,  which 
departed  not  from  the  temple,  but  served  God  with 
fastings  and  prayers  night  and  day.  And  she  com- 
ing in  that  instant  gave  thanks  likewise  unto  the 
Lord,  and  spake  of  him  lo  all  them  that  looked  for 
redemption  in  Jerusalem.  And  when  they  had 
performed  all  things  according  to  the  law  of  the 
Lord,  they  returned  into  Galilee  to  their  own  city 
Nazareth.  And  the  child  grew,  and  waxed  strong 
in  spirit,  filled  with  wisdom:  and  the  grace  of  God 
was  upon  him. 

Visit  or  tbe  Wise  Aen. 

B.  C.  4.  ienisaleni  and  Naurcth. 

(Matt,  ii;  1.)  Now  when  Jesus  was  bom  in 
Bethlehem  of  Judea  in  the  days  of  Herod  the 
king,  behold,  tliere  came  wise  men  from  the  east 
to  Jerusalem,  saying,  "Where  is  he  thai  is  bom 
King  of  the  Jews  ?  for  we  have  seen  his  star  in  the 
east,  and  are  come  to  worship  him." 

When  Herod  the  king  had  heard  these  things, 
he  was  troubled,  and  all  Jerusalem  with  him.  And 
when  he  had  gathered  all  the  chief  priests  and 
scribes  ol  the  people  together,  he  demanded  of 
them  where  Christ  should  be  bom.    And  they  said 


THE  STAR  OF  BETHLEHEM, 


blessed  tliem,  and  said  unto  Mary  his  mother,      unto  him,  "In  Bethlehem  of  Judea:  for  thus  it  u 
"  Behold,  this  child  is  set  for  the  fall  and  rising      written  by  the  prophet  '  and  thou  Bethlehent  in 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 
the  land  of  Juda,  art  not  the  least  among  the      thou  there  until  I  bring  thee  word  :  for  Herod  will 


princes  of  Juda:  for  out  of  thee  shall  come  a  Gov- 
ernor that  shall  rule  my  people  Israel.'  " 

Then  Herod,  when  he  had  privily  called  the 
wise  men,  inquired  of  them  diligently  what  time 
the  star  appeared.    And  he  sent  them  to  Bethle- 


seek  the  young  child  to  destroy  him."  When  he 
arose,  he  took  the  young  child  and  his  mother  by 
night,  and  departed  into  Egypt;  and  was  there 
until  the  death  of  Herod;  that  it  might  l>e  fulfilled 
which  was  spoken  of  the  Lord  by  the  prophet, 
saying,  "  Out  of  Egypt  have  1  called  my  son." 

Then  Herod,  when  he  saw  that  he  was  mocked 
of  the  wise  men,  was  exceeding  wroth,  and  sent 
forth,  and  slew  all  the  children  that  were  in  Bethle- 
hem, and  in  all  the  coasts  thereof,  from  two  years 
old  and  under,  according  to  the  time  which  he  had 
diligently  inquired  of  the  wise  men.  Then  was  ful- 
filled that  which  was  spoken  by  Jeremiah  the 
prophet,  saying,  "In  Rama  there  was  a  voice 
heard,  lamentation,  and  weeping,  and  great  mourn- 
ing, Rachel  weeping  for  her  children,  and  would 
not  be  comforted  because  they  are  not." 

But  when  Herod  was  dead,  behold,  an  angel  of 
the  Lord  appeareth  in  a  dream  to  Joseph  in  Egypt, 
saying,  "Arise  and  take  the  young  child  and  his 
mother,  and  go  into  the  land  of  Israel ;  for  they  are 
dead  which  sought  the  young  child's  life."  And  he 
arose,  and  took  the  young  child  and  his  mother, 
and  came  into  the  land  of  Israel  ;  but  when  he 
heard  that  Archelaus  did  re^  in  Judea  in  the  room 


THE  FLIGHT  INTO  EGYPT, 


hem,  and  said,  "Go  and  search  diligently  for  the 
young  child ;  and  when  ye  have  found  him,  bring 
me  word  again,  that  1  may  come  and  worship  him 
also."  When  they  had  heard  the  king,  they 
departed ;  and,  lo,  the  star,  which  they  saw  in  the 
east,  went  before  them,  till  it  came  and  stood  over 
where  the  young  child  was.  When  they  saw  the 
star,  they  rejoiced  with  exceeding  great  joy.  And 
when  they  were  come  into  the  house,  they  saw  the 
young  child  with  Mary  his  mother,  and  fell  down, 
and  worshiped  him :  and  when  they  had  opened 
their  treasures,  they  presented  unto  him  gifis;  gold, 
and  frankincense  and  myrrh.  And  being  warned  of 
God  in  a  dream  that  they  should  not  return  to 
Herod,  they  departed  into  their  own  country  another 

f  llflbt  fnto  E^SPt- 

B.C.  4.  From  Nazareih. 

(Matt,  ii:  13.)  And  when  they  were  departed, 
behold,  the  angel  of  the  Lord  appeareth  to  Joseph 
in  a  dream,  saying,  "  Arise  and  take  the  young 
child  and  his  mother,  and  flee  into  Egypt,  and  be 


BUST  OF  HEROD  THE  GREAT  (found  In  Jenisaleni  lo 

18S3  by  Archimandrale  Antony.   Original  in  (be 

Imperial  Hermitage.  St.  Petersburg). 

of  his  father  Herod,  he  was  afraid  to  go  thither; 
notwithstanding,  being  warned  of  God  in  a  dream, 
he  turned  aside  into  the  parts  of  Galilee;  and  he 
came  and  dwelt  in  a  city  called  Nazareth;  that  it 
might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  by  the  prophets, 
"  He  shall  be  called  a  Nazarene." 


THE    WISE    MEX    BEHOLD  THE  STAR. 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


102 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


Judea ;  *^'  and  he  came  into  all  the  country  about  none  ;  and  he  that  hath  meat,  let  him  do  likewise." 

Jordan,  preaching  the  baptism  of  repentance  for  the  Then  came  also  publicans  to  be  baptized,  and  said 

remission  of  sins;  "*"■  saying,  "  RepenLye,  for  the  unto  him,  "Master,  what  shall  we  do?"    And  he 

kingdom  of  heaven  is  at  hand."    """  As  it  is  written  said  unto  them,  "Exact  no  more  than  that  which 


RETURN  TO  NAZARETH. 


in  the  book  of  the  words  of  Isaiah  the  prophei, 
saying,  "  The  voice  of  one  crying  in  the  wilderness, 
Prepare  ye  the  way  of  the  Lord,  make  his  paths 
straight.  Every  valley  shall  be  filled,  and  every 
mountain  and  hill  shall  be  brought  low;  and  the 
crooked  shall  be  made  straight,  and  the  rough  ways 
shall  be  made  smooth ;  and  all  flesh  shall  see  the 
salvation  of  God." 

"*"■  And  Ihe  same  John  had  his  raiment  of  cam- 
el's hair,  and  a  leathern  girdle  about  his  loins  ;  and 
,  his  meat  was  locusts  and  wild  honey.  Then  went 
out  lo  him  Jerusalem,  and  all  Judea,  and  all  the 
region  round  about  Jordan,  and  were  baptized  of 
him  in  Jordan,  confessing  their  sins.  ■■""■  Then  said 
he  to  the  multitude  ■""*  of  the  Pharisees  and  Saddu- 
cees  "■""  that  came  forth  to  be  baptized  of  him,  "  O 
generation  of  vipers,  who  hath  warned  you  to  flee 
from  the  wrath  to  come  ?  Rring  forth  therefore  fruits 
worthy  of  repentance,  and  begin  not  to  say  within 
yourselves,  '  We  have  Abraham  to  our  father  : '  for 
I  say  unto  you,  that  God  is  able  of  these  stones  to 
raise  up  children  unto  Abraham.  And  now  also 
the  ax  is  laid  unio  the  root  of  the  trees  :  every  tree 
therefore  which  bringeth  not  forth  good  fruit  is 
hewn  down,  and  cast  into  the  fire."  And  the 
people  asked  him,  saying,  "What  shall  we  do 
then?"  He  answereth  and  saith  unto  them,  "  He 
that  hath  two  coats,  let  him  impart  to  him  that  hath 


IS  appointed  you."  And  the  soldiers  likewise 
demanded  of  him,  saying,  "And  what  shall  we 
do?  "   And  he  said  unto  them,  "  Do  violence  to  no 


MARY  AND  ELIZABETH. 


man,  neither  acci 
with  your  wages." 


1  any  falsely;   and   be   content 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORV 


MmgrBrtg  JEStTS  AT  TWELVE  YEARS  OF  AGE  ON  HIS  WAV  TO  JERUSALEM. 

And  as  the  people  were  in  expectation,  and  all 
men  mused  in  their  hearts  of  John,  whether  he 
were  the  Christ,  or  not ,  John  answered  saying  unto 
them  all.  "I  indeed  baptize  you  with  water;  but 
one  mightier  than  [  comelh,  the  latchet  of  whose 
shoes  I  am  not  worthy  "*""  to  stoop  down  ^"  to 
unloose ;  he  shall  baptize  you  with  the  Holy  Ghost 
and  with  fire  ;  whose  fan  is  in  his  hand,  and  he  will 
thoroughly  purge  his  floor,  and  will  gather  the 
wheat  into  his  gamer  ;  but  the  chaff  he  will  burr 
with  tire  unquenchable."  And  many  other  things 
in  his  exhortation  preached  he  unto  the  people. 

fiaptfsm  of  Sesus. 

A,  D.aa.  The  River Jordai. 

(Matt,  iii:  13.)  Then  cometh  Jetus,  ""'  when  al' 
the  people  were  baptized,  ""from  Galilee  to  Jordan 
unto  John,  to  be  baptized  of  him.  But  John  forbade 
him,  saying,  "I  have  need  to  be  baptized  of  thee. 
and  comest  thou  to  me?"  And  Jesus  answering 
said  unto  him,  "Suffer  it  lo  be  so  now:  for  l/ius  il 
becometh  us  to  fulfill  all  righteousness. ' '  Then  he 
suffered  him.  And  Jesus,  when  he  was  baptized, 
went  up  "™  praying  "*"■  straightway  out  o(  the 
water:  and,  lo,  the  heavens  were  opened  unto  liim. 


104 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


MY  BELOVED  SON,  IN  WHOM  I  AM  WELL 
PLEASED." 

irem{>tatfon  in  tbe  TniUdemeea. 

Jmnuary,  A.  D.  27.  Wilderness  ot  Jadea. 

(Matt,  iv:  L)  Then  Jesus  "*«full  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  returned  from  the  Jordan  and  was  •^"*  led  up 
of  the  spirit  into  the  wilderness  to  be  tempted  of 
the  devil ;  '•^•*  and  he  was  with  the  wild  beasts ; 
"*"•  and  when  he  had  fasted  forty  days  and  forty 
nights,  "**•  and  did  eat  nothing  in  those  days,  •^"-  he 
was  afterward  an  hungered.  And  when  the  tempter 
"**■  the  devil  '*^"*  came  to  him,  he  said,  *'  If  thou  be 
the  Son  of  God,  command  that  these  stones  be  made 
bread."  But  he  answered  and  said,  ''It  is  written^ 
*Man  shall  not  live  by  bread  alone,  but  by  every 
word  that  proceedeth  out  of  the  mouth  of  God.*** 
Then  the  devil  taketh  him  up  into  ""*■  Jerusalem, 
'^"'  the  holy  city,  and  setteth  him  on  a  pinnacle  of 
the  temple,  and  saith  unto  him,  "If  thou  be  the 


Son  of  God,  cast  thyself  down,  for  it  is  written, 
'  He  shall  give  his  angels  charge  concerning  thee 
"'^  to  guard  thee  '^"'  and  in  their  hands  they  shall 
bear  thee  up,  lest  at  any  time  thou  dash  thy  foot 
against  a  stone.*'*  Jesus  said  unto  him,  **//  is 
written  again,  '  Thou  shall  not  tempt  the  Lord  thy 
God*  **  Again  the  devil  taketh  him  up  into  an 
exceeding  high  mountain,  and  showeth  him  all  the 
kingdoms  of  the  world,  and  the  glory  of  them 
"^  in  a  moment  of  time.  And  the  devil  said  unto 
him,  "All  this  power  will  I  give  thee,  and  the  glory 
of  them :  for  that  is  delivered  unto  me ;  and  to 
whomsoever  I  will  I  give  it  If  thou  therefore  wilt 
worship  me,  all  shall  be  thine.**  And  Jesus 
answered  and  said  unto  him,  ^'Get  thee  behind  me, 
Satan :  for  it  is  zvritten,  *  Thou  shall  worship  the 
Lord  thy  God,  and  him  only  shall  thou  serve.  ^  ** 
And  when  the  devil  had  ended  all  the  temptations, 
he  departed  from  him  for  a  season  ;  '^"-  and, 
t>ehold,  angels  came  and  ministered  unto  him. 


FIRST  YEAR  OF  PUBLIC  MINISTRY. 

PfMB  the  CalUofl:  of  the  Pint  DladplM  to  the  Second  Paeeover. 

(Time:  A  little  more  than  one  year.) 


5obn'0  treetfmoni?  Concemfno  Cbrtet. 

February,  A.  D.  27.  Near  the  Jordan. 

And  when  he  began  to  preach,  Jesus,  himself, 
was  about  thirty  years  of  age  (Luke  3:23).  And 
this  is  the  record  of  John,  when  the  Jews  sent 
priests  and  Levites  from  Jerusalem  to  ask  him 
•*  Who  art  thou?**  And  he  confessed  and  denied 
not;  but  confessed  "I  am  not  the  Christ.**  And 
they  asked  him,  "What  then?  Art  thou  Elias?*' 
And  he  said  "I  am  not.**  "Art  thou  that 
prophet?**  And  he  answered,  "  No.**  Then  said 
they  unto  him,  "Who  art  thou?  that  we  may  give 
an  answer  to  them  that  sent  us.  What  sayest 
thou  of  thyself?'*  He  said,  "I  am  'the  voice  of 
one  crying  in  the  wilderness,  Make  straight  the 
way  of  the  Lord,*  as  said  the  prophet  Isaiah.** 
And  they  which  were  sent  were  of  the  Pharisees. 
And  they  asked  him,  and  said  unto  him,  "Why 
baptizest  thou  then,  if  thou  be  not  that  Christ,  nor 
Elias,  neither  that  prophet  ?  **  John  answered  them, 
saying,  "  I  baptize  with  water:  but  there  standeth 
one  among  you,  whom  ye  know  not;  he  it  is,  who 
coming  after  m^  is  preferred  before  me,  whose 
shoe's  latchet  I  am  not  worthy  to  unloose.** 
These  things  were  done  in  Bethabara,  beyond 
Jordan,  where  John  was  baptizing. 

The  next  day  John  seeth  Jesus  coming  unto 
him,  and  saith,  "  Behold  the  Lamb  of  God,  which 
taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world.  This  is  he  of 
whom  I  said,  After  me  cometh  a  man  which  is  pre- 
ferred before  me:  for  he  was  before  me.  And  I 
knew  him  not:  but  that  he  should  be  made  mani- 
fest to  Israel,  therefore  am  I  come  baptizing  with 
water."    And  John  bore  record,  saying,  "I  saw 


the  Spirit  descending  from  heaven  like  a  dove,  and 
it  abode  upon  him.  And  I  knew  him  not:  but  he 
that  sent  me  to  baptize  with  water,  the  same  said 
unto  me,  *Upon  whom  thou  shalt  see  the  Spirit 
descending,  and  remaining  on  him,  the  same  is  he 
which  baptizeth  with  the  Holy  Ghost.*  And  I 
saw,  and  bare  record  that  this  is  the  Son  of  God.'* 

Ifft&t  Didcfple0  Cboeen. 

February,  A.  D.  27.  Near  the  Jordan. 

(John  i:  35.)  Again  the  next  day  after,  John 
stood,  and  two  of  his  disciples;  and  looking  upon 
Jesus  as  he  walked,  he  saith,  "  Behold  the  Lamb 
of  God !  **  And  the  two  disciples  heard  him 
speak,  and  they  followed  Jesus.  Then  Jesus 
turned,  and  saw  them  following,  and  saith  unto 
them,  '*H^hat  seek  yef**  They  said  unto  him, 
"Rabbi  (which  is  to  say,  being  interpreted.  Mas- 
ter), where  dwellest  thou?*'  He  saith  unto  them, 
"Come  and  see.**  They  came  and  saw  where  he 
dwelt,  and  abode  with  him  that  day:  for  it  was 
about  the  tenth  hour.  One  of  the  two  which  heard 
John  speak,  and  followed  him,  was  Andrew,  Simon 
Peter's  brother.  He  first  findeth  his  own  brother 
Simon,  and  saith  unto  him,  "We  have  found  the 
Messias,"  which  is,  being  interpreted,  the  Christ 
And  he  brought  him  to  Jesus.  And  when  Jesus 
beheld  him,  he  said,  **Thou  art  Simon  the  son  of 
fona:  thou  shalt  be  called  Cephas^*  which  is  by 
interpretation,  A  stone.** 

The  day  following,  Jesus  would  go  forth  into 
Galilee,  and  findeth  Philip,  and  saith  unto  him, 
** Follow  me,**  Now  Philip  was  of  Bethsaida,  the 
city  of  Andrew  and  Peter.    Philip  findeth  Nathanael. 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY  K» 

and  saith  unto  him,  "We  have  found  him,  of  after  the  manner  of  the  purifying  of  the  Jews,  con- 
whom  Moses  in  the  lau-,  and  the  prophebt,  did  taining  t«-o  or  three  firkins  apiece.  Jesus  saith 
write,  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  the   son    of    Joseph."      nMo  ihem,  " fill Ihe  waUrpols  with  waler."    And 


C ANA  OF  GALILEE. 

And  Nathanael  said  unto  him,  "Can  there  any      they  filled  ihem  up  to  the  brim.     And  he  saith 

good  thing  come  out  of  Nazareth?"     Philip  saith      unto  them,  "Draw  out  now,  and  bear  unto  fht 

unto  hitn,  "Come  and  see."    Jesus  saw  Nathanael 

coming  to  him,  and  saith  of  him,    "Behold  an 

Israelite  indeed  in  whom  is  no  guile. '"     Nathanael 

sailh  unto  him,   "Whence  knowest  thou  me?" 

Jesus  answered  and  said  unio  him,    "Before  that 

Philip  called  thee,  when  thou   wast  under  the  fig 

free,  I  saw  thee."     Nathanael  ans«  ered  and  sailh 

unto  him,  "  Rabbi,  thou  art  the  son  of  God;  thou 

art  the  King  of  Israel."    Jesus  answered  and  said 

unto  him,  "Because  J  said  unto  thee,  I  saw  thee 

under  the  fig  tree,  Helievest  thou  ?  thou  shall  see 

greater  things  than  these."    And  he  saith  unto 

him,  "  Verily,  verily,  I sayuntoymt,  Hereaftei-, ye 

shall  see  heaven  open,  and  the    angels  of  God 

ascending  and  descending  upon  the  Son  of  man," 

tlbe  fleet  Aliacle. 

Pebniary,  A.  D.  27.  Cans  of  Galilef . 

(John  ii:  I.)  And  the  third  day  there  was  a 
marriage  in  Cana  of  Galilee;  and  the  mother  of 
Jesus  was  there:  And  both  Jesus  was  called,  and 
his  disciples,  to  the  marriage.  And  when  they 
wanted  wine,  the  mother  of  Jesus  saith  unto  him, 

"They  have  no  wine."     Jesus   saith  unto  her,      O.Dori.  j^sus  cleansing  THE  TEMPLE. 
"Woman,  what  have  I  to  do  with  thee?  mine  hour 


THE  WONDERFLT,  STORY 


•»nt  tih.-  <t.n-uin  whkh  drew  the  waier  knew), 
ii«.  o'>vin>,'i  i.>l  thir  fr>>s*  cilled  the  bridegroom, 
k,i».l  >->i'''  'J'X'''  ^'"i-  "  ^^^fy  i»^»  Bt  d)e  beginning 
i^.^'i  -.(.I  t'i'.<i  o^<d  wintr:  <ind  when  men  have  well 

I „,  Mivii  iii.it  uhl^.-h  b  worse:  but  thou  hast 

,  !■>  '».  ^^■^■^|  Hiiw  unitl  now."  This  b^inning  of 
,,i  nAv  ,'i>i  Vmi--  in  C.dM  of  Galilee,  and  mani- 
,,,  .1  .'.ill  ')'^  ;'i'r\.  am.!  hw  disciples  believed  on 
,,,,  V'li  I  i'vn  Iti'  uviit  ikiwn  to  Capernaum,  he, 
,„i  ii^inii'^i,  im  Ml  i>  btethrvii,  and  his  disciples: 
^«,l    'Ki  v\ .».\!  ihvte  iii>t  nwiiy  daj-s. 

s:wanMna  tbc  Ccin|>le. 

_,     v..  Imht  Trdiple  «l  Jeranlem. 

*       \-:\.,  ■!    !  (.>     Aint  ihv  Ji'rts'  (vissover  was  at 

I     ,.ni   \  ,n>  »>.iit  »i'  h'  IvUL-vikni,  and  found 

"  '  itt    >  i"i''V  !'>•■■•»■  '''■'*  *>''*'  oxen  ."id  sheep  and 

1.1,1   III,    \Ikii>(;(|'«  i-l  iimney  silting:  and 

'."'*.    'i,    :ii.l  1.1, i.k'  -t  ■*^'^ln;^■  o(  siiiiill  corils,  he 

i;i..,,    ,'1  ,.iit  vJ  iln-  ti'iiiple,  iiiid  the  sheep, 

\U.     ii\.  n      111,1    i^'uhaI    out    the    changers' 

'"  ,.1,1  ,.v,niii,ii    I'v  t.il'lo;  "ud  s.iid  unto 

'  ,1,  ii   „.',l  ili'M.-,.  "  /'i>'i'  Mi.>^  things  hence; 


he  was  risen  from  the  dead,  bis  J^ripir^  naea- 
bered  that  be  had  said  thit  ^oco  cinem.  Eid  -.ber 
believed  the  schpture.  and  ibe-  vucil  wtt^a  T'^* 
had  sakL  Now  »beii  be  ma«  n  JcTSsaj^a  k  ^ 
passover,  in  the  fcast  day.  ■nzov'  bc&eivii  =  ':s 
name,  when  tbei  saa  tbe  •ty'.Fi.-  \r  k.  wbkA  be  -ic 
But  JesiE  did  not  cmmit  han^Kl:  ^so  tbis:. 
because  be  knew  all  men,  ; 
should  testify  ol  man;  for  be  I 


April,  A.  D.  ».  JiiBM* 

(Johniii:!.! 
tiamed  Nicoden 
came  to  Jesus  Ir 
we  know  that  t 
for  no  man  can 
except  God  be 
said  unto  him. 

dom of  God"     Nir-^ir^Ji  ^^  ;a^  >^w-i    *- H<^ 

can  a  man  be  Uxa  wifcE  1  ' 

the  second  time  isL-j  ':ls  = 

unto  tkee.  Eicept  t  ■«».•«■  .>.t»  .-.-'sMaa>-«B^^tf<- 
,^>if,  he  caiBtci  r*ur  nc-  la^  i  ■_  iThm   <t'*  £^m^ 

aihUk  is  bom  <.-•'  cMe  ^vs  u  ^ert  Mii  i  '  mat 
that  ludduMlj  :i.<e.  Yt  m^  jr  Jm  ^-^im.  Tie 
wind  blo-jTitk  wk^rt  it  Xz^i~  mmt  ak^  ^e*wx^  ^t 
lound  thereof,  hit  ctx^  mx  ieZ  vArv.?-  zr  .-j.^iri. 
a*/  whither  ii  i^Mih .-  jj  £:  (Tfrr  am  dfccr  ^r  fvm  pf 

him,  "  How  can  iese  ^rLZM:^  ^  ?~  Jtsts  jn>«tJed 
and  Slid  unto  hini.  ".-('T  :*;«  c  ibcz/t-  .■>-'  Jsr^ei, 
andknoweiiiici:'ti:e  zf^vr:'  )V-i_-  i«»i.>  /*^ 
un/o  M<-f,  fir  i^.£l  :wf  £V  Af  imtm-,  ttme  ir.s£^ 
thai  we  haze  we*  :  caz  it  (v-v^tc  ■«  mr  vasmess. 
If  I  have  toii  y :»  e^rzi-'y  :i=mr:~  ^u'vr  Acimf  ••t 
h'lW  ihall  je  i'f'ifze  i-'."-  .'■■-'■  -7"  *sc-f»!i  zi=*^sf 
And  no  mux  <l>i»  ^.^vwi;-.;  v  i;  babi-k.  Htf  ^  ^A^ 
came  down  fr.rm  ic-.-r^-r.  ^tn  2&r  Sim  rr~  i^^  z;  ii^ 
(1  ;b  heazen.     .-!«/  i.-  .V.-.vr  iriv'»  ».'  n-ift: K* »* 

«/  .■  Mj/  :t  "vVCf^-T  7-,-  i.-T:3«  3m  lam  iiimuff"  "^ 
periih,  but  ki^e  t^-^ei.  .*/r-  _-nc  j/  j.-rt*  Ac 

world  tkii  ie  ^r:e  c.  .•»  ~  /•  .-.ii'*  Sitr  ;■«■  »*.•■ 
tiiever  beiiez-rdt  m  tn  ..t-ifcj:  «.t  n— .,?*.  tac  ^^r 
tverU-Mng  l:'e.  F.-r  ,-.■>.*  .i-ir  k-t  e^  An«  jib/  * 
world  to  cQnSrnx  zte  ir.-r-^  mc  ?*ar  -t.-  irifil 
through  kim  ■«:-"»-'  -'e'  ,x;^'-i     -r:r    nur  ft  ■■i-r-.'St  J« 


■  ■  *    ^itMojf^ 


106 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


(but  the  servants  which  drew  the  water  knew), 
the  governor  of  the  feas'  called  the  bridegroom, 
vid  saith  unto  him,  "  Ev^ry  man  at  the  beginning 
doth  set  forth  good  wine;  and  when  men  have  well 
drunk,  then  thai  which  is  worse:  but  thou  hast 
kept  the  good  wine  until  now,"  This  beginning  of 
miracles  did  Jesus  in  Cana  of  Galilee,  and  mani- 
fested forth  his  glory;  and  his  disciples  believed  on 
him.  After  this  he  went  down  to  Capernaum,  he, 
and  his  mother,  and  his  brethren,  and  his  disciples: 
and  they  continued  there  not  many  days. 

Cleanstttfl  tbe  Semple. 

Aprtl.  A.  D.  27.  In  the  Temple  at  Jemulem. 

(John  ii:  13.)  And  the  Jews'  passover  was  at 
hand,  and  Jesus  went  up  to  Jerusalem,  and  found 
in  the  temple  those  that  sold  oxen  and  sheep  and 
doves,  and  the  changers  of  money  sitting:  and 
when  he  had  made  a  scourge  of  small  cords,  he 
drove  them  all  out  of  the  temple,  and  the  sheep, 
and  the  oxen;  and  poured  out  the  changers' 
money,  and  overthrew  the  tables;  and  said  unto 
them  that  sold  doves,  "Take  these  things  hence; 


tnake  not  my  father's  house  an  house  of  merchan- 
dise."   And  his  disciples  remembered  that  it  was 


Then  answered  the  Jews  and  said  unto  him, 
"  What  sign  showest  thou  unto  us,  seeing  that 
thou  doest  these  things?"  Jesus  answered  and 
said  unto  them,  "Destroy  this  temple,  and  in  three 
days  I  will  raise  it  up."  Then  said  the  Jews, 
"  Forty  and  six  years  was  this  temple  in  building, 
and  wilt  thou  rear  it  up  in  three  daj-s?"  But  he 
spake  of  the  temple  of  his  body.    When  therefore 


he  was  risen  from  the  dead,  his  disdples  remem- 
bered that  he  had  said  this  unto  them;  and  they 
believed  the  scripture,  and  the  word  which  Jesus 
had  said.  Now  when  he  was  in  Jerusalem  at  the 
passover,  in  the  feast  day,  many  believed  in  his 
name,  when  they  saw  the  miracles  which  he  did 
But  Jesus  did  not  commit  himself  unto  them, 
because  he  knew  all  men,  and  needed  not  that  any 
should  testify  of  man;  for  be  knew  what  was  in 

^sue  anC  tlCcoDemuB. 

April,  A.  D.  ti.  Jenmlcoi. 

(John  iii:1.)  There  was  a  man  of  the  Pharisees, 
named  Nicodemus,  a  ruler  of  ihe  Jews :  the  same 
came  to  Jesus  by  night,  and  said  unto  him,  "  Rabin, 
we  know  that  thou  art  a  teacher  come  from  God; 
for  no  man  can  do  these  miracles  that  thou  doest, 
except  God  be  with  him."  Jesus  answered  and 
said  unto  him,  "  l''erily,  verily.  I  say  unto  Ihee, 
Except  a  man  be  bom  again,  he  catowl  see  the  king- 
dom of  God."  Nicodemus  saith  unto  him,  "  How 
can  a  man  be  born  when  he  is  old?  can  he  enter 
the  second  time  into  his  mother's  womb,  and  be 
horn?"  Jesus  answered,  "Verily,  verily,  I  say 
unto  thee.  Except  a  man  be  bom  of  water  and  of  the 
^rit,  he  cannot  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  Cod, 
That  which  is  bom  of  the  flesh  is  flesh;  and  that 
which  is  bom  of  the  Spirit  is  spirit.  Marvel  not 
that  I  said  unto  thee.  Ye  must  be  bom  again.  The 
wind  bloweth  where  it  listeth,  and  t/iou  hearest  the 
sound  thereof,  but  canst  not  tell  whence  U  cotneth, 
and  whither  ilgoeth  .•  so  is  every  one  thai  is  bom  of 
the  Spirit."  Nicodemus  answered  and  said  unto 
him,  "  How  can  these  things  be?"  Jesus  answered 
and  said  unto  him,  "Art  thou  a  master  of  Israel^ 
and  knowest  not  these  things  f  Verify,  verily,  I  say 
unto  thee.  We  speak  that  we  do  htow,  and  lest^ 
that  we  have  seen  ;  and  ye  receive  not  our  witness. 
If  !  have  toldyou  earthly  things,  andye  believe  not, 
how  shall  ye  believe  if  I  tell  you  of  heavenfy  things  t 
And  no  man  hath  ascended  up  (o  heaven,  but  he  that 
came  down  from  heaven,  even  the  Son  of  man  which 
is  in  heaven.  And  as  Moses  li/led  up  the  serpent  in 
the  wilderness,  even  so  must  the  Son  of  man  be  lifted 
up;  that  whosoever  believeth  in  him  should  rtot 
perish,  but  have  eternal  life.  For  God  so  loved  the 
world  that  he  gave  his  only  begotten  Son,  that  wko^ 
soever  believeth  in  him  should  not  perish,  but  have 
everlasting  life.  For  God  sent  not  his  Son  into  the 
world  to  condemn  ihe  world;  but  that  the  world 
through  him  might  be  saved.  Me  that  believeth  o» 
him  is  not  condemned:  bul  he  thai  believeth  not  is 
condemned  already,  because  he  hath  not  believed  in 
the  name  of  the  only  begotten  Son  of  God.  And 
this  is  the  condemnation,  that  light  is  come  into  the 
world,  and  men  loved  darkrtess  rather  than  light, 
because  their  deeds  were  evil.  For  every  one  that 
doelk  evil  hateth  the  light,  neither  comelh  to  the  light, 
lest  his  deeds  should  be  reproved.  But  he  thai  doelh 
truth  Cometh  to  the  light,  that  his  deeds  may  be  made 
manifest,  that  lAey  are  wrought  in  God." 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


109 


JeBixa  and  9obn  Saptl^lng. 

Sammti  ol  A.  D.  27.  Jordan  Valley. 

(John  iii:  22.)  After  these  things  came  Jesus 
and  his  disdples  into  the  land  of  Judea;  and  there 
he  tarried  with  them,  and  baptized.  And  ]ohn 
also  was  baptizing  in  Enon  near  to  Salim,  because 
there  was  much  water  there:  and  Ihey  came,  and 
were  baptized.  For  John  was  not  yet  cast  into 
prison.  Then  there  arose  a  question  between 
some  of  John's  disciples  and  the  Jews  about  puri- 
fying. And  they  came  unto  John,  and  said  unto 
him,  "  Rabbi,  he  that  was  with  thee  beyond  Jor- 
dan, to  whom  thou  barest  witness,  behold,  the 
same  baptizeth.  and  all  men  come  to  him."  John 
answered  and  said,  "  A  man  can  receive  nothing, 
except  it  be  given  him  from  heaven.  Ye  your- 
selves bear  me  witness,  that  I  said,  I  am  not  the 
Christ,  but  that  I  am  sent  before  him.  He  that 
hath  the  bride  is  the  bridegroom;  but  the  friend  o* 
the  bridegroom,  which  siandeth  and  heareth  him, 
refoiceth  greatly  because  of  the  bridegroom's 
voice;  this  my  joy  therefore  is  fulfilled.  He  must 
increase,  but  I  must  decrease.  He  that  cometh 
from  above  is  above  all;  he  that  is  of  the  earth  is 
earthly,  and  speaketh  of  the  earth;  he  that  cometh 
from  heaven  is  above  all.  And  what  he  hath  seen 
and  heard,  that  he  testifieth;  and  no  man  receiveth 
his  testimony.  He  that  hath  received  his  testi- 
mony hath  set  to  his  seal  that  God  is  true.  For  he 
whom  God  hath  sent  speaketh  the  words  of  God; 
for  God  giveth  not  the  Spirit  by  measure  unto  him. 
The  Father  loveth  the  Son,  and  hath  given  all 
things  into  his  hand.  He  that  believeth  on  the  Son 
hath  everlasting  lifer  and  he  that  believeth  not  the 
Son  shall  not  see  life;  but  the  wrath  of  God  abid- 


etho 


When  therefore  the  Lord  knew  how  the  Phari- 
sees had  heard  that  Jesus  made  and  baptized  more 
disciples  than  John  ( though  Jesus  himself  baptized 
not,  but  his  disciples),  he  left  Judea,  and  departed 
again  into  Galilee.  And  he  must  needs  go  through 
Samaria. 

Sbe  Moman  at  tbe  1SIlel[. 

December,  A.  D.  77.  Samarls. 

(John  iv:  I.)  Then  cometh  he  to  a  city  of 
Samaria,  which  is  called  Sychar,  near  to  the  parcel 
of  ground  that  Jacob  gave  to  his  son  Joseph.  Now 
Jacob's  well  was  there.  Jesus  therefore,  being 
wearied  with  his  journey,  sat  thus  on  the  well:  and 
it  was  about  the  sixth  hour.  There  cometh  a 
woman  of  Samaria  to  draw  water:  Jesus  saith  unto 
her,  "Giveme  lo drink."  (For  his  disciples  were 
gone  away  unto  the  city  to  buy  meat. )  Then  saith 
the  woman  of  Samaria  unto  him,  "  How  is  it  that 
thou,  being  a  Jew,  askest  drink  of  me,  which  am  a 
woman  of  Samaria  ?  for  the  Jews  have  no  dealings 
with  the  Samaritans."  Jesus  answered  and  said 
unto  her,  "1/  ikou  knewest  the  gift  of  God.  and 


him,  "  Sir,  thou  hast  nothing  to  draw  with,  and  the 
well  is  deep:  from  whence  then  hast  thou  that 
living  water  ?  Art  thou  greater  than  our  father 
Jacob,  which  gave  us  the  well,  and  drank  thereof 
himself,  and  his  children,  and  his  cattle?"  Jesus 
answered  and  said  unto  her,  "Whosoever  drinketh 
of  this  water  shall  thirst  again :  but  whosoever 
drinketh  of  the  water  that  I  shall  give  him  shall 
never  thirst;  but  the  water  that  I  shall  ^ive  him 
shall  be  in  him  a  well  of  water  springing  up  into 
everlasting   life."    The  woman  saith  unto  him. 


JESUS  AT  THE  WELL. 


"Sir,  give  me  this  water,  that  I  thirst  not,  neither 
come  hither  to  draw."  Jesus  saith  to  her.  "Go, 
call  thy  husband,  and  come  hither."  The  woman 
answered  and  said,  "  I  have  no  husband."  Jesus 
said  unto  her,  "Thou  hast  well  said,  I  have  no  has- 
baw,  for  thou  hasl  had  five  husbands ;  ami  he 
whom  thou  now  hast  is  not  thy  husband ;  in  that 
saidst  thou  truly."  The  woman  saith  unto  him, 
"Sir,  I  perceive  that  thou  art  a  prophet.  Our 
fathers  worshiped  in  this  mountain;  and  ye  say, 
that  in  Jerusalem  is  the  place  where  men  ought  to 
worship."  Jesus  saith  unto  her,  "Woman,  believe 
me,  the  hour  cometh.  when  ye  shall  neither  in  this 
mountain,  nor  yet  at  ferusalem,  worship  the  Father. 
Ye  worship  ye  know  not  what;  we  know  what  we 
worship,  far  salvation  is  of  the  fews.  Bui  the 
hour  cometh,  and  now  is,  when  the  true  worshipers 
Shalt  worship  the  Father  in  spirit  and  in  truth  ;  for 
ike  Father  seekelh  such  to  worship  him.  God  is  a 
Spirit,  and  they  that  worship  him  must  worship 
him  in  spirit  and  in  truth."  The  woman  saith 
unto  him,  "  1  know  that  Messias  cometh,  which  is 
called  Christ;  when  he  is  come,  he  will  tell  us  all 
things."  Jesus  saith  unto  her,  "/  that  speak  unlo 
thee  am  he." 

And  upon  this  came  his  disciples,  and  marvelpd 
that  he  talked  with  the  woman;  yet  no  man  said, 
"What  seekest  thou?"  or,  "  Why  talkest  thou  with 
her?"  The  woman  then  left  her  waterpot,  and 
went  her  way  into  the  city,  and  saith  to  the  men, 
"  Come,  see  a  man,  which  told  me  all  things  that 
ever  1  did;  is  not  this  the  Christ?"     Then  they 


no 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


have  meal  to  eat  that  ye  htow  not  of."  Therefore 
said  the  disciples  one  to  another.  "  Hath  any  man 
brought  him  aught  to  eat?"  Jesus  saith  unto  them, 
"  My  ntfatis  lo  do  Ike  will  of  him  thai  sent  me,  and 
to  finish  his  work.  Saynotye,  There  are  yet  four 
fttonths,  and  then  cometh  harvest  f  behold,  I  say 
untoyou,  Li/I  up  your  eyes,  and  loot  on  the  fields  ; 
for  they  are  white  already  to  harvest.  And  he  that 
reapelh  -receiveth  wages,  and  gathereth  fruit  unto 
life  eternal,  thai  both  he  that  sowelh  and  he  that 
reapelh  may  rejoice  together.  And  herein  is  that 
saying  true,  'One  sowelh,  and  another  reapelh.'  I 
sent  you  lo  reap  that  whereon  ye  bestowed  no  lahor; 
other  men  laltored,  and  ye  are  entered  into  their 

And  many  of  the  Samaritans  of  that  city 
believed  on  him  for  the  saying  of  the  woman, 
which  testihed,  "  He  told  me  all  that  ever  I  did." 
So  when  the  Samaritans  were  come  unto  him,  they 


that  a  prophet  hath  no  honor  in  hb  own  country. 
Then  when  he  was  come  into  Galilee,  the  Galileans 
received  him,  having  seen  all  the  things  that  he  did 
at  Jerusalem  at  the  feast,  for  they  also  went  unto 
the  feast.  ""'And  there  went  out  a  fame  of  him 
through  all  the  region  round  about.  And  he 
taught  in  their  synagogues,  beinj;  glorified  of  all, 
"™' preaching  the  gospel  of  the  Icingdom  of  God, 
and  saying,  "  The  time  is  fulfilled,  and  the  ting- 
dam  of  God  is  at  hand;  repent  ye,  and  believe  th£ 
gospel." 

Dealtne  tbe  nobleman'e  Son. 

December,  A.  D.  2T.  Cana  and  Capenunm. 

(John  iv:  46.)  So  Jesus  came  again  into  Cana 
of  Galilee,  where  he  made  the  water  wine.  And 
there  was  a  certain  nobleman,  whose  son  was  sick 
at  Capernaum.  When  he  heard  that  Jesus  was 
come  out  of  Judea  into  Galilee,  he  went  unto  him 


W.  Dyet,  R.  A. 


JESUS  AND  THE  WOMAN  OF  SAMARIA. 


besought  him  that  he  would  tarT>*  with  them;  and 
he  abode  there  two  days.  And  many  more 
believed  because  of  his  own  word;  and  said  unto 
the  woman,  "  Now  we  believe,  not  because  of  thy 
saying,  for  we  have  heard  him  ourselves,  and 
know  that  this  is  indeed  the  Christ,  the  Savior  of 
the  world." 

tteturn  to  OaUlee. 

Decemlwr,  A.  D.  27. 
(John  iv:  43.)     Now  after  two  days  he  departed 
3ience.   ""'in  the  power  of   the  Spirit,  """and 
went  into  Galilee.     For  Jesus  himself   testified. 


and  besought  him  that  he  would  come  down,  and 
heal  his  son,  for  he  was  at  the  point  of  death. 
Then  said  Jesus  unto  him,  "Except  ye  see  signs 
and  wonders,  ye  will  not  believe."  The  nobleman 
saith  unto  him,  "Sir,  come  down  ere  my  child  die." 
Jesus  saith  unto  him,  "Go  thy  way  ;  thy  sou  liveth." 
And  the  man  believed  the  word  that  Jesus  had 
spoken  unto  him,  and  he  went  his  way.  And  as  he 
was  now  going  down,  his  servants  met  him,  and 
told  him,  saying,  "Thy  son  liveth."  Then  inquired 
he  of  them  the  hour  when  he  began  to  amend. 
And  they  said  unto  him,  "  Yesterday  at  the  seventh 
hour  the  fever  left  him."    So  the  father  knew  that 


"COME    I'NTO   ME" 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY  113 

it  was  at  the  same  hour   in  the  which  Jesus  said  three  years  and  six  months,  when  great  /amine 

unto  him,  "Thy  son  liveth;"  and  himself  believed,  was  throughout  a/I  tke  land ;  but  unto  none  of  thetn 

and  his  whole  house.     This  is   again   the   second  was  Elijah  sent,  save  unto  Sarepta,  a  cify  of  Sidon. 

miracle  that  Jesus  did,  when  he  was  come  out  of  un/o  a   woman   that  was   a   -andow.      And   many 

Jitdea  into  Galilee.  lepers   were  in   Israel  in  the  time  of  Elisha  the 

prophet;    and  none  of  them   was  cleansed,  saving 

KeieCteO  at  *OmC.  Naaman  the  Syrian."     And  all  they  in  the  syna- 

,,,.,„  ^      ^     ,.               .    .,          ...  gogue,  when  they  heard  these  things,   were  filled 

(Lukeiv:lfi.)    And  he  came  to  Nazareth,  where  ^jth  wrath,  and  rose  up,  and  thrust  him  out  of  the 

he  had  been  brought  up;  and,  as  his  custom  was,  ^      ^^^  ,^j  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^  ^j  ^^^  ^j,,  ^^^^^„ 

he  went  into  the  synagogue  on  the  Sabb|ith  day  ^^^^^  ^^     ^^^  j,^;,^  ,^^j  ^^      ^.^^^  ^,  ^.^  ^^^^ 

and  stood  up  for  to  read    And  there  was  dehvered  headlong.     But  he  passing  through  the  midst  d 


have  neara  aone  tn  capemautn.  ao  also  nere  m  tny 

country:"     And  he  said,  "Verily  Isay  unto  you,  ObC  ISRCkaR  Spirit. 

No  prophet  is  accepted  in  his  own  country.     But  1      A.  D.  S8. 


114 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


into  the  synagogue,  and  taught  And  they  were 
astonished  at  his  doctrine,  for  he  taught  them  as 
one  that  had  authority,  and  not  as  the  scribes. 
And  there  was  in  their  synagogue  a  man  with  an 
unclean  spirit;  and  he  cried  out,  saying,  **  Let  us 
alone;  what  have  we  to  do  with  thee,  thou  Jesus  of 
Nazareth  ?  art  thou  come  to  destroy  us  ?  I  know 
thee  who  thou  art,. the  Holy  One  of  God."  And 
Jesus  rebuked  him,  saying,  **//o/d  thy  peace ^  and 
come  out  of  him,**  And  when  the  unclean  spirit 
had  torn  him,  and  cried  with  a  loud  voice,  he 
came  out  of  him.  And  they  were  all  amazed, 
insomuch  that  they  questioned  among  themselves, 
saying,  **  What  thing  is  this?  what  new  doctrine  is 
diis?  for  with  authority  commandeth  he  even  the 
unclean  spirits,  and  they  do  obey  him."  And 
immediately  his  fame  spread  abroad  throughout  all 
the  region  round  about  Galilee. 


Detefa  WXW^  Aotbet. 


A.D.t8. 


CapernamiL 


(Mark  1: 29.)  And  forthwith,  when  they  were 
come  out  of  the  synagogue,  they  entered  into  the 
house  of  Simon  and  Andrew,  with  James  and  John. 
But  Simon's  wife's  mother  lay  sick  of  a  fever,  and 
anon  they  tell  him  of  her.  And  he  came  and  took 
her  by  the  hand,  and  lifted  her  up;  and  inune- 
diately  the  fever  left  her,  and  she  ministered  unto 
them.  And  at  even,  when  the  sun  did  set,  they 
brought  unto  him  all  that  were  diseased,  and  them 
that  were  possessed  with  devils.  And  all  the  city 
was  gathered  together  at  the  door.  And  he  healed 
many  that  were  sick  of  divers  diseases,  and  cast 
out  many  devils;  and  suffered  not  the  devils  to 
speak,  because  they  knew  him. 


Di0  <Btowin0  fame* 


A.D.28. 


Galilee. 


(Mark  i:  35.)  And  in  the  morning,  rising  up  a 
great  while  before  day,  he  went  out,  and  departed 
into  a  solitary  place,  and  there  prayed.  And 
Simon  and  they  that  were  with  him  followed  after 
him.  And  when  they  had  found  him,  they  said 
unto  him,  **  All  men  seek  for  thee."  And  he  said 
unto  them,  ** Let  us  go  into  the  next  towns ^  that 
I  may  preach  there  also :  for  therefore  came  I 
forth.**  ^'^'  And  Jesus  went  about  all  Galilee, 
teaching  in  their  synagogues,  and  preaching  the 
gospel  of  the  kingdom,  and  healing  all  manner  of 
sickness  and  all  manner  of  disease  among  the 
people.  And  his  fame  went  throughout  all  Syria; 
and  they  brought  unto  him  all  sick  people  that 
were  taken  with  divers  diseases  and  torments,  and 
those  which  were  possessed  with  devils,  and  those 
which  were  lunatic,  and  those  that  had  the  palsy; 
and  he  healed  them.  And  there  followed  him 
great  multitudes  of  people  from  Galilee,  and  from 
Decapolis,  and  from  Jerusalem,  and  from  Judea, 
and  from  beyond  Jordan. 


TTbe  Sermon  on  tbe  Aount. 

A.  D.  28.  *•  Horns  of  Hattio  ' 

(Matt  v:  1.)  And  seeing  the  multitudes,  he 
went  up  into  a  mountain;  and  when  he  was  set,  his 
disciples  came  unto  him;  and  he  oi>ened  his 
mouth,  and  taught  them,  saying: 

THE  BEATITUDES. 

Blessed  are  the  poor  in  spirit;  for 
theirs  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 

Blessed  are  they  that  mourn  ;  for  they 
shall  be  comforted. 

Blessed  are  the  meek;  for  they  shatl 
inherit  the  earth. 

Blessed  are  they  which  do  hunger  and 
thirst  after  righteousness;  for  they  shall 
befitted. 

Blessed  are  the  merciful;  for  they 
shall  obtain  mercy. 

Blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart;  for  they 
shall  see  God, 

Blessed  are  the  peacenuikers  ;  for  they 
shall  be  called  the  children  of  God. 

Blessed  are  they  which  are  persecuted 
for  righteousness^  sake ;  for  theirs  is  the 
kingdom  of  heaven. 

Blessed  are  ye t  when  men  shall  revile 
you^  and  persecute  yoUy  and  shall  say  all 
manner  of  evil  against  you  falsely^  for 
my  sake. 

Rejoice^  and  be  exceeding  glady  for 
great  is  your  reward  in  heaven;  for  so 
persecuted  they  the  prophets  which  were 
before  you. 

Ye  are  the  salt  of  the  earth ;  but  if  the  salt 
have  lost  his  savor,  whercTvith  shall  it  be  salted  f  it 
is  thenceforth  good  for  nothing y  but  to  be  cast  out, 
and  to  be  trodden  under  foot  of  men.  Ye  are  the 
light  of  the  world.  A  city  that  is  set  on  an  hill  can- 
not be  hid.  Neither  do  men  light  a  candle,  and  put 
it  under  a  bushel,  but  on  a  candlestick ;  and  it 
giveth  light  unto  all  that  are  in  the  house.  Let 
your  light  so  shine  before  men  that  they  may  see 
your  good  works,  and  glorify  your  Father  which  is 
in  heaven, 

DEFENDING  THE  SCRIPTURES. 

Think  not  that  I  am  come  to  destroy  the  law,  or 
the  prophets ;  I  am  not  come  to  destroy,  but  to 
fulfill.     For  verily  I  say  unto  you.  Till  heaven  and 
earth  pass,  one  jot  or  one  tittle  shall  in  no  wise  pass 
from  the    laiv,   till  all  be  fulfilled.      Whosoever 
therefore  shall  break  one  of  these  least  command- 
ments, and  shall  teach  men  so,  he  shall  be  called 
the  least  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven  /  but  whosoruer 
shall  do  and  teach  them,  the  same  shall  be  called 
great  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven.     For  I  say  unto 
you,  That  except  your  righteousness  shall  exceed 
the  righteousness  of  the  scribes  and  Pharisets,ye 
shall  in  no  case  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


117 


LNGER. 

vas  said  by  them  of  old 
ind  whosoever  shall  kill 
dgment ;  but  I  say  unto 
ngry  with  his  brother 
n  danger  of  the  judg- 
ill  say  to  his  brother^ 
r  of  the  council;    but 

fooly  shall  be  in  dan- 
ore  if  thou  bring  thy 
e  rememberest  that  thy 
4  thee^  leave  there  thy 
7  thy  way;  first  be  rec- 
then  come  and  offer  thy 
Iversary  quickly y  whilst 
n ;  lest  at  any  time  the 
he  judge,  and  the  judge 

and  thou  be  cast  into 
thee.  Thou  shall  by  no 
thou  hast  paid  the  utter* 

ND  DIVORCE. 

^as  said  by  them  of  old 
nit  culultery;  but  I  say 
looketh  on  a  woman  to 
tied  adultery  with  her 
if  thy  right  eye  offend 
it  from  thee ;  for  it  is 
of  thy  members  should 
ole  body  should  be  cast 
'  hand  offend  thee,  cut  it 
for  it  is  profitable  for 
Sers  should  perish,  and 
lid  be  cast  into  hell.  It 
^hall  put  away  his  wife^ 

of  divorcement;  but  I 

'er  shall  put  away  his 

of  fornication,  causeth 

and  whosoever  shall 
committeih  adultery, 

iGANT  SPEECH. 

hat  it  hath  been  said  by 
It  not  forswear  thyself 
Lord  thine  oaths  ;  but  I 
all ;  neither  by  heaven, 
by  the  earth,  for  it  is 
Jerusalem,  for  it  is  the 
either  shall  thou  swear 
inst  not  make  one  hair 
'our  communication  be, 
fhatsoever  is  more  than 


EFUL  SPIRIT. 

hath  been  said,  An  eye 

I  -  ^  jf-         L  ..J      r J  - 


mile,  go  with  him  twain.  Give  to  him  that  asketh 
thee,  and  from  him  that  would  borrow  of  thee  turn 
not  thou  away. 

Ye  have  heard  that  it  hath  been  said.  Thou 
shall  love  thy  neighbor,  and  haie  thine  enemy. 
But  I  say  unto  you.  Love  your  enemies,  bless  them 
that  curse  you,  do  good  to  them  that  hate  you,  and 
pray  for  them  which  despitefully  use  you,  and  per- 
secute  you,  that  ye  may  be  the  children  of  your 
Father  which  is  in  heaven;  for  he  maketh  his  sun 
to  rise  on  the  evil  and  on  the  good,  and  sendeth 
rain  on  the  just  and  on  the  unjust.  For  if  ye 
love  them  which  love  you,  what  reward  have  ye  f 
do  not  even  the  publicans  the  same?  And  if  ye 
salute  your  brethren  only,  what  do  ye  more  than 
others?  do  not  even  the  publi$ans  sof  Be  ye 
therefore  perfect,  even  as  your  Father  which  is  in 
heaven  is  perfect, 

AGAINST  OSTENTATION, 

Take  heed  that  ye  do  not  your  alms  before  men^ 
to  be  seen  of  them ;  otherwise  ye  have  no  reward 
of  your  Father  which  is  in  heaven.  Therefore 
when  thou  doest  thine  alms,  do  not  sound  a  trumpet 
before  thee,  as  the  hypocrites  do  in  the  synagogues 
and  in  the  streets,  that  they  may  have  glory  of  men. 
Verily  I  say  unto  you.  They  have  their  reward. 
But  when  thou  doest  alms,  let  not  thy  left  hand  know 
what  thy  right  hand  doeth,  that  thine  cUms  may  be 
in  secret;  and  thy  Father  which  seeth  in  secret  Ij^ik- 
self  shall  reward  thee  openly,  , » 

And  when  thou  pray  est,  thou  shall  not^e  as  the 
hypocrites  are  ;  for  they  love  to  pray  standing  in  the 
synagogues  and  in  the  comers  of  the  streets,  that 
they  may  be  seen  of  men.  Verily  I  say  unto  you. 
They  have  their  reward.  But  thou,  when  thou 
prayest,  enter  into  thy  closet,  and  when  thou  hast 
shut  thy  door,  pray  to  thy  Father  which  is  in  secret; 
and  thy  Father  which  seeth  in  secret  shall  reward 
thee  openly.  But  when  ye  pray,  use  not  vain  repe- 
titions, as  the  heathen  do ;  for  they  think  that  they 
shall  be  heard  for  their  much  speaking.  Be  not  ye 
therefore  like  unto  them,  for  your  Father  knoweth 
what  things  ye  have  need  of  before  ye  ask  him. 
After  this  manner  therefore  pray  ye  : 

Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven.  Hal- 
lowed be  thy  name.  Thy  kingdom  come. 
Thy  will  be  done  in  earth,  as  it  is  in 
heaven.  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread. 
And  forgive  us  our  debts,  as  we  forgive 
our  debtors.  And  lead  us  not  into  tempta- 
tion, but  deliver  us  from  evil ;  For  thine 
is  the  kingdom,  and  the  power,  and  the 
glory,  for  ever.    Amen, 

For  if  ye  forgive  men  their  trespasses,  your 


i.^^..^,,K.     ir-^^z.. 


...-•77    ^j r :-.-  —  ^«- 


L,.d  2r 


118 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


say  unto  you^  They  have  their  reward.  But  thou, 
when  thou  fastest,  anoint  thine  head,  and  wash  thy 
face,  that  thou  appear  not  unto  men  to  fast,  but 
unto  thy  Father  which  is  in  secret ;  and  thy  Father, 
which  seeth  in  secret,  shall  reward  thee  openly, 

AGAINST  AVARICE. 

Lay  not  up  for  yourselves  treasures  upon  earth, 
where  moth  and  rust  doth  corrupt,  and  where  thieves 
break  through  and  steal ;  but  lay  up  for  yourselves 
treasures  in  heaven,  where  neither  moth  nor  rust 
doth  corrupt,  and  where  thieves  do  not  break 
through  nor  steal ;  for  where  your  treasure  is, 
there  will  your  heart  be  also.  The  light  of  the  body 
is  the  eye ;  if  therefore  thine  eye  be  single,  thy 
whole  body  shall  be  full  of  light.  But  if  thine  eye 
be  evil,  thy  whole  body  shall  be  full  of  darkness.  If 
therefore  the  light  that  is  in  thee  be  darkness,  how 
great  is  that  darkness  ! 

AGAINST  ANXIETY. 

No  man  can  serve  two  masters ;  for  either  he 
will  hate  the  one  and  love  the  other,  or  else  he  will 
hold  to  the  one  and  despise  the  other.  Ye  cannot 
serve  God  and  mammon.  Therefore  I  say  unto 
you.  Take  no  thought  for  your  life,  what  ye  shall 
eat,  or  what  ye  shall  drink  ;  nor  yet  for  your  body, 
what  ye  shall  put  on.  Is  not  the  life  more  than 
meat,  and  the  body  than  raiment  ?  Behold  the  fowls 
of  the  air ;  for  they  sow  not,  neither  do  they  reap, 
nor  gather  into  bams ;  yet  your  heavenly  Father 
feedeth  them.  Are  ye  not  much  better  than  they  ? 
Which  of  you  by  taking  thought  can  add  one  cubit 
unto  his  stature  f  And  why  take  ye  thought  for 
raiment  f  Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field,  how  they 
grow  ;  they  toil  not,  neither  do  they  spin  ;  and  yet 
I  say  unto  you.  That  even  Solomon  in  all  his  glory 
was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these.  Wherefore,  if 
God  so  clothe  the  grass  of  the  field,  which  today  is, 
and  tomorrow  is  cast  into  the  oven,  shall  he  not 
much  more  clothe  you,  O  ye  of  little  faith  f  There- 
fore take  no  thought,  saying.  What  shall  we  eat  ?  or. 
What  shall  we  drink  f  or,  Wherezvithal  shall  we  be 
clothed  (for  after  all  these  things  do  the  gentiles 
seek)  :  for  your  heavenly  Father  knoweth  that  ye 
have  need  of  all  these  things.  But  seek  ye  first  the 
kingdom  of  God,  and  his  righteousness  ;  and  all 
these  things  shall  be  added  unto  you.  Take  there- 
fore no  thought  for  the  morrow  ;  for  the  morrow 
shall  take  thought  for  the  things  of  itself  Suffi- 
cient unto  the  day  is  the  evil  thereof. 

JUDGE  NOT. 

fudge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged.  For  with  what 
judgment  ye  judge,  ye  shall  be  judged ;  and  with' 
what  measure  ye  mete,  it  shall  be  measured  to  you 
again.  And  why  beholdest  thou  the  mote  that  is  in 
thy  brother's  eye,  but  consider  est  not  the  beam  that 
is  in  thine  own  eye  ?  Or  how  wilt  thou  say  to  thy 
brother.  Let  me  pull  out  the  mote  out  of  thine  eye  ; 
and,  behold,  a  beam  is  in  thine  ozvn  eye  f  Thou  hypo- 
crite, first  cast  out  the  beam  out  of  thine  own  eye  ; 
and  then  shall  thou  see  clearly  to  cast  out  the  mote 
out  of  thy  brother'' s  eye. 


Give  not  that  which  is  holy  unto  the  dogs, 
neither  cast  ye  your  pearls  before  szvine,  lest  they 
trample  them  under  their  feet,  and  turn  again  and 
rendyou, 

A  LARGE  PROMISE. 

Ask,  and  it  shall  be  given  you ;  seek,  and  ye 
shall  find  ;  knock,  and  it  shall  be  opened  unto  you  ; 
for  every  one  that  asketh  receiveth  ;  and  he  that 
seeketh  jindeth  ;  and  to  him  that  knocketh  it  shall 
be  opened.  Or  what  man  is  there  of  you,  whom  if 
his  son  ask  bread,  will  he  give  him  a  stone  ?  Or  if 
he  ask  a  fish,  will  he  give  him  a  serpent?  If  ye 
then,  being  evil,  know  how  to  give  good  gifts  unto 
your  children,  how  much  more  shall  your  Father 
which  is  in  heaven  give  good  things  to  them,  that 
ask  him  ? 

THE  GOLDEN  RULE. 

Therefore  all  things  whatsoever  ye  would  that 
men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye  even  so  to  them. ;  for 
this  is  the  law  and  the  prophets. 

Enter  ye  in  at  the  strait  gate  ;  for  wide  is  the 
gate,  and  broad  is  the  way,  that  leadeth  to  destruc- 
tion, and  many  there  be  which  go  in  thereat  ; 
because  strait  is  the  gate,  and  narrow  is  the  way, 
which  leadeth  unto  life,  and  few  there  be  that  find  it. 

Beware  of  false  prophets,  which  come  to  you  in 
sheep's  clothing,  but  inwardly  they  are  ravening 
wolves.  Ye  shall  know  them  by  their  fruits.  Do 
men  gather  grapes  of  thorns,  or  figs  of  thistles  f 
Even  so  every  good  tree  bringeth  forth  good  fruit; 
but  a  corrupt  tree  bringeth  forth  evil  fruit,  A 
good  tree  can  not  bring  forth  evil  fruit,  neither  can 
a  corrupt  tree  bring  forth  good  fruit.  Every  tree 
that  bringeth  not  forth  good  fruit  is  hewn  down, 
and  cast  into  the  fire.  Wherefore  by  their  fruits  ye 
shall  know  them, 

NOT  SAVlt4G  BUT  DOING. 

Not  every  one  that  saith  unto  me.  Lord,  Lord, 
shall  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven  ;  but  he  that 
doeth  the  will  of  my  Father  which  is  in  heaven. 
Many  will  say  to  me  in  that  day.  Lord,  Lord,  have 
we  not  prophesied  in  thy  name  f  and  in  thy  name 
have  cast  out  devils  f  and  in  thy  name  done  many 
wonderful  ivorks?  And  then  will  I  profess  unto 
them,  I  never  knew  you  ;  depart  from  me,  ye  thai 
woi'k  iniquity.  Therefore  whosoever  heareth  these 
sayings  of  mine,  and  doeth  them,  I  will  liken  hi?n  unto 
a  wise  tnan,  which  built  his  house  upon  a  rock  ;  and 
the  rain  descended,  and  the  floods  came,  and  the 
winds  blew  and  beat  upon  that  house ;  and  it  fell 
not,  for  it  was  founded  upon  a  rock.  And  every 
one  that  heareth  these  sayings  of  mine,  and  doeth 
them  not,  shall  be  likened  unto  a  foolish  man,  which 
built  his  house  upon  the  sand;  and  the  rain  descended, 
the  floods  came,  and  the  winds  blew,  and  beat  upon 
that  house ;  and  it  fell,  and  great  was  the  fait  of 
it.''  And  it  came  to  pass,  when  Jesus  had  ended 
these  sayings,  the  people  were  astonished  at  his 
doctrine;  for  he  taught  them  as  one  having  author- 
ity, and  not  as  the  scribes.    When  he  was  come 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


down  from  the  mountain,  great  multitudes  followed     the  house.    And  straightway  many  v 
him.  together,  insomuch  [hat  there  was 


e  gathered 


aieanefns  tbe  Xepec. 


(Marki:40.)  When  he  was  in 
behold  a  man  full  of  leprosy  ""'c; 
seeching  him,  and  kneehng  down  t 


°"^  HEALING  THK  LEPER. 

iiig  unto  him.  "  If  thou  wilt  thou  canst  make  me 
clean."  And  Jesus,  moved  with  compassion,  put 
forth  his  hand,  and  touched  him,  and  sailh  unto 
him,  "/  wiJ/;  fie  thou  clean."  And  as  soon  as  he 
had  spoken,  immediately  tlie  leprosy  departed  from 
him,  and  he  was  cleansed.  And  he  straiily  charged 
him,  and  forthwith  sent  him  away;  and  saith  unto 
him;  "See  thou  say  nothing  to  any  man;  but  go 
thy  way^  show  itself  to  the  priest,  and  offer  for  thy 
e/eansing  those  things  which  Afoses  commanded, /or 
a  testimony  unto  them."  Bui  he  went  out  and  be- 
gan to  publish  it  much,  and  '**"  so  much  the  more 
there  went  a  fame  abroad  of  him,  and  great  multi- 


them.  no,  not  so  much  as  about  Ihe  door", 

and  he  preached  the  word  unto  them.     "■""And 

1  City  of  Galilee,      there  were  Pharisees  and  doctors  of  the  law  sitting 

a  certain  city,      by,  which  were  come  out  of  every  town  of  Galilee, 

me  lo  him  be-      ^"^  Judea,  and  Jerusalem;  and  the  power  of  the 

1  him,  and  say-      Lord  was  present  to  heal  Ihem.    """'  And  they  come 

unto  him.  bringing  one  sick  of  the  palsy,  which  was 

borne  of  four.    And  when  they  could  not  come  nigh 

unto  him  for  the  press,  they  """went  upon  the 

house  top  and  """uncovered  the  roof  where  he 

was:  and  when  they  had  broken   it   up,   they  let 

down  ""  through  Ihe  tiles  "*"'  the  bed  wherein  the 

sick  of  the  palsy  lay.    When  Jesus  saw  their  faith 

he  said  unto  the  sick  of  the  palsy,  "*"*  "Son,  be  of 

good  cheer,  thy  sins  6e  forgiven  thee."    """But 

there  were  certain  of  the  scribes  """and  Pharisees 

■""sitting  there,  and  reasoning  in  their  hearts, 

"  Why  doth  this  man  thus  speak  blasphemies  f  who 

can  forgive  sins  but  God  only?" 

And  immediately  when  Jesus  perceived  in  his 
spirit  that  ihey  so  reasoned  within  themselves,  he 
said  unto  them,  "  Why  reason  ye  these  things  in 
your  hearts  f  Whether  is  it  easier  to  say  lo  the 
sick  of  the  palsy.  Thy  sins  be  forgiven  thee;  or  to 
say.  Arise,  and  take  up  thy  bed,  and  walk  t  But 
that  ye  may  know  thai  the  Son  of  man  hath  power 
on  earth  to  forgive  sins  ( he  saith  to  the  sick  of  the 
palsy),  I  say  unto  thee.  Arise,  and  take  up  thy  bed, 
and  go  thy  way  into  thine  house."  And  immedi- 
ately he  arose,  took  up  the  bed,  and  went  forth 
before  them  all;  insomuch  that  they  were  all 
amazed,  and  glorified  God.  "*"■  which  had  given 
such  power  unto  men,  """saying.  "We  never  saw 
it  on  this  fashion."  "*'And  they  were  filled  with 
fear,  saying,  "  We  have  seen  strange  things  to  day." 


120 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


unto  him,  "Follow  me."  And  he  arose,  "'"left 
all,  """and  followed  him,  "**  And  Levi  made  him 
a  great  feast  in  his  own  house;  and  there  was  a 
great  company  of  publicans  and  of  others  that  sat 
down  with  them,  ■™'"  for  there  were  many,  and  they 
followed  him.  And  when  the  scribes  and  Pharisees 
saw  him  eat  with  publicans  and  sinners,  they  said 
unto  his  disciples,  "  How  is  it  that  he  eateth  and 
drinketh  with  publicans  and  sinners?"  When  Je- 
sus heard  it,  he  saith  unto  them,  "They that  are 
whole  have  no  need  of  the  physician^  but  Ihey  that 
are  sict,-  ""■  but  go  ye  and  learn  what  that  meait- 
eth.  '  /  will  have  mercy  and  not  sacrifice.'  """  / 
came  not  to  call  the  righteous,  but  sinners  to  re- 
pentance." 

Hnaweis  InqulrB  About  f  aetina. 

A.  D.  IS.  Capcmaani. 

(Markii:  18.)  And  the  disciples  of  John  and  of 
the  Pharisees  used  to  fast;  and  they  come  and  say 
unto  him,  "Why  do  the  disciples  of  John  and  of  the 
Pharisees  fast  """often  and  make  supplications, 
"""but  thy  disciples  fast  not?"  And  Jesus  said 
unto  them,  "Can  the  children  of  the  bridechatnber 
fast  "*"■  and  mourn  ""''  while  the  bridegroom  is 
with  them?  as  long  as  they  have  the  bridegroom 
with  them,  they  cannot  fast.  But  the  days  will 
cotne,  when  the  bridegroom  shall  be  taken  away 
from  them,  and  then  shall  they  fast  in  those  days. 
No  man  also  sewetk  a  piece  of  new  cloth  on  an  old 
garment;  else  the  new  piece  that  filled  it  up  taketh 
away  from  the  old.  """  and  the  piece  that  was  taken 
out  of  the  new  agreeth  not  with  the  cid,  ""'  and  the 
rent  is  made  worse.  And  no  man  putleth  new  wine 
into  old  bottles;  else  the  new  wine  doth  burst  the  bot- 
tles, and  the  wine  is  spilled,  and  the  bottles  will  be 
marred;  but  new  wine  must  be  put  into  new  bottles. 
"""  No  man  also  having  drunk  old  wine  straight- 
way desireth  new;  for  he  saith,  'The  old  is  better.'  " 

3aitu6'  Detttton. 

A.  D.  ffl,  CEpemaura. 

(Mark  v:  22. )  Behold,  there  comelh  one  of  the 
rulers  of  the  synagogue,  jairus  by  name;  and  when 
he  saw  him,  he  fell  at  his  feet,  and  besought  him 
greatly,  """  that  he  would  come  into  his  house,  for 
he  had  one  only  daughter,  and  she  lay  a  dying; 
""'saying,  "My  little  daughter  liethatthe  point  of 
death;  I  pray  thee,  come  and  lay  thy  hands  on  her, 
that  she  may  be  healed;  and  she  shall  live."  And 
Jesus  "*"■  arose  and  """  went  with  him;  "*"■  and  so 
did  his  disciples,  and  ""'much  people  followed 
him,  and  thronged  him. 


a  isaomati  Deatet). 

A,  D.  2&.  Capernaum. 

(Markv:Z6.)  Andacertain  woman,  whichhad 
an  issue  of  blood  twelve  years,  and  had  suffered 
many  things  of  many  physicians,  and  had  spent  all 
that  she  had,  and  was  nothing  bettered,  but  rather 
grew  worse,  when  she  had  heard  of  Jesus,  came  in 
the  press  behind,  and  touched  """  the  border  of  "*" 


his  garment.  For  she  said  "*"*  within  herself,  "*" 
"  If  I  may  touch  but  his  clothes,  I  shall  be  whole." 
And  straightway  the  fountain  of  her  blood  was 
dried  up;  and  she  felt  in  her  body  that  she  was 
healed  of  that  plague.  And  Jesus,  immediately 
knowing  in  himself  that  virtue  had  gone  out  of  him, 
turned  him  about  m  the  press,  and  said,  "WSo 
touched  my  clolhesf"  ■**■  And  when  all  denied, 
Peter,  and  they  that  were  with  him,  said.  ""  "Thou 
seest  the  multitude  thronging  thee,  and  sayest  thou 
'Who  touched  me?"  "  "*•  And  Jesus  said,  "Some- 
body hath  touched  me,  for  /perceive  that  virtue  is 
gone  out  of  me."  """  And  he  looked  roundabout 
to  see  her  that  had  done  this  thing.  But  the  woman 
"■"'saw  that  she  was  not  hid;  """fearing  and 
trembling,  knowing  what  was  done  in  her,  came 


THE  DAUGHTER  OF  JAIRUS  RESTORED. 

and  fell  down  before  him,  and  told  him  all  the 
truth.  And  he  said  unto  her,  "Daughter,  """■  be 
of  good  comfort,  ""  thy  faith  hath  made  thee 
whole;  go  in  peace,  and  be  whole  of  thy  plague." 
"*"■  And  the  woman  was  made  whole  from  that 
hour. 

italflfng  of  Salius'  5)au0btei. 

A.  D.  28.  Capernaum. 

(Mark  vt  35.)  """While  he  yet  spoke,  there 
came  from  the  ruler  of  the  synagogue's  house  cer- 
tain whrch  said,  "Thy  daughter  is  dead;  why 
troublest  thou  the  Master  any  further?"  As  soon 
as  Jesus  heard  the  word  that  was  spoken,  he  saith 
unto  the  ruler  of  the  synagogue,  "Be  not  afraid, 
only  believe  "'^  and  she  shall  be  made  whole."  "*" 
And  he  suffered  no  man  to  follow  him,  save  Peter, 
and  James,  and  John  the  brother  of  James.  Aitd  he 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


121 


Cometh  to  the  bouse  of  the  ruler  of  the  synagogue, 
and  seeth  the  tumult,  "*"■  the  minstrels,  "*"  and 
them  that  wept  and  wailed  greatly,  and  when  he 
was  come  in,  he  saith  unto  them.  Why  maie  ye 
this  ado,  and  weepf  '^'"-  give  place,  "*"  the  damsel 
is  not  dead,  but  sleepelh.  And  they  laughed  him 
to  scom,  "'"■  knowing  thai  she  was  dead.  '*™'  But 
when  he  had  put  them  all  out,  he  taketh  the  father 
and  the  mother  of  the  damsel,  and  them  that  were 
with  him,  and  enlereth  in  where  the  damsel  was 
lying.  And  he  took  the  damsel  by  the  hand,  and 
said  unto  her,  TaHtha  cumi,  which  is,  being  in- 
terpreted. Damsel,  I  say  unto  thee,  arise.  "" 
And  her  spirit  came  again.  ""And  straightway 
the  damsel  arose,  and  walked;  for  she  was  of  the 
a%fi  of  twelve  years.  And  they  were  astonished 
with  a  great  astonishment  And  he  charged  them 
Straitly  that  no  man  should  know  it;  and  com- 
manded that  something  should  be  given  her  to  eat, 
"*"-  And  the  fame  hereof  went  abroad  into  all  that 
land.. 


Cute  ot  Cwo  JSUnI)  Aen. 

A.  D.  a.  Cipcnuum. 

(Matt,  ix:  27.)  And  when  Jesus  departed 
thence,  two  blind  men  followed  him,  crying,  and 
saying,  "Thou  son  of  David,  have  mercy  on  us." 
And  when  he  was  come  into  the  house,  the  blind 
men  came  to  him ;  and  Jesus  saith  unto  them. 
Believe  ye  that  I  am  able  to  do  this  f  They  said 
unto  him,  "Yea,  Lord."  Then  touched  he  their 
eyes,  saying.  According  to  your  faith  be  it  unto 
you.  And  their  eyes  were  opened;  and  Jesus 
straitly  charged  them,  saying.  See  that  no  mam 
know  it.  But  they,  when  they  were  departed, 
spread  abroad  his  fame  in  all  that  country. 

As  they  went  out,  behold,  they  brought  to  him 
a  dumb  man  possessed  with  a  devil.  And  when 
the  devil  was  cast  out,  the  dumb  spoke;  and  the 
multitudes  marveled,  saying,  "It  was  never  so 
seen  in  Israel."  But  the  Pharisees  said,  "He 
casteth  out  devils  through  the  prince  of  the  devils." 


L  OP  BBTRB5DA. 


SECOND  YEAR  OF  PUBLIC  MINISTRY. 


(Time:  One  yeu.) 


St  tbe  Dool  Of  JBetbcsOa. 
&.D.a. 

(John  v:  1.)    After  this  there  was  a  feast  of  the 
Jews;  and  Jesus  went  up  to  Jerusalem.    Now  there 


is  at  Jerusalem  by  the  sheep  market  a  pool,  whidi 
is  called  in  the  Hebrew  tongue  Bethesda,  having 
five  porches.  In  these  lay  a  great  multitude  of  im- 
potent folk,  of  blind,  halt,  withered,  waiting  for  the 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


moving  of  the  water.  For  an  angel  went  down  at 
a  certain  season  into  the  pool,  and  troubled  the 
water;  whosoever  then  first  after  the  troubling  of 
the  water  stepped  in  was  made  whole  of  whatso- 
ever disease  he  had.  And  a  certain  man  was  there, 
which  had  an  infirmity  thirty  and  eight  years. 
U'hen  Jesus  saw  him  lie,  and  1<new  that  he  had 
been  now  a  long  time  In  that  case,  he  saith  unto 
him,  H1/i  Ihou  be  made  whole?  The  impotent 
man  answered  him,  "Sir,  I  have  no  man,  ivhen  the 
water  is  troubled,  to  putme  into  the  pool;  but  while 
1  am  coming,  another  steppelh  down  before  me." 
Jesus  saith  unto  him,  Rise,  take  up  thy  bed,  and 
walk.  And  immediately  the  man  was  made 
whole,  and  took  up  his  bed,  and  walked;  and  on 
the  same  day  was  the  sabbath. 


him  whole.  And  therefore  did  the  ]ewa  persnrute 
Jesus,  and  sought  to  stay  him,  because  he  had  >lone 
these  things  on  the  sabbatli  day. 

itelatlon  or  Son  to  tbe  f  atber. 

A.  O.  28.  JcnisBlcB. 

(John  v:  19.)  But  Jesus  answerd  them,  J^ 
Father  worketh  hitherto,  and  I  work.  Therefore 
the  Jews  sought  tlie  more  to  kill  him,  because  he 
not  only  had  broken  the  sabbath,  hut  said  also  that 
God  was  his  Father,  making  himself  equal  with 
God.  Then  answered  Jesus  and  said  unio  ihem. 
Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you.  The  Son  can  do 
nothing  of  himself,  but  what  he  seeth  the  Father  io; 
for  what  things  soever  he  doeth,  these  also  do'lh 
the  Son  likettnse.    For  the  Fatiter  loveih  the  Son, 


JERUSALEM,  VALLEV  f) 


E  RIHON. 


The  Jews  therefore  said  unto  him  that  was  cured, 
"It  is  the  sabkith  day;  it  ts  not  lawful  fur  thee  to 
carry  thy  bed."  He  answered  them,  "He  tl)at 
made  me  whole,  the  same  said  unto  me,  'Take  up 
thy  bed,  and  walk.'  "  Then  asked  they  him, 
"\Vhatmanis  that  which  said  unto  thee,  Take  up 
thy  bed,  and  walk?"  And  he  that  was  healed  wist 
not  who  it  was,  tor  Jesus  had  con\'eyed  himself 
away,  a  multitude  being  in  that  pl.nce.  Afterward 
Jesus  findeth  him  in  the  temple,  and  said  unto  him, 
Behold,  thou  art  made  who/e;  sin  no  more,  testa 
worse  thing  come  unto  thee.  The  man  departed, 
and  told  the  Jews  that  it  was  Jesus,  which  had  made 


and  showcth  hint  all  iMngs  that  himself  doeth;  and 
he  will  show  htm  greater  vjorks  than  these,  that  ye 
may  marvel.  For  as  the  Father  raiseth  up  the  dead, 
and  quickeneth  Ihem;  even  so  the  Son  quickeneth 
whom  he  will.  For  the  Father  judgeth  no  man, 
but  hath  contmilted  all  judgment  unto  the  Sor_ 
that  all  men  should  honor  Ihe  Son,  even  as  theyhono 
the  Father.  He  that  honoreth  not  the  Son  honoreti 
notthe  Father  which  hath  sent  him.  P'erily,  verily, 
/say  unto  you.  He  that  hearelh  my  word  and  be- 
tieveth  on  him  that  sent  me,  hath  everlasting  Kje, 
and  sh. ill  not  come  info  condemnation;  but  is  passed 
from  death  unto  life.      Verily,  verity,  I  say  taUo 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


12S 


you.  The  hour  is  coming,  and  now  is  when  the  dead 
shall  hear  the  voice  of  Ike  Son  of  God;  and  they 
that  hear  shall  live.  For  as  the  Father  hath  life  in 
himself,  so  hath  he  given  to  the  Son  to  have  life  in 
himself;  and  hath  given  him  authority  to  execute 
judgment  also,  because  he  is  the  Son  of  man. 

Marvel  not  at  this,  for  the  hour  is  coming,  in 
the  which  all  Ihat  are  in  the  graves  shall  hear  his 
voice,  and  shall  come  forth;  they  that  have  done 
good,  unto  the  resurrection  of  life;  and  they  that 
have  done  evil,  unto  the  resurrection  of  damnation. 
I  can  of  mine  own  self  do  nothing;  as  I  hear,  I 
judge,  and  my  judgment  is  just;  because  I  seek  not 
mine  own  will,  but  the  will  of  the  Father  which 
hath  sent  me.    ff  Ibear  witness  of  myself,  my  wit- 


any  time,  nor  seen  his  shape.  And  ye  have  not  his 
word  abiding  in  you,  for  whom  he  hath  sent,  him 
ye  believe  not.  Search  the  scriptures;  for  in  them 
ye  think  ye  have  eternal  Hfe;  and  they  are  they 
which  testify  of  me.  And  ye  will  not  come  to  me, 
that  ye  might  have  Hfe.  I  receive  not  honor  from 
men.  But  I  know  you,  that  ye  have  not  the  love  of 
Godinyou.  I  am  come  in  my  Father's  name,  and 
ye  receive  me  not;  if  another  shall  come  in  his  own 
name,  him  ye  will  receive.  How  can  ye  believe, 
which  receive  honor  one  of  another,  and  seek  not 
the  honor  that  cometh  from  God  only  t  Do  not 
think  that  I  will  accuse  you  to  the  Father;  there  is 
one  that  accuseth  you,  even  Moses,  in  whom  ye 
trust.    For  had  ye  believed  Moses,  ye  would  have 


]i„gTaph. 


JERL'SAI-EM,  ROAD  OF  THE  CAPTIVFTV. 


ness  is  not  true.     There  is  another  that  beareth 

witness  of  me;  and  I  know  that  the  witness  which 

he  witnesselh  of  me  is  true.      Ve  sent  unto  fohn,  and 

he  bear  witness  unto  the  truth.    But  I  receive  not 

testimony  from  man;  but  these  things  I  say,  that  ye 

might  be  saved.     He  was  a  burning  and  a  shining      A.  D.  28. 

light,  and  ye  were  willing  for  a  season  to  rejoice  (Matt. 


believed  me,  for  he  wrote  of  me.  But  if  ye  be- 
lieve not  his  writings,  how  shall  ye  believe  my 
words? 


XotD  o(  ibe  Sabbatb. 


l^UIMUCKCUl-    SlUKY 


day."  But  he  said  unto  them,  Have  ye  not  read 
what  David  did,  when  he  ■"""  had  need  and  "*"■  was 
an  hungered,  and  they  thai  were  with  him;  how 
"*"'  in  the  days  of  Abiathar  the  high  priest  "*"■  he 
entered  into  the  house  of  God,  and  did  eat  the  show- 
dread,  which  was  not  lawful  for  him  to  eat,  neither 
for  Ikem  which  were  with  him,  but  only  for  the 
priests  f  Or  have  ye  not  read  in  the  law,  how  that 
on  the  sabbath  days  the  priests  in  the  temple  profane 
the  sabbath,  and  are  blameless  ?  But  I  say  unto  you. 
That  in  this  place  is  one  greater  than  the  ten^le. 
But  if  ye  had  known  what  this  meaneth,  '/  will 
have  mercy,  and  not  sacrifice,'  ye  would  not  have 
condemned  the  guiltless.     '^"And  he  said  unto 


THE  LORD  OF  THE  SABBATH  DAY. 

them,  The  sabbath  was  made  for  man,  andnotman 
for  the  sabbath,  therefore  the  Son  of  man  is  Lord 
also  of  the  sabbath. 

Sbe  intltbeteO  DanD. 

A.  D.  IS.  Near  Capernauin. 

(Matt  xii:  9.)  And  when  he  was  departed 
thence,  he  went  into  their  synagogue  '*"'  on  another 
sabbath,  and  taught ;  and  there  was  a  man  whose 
right  hand  was  withered.  And  the  scribes  and 
Pharisees  watched,  *""■  and  they  asked  hitn,  saying, 
"Is  it  lawful  to  heal  on  the  sabbath  days?"  that 
they  might  accuse  him.  And  he  said  unto  them, 
Wfla/  man  shall  there  be  among  you  that  shall 
have  one  sheep,  and  if  it  fall  into  a  pit  on  the  sab- 
bath day,  will  he  not  lay  hold  on  it,  and  lift  it  out  f 
How  much  then  is  a  man  better  than  a  sheep  f 
Wherefore  it  is  lawful  to  do  well  on  the  sabbath 
days.  """  And  when  he  had  looked  round  about 
on  them  with  anger,  being  grieved  for  the  hardness 
of  their  hearts,  he  saith  unto  the  man,  """  Rise 
up,  and  stand  forth  in  the  midst.     And  he  arose 


and  stood  forth.    "*"•  Then  saith  he  to  the  man. 
Stretch   forth   thine   hand.     And   he   stretched  it 

forth;  and  it  was  restored  whole,  like  as  the  Other. 
Then  the  Pharisees  went  out,  and  held  a  council 
•"""with  the  Herodians  "*"■  against  him,  how  they 
might  destroy  him.  But  when  Jesus  knew  it,  he 
withdrewhimself  from  thence;  and  great  muldtudes 
followed  him,  and  he  healed  them  all;  and  charged 
them  that  they  should  not  make  him  known,  that 
it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  by  Isaiab 
the  prophet,  sayii^, 

Bthoid  my  servant,  wbom  I  have  chosen;  my 
beloved,  in  whom  n 


neither  shall  any  man  hesrbis  voice  in  Iheslreets. 
A  bniisHl  reed  shall  he  not  break,  and  smoking 
flax  shall  be  not  quench.  1111  he  send  (onh  judc- 
meni  unto  victory.    And  in  his  name  shall  Ihe 


Au[Htu&e0  follow  Dim. 

A.  D.  2S.  The  Sea  of  Galilee. 

(Mark  iii;  7.)  Jesus  withdrew  himself  with  his 
disciples  to  the  sea;  and  a  great  multitude  from 
Galilee  followed  him,  and  from  Judea,  and  from 
Jerusalem,  and  from  Idumea,  and  from  beyond 
Jordan;  and  they  about  Tyre  and  Sidon,  a  great 
multitude,  when  they  had  heard  what  great  things 
he  did,  came  unto  him.  And  he  spoke  to  his  dis- 
ciples, that  a  small  ship  should  wait  on  him  be- 
cause of  the  multitude,  lest  they  should  throng 
him.  For  he  had  healed  many;  insomuch  that 
they  pressed  upon  him  for  to  touch  him,  as  many 
as  had  plagues.  And  unclean  spirits  when  they 
saw  him,  fell  down  before  him,  and  cried,  saying, 
"Thou  art  the  Son  of  God."  And  he  straitly 
charged  them  that  they  should  not  make  him 
known. 

Sbe  Cboscn  sweive. 

A,  D.  28.  A  Mountain  near  Capemaum. 

(Mark  Hi:  13.)  And  hegoeth  up  into  a  moun- 
tain """to  pray,  and  continued  all  night  in  prayer 
to  God.  And  when  it  was  day,  he  called  unto  him 
his  disciples;  and  of  them  he  chose  twelve,  whom 
also  he  named  apostles;  """'that  they  should  be 
with  him,  and  that  he  might  send  them  forth  to 
preach,  and  to  have  power  to  heal  sicknesses,  and 
to  cast  out  devils;  and  Simon  he  sumamed  Peter; 
and  James  the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  John  the  brother 
of  James;  and  he  sumamed  them  Boanerges,  which 
is,  the  sons  of  thunder;  and  Andrew,  and  Philip, 
and  Bartholomew,  and  Matthew,  and  Thomas, 
and  James  the  son  of  Alphxus,  and  Thaddeus, 
and  Simon  the  Canaanite,  and  Judas  Iscariot,  which 
also  betrayed  him. 


Setmon  on  tbe  plain. 

Beacb  near  Capernaum. 

i:  17.)  And  he  came  down  with  them, 
n  the  plain,  and  the  company  of  his  dis- 
1  great  multitude  of  people  out  of  all 


(Luke 
and  stood 
ciples,  and 
Judea  and  Jerusalem,  and  from  the  sea  coast  of 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


125 


Tyre  and  Sidon,  which  came  to  hear  him,  and  to 
be  healed  of  their  diseases;  and  they  that  were 
vexed  with  unclean  spirits;  and  they  were  healed. 
And  the  whole  multitude  sought  to  touch  him,  for 
there  went  virtue  out  of  him,  and  healed  them  all. 

And  he  lifted  up  his  eyes  on  his  disciples,  and 
said,  Blessed  be  ye  poor ^  for  yours  is  the  kingdom 
of  God,  Blessed  are  ye  that  hunger  now,  for  ye 
shall  be  mud.  Blessed  are  ye  that  weep  now,  for 
ye  shall  laugh.  Blessed  are  ye,  when  men  shall 
hate  you,  and  when  they  shall  separate  you  from 
their  company,  and  shall  reproach  you,  and  cast  out 
your  name  as  evil,  for  the  Son  of  man*  s  sake.  Re- 
joice ye  in  that  day,  and  leap  for  joy,  for,  behold, 
your  reward  is  great  in  heaven;  for  in  the  like 
manner  did  their  fathers  unto  the  prophets.  But 
woe  unto  you  that  are  rich!  for  ye  have  received 
your  consolation.  Woe  unto  you  that  are  full! 
for  ye  shall  hunger.  Woe  unto  you  that  laugh 
now!  for  ye  shall  mourn  and  weep.  Woe  untoyou^ 
when  all  men  shall  speak  well  of  you!  for  so  did 
their  fathers  to  the  false  prophets.  But  I  say  unto 
you  which  hear.  Love  your  enemies,  do  good  to  them 
which  hate  you,  bless  them  that  curse  you,  and  pray 
for  them  which  despitefully  use  you.  And  unto 
him  that  smiteth  thee  on  the  one  cheek  offer  also  the 
other;  and  him  that  taketh  away  thy  cloak  forbid 
not  to  take  thy  coat  also.  Give  to  every  man  that 
asketh  of  thee,  and  of  him  that  taketh  away  thy 
goods  ask  them  not  again.  And  as  ye  would  thai 
men  should  do  to  you,  do  ye  also  to  them  likewise. 
For  if  ye  love  them  which  love  you,  what  thank  have 
ye?  for  sinners  also  love  those  that  love  them.  And 
if  ye  do  good  to  them  which  do  good  to  you,  what 
thank  have  ye?  for  sinners  also  do  even  the  same. 
And  if  ye  lend  to  them  of  whom  ye  hope  to  receive, 
what  thank  have  ye?  for  sinners  also  lend  to  sinners, 
to  receive  as  much  again.  But  love  ye  your  ene- 
mies, and  do  good,  and  lend,  hoping  for  nothing 
again;  and  your  reward  shall  be  great,  and  ye  shall 
be  the  children  of  the  Highest,  for  he  is  kind  unto 
the  unthankful  and  to  the  evil.  Be  ye  therefore 
merciful,  as  your  Father  also  is  tnerciful,  fudge 
not,  and  ye  shall  not  be  judged;  condemn  not,  and 
ye  shall  not  be  condemned;  forgive,  and  ye  shall 
be  forgiven;  Give,  and  it  shall  be  given  unto  you; 
good  measure,  pressed  down,  and  shaken  together^ 
and  running  over,  shall  men  give  into  your  bosom. 
For  Tvith  the  same  tneasure  that  ye  mete  withal  it 
shall  be  measured  to  you  again. 

And  he  spake  a  parable  unto  them.  Can  the 
blind  lead  the  blind?  shall  they  not  both  fall  into  the 
ditch?  The  disciple  is  not  above  his  master,  but 
every  one  that  is  perfect  shcUl  be  as  his  master. 
And  why  beholdest  thou  the  mote  that  is  in  thy 
brother's  eye,  but  perceivest  not  the  beam  that  is  in 
thine  own  eye  ?  Either  how  canst  thou  say  to  thy 
brother.  Brother,  let  me  pull  out  the  mote  that  is  in 
thine  eye,  when  thou  thyself  beholdest  not  the  beam 
that  is  in  thine  oivn  eye  ?  Thou  hypocrite,  cast  out 
first  the  beam  out  of  thine  OTvn  eye,  and  then  shall 
thou  see  clearly  to  pull  out  the  mote  thcU  is  in  thy 
brother's  eye.    For  a  good  tree  bringeth  not  forth 


corrupt  fruit;  neither  doth  a  corrupt  tree  bring 
forth  good  fruit.  For  every  tree  is  known  by  his 
own  fruit.  For  of  thorns  men  do  not  gather  figs, 
nor  of  a  bramble  bush  gather  they  grapes.  A  good 
man  out  of  the  good  treasure  of  his  heart  bringeth 
forth  that  which  is  good;  and  an  evil  man  out  of 
the  evil  treasure  of  his  heart  bringeth  forth  that 
which  is  evil;  for  of  the  abundance  of  the  heart 
his  mouth  speaketh.  And  why  call  ye  me,  Lord^ 
Lord,  and  do  not  the  things  which  I  say  ? 

Whosoever  cometh  to  me,  and  heareth  my  say- 
ings,  and  doeth  them,  I  will  show  you  to  whom  he 
is  like.  "  He  is  like  a  man  which  built  an  house,  and 
digged  deep,  and  laid  the  foundation  on  a  rock;  and 
when  the  flood  arose,  the  stream  beat  vehemently 
upon  that  house,  and  could  not  shake  it,  for  it  was 
founded  upon  a  rock.  But  he  that  heareth,  and 
doeth  not,  is  like  a  man  that  without  a  foundation 
buitt  an  house  upon  the  earth;  against  which  the 
stream  did  beat  vehemently,  and  immediately  it  fell; 
and  the  ruin  of  that  house  wcls  great. 


Zbc  Centurton'0  0reat  f  aitb. 


A. D.  28. 


Capernaum. 


(Luke  vii :  1.)  Now  when  he  had  ended  all  his 
sayings  in  the  audience  of  the  people,  he  entered 
into  Capernaum.  And  a  certain  centurion's  serv- 
ant, who  was  dear  unto  him,  was  sick  '^"-  of 
the  palsy,  grievously  tormented,  ""*'  and  ready  to 
die.  And  when  he  heard  of  Jesus,  he  sent  unto 
him  the  elders  of  the  Jews,  beseeching  him  that 
he  would  come  and  heal  his  servant  And  when 
they  came  to  Jesus  they  besought  him  instantly, 
saying.  That  he  was  worthy  for  whom  he  should 
do  this,  for  he  loveth  our  nation,  and  he  hath 
built  us  a  synagogue.  Then  Jesus  went  with 
them.  And  when  he  was  now  not  far  from  the 
house,  the  centurion  sent  friends  to  him,  saying 
unto  him,  "Lord,  trouble  not  thyself,  for  I  am 
not  worthy  that  thou  shouldest  enter  under  my 
roof;  wherefore  neither  thought  I  myself  worthy 
to  come  unto  thee;  but  say  in  a  word,  and  my 
servant  shall  be  healed.  For  I  also  am  a  man 
set  under  authority,  having  under  me  soldiers,  and 
I  say  unto  one,  Go,  and  he  goeth;  and  to  another, 
Come  and  he  cometh;  and  to  my  servant.  Do  this, 
and  he  doeth  it"  When  Jesus  heard  these  things, 
ne  marveled  at  him,  and  turned  him  about,  and 
said  unto  the  people  that  followed  him,  /  say 
unto  you,  I  have  not  found  so  great  faith,  no,  not  in 
Israel,  ■**"•  And  I  say  unto  you,  that  many  shall 
come  from  the  east  and  west,  and  shall  sit  dozim 
with  Abraham,  and  Isaac,  and  facob,  in  the  king- 
dom of  heaven.  But  the  children  of  the  kingdom 
shall  be  cast  out  into  outer  darkness;  there  shall  be 
weeping  and  gnashing  of  teeth.  And  Jesus  said 
unto  the  centurion,  Go  thy  way;  and  as  thou 
hast  believed,  so  be  it  done  unto  thee.  And  his 
servant  was  healed  in  the  selfeame  hour.  "*"  And 
they  that  were  sent,  returning  to  the  house,  found 
the  servant  whole  that  had  been  sick. 


126 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


tCbe  Mf^ow  Of  Itain. 

{Lukevii:  II.)  And  it  came  to  pass  the  day 
efter,  that  he  went  inio  a  city  called  Nain;  and 
many  of  his  disciples  went  with  him,  and  much 
people.  Now  when  he  came  nigh  to  the  gate  of  the 
city,  behold,  there  was  a  dead  man  carried  out,  the 
only  son  of  his  mother,  and  she  was  a  widow;  and 
much  people  of  the  city  was  with  her.  And  when 
the  Lord  saw  her,  he  had  compassion  on  her,  and 
said  unto  her,  (Veefi  not.  And  he  came  and 
touched  the  bier;  and  they  that  bore  him  stood 
still.  And  he  said,  foune  man.  I  say  unto  thee, 
/^rife.  And  he  that  was  dead  sat  up,  and  began 
to  speak.  And  he  delivered  him  lo  his  mother. 
And  there  came  a  fear  on  all ;  and  they  glorified 
Clod,  saying.  That  a  great  prophet  is  risen  up 
among  us;  and,  That  God  hath  visited  his  people. 


come?  or  look  we  for  another?'  "  And  in  that 
same  hour  he  cured  niany  of  their  infinnities  and 
plagues,  and  of  evil  spirits;  and  unto  many  that 
were  blind  he  gave  sight.  Then  Jesus  answering 
said  unto  them.  Go  your  way,  and  tell  John  what 
things  ye  have  seen  and  heard:  how  that  the  bliitd 
see.  the  fame  walk,  the  lepers  are  cleansed,  the  deaf 
hear,  the  deadare  raised,  to  the  poor  the  gospel  is 
preached.  And  blessed  is  he,  whosoever  shall  not 
be  offended  in  me.  And  when  the  messengers  of 
John  were  departed,  he  began  to  speak  unto  the 
people  concerning  John,  Ifhat  went  ye  out  into 
the  wilderness  for  lo  see?  A  reed  shaken  with  the 
wind?  But  what  we^  ye  out  for  to  see  *  A  man 
clothed  in  soft  raiment  f  Behold,  they  which  are 
gorgeously  appareled,  and  live  delieotely,  are  in 
Mngs'  courts.    But  what  went  ye  out  for  to  see  T 


CHRIST  THE  CONSOLER, 


And  this  rumor  of  him  went  forth  throughout  all      A  prophet  f     Yea,  I  say  unto  you,  and  much  more 
ludea,  and  throughout  all  the  region  round  about,      than  a  prophet.     This  is  he,  of  whom  it  is  written. 


Cbrtet'0  itepis  to  5obn  tbe  Baptist. 

A.  D.  2S.  Galilee. 

(Lukevii:  18.)  And  the  disciples  of  John  showed 
him  of  all  these  things  ■""•  in  the  prison.  '-""'And 
John  calling  unto  him  two  of  his  disciples  sent  them 
to  Jesus,  saying.  "  Art  thou  he  that  should  come  ? 
or  look  we  for  another?"  When  the  men  were 
come  unto  him,  they  said.  "John  the  Baptist  halh 
sent  us  unto  ihee.  saying,  'Art  thou  he  that  should 


Bel-old.  r sind my  mtatnger  btMelkyfac. 
which  shall  prrparr  Iky  way  be/ore  Ihee. 
For  t  say  unto  you.  Among  those  that  are 
bom  of  women  there  is  not  a  greater  prophet  than 
fohn  the  Baptist;  but  he  that  is  least  in  the  kingdom 
of  God  is  greater  than  he.  "*"'  And  from  the  days 
of  John  the  Baptist  until  now  Ihe  kingdom  of  heaven 
suffereth  violence,  and  the  violent  take  it  by  force. 
For  all  the  prophets  and  the  law  prophesied  unlit 
John.    And  if  ye  will  receive  it,  this  is  Elijah, 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


127 


which  wasfiyr  to  come.    He  Ihai  haih  ears  to  hear, 
lei  him  hear. 

And  all  the  people  that  heard  him,  and  the  pub- 
licans, justilied  God,  being  baptized  with  the  bap- 
tism of  John.  But  the  Pharisees  and  lawyers  re- 
jected the  counsel  of  God  against  themselves,  being 
not  baptized  of  him.  And  the  Lord  said,  Where- 
unto  then  shall  I  Hken  the  men  of  this  generation  f 
and  lo  what  are  they  likef  They  are  like  unto 
children  sitting  in  the  market  place,  and  calling  one 
to  another,  and  saying.  We  have  piped  unto  you, 
and  ye  have  not  danced  ;  we  have  mourned  lo  you, 
and  ye  have  not  wept.  For  John  the  Baptist  came 
neither  eating  bread  nor  drinking  wine;  and  ye 


in  the  Pharisee's  house,  brought  an  alabaster  box 
of  ointment,  and  stood  at  his  feet  behind  him  weep- 
ing, and  began  to  wash  his  feet  with  tears,  and  did 
wipe  them  with'  the  haire  of  her  head,  and  kissed 
his  feet,  and  anointed  them  with  the  ointment. 
Now  when  the  Pharisee  which  had  bidden  him  saw 
it.  he  spake  within  himself,  saying,  "This  man,  if 
he  were  a  prophet,  would  hiive  known  who  and 
what  manner  of  woman  this  is  that  toucheth  him: 
for  she  is  a  sinner."  And  Jesus  answering  said 
unto  him,  Simon,  I  have  somewhat  to  say  unto 
thee.  And  he  saith,  "Master,  say  on."  There 
was  a  certain  creditor  which  had  two  debtors;  the 
one  owed  five  hundred  pence,  and  the  other  fi/fy. 


128 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORV 


Salan  f  "*"■  Every  kingdom  divided  against  itself 
is  brought  to  desolation;  and  every  city  or  house 
divided  against  itself  shall  not  stand:  and  if  Satan 
cast  out  Satan,  he  is  divided  against  himself;  hotv 
shall  then  his  kingdom  stand  ?  And  if  I  by  Beelze- 
bub cast  out  devils,  by  whom  do  your  children  cast 
them  out?  therefore  they  shall  be  your  judges.  But 
if  I  cast  out  devils  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  then  the 
kingdom  of  God  is  come  unto  you.  Or  else  how 
can  one  enter  into  a  strong  man's  house,  and  spoil 
his  goods,  except  he  first  bind  the  strong  man  f  and 
then  he  will  spoil  his  house.  He  that  is  not  with 
me  is  against  me;  and  he  that  gathereih  not  with 
me  scattereth  abroad. 

Wherefore  I  say  unto  you.  All  manner  of  sin 
and  blasphemy  shail  be  forgiven  unto  men  ;  but  the 


O  generation  of  vipers,  how  can  ye,  being  evU, 
speak  good  things?  for  out  of  the  abundance  of  the 
heart  the  mouth  speaketh.  A  good  jnan  out  of  the 
good  treasure  of  the  heart  bringeth  forth  good 
things:  and  an  evil  man  out  of  the  evil  treasure 
bringeth  forth  evil^  things.     But  I  say  unto  yoK, 

That  every  idle  word  thai  men  shall  speak,  they 
shall  give  account  thereof  in  the  day  of  judgment. 
For  by  thy  words  thou  shall  be  justified,  and  by  /*»' 
words  thou  shall  be  condemned. 

pbarfoees  Seek  a  Slfiit. 

(Matt,  xii:  38. )  Then  certain  of  the  scribes  and 
of  the  Pharisees  answered,  saying,  "  Master,  we 
would  see  a  sign  from  thee."  But  he  answered 
and  said  unto  ihem.  An  evil  and  adulterous  gen- 


PARABLE  OF  THE  SOWER. 


blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost  shall  not  be  for- 
given unlo  men.  And  whosoever  speaketh  a  word 
against  the  Son  of  man,  it  shall  be  forgiven  him: 
but  whosoever  speaketh  against  the  Holy  Ghost  """■ 
is  in  danger  of  eternal  damnation  (because  they 
said  he  hath  an  unclean  spirit),""- iV  shall  not  be 
forgiven  him,  neither  in  this  world,  neither  in  the 
world  to  comt.  Either  make  the  tree  good,  'and  his 
f mil  good,  or  else  make  the  tree  corrupt,  and  his 
fruit  corrupt :  for  the  tree  is  known  by  his  fruit. 


eration  seeketh  after  a  sign;  and  there  shall  no 
sign  be  given  to  it,  but  the  sign  of  the  prophet 
fonah:  for  as  fonah  was  three  days  and  three 
nights  in  the  whale's  belly,  so  shall  the  Son  of  man 
be  three  days  and  three  nights  in  the  heart  of  the 
earth.  The  jnen  of  Nineveh  shall  rise  in  judgment 
with  this  generation,  and  shall  cmutemn  it:  because 
they  repented  at  the  preaching  of  Jonah;  and,  be- 
hold, a  greater  than  Jonah  is  here.  The  queen  of 
the  south  shall  rise  up  in  the  judgment  with  this 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY  129 

generalion,  and  shall  condemn  it:  for  she  came  more  abundance:  but  whosoever  hath  not,  from  kim 
from  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth  to  hear  the  shall  be  taken  away  even  that  he  hath.  Therefore 
wisdom  of  Solomon;  and,  behold,  a  greater  than  speak  I  to  them  in  parables:  because  they  seeing  see 
Solomon  is  here.  U^n  the  unclean  spirit  is  gone  not;  and  hearing  they  hear  not,  neither  do  they 
autofa  man,  he  walketh  through  dry  places,  seek-  understand.  And  in  them  isfulfilled  the  prophecy 
ing  rest,  andfindeth  none.     Then  he  saith,  '/it/ill     of  Isaiah  which  saiih: 

return  into  my  house  from  whence  I  came  out';  By  hearing yi  ihati  htar,  and  ihaU noi  xndfr- 

and  when  he  is  come,   he  findeth  it  empty,  swept,  siaHd.- arut  utimg  yt  ,kaff  see.  and  lAati  not  ftr. 

and  garnished.     Then  goeth  he,  and  taketh  with  «*r  «°7*fi  rf^//5 w '' '^-d^^^^^ 

himself  seven  other  spirits  more  wicked  than  him-  j„^  riaitd-  int  at  anv  nmr  ihru  thmiM  »*  n»/A 

self,  and  they  enter  in  and  dwell  there:  and  the  last 
stale  of  that  man  is  worse  than  the  first.  Even  so 
shall  it  be  also  unto  this  wicked  generation. 

But  blessed  are  your  eyes,  for  they  see:  and 
As  Artber  an6  Ad  JJtetbten.  your  ears  for  they  hear.    For  verily  I  say  unto  you, 

ti.D. 
(1 
peop 
with) 
said 
brett 
thee. 


OeK 

wAic 


(1 
oftb 


Ihem 
ford 
hyth 
and 


Atid 


130 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


THE  MUSTARD  AND  THE  LEAVEN. 

Another  parable  put  he  forth  unto  them,  saying, 
the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  like  to  a  grain  of  mus- 
tard seed,  which  a  man  took,  and  sowed  in  his  field, 
which  indeed  is  the  least  of  all  seeds;  but  when  it 
is  grown,  it  is  the  greatest  among  herbs,  and  be- 
Cometh  a  tree,  so  that  the  birds  of  the  air  come  and 
lodge  in  the  branches  thereof  Another  parable 
spake  he  unto  them:  The  kingdom  of  heaven  is 
like  unto  leaven,  which  a  woman  took,  and  hid  in 
three  measures  of  meal,  till  the  whole  was  leavened. 
•*'^'^And  he  said  unto  them,  Is  a  candle  brought 
to  be  put  under  a  bushel,  or  under  a  bed?  and  not 
to  be  set  on  a  candle  stick  '■"'^^  that  they  which  enter  in 
may  see  the  light?  ^f^^  Por  there  is  nothing  hid 
which  shall  not  be  manifested;  neither  was  any 
thing  kept  secret,  but  that  it  should  come  abroad. 
If  any  man  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear.  And 
he  said  unto  them,  Take  heed  what  ye  hear;  with 
what  measure  ye  mete,  it  shall  be  measured  to  you; 
and  unto  you  that  hear  shall  more  be  given;  for  he 
that  hath  to  him  shall  be  given;  and  he  that  hath 
not,  from  him  shall  be  taken  even  that  which  he 
hath. 

And  he  said.  So  is  the  kingdom  of  God,  as 
if  a  man  should  cast  seed  into  the  ground;  and 
should  sleep,  and  rise  night  and  day,  and  the  seed 
should  spring  and  grow  up,  he  knoweth  not  how.  For 
the  earth  bringeth  forth  fruit  of  herself;  first  the 
bUule,  then  the  ear,  after  that  the  full  com  in  the 
ear.  But  when  the  fruit  is  brought  forth,  immedi- 
ately he  putteth  in  the  sickle,  because  the  harvest  is 
come. 

MATT,  ^n  these  things  spake  Jesus  unto  the  mul- 
titude in  parables;  ^^"^  as  they  were  able  to  hear  it; 
'^"'  and  without  a  parable  spoke  he  not  unto  them; 
•"^•*and  when  they  were  alone  he  expounded  all 
things  to  his  disciples,  '*^"-  that  it  might  be  fulfilled 
which  was  spoken  by  the  prophet,  saying, 

I  will  open  my  mouth  in  parables;  I  will  utter 
things  which  have  been  kept  secret  from  the  foun- 
dation of  the  world. 

Then  Jesus  sent  the  multitude  away,  and  went 
into  the  house;  and  his  disciples  came  unto  him 
saying,  *'  Declare  unto  us  the  parable  of  the  tares 
of  the  field."  He  answered  and  said  unto  them, 
He  that  soweth  the  good  seed  is  the  Son  of  man; 
the  field  is  the  world;  the  good  seed  are  the  children 
of  the  kingdom;  but  the  tares  are  the  children  of 
the  wicked  one;  the  enemy  that  sowed  them  is  the 
devil;  the  harvest  is  the  end  of  the  world;  and  the 
reapers  are  the  angels.  As  therefore  the  tares  are 
gathered  and  burned  in  the  fire,  so  shall  it  be  in 
the  end  of  this  world.  The  Son  of  man  shall  send 
forth  his  angels,  and  they  shall  gather  out  of  his 
kingdom  all  things  that  offend,  and  them  which  do 
iniquity;  and  shall  cast  them  into  a  furnace  of  fire; 
there  shall  be  wailing  and  gnashing  of  teeth.  Then 
shall  the  righteous  shine  forth  as  the  sun  in  the 
kingdom  of  their  Father.  Who  hath  ears  to  hear, 
let  him  hear. 


HIDDEN  TREASURE  AND  THE  GOODLY  PEARL. 

Again,  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  like  unto 
treasure  hid  in  a  field;  the  which  when  a  man  hcUh 
found,  he  hideth,  and  for  joy  thereof  goeth  and 
selleth  all  that  he  hath,  and  buyeth  that  field. 

Again,  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  like  unto  a 
merchant  man,  seeking  goodly  pearls;  who,  when 
he  had  found  one  pearl  of  great  price,  went  and  sold 
all  that  he  had,  and  bought  it. 

NET  OF  FISH. 

Again,  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  like  unto  a 
net,  that  was  cast  into  the  sea,  and  gathered  of  every 
kind;  which,  when  it  was  full,  they  drew  to  shore ^ 
and  sat  down,  and  gathered  the  good  into  vessels, 
but  cast  the  bad  away.  So  shall  it  be  at  the  end  of 
the  world;  the  angels  shall  come  forth,  and  sever 
the  wicked  from  among  the  just,  and  shall  cast  them 
into  the  furnace  of  fire;  there  shall  be  wailing  and 
gnashing  of  teeth.  Jesus  saith  unto  them.  Have 
ye  understood  all  these  things?  They  say  unto 
him,    *'  Yea,   Lord.'*     Then  said  he  unto  them, 

Therefore  every  scribe  which  is  instructed  unto 
the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  like  unto  a  man  that  is  an 
householder,  which  bringeth  forth  out  of  his  treas- 
ure things  new  and  old. 

And  it  came  to  pass,  that  when  Jesus  had 
finished  these  parables,  he  departed  thence. 

peace,  JSe  StilL 

A.  D.  29.  The  Sea  of  Galilee. 

(Mark  iv:  35.)  When  the  even  was  come,  the 
same  day,  he  saith  unto  "^'  his  disciples,  '*^'*  Let 
us  pass  over  unto  the  other  side.  And  when  they 
had  sent  away  the  multitude,  they  took  him  even 
as  he  was  in  the  ship.  And  there  were  also  with 
him  other  little  ships.  And  there  arose  a  great 
storm  of  wind,  and  the  waves  beat  into  the  ship,  so 
that  it  was  now  full.  And  he  was  in  the  hinder 
part  of  the  ship,  asleep  on  a  pillow;  and  they  "'•" 
came  to  him,  •**"•*  awake  him,  and  say  unto  him, 
"  Master,  *^^'  save  us;  **^'***  carest  thou  not  that  we 
perish.^"  And  he  arose,  and  rebuked  the  wind, 
and  said  unto  the  sea.  Peace,  be  still.  And  the 
wind  ceased,  and  there  was  a  great  calm.  And  he 
said  unto  them.  Why  are  ye  so  fearful?  how  is  it 
that  ye  have  no  faith?  And  they  feared  exceed- 
ingly, and  said  one  to  another,  "What  manner  of 
man  is  this,  that  even  the  wind  and  the  sea  obey 
him?" 

tibe  S)emoniac  1)eale{)* 

A.  D.  29.  Gergesa. 

(Mark  v:  1. )  They  came  over  unto  the  other 
side  of  the  sea,  into  the  country  of  the  Gadarenes, 
••"'*'  which  is  over  against  Galilee;  **'^''**and  when  he 
was  come  out  of  the  ship,  immediately  there  met 
him  out  of  the  tombs  a  man  '■"'^^  of  the  city,  '*^"-  ex- 
ceeding fierce,  **'^'*'^  with  an  unclean  spirit,  who  '-*'**" 
had  devils  long  time,  and  wore  no  clothes,  neither 
abode  in  any  house,  but  in  the  tombs;  '^"'^and  no 
man  could  bind  him,  no,  not  with  chains;  because 
that  he  had  been  often  bound  with  fetters  and  chains 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


131 


and  the  cnains  had  been  plucked  asunder  by  him, 
and  the  fetters  broken  in  pieces;  neither  could  any 
man  tame  him.  And  always,  night  and  day,  he  was 
in  the  mountains,  and  in  the  tombs,  crying,  and 
cutting  himself  with  stones.  But  when  he  saw 
Jesus  afar  off,  he  ran,  """  and  fell  down  before  him, 
•^•"^  and  worshiped  him,  and  cried  with  a  loud  voice, 
and  said,  "What  have  I  to  do  with  thee,  Jesus,  thou 
Son  of  the  most  high  God  ?  I  adjure  thee  by  God, 
that  thou  torment  me  not  **^"'  before  the  time." 
**^'*  For  he  said  unto  him,  Come  out  of  the  many 
thou  unclean  spirit.  And  he  asked  him,  What 
is  thy  name  ?  And  he  answered  saying,  *'  My  name 
is  Legion,  for  we  are  many*';  *-"•*■  because  many 
devils  were  entered  into  him.  **^*"*  And  he  besought 
him  much  that  he  would  not  send  them  away  out 
of  the  country,  *•"•**  and  that  he  would  not  command 
them  to  go  into  the  deep. 

MARK  Now  there  was  there  nigh  unto  the  moun- 
tains, **^"-  a  good  way  off  from  them,  **^'*  a  great 
herd  of  swine  feeding.  And  all  the  devils  besought 
him,  saying,  "  Send  us  into  the  swine,  that  we  may 
enter  into  them.'*  And  forthwith  Jesus  gave  them 
leave.  And  the  unclean  spirits  went  out  '■"'^^  of  the 
man  ""^"^and  entered  into  the  swine;  and  the  herd 
ran  violently  down  a  steep  place  into  the  sea  (they 
were  about  two  thousand )  and  were  choked  in  the 
sea.  And  they  that  fed  the  swine  fled,  and  told  it 
in  the  city,  and  in  the  country.  And  they  went  out 
to  see  what  it  was  that  was  done.  And  they  come 
to  Jesus,  and  see  him  that  was  possessed  with  the 
devil,  and  had  the  legion,  sitting  '•"'*^at  the  feet  of 
Jesus  •*^'*  and  clothed,  and  in  his  right  mind,  and 
they  were  afraid.  And  they  that  saw  it  told  them 
how  it  befell  to  him  that  was  possessed  with  the 
devil,  and  also  concerning  the  swine.  '•"•*^Then 
the  whole  multitude  of  the  country  of  the  Gada- 
renes  **^'*  began  to  pray  him  to  depart  out  of  their 
coasts,  '•"•^^  for  they  were  taken  with  great  fear.  ■"^"•^ 
And  when  he  was  come  into  the  ship,  he  that  had 
been  possessed  with  the  devil  prayed  him  that  he 
might  be  with  him.  Howbeit  Jesus  suffered  him 
not,  but  saith  unto  him,  Go  home  to  thy  friends, 
and  tell  them  how  great  things  the  Lord  hath  done 
for  thee,  and  hath  had  compassion  on  thee.  And 
he  departed,  and  began  to  publish  in  Decapolis 
how  great  things  Jesus  had  done  for  him;  and  all 
men  did  marvel. 

Second  IDieit  to  flajacetb* 

A  D.  29.  Nazareth. 

(Markvi:  1.)  And  he  went  out  from  thence, 
and  came  into  his  own  country;  and  his  disciples 
followed  him.  And  when  the  sabbath  day  was 
come,  he  began  to  teach  in  the  synagogue;  and 
many  hearing  him  were  astonished,  saying,  "  From 
whence  hath  this  man  these  things  ?  and  what  wis- 
dom is  this  which  is  given  unto  him,  that  even  such 
mighty  works  are  wrought  by  his  hands?  Is  not 
this  the  carpenter,  **^"-  the  carpenter's  son,  •^'^  the 
son  of  Mary,  the  brother  of  James,  and  Joses,  and 
of  Juda,  and  Simon?  and  are  not  his  sisters  '*^"-  all 
•^•^here  with  us?**    And  they  were  offended  at 


him.  But  Jesus  said  unto  them,  A  prophet  is  not 
without  honor y  but  in  his  own  country ,  and  among 
his  own  kin,  and  in  his  own  house.  And  he 
could  there  do  no  mighty  work,  save  that  he  laid 
his  hands  upon  a  few  sick  folk,  and  healed  them. 
And  he  marveled  because  of  their  unbelief.  •^"' 
And  Jesus  went  about  all  the  cities  and  villages, 
teaching  in  their  synagogues,  and  preaching  the 
gospel  of  the  kingdom,  and  healing  every  sickness 
and  every  disease  among  the  people.  But  when 
he  saw  the  multitudes,  he  was  moved  with  com- 
passion on  them,  because  they  fainted,  and  were 
scattered  abroad,  as  sheep  having  no  shepherd. 
Then  saith  he  unto  his  disciples,  The  harvest  truly 
isplenteouSy  but  the  laborers  are  few;  pi'ay  ye  there' 
fore  the  Lord  of  the  harvest,  that  he  Tvill  send  forth 
laborers  into  his  harvest 

tibe  Commiaalon  ot  tbe  Z\oc\vc. 

A.  D.  29.  Galilee. 

(Matt,  x:  1.)  And  he  called  unto  him  the 
twelve,  and  began  to  send  them  forth  by  two  and 
two;  and  gave  them  power  "'•''and  authority 
MARK  Q^gj.  unclean  spirits  **^"-  to  cast  them  out,  and 
to  heal  all  manner  of  sickness  and  all  manner  of 
disease.  Now  the  names  of  the  twelve  apostles  are 
these:  The  first,  Simon,  who  is  called  Peter,  and 
Andrew  his  brother;  James  the  son  of  Zebedee, 
and  John  his  brother;  Philip,  and  Bartholomew; 
Thomas,  and  Matthew,  the  publican;  James  the  son 
of  Alpheus,  and  Lebbeus,  whose  surname  was 
Thaddeus;  Simon  the  Canaanite,  and  Judas  Iscariot, 
who  also  betrayed  him. 

These  twelve  Jesus  sent  forth  •""•*'  to  preach  the 
kingdom  of  God  and  to  heal  the  sick  **^"*  and  com- 
manded them,  saying,  Go  not  into  the  way  of  the 
G entiles y  and  into  any  city  of  the  Samaritans  enter 
ye  not;  but  go  rather  to  the  lost  sheep  of  the  house 
of  Israel,  And  as  ye  go,  preach,  saying,  The 
kingdom  of  heaven  is  at  hand.  Heal  the  sick, 
cleanse  the  lepers,  raise  the  dead,  cast  out  devils; 
freely  ye  have  received,  freely  give.  Provide 
neither  gold,  nor  silver,  nor  brass  in  your  purses, 
norscrip  for  your  journey,  neither  two  coats,  neither 
shoes,  nor  yet  staves,  **^'"*  but  be  shod  ivith  sandals; 
*^^for  the  workman  is  worthy  of  his  meat.  And 
into  whatsoever  city  or  town  ye  shall  enter,  enquire 
who  in  it  is  worthy;  and  there  abide  till  ye  go 
thence.  And  when  ye  come  into  an  house,  salute  it* 
And  if  the  house  be  worthy,  let  your  peace  come 
upon  it;  but  if  it  be  not  worthy,  let  your  peace  return 
to  you.  And  whosoever  shall  not  receive  you,  nor 
hear  your  words,  when  ye  depart  out  of  that  house 
or  city,  shake  off  the  dust  of  your  feet  ^*^^for  a  tes- 
timony against  them.  **^"-  Verily  I  say  unto  you.  It 
shall  be  more  tolerable  for  the  land  of  Sodom  and 
Gomorrha  in  the  day  of  judgment  than  for  that  city. 
Behold,  I  send  you  forth  as  sheep  in  the  midst  of 
wolves;  be  ye  therefore  zvise  as  serpents,  and  harm- 
less as  doves.  But  beware  of  men;  for  they  will 
deliver  you  up  to  the  councils,  and  they  will  scourge 
you  in  their  synagogues;  and  ye  shall  be  brought 
before  governors  and  kings  for  my  sake,  for  a  tes- 


I*. 


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JESUS   AND  THE   SIXKINO    PETER. 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY  135 

and  for  their  sakes  which  sat  with  him,  he  would  ""^And  they  took  up  twelve  baskets  full  o(  the 

not  reject  her.    And  immediately  the  king  sent  an  fragments  and  of  the  fishes.    And  they  that  did 

executioner,    and    commanded    his   head   to   be  eat  of  the  loaves  were  about  live  thousand  men, 

brought:  and  he  went  and  beheaded  him  in  the  """■beside  women  and  children.    ''°™Then  those 

prison,  and  brought  his  head  in  a  charger,  and  gave  men,  when  they  had  seen  the  miracle  that  Jesus 

it  to  the  damsel;  and  the  damsel  gave  it  to  her  did,  said,  "Thb  b  of  a  truth  that  prophet  that 

mother.    And  when  his  disciples  heard  of  it,  they  should  come  into  the  worW." 
came  and  took  up  his  corpse,  and  laid  it  in  a  tomb, 

""■and  went  and  told  Jesus.  ^  „  _             TOaCWng  On  tlK  Sca. 

■*  A.  D.  m                                                           Sea  ol  Gallic*. 

SceMns  tot  ttest.  When  Jesus  therefore  perceived  that  they  would 

A.  D.  ai  Betlisilda.      come  and  take  him  bv  force,  to  make  him  a  kinr. 

(1 
them 
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they 


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teact; 
nek. 


(J 
spent 


He  i 


by  c 

there 
sat  c 
And 
lishe! 
brak< 
set  I 


136 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


saw  that  there  was  none  other  boat  there,  save 
that  one  whereinto  his  disciples  were  entered,  and 
that  Jesus  went  not  with  his  disciples  into  the  boat, 
but  that  his  disciples  were  gone  away  alone;  (how- 
beit  there  came  other  boats  from  Tiberias  nigh 
unto  the  place  where  they  did  eat  bread,  after  that 
the  Lord  had  given  thanks:)  when  the  people 
therefore  saw  that  Jesus  was  not  there,  neither  his 
disciples,  they  also  took  shipping,  and  came  to 
Capernaum,  seeking  for  Jesus.  And  when  they 
had  found  him  on  the  other  side  of  the  sea,  they 
said  unto  him,  "  Rabbi,  when  camest  thou  hither?  '* 
Jesus  answered  them  and  said,  Veriiy,  verily,  I 
say  unto  you,  Ye  seek  me,  not  because  ye  saw  the 
miracles,  but  because  ye  did  eat  of  the  loaves,  and 
were  filled.  Labor  not  for  the  meat  which  perisheth, 
but  for  that  tneat  which  endureth  unto  everlasting 
life,  which  the  Son  of  man  shall  give  unto  you:  for 
him  hath  God  the  Father  sealed.  Then  said  they 
unto  him,  **  What  shall  we  do,  that  we  might  work 
the  works  of  God?'*  Jesus  answered  and  said 
unto  them.  This  is  the  work  of  God,  that  ye  be- 
lieve on  him  whom  he  hath  sent.  They  said 
therefore  unto  him,  "What  sign  showest  thou  then, 
that  we  may  see,  and  believe  thee  ?  what  dost  thou 
work  ?  Our  fathers  did  eat  manna  in  the  desert;  as 
it  is  written 

He  gave  them  bread  from  heaven  to  eat.** 

Then  Jesus  said  unto  them.  Verily,  verily,  I 
say  unto  you^  Moses  gave  you  not  that  bread  from 
heaven:  but  my  Father  givelh  you  the  true  bread 
from  heaven.  For  the  bread  of  God  is  he  which 
Cometh  down  from  heaven,  and  giveth  life  unto  the 
world.  Then  said  they  unto  him,  **  Lord,  ever- 
more give  us  this  bread."  And  Jesus  said  unto 
them,  /  am  the  bread  of  life:  he  that  comet h  to 
me  shall  never  hunger;  and  he  that  believeth  on  me 
shall  never  thirst.  But  I  said  unto  you.  That  ye 
also  have  seen  me,  and  believe  not.  All  that  the 
Father  givelh  me  shall  come  to  me;  and  him  that 
cometh  to  me  I  will  in  no  wise  cast  out.  For  I 
came  downfrmn  heaven,  not  to  do  mine  own  will, 
but  the  will  of  him  that  sent  me.  And  this  is  the 
Father's  will  which  hath  sent  me,  that  of  all  which 
he  hath  given  me  I  should  lose  nothing,  but  should 
raise  it  up  cp^ain  at  the  last  day.  And  this  is  the 
Tvill  of  him,  that  sent  me,  that  every  one  which  seeth 
the  Son,  and  beiieveth  on  him,  may  have  everlast- 
ing life;  and  I  will  raise  him  up  at  the  last  day. 

The  Jews  then  murmured  at  him,  because  he 
said,  **I  am  the  bread  which  came  down  from 
heaven.**  And  they  said,  '*  Is  not  this  Jesus,  the 
son  of  Joseph,  whose  father  and  mother  we  know  ? 
how  is  it  then  that  he  saith,  *  I  came  down  from 
heaven?***  Jesus  therefore  answered  and  said 
unto  then*.  Murmur  not  among  yourselves.  No 
man  can  come  to  mc,  except  the  Father  which  hath 
sent  me  draw  him:  and  I  will  raise  him  up  at  the 
last  day.  It  is  written  in  the  prophets. 
And  they  shall  be  all  taught  of  God, 


Every   man   therefore  that  hath   heard,    afd 
hath  learned  of  the  Father,  cometh  unto  me.     JVoi 
that  any  man  hath  seen  the  Father,  save  he  which 
is  of  God,  he  hath  seen  the  Father.     Verily,  verify^ 
I  say  unto  you,  he  that  believeth  on  me  hath  ever- 
lasting Hfe.     /  am  that  bread  of  life.     Your  fathers 
did  eat  manna  in  the  wilderness,  and  are  decuL 
This  is  the  bread  which  cometh  down  from  heaven^ 
that  a  man  may  eat  thereof,  and  not  die.    lam  the 
living  bread  which  came  down  from  heaven;  if 
any  man  eat  of  this  bread,  he  shall  live  forever^ 
and  the  bread  that  I  ivill  give  is  my  flesh,  which  I 
will  give  for  the  life  of  the  world.    The  Jews 
therefore  strove  among  themselves,  saying,  **  How 
can  this  man  give  us  his  flesh  to  eat  ?  "    Then  Jesus 
said  unto  them.    Verily,   verily^  I  say  unto  you^ 
Except  ye  eat  the  flesh  of  the  Son  of  man,  and 
drink  his  blood,  ye  have  no  life  in  you.     Whoso 
eateth  my  flesh,  anddrinketh  my  blood,  hath  etemai 
life;  and  I  will  raise  him  up  at  the  last  day.    Fof 
my  flesh  is  meat  indeed,  and  my  blood  is  drink  in- 
deed.   He  that  eateth  my  flesh,  and  drinketh  my 
blood,  dwelleth  in  me,  and  I  in  him.    As  the  living 
Father  hath  setU  me,  and  I  live  by  the  Father:  so 
he  that  eateth  me,  even  he  shall  live  by  me.     This 
is  that  bread  which  came  down  from  heaven;  not 
as  your  fathers  did  eat  manna,  and  are  dead:  he 
that  eateth  of  this  bread  shall  live  forever. 

These  things  said  he  in  the  synagogue,  as  he 
taught  in  Capernaum.  Many  therefore  of  his  dis- 
ciples, when  they  had  heard  this,  said,  **  This  is  an 
hard  saying;  who  can  hear  it?**  When  Jesus  knew  in 
himself  that  his  disciples  murmured  at  it,  he  said 
unto  them,  Doth  this  offend  you  f  what  and  if 
ye  shall  see  the  Son  of  man  ascend  up  where  he 
was  before?  It  is  the  spirit  that  quickeneth,  the 
flesh  profiteth  nothing:  the  words  that  I  speak  unto 
you,  they  are  spirit  and  they  are  life.  But  there  are 
some  of  you  that  believe  not.  For  Jesus  knew  from 
the  beginning  who  they  were  that  believed  not.  and 
who  should  betray  him.  And  he  said.  There- 
fore said  I  unto  you,  that  no  man  can  come  unto 
tne,  except  it  were  given  unto  him  of  my  Father, 

MANY  DISCIPLES  TURN  BACK 

From  that  time  many  of  his  disciples  went 
back,  and  walked  no  more  with  him.  Then  said 
Jesus  unto  the  twelve.  Will  ye  also  go  away? 
Then  Simon  Peter  answered  him,  *'Lord,  to 
whom  shall  we  go?  thou  hast  the  words  of 
etemai  life.  And  we  believe  and  are  sure  that 
thou  art  that  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God.** 
Jesus  answered  them.  Have  not  I  chosen  yon 
twelve,  and  one  of  you  is  a  devil?  He  spake  of 
Judas  Iscariot  the  son  of  Simon,  for  he  it  was  that 
should  betray  him,  being  one  of  the  twelve.  After 
these  things  Jesus  walked  in  Galilee,  for  he  would 
not  walk  in  Jewry  (meaning  Judea),  because  the 
Jews  sought  to  kill  him. 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


THIRD  YEAR  OF  PUBLIC  MINISTRY. 

Pnm  tba  Third  to  Ekctnaldg  nl  PoHrth  P—ovn. 

Time:  Almost  a  Year. 


SfflCOUroe  on  9ewf0b  QtaMtlOtU.  no/  perceive  that  whatsoever  thing  from  withoui 

ji,  D,  29.  CaptruauBi.  euteretk  into  the  man,  if  cannot  defile  him;  became 

(Mark  vii-  1  )     Then  came  toeether  unio  him  U  entereth  not  into  his  heart,  but  into  the  t>elty,  and 

the  Pharisees,  and  certain  of  the  scribes,  which  ^oelh  out  into  (he  draught,  purging  atl  meatsf 

mitlp    frnm  TfniGalnm        AnH    urhen   thnir  taii,  <nms  """^  "^   %A\a,    1  koi  whlch   COttteth  OUt  of  the   MUM, 


(Matt  xvi;l.l  The  Plum 
Sadducees  aiat,  wA  hefk 
would  show  Ihem  »  sign  tam 
he  sighed  deeply  inhis  spith 
Has  gcneratm  iuk  tflti  o  ti 
eiimiigytsay,  II  mil  he  jar 
isred.  AiidalkcmoTmg,. 
todtrijor  (A(  jiy  is  reJ  («( 
criles,  yi  otH  discern  Uit  fac, 
nal  disctn  Uit  signs  of  tke 
adiiilenms  gentraliM  sat 
litre  stall  no  sign  lit  g\w 
Ike  prophet  Jonas.  And 
entennK  into  Aie  sh^i  ^ 
when  his  disciples  were 
ihey  had  foi|;otten  lo  ij 


they  \t\  ( 

beztrar^ 
Sadduc 
saying 
Which 

because 

"-/'«,- 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


IS9 


pbatiaeee  Seek  a  Si0ii. 

(Matt  xvi:l.)  The  Pharisees  also  with  the 
Sadducees  came,  and  tempting  desired  that  he 
would  show  them  a  sign  from  heaven.  """And 
he  sighed  deeply  in  his  spirit  and  saith,  Why  dotk 
this  generation  seek  after  a  sign  f  "*'^-  When  it  is 
evening  ye  say.  It  witt  be  fair  weather;  for  the  sky 
is  red.  And  in  the  tnormng,  It  wilt  befoul  weather 
today,  for  the  sky  is  red  imd  lowering.  O  ye  hypo- 
crites^ ye  can  discern  the  face  of  the  sky;  but  can  ye 
not  discern  the  signs  of  Ihe  times  T  A  wicked  and 
adulterous  generoHon  seeketh  after  a  sign ;  and 
there  shall  no  sign  be  given  unto  it,  but  the  sign  of 
the  prophet  Jonas.  And  he  left  them,  """and 
entering  into  the  ship  again  departed.  "'"-And 
when  his  disciples  were  come  to  the  other  side, 
they  had  forgotten  to  talte  bread,  "*™  neither  had 


should  beware  of  the  leaven  of  the  I%arisees  and 
of  the  Sadducees  f  Then  understood  they  how 
that  he  bade  them  not  beware  ol  the  leaven  of 
bread,  but  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Pharisees  and  of 
the  Sadducees. 

Cbe  SUn^  Aati  ot  Jkibealda. 

A.  D.  St.  Bethssidb 

(Mark  viii:  22.)  And  he  cometh  to  Bethsaida; 
and  they  bring  a  blind  man  unto  him,  and  besought 
him  to  touch  him.  And  he  took  the  blind  man  by 
the  hand,  and  led  him  out  of  the  town;  and  when 
he  had  spit  on  his  eyes,  and  put  his  hands  upon 
him,  he  asked  him  if  he  saw  ought.  And  he  looked 
up  and  said,  "I  see  men  as  trees,  walking."  After 
that  he  put  his  hands  again  upon  his  eyes,  and 
made  him  look  up;  and  he  was  restored,  and  saw 


K 


JESUS  PREACHING  BY  THE  SEA  OF  GALILEE. 


they  in  the  ship  with  them  more  than  one  loaf. 
"*"■  Then  Jesus  said  unto  them,  Take  heed  and 
beware  of  the  leaven  of  the  Pharisees  and  of  the 
Sadducees.  And  ihey  reasoned  among  themselves, 
saying,  "  It  is  because  we  have  taken  no  bread." 
Which  when  Jesus  perceived,  he  said  unto  them, 
Oyeof  tittle  faith,  why  reason  ye  among  yourselves, 
becaase  ye  have  brought  no  bread  f  ""^perceive  ye 
not  yet,  neither  understand  f  have  ye  your  heart  yet 
hardened*  Having  eyes,  see  ye  not?  and  having 
ears,  hear  ye  not?  and  do  ye  not  remember? 
■*"■  the  five  loaves  of  the  five  thousand,  and  how 
many  baskets  ye  took  up  f  Neither  Ihe  seven  loaves 
of  Ihe  four  thousand,  and  how  many  baskets  ye  took 
up?  How  is  it  that  ye  do  not  understand  thai  I 
spake  it  not  to  you  concerning  bread;    thai  ye 


every  man  clearly.  And  he  sent  him  away  to  his 
house,  saying.  Neither  go  into  the  town,  nor  tell  it 
to  any  in  the  town. 

StK  Oceat  Confession. 

A.  D.  39.  CKsarea  Philippi. 

(Matt  Kvi:  13.)  When  Jesus  came  into  the 
coasts  of  Cfesarea  Philippi,  "™as  he  was  alone 
prayii^,  "*"■  he  asked  his  disciples,  saying,  IVhom 
do  men  say  thai  I  the  Son  of  man  am  ?  And  they 
said,  "Some  say  that  thou  art-John  the  Baptist; 
some,  Elijah;  and  others,  Jeremiah;  """otherssay 
that  one  of  Ihe  old  prophets  is  risen  again."  ""He 
saith  unto  them.  But  whom  say  ye  that  I  am? 
And  Simon  Peter  answered  and  said,  "Thou  art 
the  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God."    And  JesuB 


Ds  make  thiee  ii 
lor  Moses,  and  c 
what  10  say,  ior 
while  he  yet  sp 
shadowed  them 
doud,  which  sai 
m  WHOM  1  ? 
HIM.  Andwh 
their  bee,  and  - 
andloudieddu 
""  And  suddi 
aboui,  they  sai 
with  IhemselvT 
mountain,  he  < 
man  what  thii 
were  risen  fro 


to  1c 
whi 


6Mi 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORV 


141 


us  make  three  tabernacles;  one  for  thee,  and  one 
(or  Moses,  and  one  for  Elijah."  For  he  wist  not 
what  to  say;  for  they  were  sore  afraid.  And  ■""■ 
while  he  yet  spoke,  behold,  a  bright  cloud  over- 
shadowed them;  and  behold  a  voice  out  of  the 
cloud,  which  said.  THIS  IS  MY  BELOVED  SON. 
IN  WHOM  1  AM  WELL  PLFJiSED;  HEAR  YE 
HIM.  And  when  the  disciples  heard  it,  they  fell  on 
their  face,  and  were  sore  afraid.  And  Jesus  came 
and  touched  them,  and  said,  Arise  and  be  not  afraid. 
•■*"  And  suddenly,  when  they  had  looked  round 
about,  they  saw  no  man  any  more,  save  Jesus  only 
with  themselves.  And  as  they  came  down  from  the 
mountain,  he  charged  them  that  theyshould  tell  no 
man  what  things  they  had  seen,  till  the  Son  of  man 
were  risen  /rom  the  dead.    And  they  kept  thatsay- 


as  it  is  written  of  him.  "*"•  Likewise  shall  also 
the  Son  of  man  suffer  of  them.  Then  the  disciples 
understood  that  he  spoke  unto  them  of  John  the 
Baptist. 

lunatic  GbllB. 

A.  O.  to.  Ocnna  PbilippL 

(Luke  \x:  37.)  On  the  next  day.  when  they 
were  come  down  from  the  hill,  much  people  met 
him.  "*"  And  when  he  came  lo  his  disciples,  he 
saw  a  great  multitude  about  them,  and  the  scribes 
questioning  with  them.  And  straightway  all  the 
people,  when  they  beheld  him,  were  greatly  amazed, 
and  running  to  him,  saluted  him.  And  he  asked 
thescribes,  Whal  question  ye  with  Ihemf  And  one 
of  the  multitude  answered  and  said,  "Master,  I 


Kapkatl. 


E  TRANSFIGURATION. 


ing  with  themselves,  "*"  and  they  kept  it  close,  and 
told  no  man  in  those  days  any  of  those  things 
u'hich  they  had  seen,  '**™  questioning  one  with 
another  what   the   rising   from  the  dead  should 

And  they  asked  him,  saying,  "Why  say  the 
scribes  thai  Elijah  must  first  come?"  And  he 
anstt  ered  and  told  them,  Elijah  verily  cotnelh  first, 
and  restoreth  all  things;  and  how  it  is  written  of 
the  Son  of  man,  thai  he  must  suffer  many  things, 
and  be  set  at  naught.  Bui  I  say  unto  you.  That 
Elijah  is  indeed  come,  and  they  """  inew  him  not 
but """  hai'e  done  unto  hint  whatsoever  they  listed. 


have  brought  unto  thee  my  son.  "*"■  Lord,  have 
mercy,  ""  I  beseech  thee;  look  upon  my  son,  for 
he  is  my  only  child.  "*"■  He  is  lunatic  and  sore 
vexed,  (or  """he  hath  a  dumb  spirit  And  where- 
soever he  taketh  him,  he  teareth  him ;  and  he 
fonmeth,  and  gnasheth  with  his  teeth,  and  pineth 
away;  and  I  spoke  to  thy  disciples  that  they  should 
cast  him  out;  and  they  could  not."  He  answereth 
him  and  saith,  O  faithless  generation,  how  long 
shall  I  be  with  you  f  how  long  shall  I  suffer  you  t 
bring  him  unto  me.  And  they  brought  him  unto 
him;  and  when  he  saw  him,  straightway  the  spirit 
tare  him,  and  he  fell  or  the  ground  and  wallowed, 


142 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


foaming.  And  he  asked  his  father,  How  long  is  it 
ago  since  this  came  unto  him?  And  he  said,  **  Of 
a  child.  And  ofttimes  it  hath  cast  him  into  the 
fire,  and  into  the  waters,  to  destroy  him;  but  if 
thou  canst  do  anything,  have  compassion  on  us, 
and  help  us.''  Jesus  said  unto  him.  If  thou  canst 
believe^  all  things  are  possible  to  him  thcU  believeth. 
And  straightway  the  father  of  the  child  cried  out, 
and  said  with  tears,  **  Lord,  I  believe;  help  thou 
mine  unbelief."  When  Jesus  saw  that  the  people 
came  running  together,  he  rebuked  the  foul  spirit, 
saying  unto  him.  Thou  dumb  and  deaf  spirit,  I 
charge  thee,  come  out  of  him,  and  enter  no  more 
into  him.  And  the  spirit  cried  and  rent  him  sore, 
and  came  out  of  him;  and  he  was  as  one  dead; 
insomuch  that  many  said,  **He  is  dead."  But 
Jesus  took  him  by  the  hand,  and  lifted  him  up; 
and  he  arose.  '•"'^■And  they  were  all  amazed  at  the 
mighty  power  of  God.  '•^'^And  when  he  was  come 
into  the  house,  his  disciples  asked  him  privately, 
"Why  could  not  we  cast  him  out?"  "^"-And 
Jesus  said  unto  them.  Because  of  your  unbelief; 
for  verily  I  say  unto  you,  If  ye  have  faith  as  a 
grain  of  mustard  seed,  ye  shall  say  unto  this  moun- 
tain. Remove  hence  to  yonder  place^  and  it  shall 
remove;  and  nothing  shall  be  impossible  to  you. 
Howbeit,  '"^•^  This  kind  can  come  forth  by  nothing 
but  by  prayer  and  fasting.  And  they  departed 
thence,  and  passed  through  Galilee;  and  he  would 
not  that  any  man  should  know  it.  For  he  taught 
his  disciples,  and  said  unto  them,  ^^  Let  these 
sayings  sink  down  into  your  ears,  for  ^^^^  the  Son 
of  man  is  delivered  into  the  hands  of  men,  and  they 
shall  kill  him;  and  after  that  he  is  killed,  he  shall 
rise  the  third  day.  **^"And  they  were  exceeding 
sorry.  ""^""^  But  they  understood  not  that  saying, 
and  were  afraid  to  ask  him.  '-"'^"And  it  was  hid 
from  them  that  they  perceived  it  not. 

XTtlbute  Aonei?. 

A.  D.  29.  CaDemaum. 

(Matt,  xvii:  24.)  When  they  were  come  to 
Capernaum,  they  that  received  tribute  money  came 
to  Peter  and  said,  **  Doth  not  your  master  pay 
tribute?"  He  saith,  **Yes."  And  when  he  was 
come  into  the  house,  Jesus  prevented  him,  saying. 
What  thinkest  thou,  Simon  ?  of  whom  do  the  kings 
of  the  earth  take  custom,  or  tribute?  of  their  own 
children,  or  of  strangers  ?  Peter  saith  unto  him, 
**Of  strangers."  Jesus  saith  unto  him,  Then  are 
the  children  free.  Notwithstanding,  lest  we  should 
offend  them,  go  thou  to  the  sea  and  cast  an  hook, 
and  take  up  the  fish  that  first  cometh  up;  aiui  when 
thou  hast  opened  his  mouth,  thou  shall  find  a  piece 
of  money;  that  take  and  give  unto  them  for  me  and 
thee. 

Tmbo  i0  <3teate6t7 

A.  D.  29.  Capernaum. 

(Mark  ix:  33. )  And  being  in  the  house  he  asked 
them,  U^t  was  it  that  ye  disputed  among  your- 
selves by  the  way  ?  But  they  held  their  peace;  for 
by  the  way  they  had  disputed  among  themselves, 
who  should  be  greatest.  And  he  sat  down,  and 
called  the  twelve,  and  saith  unto  them,  If  any  man 


desire  to  be  first,  the  same  shall  be  last  of  aJi^  and 
servant  of  all.    And  he  took  a  child,  and  set  him 
"''^  by  him  ""^^^  in  the  midst  of  them;  and  when  he 
had  taken  him  in  his  arms,  he  said  unto  them«    ■^"• 
Verily  I  say  unto  you,  except  ye  be  converted,  and 
become  as  little  children,  ye  shall  not  enter  into  the 
kingdom  of  heaven.      Whosoever  therefore  shall 
humble  himself  as  this  little  child,  the  same    is 
greatest  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven.    And  whoso 
shall  receive  one  such  little  child  in  my  name  r-e- 
ceiveth  tne,  **^^and  whosoever  shall  receive  tne^ 
receiveth  not  me,  but  him  that  sent  me.    "^  for  he 
that  is  least  among  you  all,  the  same  shall  be  great. 
"^•^And  John  answered  him,  saying,  '^Master,  we 
saw  one  casting  out  devils  in  thy  name,  and  he 
followeth  not  us;  and  we  forbade  him,  because  he 
followeth  not  us."  But  Jesus  said.  Forbid  him  not/ 
for  there  is  no  man  which  shall  do  a  miracle  in  my 
name,  that  can  lightly  speak  evil  of  me.    For  he 
that  is  not  against  us  is  on  our  part.  For  whosoever 
shall  give  you  a  cup  of  water  to  drink  in  my  name, 
because  ye  belong  to  Christ,  verily  I  say  unto  you, 
he  shall  not  lose  his  reward.    And  whosoever  sficUl 
offend  one  of  these  little  ones  that  believe  in  tne,  it 
is  better  for  him  that  a  millstone  were  hanged 
about  his  neck,  and  he  were  cast  into  the  sea.    '^"• 
Woe  unto  the  world  because  of  offenses  !  for  it  must 
needs  be  that  offenses  come;  but  woe  to  that  man  by 
whom  the  offense  cometh  ! 

•^•^  And  if  thy  hand  offend  thee,  cut  it  off;  it  is 
better  for  thee  to  enter  into  life  maimed,  than  hav^ 
ing  two  hands  to  go  into  hell,  into  the  fire  that 
never  shall  be  quenched;  where  their  worm  dieth 
not,  and  the  fire  is  not  quenched.  And  if  thy  foot 
offend  thee,  cut  it  off;  it  is  better  for  thee  to  enter 
halt  into  life,  than  having  two  feet  to  be  cast  into 
hell,  into  the  fire  that  never  shall  be  quenched; 
where  their  worm  dieth  not,  and  the  fire  is  not 
quenched.  And  if  thine  eye  offend  thee,  pluck  it 
out;  it  is  better  for  thee  to  enter  into  the  king- 
dom of  God  with  one  eye,  than  having  two  eyes  to 
be  cast  into  hell  fire;  where  their  worm  dieth  not, 
and  the  fire  is  not  quenched.  For  every  one  shall 
be  salted  with  fire,  and  every  sacrifice  shall  be 
salted  with  salt.  Salt  is  good;  but  if  the  salt  have 
lost  his  saltness,  wherewith  will  ye  season  it? 
Have  salt  in  yourselves,  and  have  peace  one  ztnth 
another. 

Came  to  Seefi  tbe  Xo0t. 

(Matt,  xviii:  10.)  Take  heed  that  ye  despise 
not  one  of  these  little  ones;  for  I  say  unto  you. 
That  in  heaven  their  angels  do  always  behold  the 
face  of  my  Father  which  is  in  heaven.  For  the 
Son  of  man  is  come  to  save  that  which  was  lost. 
How  think  ye?  if  a  man  have  an  hundred  sheep^ 
and  one  of  them  be  gone  astray,  doth  he  not  leave 
the  ninety  and  nine,  and  goeth  into  the  mountains, 
and  seeketh  that  which  is  gone  astray?  And  if  so 
be  that  he  find  it,  verily  I  say  unto  you,  he  rejoiceth 
more  of  that  sheep,  than  of  the  ninety  and  nine 
which  went  not  astray.  Even  so  it  is  not  the  will 
of  your  Father  which  is  in  heaven,  thai  one  of  these 
little  ones  should  perish. 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY  H3 

XeS0on  on  y  OtfilVCnCM.  thy  disciples  also  may  see  the  works  that  thou  doest 

A,  D. ».  Openiaiiin.  For  there  is  no  man  that  doeth  any  thing  in  secret, 

,,,  ^       ...    ,-  ,      „  .,,.    1    /I       I  .,  and  he  himself  seeketh  to  be  known  openly.    If 

(Matt  xviii:  15.)    Moreover  tf  iky  brother  shali  _,         .....  ,        .,       ,,  .    .^  u  >i 

.     ,  -    J  ji  J  I  ,,  !.■      L-   t    II I  thou  do  these  things,  shew  thyself  to  the  world, 

trespass  against  Ihee,  go  and  tell  htm  his  fault  6e-  jju-    u    ...       u  i-       ■    ,.■        t-u 

...  J  1..        ,  'J-  L      L  It  L        11  For  neither  did  his  brethren  believe  m  him.    Then 

tweeit  thee  and  htm  alone;  ^/  he  shall  hear  thee,  ,  . ,  ,  .,,■■,, 

,.       .     .  Jill    ,L^     o  I  -f  t.       -11      4  Jesus  said  unto  them,  ^  time  ts  not  yet  come ;  but 

thou  hast  gained  thy  brother.     But  if  he  wul  not  '         ,-        ■      ,  .        -.,  ,"_,  ,   .    ■ 

h,.r  II,,,.  lim  Ifi,  wilh  Ik,,  on<orlwo  mo,..  ""  *"'  «  "ff  ,''?*■     "'  f "''''/"  "   *"'' 

IMI  in  Ih,  moulh  of  Im  or  lhr„  uHln,,,,,  ,on,  '''■   »»/  ~  ''  *«''"■  'f "'  '  '"'«*  "/  ''•  '*f 

«,„dm,,b,  „Mli,l„d.    Andi/h,  .hall  lu^lul  "•"•'■'tflh«',of.r,,ml.    Go „ .p unio Ihu f,oil : 

to  h,.r  Ihnn.  1,11  il  .Mo  Ih,  thnrck,  iul  ifh,  ««-  '''"^   «'  >'' ""'°  f'/'f '.f  f  "^  ''"'  "  "' 

,,,.         ..      ,       i.i,ii.-_i        I    II.  yet  full  come.    When  he  had  said  these  words  unto 

led  to  hear  the  church,  let  htm  be  unfo  thee  as  an  ■'.   ■'      .        .     .       -„   .     ^  ... 

.     ,.  J       .   .,■  „ -,     ,  ,  them,  he  abode  stil    in  Galilee.    But  when  his 

heathen  man  and  a  publican.     Verily  I  say  unto  ^„,t^  .i.  .  u       i         „  .  _.~ 

yoi 


fel 
pm 


144 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


go  ye  about  to  kill  me  t  The  people  answered  and 
said,  "  Thou  hast  a  devil ;  who  goeth  about  to  kill 
thee?"  Jesus  answered  and  said  unto ihem./Aflf^ 
doiu  one  tvori,  and  ye  all  marvel.  Moses  therefort 
gave  unto  you  circumcision  (nol  because  if  is  of 
Moses,  but  of  the  fathers)  ;  and  ye  on  the  sabbath 
day  circumcise  a  man.  If  a  man  on  the  sabbath 
day  receive  cirntmcision,  that  the  law  of  Moses 
should  not  be  broken ,-  are  ye  angry  at  me,  because 
I  have  made  a  man  every  whit  whole  on  the  sabbath 
day  T  Judge  nol  according  to  the  appearance,  but 
judge  righteous  judgment.  Then  said  some  oi 
them  of  Jerusalem,  "Is  not  this  he,  whom  they  seek 
to  kill?    But,  lo,  he  speaketh  boldly,  and  they  say 


more  miracles  than  these  which  this  man  hath 
done?"  The  Pharisees  heard  that  Ihe  people  mur- 
mured such  things  sonceming  him  ;  and  the  Phari- 
sees and  the  chief  priests  sent  ofhcers  to  take  him. 
Then  said  Jesus  unlo  them.  Yet  a  little  while  am  / 
with  you,  and  then  I  go  unto  him  that  sent  me.  Ye 
shall  seek  me,  and  shall  not  find  me  :  and  where  I 
am,  thither  ye  can  not  come.  Then  said  the  Jews 
among  themselves,  "Whither  will  he  go,  that  we 
shall  not  find  him  ?  will  he  go  unto  the  dispersed 
among  the  Gentiles,  and  teach  the  Gentiles  ?  What 
manner  of  saying  is  this  that  he  said,  '  Ye  shall  seek 
me.  and  shall  not  find  me  ;  and  where  I  am,  thither 


ye  I 


JESira  AND  THE  SINFtJL  WOMAN. 


nothing  unto  him.  Do  the  rulers  know  indeed  that 
this  is  the  very  Christ?  Howlieit  we  know  this 
man  whence  he  is ;  but  when  Christ  cometh,  no 
man  knoweth  whence  he  is."  Then  cried  Jesus  In 
the  temple  as  he  taught,  saying,  Ye  both  know  me, 
and  ye  know  whence  lam;  and  I  am  not  come  of 
myself,  but  he  that  sent  me  is  true,  whom  ye  know 
not.  But  I  know  him  ;  for  /  am  from  Aim,  and  he 
hath  sent  me.  Then  they  sought  to  take  him  ;  but 
no  man  laid  hands  on  him,  ijecause  his  hour  was 
not  yet  come.  And  many  of  the  people  belie\ed 
on  him,  and  said,  When  Christ  cometh,  will  he  do 


In  the  last  day,  that  great  day  of  the  {east,  Jesus 
stood  and  cried,  saying,  If  any  man  thirst,  let  him 
come  unto  me  and  drink.  He  that  believeth  on  me, 
as  the  scripture  hath  said,  out  of  his  belly  shall  flow 
rivers  of  living  water.  (But  this  spoke  he  of  the 
Spirit,  which  they  that  believe  on  him  should 
receive;  for  the  Holy  Ghost  was  not  yet  given; 
because  that  Jesus  was  not  yet  glorified.)  Many 
of  the  people  therefore,  when  they  heard  this  say- 
ing, said,  "  Of  a  truth  this  is  the  Prophet"  Others 
said,  "  This  is  the  Christ."  But  some  said,  "  Shall 
Christ  come  out  of  Galilee?  Hath  not  the  scripture 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


said,  That  Christ  cometh  of  the  seed  of  David,  and 
out  of  the  town  of  Bethlehem,  where  David  was?" 
So  there  was  a  division  among  the  people  because 
of  him.  And  some  of  them  would  have  taken  him; 
but  no  man  laid  hands  on  him.  Then  came  the 
officers  to  the  chief  priests  and  Pharisees;  and  they 
said  unto  them,  *'  why  have  ye  not  brought  him  ?*' 
The  officers  answered,  **  Never  man  spoke  like 
this  man.**  Then  answered  them  the  Pharisees, 
*'Are  ye  also  deceived  ?  Have  any  of  the  rulers  or 
of  the  Pharisees  believed  on  him  ?  But  this  people 
who  knoweth  not  the  law  are  cursed.'*  Nicodemus 
saith  unto  them  (he  that  came  to  Jesus  by  night, 
being  one  of  them),  *'  Doth  our  law  judge  any  man 
before  it  hear  him,  and  know  what  he  doeth?" 
They  answered  and  said  unto  him,  "Art  thou  also 
of  Galilee?  Search,  and  look;  for  out  of  Galilee 
ariseth  no  prophet.'*  And  every  man  went  unto 
his  own  house.  Jesus  went  unto  the  Mount  of 
Olives. 

Zbc  Tmoman  (Taften  in  B^ulteri?. 

October,  A.  D.  29.  Temple  Court,  Jerusalem. 

(John  viii:  2.)  Early  in  the  morning  he  came 
again  into  the  temple,  and  all  the  people  came  unto 
him;  and  he  sat  down  and  taught  them.  And  the 
scribes  and  Pharisees  bronght  unto  him  a  woman 
taken  in  adultery;  and  when  they  had  set  her  in  the 
midst,  they  say  unto  him,  **  Master,  this  woman 
was  taken  in  adultery,  in  the  very  act.  Now  Moses 
in  the  law  commanded  us,  that  such  should  be 
stoned;  but  what  sayest  thou7"  This  they  said, 
tempting  him,  that  they  might  have  to  accuse  him. 
But  Jesus  stooped  down,  and  with  his  finger  wrote 
on  the  ground,  as  though  he  heard  them  not.  So 
when  they  continued  asking  him  he  lifted  up  him- 
self and  said  unto  them,  He  that  is  without  sin 
among  you,  let  him  first  cast  a  stone  at  her.  And 
again  he  stooped  down,  and  wrote  on  the  ground. 
And  they  which  heard  it,  being  convicted  by  their 
own  conscience,  went  out  one  by  one,  beginning  at 
the  eldest,  even  unto  the  last;  and  Jesus  was  left 
alone,  and  the  woman  standing  in  the  midst. 
When  Jesus  had  lifted  up  himself,  and  saw  none 
but  the  woman,  he  said  unto  her,  Woman,  where 
are  those  thine  accusers  f  hath  no  m.an  condemned 
thee?  She  said,  "No  man.  Lord."  And  Jesus 
said  unto  her,  Neither  do  I  condemn  thee;  go  and 
sin  no  more. 

5e0U0  tbe  Xi^bt  of  tbe  TRIlorlb. 

(John  viii:  12.)  Then  spoke  Jesus  again  unto 
them,  saying,  lam  the  light  of  the  world;  he  that 
followeth  me  shall  not  walk  in  darkness,  but  shall 
have  the  light  of  life.  The  Pharisees  therefore 
said  unto  him,  "Thou  bearest  record  of  thyself; 
thy  record  is  not  true."  Jesus  answered  and  said 
unto  them.  Though  I  bear  record  of  myself  yet  my 
record  is  true;  for  I  know  whence  I  came,  and 
whither  I  go;  but  ye  can  not  tell  whence  I  come  and 
whither  I  go.  Ye  judge  after  the  flesh;  I  judge  no 
man.  And  yet  if  I  judge,  my  judgment  is  true; 
for  lam  not  alone,  but  I  and  the  Father  that  sent 


me.  It  is  also  written  in  j 
mony  of  two  men  is  true, 
witness  of  myself,  and  thi 
beareth  witness  of  me.  Th 
"Where  is  thy  Father?" 
neither  know  me,  nor  my  Fi 
mey  ye  should  have  known  i 
words  spoke  Jesus  in  the  tr 
the  temple;  and  no  man  lai< 
hour  was  not  yet  come. 

Then  said  Jesus  again  ui 
and  ye  shall  seek  me,  and 
whither  I  go,  ye  can  not  con 
"Will  he  kill  himself?  bee 
I  go,  ye  can  not  come.'  " 
Ye  are  from  beneath;  I  am 
this  world;  I  am  not  ofth\ 
fore  unto  you,  that  ye  shall 
ye  believe  not  that  I  am  I 
sins.  Then  said  they  unto  1 
And  Jesus  saith  unto  them 
said  unto  you  from  the  beg 
things  to  say  and  to  judge 
me  is  true;  and  I  speak  to 
which  I  have  heard  of  him. 
that  he  spoke  to  them  of  1 
Jesus  unto  them,  IVhen  ye  I 
man,  then  shall  ye  know  the 
nothing  of  myself;  but  as 
me,  I  speak  these  things.  ^ 
with  me;  the  Father  hath  ; 
do  always  those  things  th 
spoke  these  words,  many  b 
said  Jesus  to  those  Jews  wh 
ye  continue  in  my  word,  t 
indeed;  and  ye  shall  know 
shall  make  you  free.  The 
be  Abraham's  seed,  and  w€ 
any  man;  how  sayest  the 
free?'"  Jesus  answered 
say  unto  you.  Whosoever 
servant  of  sin.  And  the  sti 
house  forever;  but  the  Soi 
Son  therefore  shall  make  yc 
indeed.  I  know  that  ye  at 
ye  seek  to  kill  me,  because 
in  you.  I  speak  that  wh 
my  Father;  and  ye  do  th 
with  your  father.  They  a 
him,  "Abraham  is  our  fatl 
them,  If  ye  were  Abraham 
the  works  of  Abraham.  £ 
me,  a  man  that  hath  toldyot 
heard  of  God;  this  did  not 
deeds  of  your  father.  Ther 
be  not  bom  of  fornication 
even  God."  Jesus  said  ui 
your  Father,  ye  would  lot 
forth  and  came  from  Gc 
myself,  but  he  sent  me.  W/ 
my  speech?  even  because  ye 
Ye  are  of  your  father  the 
your  father  ye  will  do     H 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


tie  not  in  the  Iruth,  because 
m.  When  he  speaketh  a  lie, 
n,  for  he  is  a  liar,  and  the 
ause  I  tell  you  the  truth,  ye 
h  of  you  eonvincelh  me  of 
truth,  why  do  ye  not  believe 
od  heareth  God's  words;  ye 
wt,  because  ye  are  not  of 
\  the  Jews  and  said  unto 
1  that  thou  art  a  Samaritan, 
sus  answered,  /  have  not  a 
Father,  and  ye  do  dishonor 
ine  own  glory;  there  is  one 
Teth.  Veritji,  verily,  I  lay 
■p  my  saying,  he  shall  never 

the  Jews  unto  him,  "  Now 
t  a  devil.  Abraham  is  dead, 
thou  sayest,  'If  a  man  keep 
•er  taste  of  death.'  Art  thou 
r  Abraham,  which  is  dead? 

dead;  whom  makest  thou 
ered,  If  I  honor  myself,  my 
is  my  Father  that  honoreth 
'.hat  he  is  your  God  ;  yet  ye 

bul  I  know  him ;  and  if  I 
•n  not,  I  shall  be  a  liar  Hke 

him  and  keep  his  saying. 
rejoiced  to  see  my  day;  and 
i.  Then  said  the  Jews  unto 
et  fifty  years  old.  and  hast 
Jesus  said  unto  them,  Verity, 
Before  Abraham  was.  Jam. 
les  to  cast  at  him;  but  Jesus 
:  out  of  the  temple,  going 
lem,  and  so  passed  by. 


wipe  off  against  you;  notwithstanding  be  ye  sure  of 
this,  that  the  kingdmn  of  God  is  come  nigh  unto 
you.  But  I  say  unto  you,  that  it  shall  be  more 
tolerable  in  that  day  for  Sodom,  t/tanfor  that  city. 
Woe  unto  thee,  Chorazin!  woe  unto  thee,  Selh- 
saida .'  for  if  the  mighty  works  had  been  done  in 
Tyre  and  Sidon,  which  Itave  been  done  in  you,  they 
had  a  great  white  ago  repented,  sitting  in  sackcloth 
and  ashes.  Bui  it  shall  be  more  tolerable  for  Tyre 
and  Sidon  at  the  judgment,  than  for  you.  Arui 
thou,  Capernaum,  which  art  exalted  to  heaven, 
Shalt  be  thrust  down  to  hell.  He  that  heareth  you 
heareth  me;  and  he  that  despiseth  you  despiseth  me; 
and  he  that  despiseth  me  despiseth  him  that  sent  me. 
And  the  seventy  returned  again  with  joy,  say- 
ing, "  Lord,  even  the  devils  are  subject  unto  us 


ite  Sent  goxva. 

Jeniaalem, 

'  these  things  the  Lord  ap- 
iilso,  and  sent  them  two  and 
into  every  city  and  place, 
)uld  come.  Therefore  said 
rvest  truly  is  great,  but  the 
V  ye  therefore  the  Lord  of 
uld  send  forth  laborers  into 
■  ways;  behold,  I  send  you 
•tg  wolves.  Carry  neither 
-.hoes;  and  salute  no  man  by 
atsoever  house  ye  enter,  first 
house.  And  if  the  son  of 
ace  shall  rest  upon  if;  if  not, 
■in.  And  in  the  same  tiouse 
•inking  such  things  as  they 
is  worthy  of  his  hire.  Go 
use.  And  into  whatsoever 
receive  you,  eat  such  things 
and  heal  the  sick  that  are 
•hem.  The  kingdom  of  God 
But  into  whatsoever  city 
eive  you  not,  go  your  ways 
'.tie  same,  and  say.  Even  the 
which  cleaveth  on  us,  we  do 


"  PEACE  BE  TO  THIS  HOUSE." 

through  Uiy  name."  And  he  said  unlo  them,  I  be- 
held Satan  as  lightning  fall  from  heaven.  Behold, 
I  give  unto  you  power  to  tread  on  serpents  and 
scorpions,  and  over  all  the  power  of  the  enemy; 
and  nothing  shall  by  any  means  hurt  you.  Nat- 
withstanding  in  this  rejoice  not,  that  the  spirits  are 
subject  unto  you;  but  rather  rej'oice,  because  your 
names  are  written  in  heaven. 

In  that  hour  Jesus  rejoiced  in  spirit,  and  said, 
/  thank  thee,  O  Father,  Lord  of  heaven  and 
earth,  that  thou  hast  hid  these  things  from  the  wise 
and  prudent,  and  hast  revealed  them  unto  babes; 


TV 

swfpt  and  gamki  Utn  ^oeth  h 
to  him  seven  other  spirits  more  wick 
self:  and  they  enter  in,  and  direll  11 
lasi  state  of  that  man  is  worse  than  i 
it  came  to  pass,  as  he  spake  these  tl 
woman  of  the  company  ViHed  up  hei 
unto  him,  "  Blessed  is  the  womb 
and  the  paps  which  to  \\?&\  s\ 
said,  Yea,  rather,  blessed  are  th 
word  of  God,  and  keep  it, 

]adea. 

(Luke  xi:  29.]    kvA  vjk 

gathered  thick  together,  he  Ix 

an  evil  generation ;  they  see 

shall  no  sign  be  given  it,  but  t 

prophet,    for  as  Jonah  was 

vileSy  so  shall  also  the  Son  oj 

ation.     The  queen  of  the  sou 

judgment  with  the  men  of  [\ 

demn  them :  for  she  came  J 

the  earth  to  hear  the  wis 

behold,  a  greater  than  Sol 

of  Nineveh  shall  rise  up  « 

generation,  and  shall  com 

at  the  preaching  ofjona 

than  fonah  is  here.   No 

a  candle,  putteth  it  in  a 

bushel,  but  on  a  candle 

in  may  see  the  light. 

eye :  therefore  when  t 

body  also  is  full  ofti^ 

thy  body  also  is  full  c 

fore,  that  the  light  ix 

If  thy  whole  body  th 

no  part  dark,  the 

when  the  bright  sh 

light. 

Cbtist  1 

A.  D.  29. 

(Luke    x\:  3' 

Pharisee  besou^ 

went  in,  and  sal 

see  saw  it.  Vie  n 

before  dinner. 

do  ye    Pharise 

and  the  pi  at  it 

ra z*eft ifij^    anc 

that    fnade    tl 

is     Tint  hi  71    ai 

thifi^s  as  ye 

iinfo  yat4.       a 

/ii/ie    tnift/   c 

pass    oz'er-  j 

ot4_g^ht  ye    io 

uneforte.        li  \ 

upper^ptcfst  Si 

in  ihe  rnezT^^ 

sees,  hypoc-ri 

not.,  arte/  i/te  ; 


HE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


149 


f ,  and  taketh 
'd  than  hint- 
ere  ;  and  the 
e  first.  And 
igs,  a  certain 
)ice,  and  said 
it  bare  thee, 
;d.*»  But  he 
hat  hear  the 


>y 


people  were 
say,  This  is 
•z  /  and  there 
of  Jonah  the 
nlo  the  Nine- 

0  this  gener- 
ise  up  in  the 
ion,  and  con- 
most  parts  of 
^lomon  ;  and, 
'e.  The  men 
ent  with  this 
they  repented 
}ld,  a  greater 
?  hath  lighted 
nther  under  a 
>  which  come 
?  body  is  the 
le,  thy  whole 
ne  eye  is  evil, 
re  heed  there- 
no  t  darkness, 
light,  having 

1  of  light,  as 
oth  give  thee 


iiem. 


Judea. 


ve,  a  certain 
him  ;  and  he 
hen  the  Phari- 
)t  first  washed 
to  him,  Now 
de  of  the  cup 
rt  is  full  of 
,  did  not  he, 
ke  that  which 
Urns  of  such 
higs  are  clean 
isees!  for  ye 
of  herbs,  and 
f  God;  these 
are  the  other 
^oryc  love  the 
nd  greetings 
cs  and  Phari- 
which  appear 
ire  not  aivare 


of  them.  Then  answered  one  of  the  lawyers,  and 
said  unto  him,  "Master,  thus  saying  thou  reproach- 
est  us  also."  And  he  said,  Woe  unto  you  also,  ye 
lawyers  /  for  ye  load  men  with  burdens  grievous  to 
be  borne,  and  ye  yourselves  touch  tiot  the  burdens 
Tjuith  one  of  your  fingers.  Woe  unto  you!  for  ye 
build  the  sepulchres  of  the  prophets,  and  your 
fathers  killed  them.  Truly  ye  bear  witness  that 
ye  allow  the  deeds  of  your  fathers;  for  they  indeed 
killed  them,  and  ye  build  their  sepulchres.  There- 
fore also  said  the  wisdom  of  God, 

I  will  send  them  prophets  and  apostles,  and 
some  of  them  they  shall  slay  and  persecute  : 

That  the  blood  of  all  the  prophets,  which  was 
shed  from  the  foundation  of  the  world,  may  be 
required  of  this  generation;  from  the  blood  of  Abel 
unto  the  blood  of  Zacharias,  which  perished  between 
t  altar  and  the  temple:  verily  I  say  unto  you.  It 
shall  be  required  of  this  generation.  Woe  unto  you, 
lazvyers  I  for  ye  have  taken  away  the  key  of  knowl- 
edge: ye  entered  not  in  yourselves,  and  them  that 
were  entering  in  ye  hindered.  And  as  he  said  these 
things  unto  them,  the  scribes  and  the  Pharisees 
began  to  urge  him  vehemently,  and  to  provoke 
him  to  speak  of  many  things:  laying  wait  for  him, 
and  seeking  to  catch  something  out  of  his  mouth, 
that  they  might  accuse  him. 

IKIlatnino  and  jCncouradfng. 

(Luke  xii:  L)  In  the  meantime,  when  there 
were  gathered  together  an  innumerable  multitude 
of  people,  insomuch  that  they  trod  one  upon  an- 
other, he  began  to  say  unto  his  disciples  first  of  all. 
Beware  ye  of  the  leaven  of  the  Pharisees,  which  is 
hypocrisy.  For  there  is  nothing  covered,  that  shall 
not  be  revealed;  neither  hid,  that  shall  not  be  known. 
Therefore,  whatsoever  ye  have  spoken  in  darkness 
shall  be  heard  in  the  light;  attd  that  which  ye  have 
spoken  in  the  ear  in  closets  shall  be  proclaimed 
upon  the  housetops.  And  I  say  unto  you  my 
friends,  Be  not  afraid  of  them  that  kill  the  body, 
and  after  that  have  no  more  that  they  can  do.  BtU 
I  will  forewarn  you  whom  ye  shall  fear:  Fear  him, 
which  after  he  hath  killed  hath  power  to  cast  into 
hell;  yea,  I  say  unto  you.  Fear  him.  Are  not  five 
sparrows  sold  for  two  farthings,  and  not  one  of 
them  is  forgotten  before  Godf  But  even  the  very 
hairs  of  your  head  are  cUl  nutnbered.  Fear  not 
therefore;  ye  are  of  more  value  than  many  sparrows. 
Also  I  say  unto  you,  Whosoever  shall  confess  me 
before  men,  him  shall  the  Son  of  man  also  confess 
before  the  angels  of  God;  but  he  that  denieth  me 
before  men  shall  be  denied  before  the  angels  of  God. 
And  whosoever  shall  speak  a  word  against  the 
Son  of  man,  it  shall  be  forgiven  him;  but  unto  him 
that  blasphemeth  against  the  Holy  Ghost  it  shall 
not  be  forgiven.  And  when  they  bring  you  unto 
the  synagogues,  and  unto  magistrates,  and  powers, 
take  ye  no  thought  how  or  what  thing  ye  shall 
answer,  or  what  ye  shall  say,  for  the  Holy  Ghost 
shall  teach  you  in  the  same  hour  what  ye  ought 
tt  say 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


l>e  Vicb  yool. 

One  of  the  company  said  unto 
ik  to  my  brother,  that  he  divide 
1  me."  And  he  said  unto  him, 
?  a  judge  or  a  divider  over  you  ? 
bem,  Take  heedy  and  beware  of 

man^s  life  consisteth  not  in  the 
ings  which  he  possesseth.    And 

unto  them,  saying.  The  ground 
m  brought  forth  plentifully;  and 
himself  sayings  ^^IVhat  shall  I 
?  no  room  where  to  bestow  my 

saidy  **This  will  I  do;  I  will 
Sf  and  build  greater;  and  there 
ly  fruits  and  my  goods.  And  I 
*/,  Souly  thou  hast  much  goods 
ars;  take  thine  ease;  eat^  drink 
'iut  God  said  unto  him,  ^^Thou 
y  soul  shall  be  required  of  thee; 
hose  things  be  which  thou  hast 
'  he  that  layeth  up  treasure  for 
rich  toward  God. 

IDER  THE  LILIES. 

o  his  disciples,  Therefore  I  say 
thought  for  your  life,  what  ye 
ir  the  body^  what  ye  shall  put  on. 
^han  meaty  and  the  body  is  more 
onsider  the  ravens^  for  they 
eap;  which  neither  have  store- 
d  God  feedeth  them;  how  much 
han  the  fowls  ?  And  which  of 
Tught  can  add  to  his  stature  one 
?  not  able  to  do  that  thing  which 
'  thought  for  the  rest  ?  Consider 
grow;  they  toil  not,  they  spin 
\ntoyouy  that  Solomon  in  all  his 
lyed  like  one  of  these.  If  then 
rasSy  which  is  today  in  the  fieldy 
st  into  the  oven,  how  much  more 
0  ye  of  little  faith  ?  And  seek 
U  eaty  or  what  ye  shall  drink; 
ioubtful  mind.  For  all  these 
ns  of  the  world  seek  after;  and 
ih  that  ye  have  need  of  these 
r  seek  ye  the  kingdom  of  Gody 
shall  be  added  unto  you.  Fear 
'  //  is  your  Father's  good  pleas- 
?  kingdom.  Sell  that  ye  havCy 
vide  yourselves  bags  which  wax 
in  the  heavens  that  faileth  not, 
roachethy  neither  moth  corrupt- 
lur  treasure  is,  there  will  your 

IE  YE  READY. 

>e  girded  abouty  and  your  lights 
urselves  like  unto  men  that  wait 
n  he  will  return  from  the  wed- 

cometh  and  knockethy  they  may 
mediately.     Blessed  are   those 

Lord  when  he  cometh  shall  find 
say  unto  you,  that  he  shall  gird 


himself  and  make  them  to  sit  down  to  meaty  and 
will  come  forth  and  serve  them.  And  if  he  shall 
come  in  the  second  waichy  or  come  in  the  third 
watchy  and  find  them  so,  blessed  are  those  servants. 
And  this  knoWy  that  if  the  goodman  of  the  h€>use 
had  knoTvn  what  hour  the  thief  would  come^  he 
would  have  watchedy  and  not  have  suffered  his 
house  to  be  broken  through.  Be  ye  therefore  ready 
also;  for  the  Son  of  man  cotneth  at  an  hour  when 
ye  think  not. 

Then  Peter  said  unto  him,    "Lord,  speakest 
thou  this  parable  unto  us,  or  even  to  alL^"    And 
the  Lord  said.    Who  then  is  that  faithful  and  ztnse 
stewardy  whom  his  lord  shall  make  ruler  over  his 
house holdy  to  give  them  their  portion  of  meat  in  due 
season?    Blessed  is  that  servanty  whom  his  lord 
when  he  cometh  shall  find  so  doing.     Of  a  truth  I 
say  unto  yoUy  that  he  will  make  him  ruler  over  all 
that  he  hath,    Buty  and  if  that  servant  say  in  his 
hearty    ^' My  lord  delay eth  his  coming y*'   and  shall 
begin  to  beat  the  menservants  and  maidens,  and  to 
eat  and  drinky  and  to  be  drunkeny  the  lord  of  that 
servant  will  come  in  a  day  when  he  looketh  not  for 
himy  and  at  an  hour  when  he  is  not  aware,  and  will 
cut  him  in  sunder y  and  will  appoint  him  his  portion 
with  the  unbelievers.      And  that  servant,   which 
knew  his  lord^s  will,  and  prepared  not  himself 
neither  did  according  to  his  zvilly  shall  be  beaten 
with  many  stripes.     But  he  that  knew  noty  and  did 
commit  things  worthy  of  stripeSy  shall  be  beaten 
with  few  stripes.    For  unto  whomsoever  much  is 
given,  of  him  shall  be  much  required;  and  to  whom 
men  have  committed  muchy  of  him  they  will  ask  the 
more, 

NOT  PEACE  BUT  A  8WORO. 

I  am  come  to  send  fire  on  the  earth;  and  what 
will  ly  if  it  be  cUready  kindled?  Bid  I  have  a  be^ 
tism  to  be  baptized  ivith  ;  and  how  am  I  straitened 
till  it  be  accomplished!  Suppose  ye  that  I  am  come 
to  give  peace  on  earth  ?  I  tellyoUy  Nay  ;  but  rather 
division  ;  for  from  henceforth  there  shall  be  five  in 
one  house  divided  three  against  twOy  and  two  against 
three.  The  father  shall  be  divided  against  the  son, 
and  the  son  against  the  father ;  the  mother  against 
the  daughter y  and  the  daughter  against  the  mother ; 
the  mother  in  law  against  her  daughter  in  laWy  and 
the  daughter  in  law  against  her  mother  in  law. 
And  he  said  also  to  the  people.  When  ye  see  a  cloud 
rise  out  of  the  west,  straightway  ye  say,  '*  There 
cometh  a  shower,''  and  so  it  is.  And  when  ye  see 
the  south  zvindblow,  ye  say,  "  There  will  be  heat,  *' 
and  it  cometh  to  pass.  Ye  hypocrites,  ye  can  dis- 
cern the  face  of  the  sky  and  of  the  earth  ;  but  how 
is  it  that  ye  do  not  discern  this  time  ?  K<?a,  and 
why  even  of  yourselves  judge  ye  not  what  is  right? 
When  thou  goest  with  thine  adversary  to  the  magis- 
trate, as  thou  art  in  the  wayy  give  diligence  that 
thou  mayest  be  delivered  from  him  ;  lest  he  hale 
thee  to  thejudgCy  and  the  judge  deliver  thee  to  the 
officer,  and  the  officer  cast  thee  into  prison.  I  tell 
thee,  thou  shall  not  depart  thence,  till  thou  hast  paid 
the  very  last  mite. 


HE    WONDERFUL  STORY 


151 


ome  that  told 
I  Pilate  had 
esus  answer- 
ese  Galileans 
because  Ikey 
' ;  but,  except 
sA.  Or  those 
loam  fell,  and 
nefs  above  ail 
louy  Nay:  but, 

3  lEree. 

Jcniialem. 
lis  parable :  A 
:  his  vineyard; 
ron,  and  found 
%er  of  his  vine- 
come  seeking 
;  cut  it  down; 
d  he  answering 
this  year  also, 
;  andifit bare 
that  thou  shaU 


the  sabbath  day."  Others  said,  "  How  can  a  man 
that  is  a  sinner  do  such  miracles?"  And  there 
was  a  division  among  them.  They  say  unto  the 
blind  man  again,  "What  sayest  thou  o(  him,  that 
he  hath  opened  thine  eyes?"  He  said,  "He  is  a 
prophet."  But  the  Jews  did  not  believe  concern- 
ing him,  that  he  had  been  blind,  and  received  his 
sight,  until  they  called  the  parents  of  him  that  had 
received  his  sight.  And  they  asked  them,  saying, 
"Is  this  your  son,  who  ye  say  was  bom  blind? 
how  then  doth  he  now  see?"  His  parents  answered 
them  and  said,  "We  know  that  this  is  our  son, 
and  that  he  was  bom  blind  ;  but  by  what  means  he 
now  seeth,  we  know  not ;  or  who  hath  opened  bis 


1  by,  he  saw  a 
And  his  dis- 
r,  who  did  sin, 
.s  bom  blind?" 
nan  sinned,  nor 
f  God  should  be 
rk  the  works  of 
he  fdghi  Cometh, 

as  I  am  in  the 
i.  When  he  had 
1,  and  made  clay 
eyes  of  the  blind 
o  him.  Go  wash 
)y  interpretation, 
ire,  and  washed, 
■s  therefore,  and 
lat  he  was  blind, 
pegged?"  Some 

He  is  like  him  ;" 
■refore  said  they 
:  opened?"  He 
It  is  called  Jesus 
cs,  and  said  unio 
nd  wash ; '  and  I 
ed  Mght."    Then 

he?"    He  said, 

to  the  Pharisees 
nd  il  was  the  sab- 
ly,  and  opened  his 
i  also  asked  him 
:  said  unto  them, 
id  1  washed,  and 

of  the  Pharisees, 
ie  he  keepeih  not 


THE  MAN  BLIND  FROM  HIS  BIRTH. 

eyes,  we  know  not ;  he  Is  of  age  ;  ask  him  ;  he  shall 
speak  for  himself."  These  words  spoke  his  parents, 
because  they  feared  the  Jews ;  for  the  Jews  had 
agreed  already,  that  if  any  man  did  conFess  that  he 
was  Christ,  he  should  be  put  out  of  the  synagogue. 
Therefore saidhisparents  "  Heisofage:askhim," 

ONE  THING  I  KNOW. 

Then  again  called  they  the  man  that  was  blind, 
and  said  unto  him,  "Give  God  the  praise;  we  know 
that  this  man  is  a  sinner."  He  answered  and  said, 
"Whether  he  l>e  a  sinner  or  no,  I  know  not;  one 
thing  I  know,  that,  whereas  [  was  blind,  now  1 
see."  Then  said  they  to  him  again,  "What  did  he 
to  thee?  how  opened  he  thine  eyes?"  He  answered 
them,  "I  have  told  you  already,  and  ye  did  not 
hear;  wherefore  would  ye  hear  It  again  ?  will  ye  also 


ye  of  him,  whom  the  Faihtr  hi 
sent  into  the  world,  "TTioa  bias) 
Jsaid,  •'/ am  the  Son  of  Gad  f 
works  of  my  Faiher,  believe  n 
do,  though  ye  believe  not  me,  \ 
that  ye  may  know,  and  believe.  II 
me,  and  1  in  him.  Therefore  ih 
take  him;  but  he  escaped  out  i 
went  away  again  beyond  Jor<! 
tt'here  John  at  first  baptized;  ar 
And  many  resorted  unto  him,  a 
no  miracle;  but  all  Ihi:^  that 
man  were  tnie."  And  man> 
there. 


( Luke  xiii:  10. )    He  w 
synagogues  on  the  sabba 


THE  GREAT  PH' 

was  a  woman  which  had  a  sp 
een  years,  and  was  bowed  It 
no  wise  lift  up  herself.  Ant 
he  called  her  to  him,  and  s^i 
thou  art  loosed  from  thine  i?i 
his  hands  on  her;  and  imm« 
straight,  and  glorified  God. 
synagogue  answered  with  im 
Jesus  had  healed  on  the  sabi 
the  people,  "There  are  si: 
ought  to  work;  in  them  th 
healed,  and  not  on  the  sabt 
then  answered  him,  and  saic 
not  each  one  of  you  on  the  s 
his  ass  from  the  stall,  and  If 
ing?    Andtrnghlnot  this  Wc 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


13* 


ye  of  him,  whom  the  Father  halh  sanctified,  and 
sent  into  Ihe  world,  "Thou  blasphemesf,"  because 
I  said.  "  lam  the  Son  of  Gadf  "  If  1  do  not  the 
works  of  my  Father,  believe  me  not.  But  if  I 
do,  though  ye  believe  not  me,  believe  the  works; 
thai  ye  may  know,  and  believe,  that  ihe  Father  is  in 
me,  and  I  in  him.  Therefore  they  sought  again  to 
take  him;  but  he  escaped  out  of  their  hand,  and 
went  away  again  beyond  Jordan  into  the  place 
where  John  at  first  baptized;  and  there  he  abode. 
And  many  resorted  unto  him,  and  said,  "John  did 
no  miracle;  but  all  thing;s  that  John  spoke  of  this 
man  were  true."  And  many  believed  on  him 
there. 

Moman  vrilb  an  Inllnnltc. 

A.  D.  M.  Perca. 

(Luke  xiii:  10.)    He  was  teaching  in  one  oF  the 
synagogues  on  the  sabbath.    And,  behold,  there 


HE  GREAT  PHYSICIAN. 

was  a  woman  which  had  a  spirit  of  intinnity  eight- 
een years,  and  was  bowed  together,  and  could  in 
no  wise  lift  up  herself.  And  when  Jesus  saw  her, 
he  called  her  to  him,  and  said  unto  her,  IVoman. 
ihou  art  loosed  from  thine  infirmity.  And  he  laid 
his  hands  on  her;  and  immediately  she  was  made 
Straight,  and  glorified  God.  And  the  niler  of  the 
synagogue  answered  wilh  indignation,  because  that 
Jesus  had  healed  on  the  sabbath  day,  and  said  unto 
Ihe  people.  "There  are  six  days  in  which  men 
ought  to  work;  in  them  therefore  come  and  be 
healed,  and  not  on  the  sabbath  day."  The  Lord 
then  answered  him,  and  said,  Thou  hypocriic,  doth 
not  each  one  of  you  on  the  sabbath  loose  his  ox  or 
his  ass  from  the  stall,  and  lead  him  away  to  water- 
ing f    And  ought  not  this  woman,  being  a  daughter 


of  Abraham,  whom  Satan  hath  bound,  lo,  these 
eighteen  years  be  loosed  from  this  bond  on  the 
sabbath  dayf  And  when  he  hadsaid  these  things, 
all  his  adversaries  were  ashamed;  and  :>ll  the  people 
rejoiced  for  all  Ihe  glorious  things  that  were  done 
by  him. 

OTHER  PAKABLES  OF  THE  KINGDOM. 

Then  said  he.  Unto  what  is  the  kingdom  of  God 
like?  and  whereunto  shall  I  resemble  it  f  His  like 
a  grain  of  mustard  seed,  which  a  man  look,  and 
cast  into  his  garden ;  and  it  grew,  and  waxed  4 
great  tree  ;  and  the  fowls  of  the  air  lodged  in  the 
branchesofit.  And  again  he  said,  Whereunto shaU 
I  liken  the  kingdon  of  God?  It  is  like  leaven, 
which  a  woman  took  and  hid  in  three  tneasures  oj 
meal,  till  the  whole  was  leavened.  And  he  went 
through  the  cities  and  villages,  teaching  and  jour 
neying  toward  Jerusalem.  Then  said  one  unto 
him,  "Lord,  are  there  few  that  be  saved?"  And 
he  said  unto  them.  Strive  to  enter  in  at  the  strait 
gale  ;  for  many,  I  say  unto  you,  will  seek  lo  enter 
in,  and  shall  not  be  able.  When  once  the  master 
of  the  house  is  risen  up,  and  hath  shut  to  the  door, 
and  ye  begin  to  stand  without,  and  lo  knock  at  Ike 
door,  saying,  "Lord.  lord,  open  unto  us,"  and 
he  shall  answer  and  say  unto  you.  "[  know  you  not 
whence  ye  are,"  then  shall  ye  begin  lo  say,  "We 
have  eaten  and  drunk  in  ihy  presence,  and  ihou  hast 
taught  in  our  streets."  But  he  shall  say,  "I  tell 
you,  I  know  not  whence  ye  are;  depart  from  me,  all 
ye  workers  of  iniquity."  There  shall  be  weeping 
and  gnashing  of  teeth,  when  ye  shall  see  Abraham, 
and  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  and  all  the  prophets,  in  the 
kingdom  of  God,  and  you  yourselves  thrust  out. 
And  they  shall  come  from  the  east,  and  from  the 
west,  and  from  ihe  north,  and  from  the  south,  and 
shall  sit  down  in  the  kingdom  of  God.  And. 
behold,  there  are  Inst  which  shall  be  first;  and 
there  are  first  which  shall  be  last. 

Aoutnfit0  ®ver  Jerusalem. 

( Luke  xiii:  ,11. )  The  same  day  there  came  cer- 
tain o(  the  Pharisees,  saying  unto  him,  "  Get  thee 
out,  and  depart  hence  ;  for  Herod  will  kill  thee." 
And  he  said  unio  them,  Go  ye,  and  tell  that  fox. 
Behold,  I  casi  out  devils,  and  I  do  cures  today  and 
tomorrow,  and  Ihe  third  day  I  shall  be  perfected. 
Nevertheless  I  must  walk  today,  and  tomorrow, 
and  the  day  following ;  for  it  can  not  be  that  a 
prophet  perish  out  of  ferusalem.  O  ferusalem, 
ferusalem,  which  killest  the  prophets,  and  stonest 
them  that  are  sent  unto  thee ;  how  often  would  I 
have  gathered  thy  children  together,  as  a  hen  doth 
gather  her  brood  under  her  wings,  and  ye  would 
not!  Behold,  your  house  is  left  unto  you  desolate  ; 
and  verify  I  say  unto  you.  Ye  shall  not  see  me, 
until  the  time  come  when  ye  shall  say.  Blessed  is  he 
that  Cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord. 

Dealing  on  tbe  Sabbatb. 
( Luke  xiv;  1. )    And  it  came  to  pass,  as  he  went 
into  the  house  of  one  of  the  chief  Pharisees  to  eat 


154 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


bread  on  the  sabbath  day,  that  they  watched  him. 
And,  behold,  there  was  a  certain  man  before  him 
which  had  the  dropsy.  And  Jesus  answering  spoke 
unto  the  lawyers  and  Pharisees,  saying.  Is  it  lawful 
to  heal  on  the  sabbath  day  t  And  they  held  their 
peace.  And  he  took  him,  and  healed  him,  and  let 
him  go  ;  and  answered  them,  saying,  Which  of  you 
shall  have  an  ass  or  an  ox  fallen  into  a  pit,  and  Tvill 
not  straightway  pull  him  out  on  the  sabbath  day? 
And  they  could  not  answer  him  again  to  these 
things. 

parablee  on  l)umfUti3  and  £scu0e0. 

A.  D.  30. 

(Luke  xiv:  7.)  And  he  put  forth  a  parable  to 
those  which  were  bidden,  when  he  marked  how 
they  chose  out  the  chief  rooms  ;  saying  unto  them. 
When  thou  art  bidden  of  any  man  to  a  weddings  sit 
•  not  down  in  the  highest  room  ;  lest  a  more  honor- 
able man  than  thou  be  bidden  of  him  ;  and  he  that 
bade  thee  and  him  come  and  say  to  thee,  '*  Give  this 
man  place  ;  "  and  thou  begin  with  shame  to  take  the 
lowest  room.  But  when  thou  art  bidden^  go  and 
sit  down  in  the  lowest  room  ;  that  when  he  that  bade 
thee  Cometh,  he  may  say  unto  thee^  ^^ Friend^  go  up 
higher  ;  "  then  shall  thou  have  worship  in  the  pres- 
ence of  them  that  sit  ai  meat  with  thee.  For 
whosoever  exalteth  himself  shall  be  abased ;  and 
he  that  humbleth  himself  shall  be  exalted.  Then 
said  he  also  to  him  that  bade  him.  When  thou 
makest  a  dinner  or  a  supper,  call  not  thy  friends, 
nor  thy  brethren,  neither  thy  kinsmen,  nor  thy  rich 
neighbors ;  lest  they  also  bid  thee  again^  and  a 
recompense  be  made  thee.  But  when  thou  makest 
a  feast,  call  the  poor^  the  maimed,  the  lame,  the 
blind,  and  thou  shall  be  blessed ;  for  they  can  not 
recompense  thee  ;  for  thou  shall  be  recompensed  at 
the  resurrection  of  the  just. 

And  when  one  of  them  that  sat  at  meat  with  him 
heard  these  things,  he  said  unto  him,  ''Blessed  is 
he  that  shall  eat  bread  in  the  kingdom  of  God.** 
Then  said  he  unto  him,  A  certain  man  made  a  great 
supper^  and  bade  many ;  and  sent  his  servant  at 
supper  time  to  say  to  them  that  were  bidden,  * '  Come; 
for  all  things  are  now  ready. ^*  And  they  all  with 
one  consent  began  to  make  excuse.  The  first  said 
unto  him,  ^^  I  have  bought  a  piece  of  ground,  and  I 
must  needs  go  and  see  it ;  I  pray  thee  have  me 
excused.^*  And  another  said,  ^' I  have  bought  five 
yoke  of  oxen,  and  I  go  to  prove  them  ;  I  pray  thee 
have  me  excused.^^  And  another  said,  ^^ I  have 
married  a  wife,  and  therefore  I  can  not  come.^*  So 
that  servant  came,  and  showed  his  lord  these  things. 
Then  the  master  of  the  house  being  angry  said  to 
his  servant f  *'Go  out  quickly  into  the  streets  and 
lanes  of  the  city,  and  bring  in  hither  the  poor,  and 
the  maimed,  and  the  halt,  and  the  blind.**  And  the 
servant  said,  ^^Lord,  it  is  done  as  thou  hast  com- 
manded, and  yet  there  is  room. '  *  And  the  lord  said 
unto  the  servant,  **Go  out  into  the  highways  and 
hedges,  and  compel  them  to  come  in,  that  my  house 
may  be  filled.    For  I  say  unto  you^  That  none  of 


those  men  which  were  bidden  shall  taste  of  my 
supper,** 


Co0t  Of  Diddplcdbip. 


A.  D.  30. 


(Luke  xiv:  25.)  And  there  went  great  multi- 
tudes with  him;  and  he  turned,  and  said  unto  them. 
If  any  man  come  to  me,  and  hate  not  his  father,  and 
mother,  and  wife,  and  children,  and  brethren,  and 
sisters,  yea,  and  his  oum  life  also,  he  can  not  be  my 
disciple.  And  whosoever  doth  not  bear  his  cross, 
and  come  after  me,  can  not  be  my  disciple.  For 
which  of  you,  intending  to  build  a  tower,  sitteth  not 
doTvn  first,  and  counteth  the  cost,  whether  he  have 
sufficient  to  finish  it?  Lest  haply,  after  Pie  hath 
laid  the  foundation^  and  is  not  able  to  finish  it,  all 
that  behold  it  begin  to  mock  him,  sayings  **  This 
man  began  to  build,  and  was  not  able  to  finish.** 
Or  what  king,  going  to  make  war  against  another 
kingi  sitteth  not  dozvn  firsts  and  consulteth  whether 
he  be' able  with  ten  thousand  to  meet  him  thatcometh 
against  him  with  twenty  thousand?  Or  else,  while 
the  other  is  yet  a  great  way  off,  he  sendeth  an  am- 
bassage,  and  desireth  conditions  of  peace.  So  like- 
wise ^  whosoever  he  be  of  you  that  forsaketh  not  aii 
that  he  hath,  he  can  not  be  my  disciple.  Salt  is  good; 
but  if  the  salt  have  lost  his  savor,  wherezvith  shall 
it  be  seasoned?  It  is  neither  fit  for  the  land^  nor 
yet  for  the  dunghill;  but  men  cast  it  out.  He  that 
hath  ears  to  hear^  let  him  hear. 


A.  D.sa 


parable6. 

THE  LOST  SHEEP. 


(Luke  xv:  1. )  Then  drew  near  unto  him  all  the 
publicans  and  sinners  for  to  hear  him.  And  the 
Pharisees  and  scribes  murmured,  saying,  **This 
man  receiveth  sinners,  and  eateth  with  them." 
And  he  spoke  this  parable  unto  them,  saying^, 
What  man  of  you,  having  a  hundred  sheep,  if  he 
lose  one  of  them,  doth  not  leave  the  ninety  and  nine 
in  the  wilderness,  and  go  after  that  which  is  lost, 
until  he  find  it?  And  when  he  hath  found  it,  he 
layeth  it  on  his  shoulders,  rejoicing.  And  when  he 
Cometh  home,  he  calleth  together  his  friends  and 
neighbors,  saying  unto  them,  '* Rejoice  with  me; 
for  I  have  found  my  sheep  which  was  lost.  *  *  I  say 
unto  you,  that  likewise  joy  shall  be  in  heaven  over 
one  sinner  that  repenteth,  more  than  over  ninety  and 
nine  just  persons  which  need  no  repentance. 

THE  LOST  COIN. 

(Luke  XV :  8.)  Either  what  wotnan  havings  ten 
pieces  of  silver,  if  she  lose  one  piece  doth  not  Hght 
a  candle,  and  sweep  the  house,  and  seek  diligently 
till  she  find  it  ?  And  when  she  hath  found  it,  she 
calleth  her  friends  and  her  neighbors  together,  say- 
ing, ''Rejoice  with  me,  for  I  have  found  the  piece 
which  I  had  lost.  *  *  Likewise,  I  say  unto  you,  there 
is  joy  in  the  presence  of  the  angels  of  God  over  one 
sinner  that  repenteth. 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


153 


THE  PRODIGAL  SON. 

{Luke  xv:  11.)  He  said,  ^  certain  man  had 
two  sons;  and  /he  younger  of  tfietn  said  to  his  father, 
"fa/her,  give  me  the  portion  of  goods  that  falleth 
to  me."  And  he  divided  unto  them  his  Hving.  And 
not  many  days  after  the  younger  son  gathered  all 
together,  and  took  his  JMtmey  into  a  far  country, 
and  there  toasted  his  substance  with  riotous  living. 


was  lost,  and  is  found."  And  they  began  to  be 
merry.  Now  his  elder  son  was  in  the  field;  and  as 
he  came  and  drew  nigh  to  the  house,  he  heard 
music  and  dancing.  And  he  called  one  of  the 
servants,  and  asked  what  these  things  meant.  And 
he  said  unto  him,  "  Thy  brother  is  come;  and  thy 
father  halh  killed  the  fatted  calf  because  he  hath 
received  kim  safe  and  sound."  And  he  was  augry, 
and  would  not  go  in;  therefore  came  his  father  out, 
and  entreated  him.  And  he  answering  said  to  his 
father,  "Lo,  t/iese  many  years  do  I  serve  thee, 
neither  transgressed  I  at  any  time  thy  command- 
ment; and  yet  thou  never  gavesl  me  a  kid,  that  J 
might  make  merry  with  my  friends.  But  as  soon 
as  this  thy  son  was  come,  which  hath  devoured  thy 
living  with  harlots,  thou  hast  killed  for  him  the 
fatted  calf.  And  he  said  unto  him,  "Son,  thou  art 
ever  with  me.  and  alt  that  I  have  is  thine.  It  was 
meet  thai  we  should  make  merry,  and  be  glad;  for 


■""^"^'  THE  GOOD  SHEPHERD. 

And  when  he  had  spent  all,  there  arose  a  mighty 
famine  in  that  land;  and  he  began  to  be  in  want. 
And  he  went  and  joined  himself  to  a  cUigen  of  that 
country;  and  he  sent  him  into  his  fields  to  feed 
swine.  And  he  would  fain  have  filled  his  belly 
with  the  husks  that  the  swine  did  eat;  and  no  man 
gave  unto  him.  And  when  he  came  lo  himself,  he 
taid,  "How  many  hired  servants  of  my  Father's 
have  bread  enough  and  to  spare,  and  I  perish  with 
hunger!  I  will  arise  and  go  to  my  Father,  and 
will  say  unto  him.  Father.  I  have  sinned  against 
heaven,  and  before  thee,  and  am  no  more  worthy  to 
be  called  thy  son;  make  me  as  one  of  thy  hired 
servants."  And  he  arose,  and  came  lo  his  father. 
Bui  when  he  was  yet  a  great  way  off,  his  father  saw 
kim,  and  had  compassion,  and  ran,  and  fell  on  his 
neck,  and  kissed  him.  And  the  son  said  unto  him, 
'Father,  I  have  sinned  against  heaven,  and  in  thy 
sight,  and  am  no  more  worthy  tobecalUdlhy  son." 
Sul  the  Father  said  to  his  servants,  "Bring  forth 
the  best  robe,  and  put  it  on  him;  and  fiut  a  ring  on 
his  hand,  and  shoes  on  his  feet;  and  bring  hither  the 
fatted  calf,  and  kill  it;  and  let  us  eat,  and  be  merry; 
/or  this  my  son  was  dead,  and  is  alive  again;  he 


THE  LOST  COIN, 

this  thy  brother  was  dead,  and  is  alive  again;  and 
was  lost,  andis  found." 

THE  UNJUST  STEWARD 

(Luke  xvi:  1.)    And  he  said  also  unto  his  dis- 
ciples,  There  was  a  certain  rich  man,  which  had 


fixed;  so  Utal  they  wHch  wouh 
you  can  not;  neilher  eon  Ikey  /• 
comt  from  thence"  Then  *<■ 
therefore,  father,  fhalthou  urn. 
falhet'i  home;  for  I  have  p: 


Dtii^t.         COME  TO  I- 

may  leitify  unto  Ihetn,  /est 
place  of  torment."  Abraha 
have  Moses  and  the  prophe. 
And  he  said,  "I\'ay,  Falhi 
vent  unin  them  from   the  • 


THE    WONDERFUL  STORY  157 

%  Jrotn  hence  to  And  he  said  unto  him,  "  If  they  kearnot  Mose%  and 

■>  us,  that  would  the  pivpheis,  neither  will  they  be  persuaded,  though 

,    '^I  pr(^  Ihee  one  rose  from  the  dead." 
send  him  to  my 

ethfcn;  ihat  he  ©ccaaiotifl  ot  Stumblltifi. 

(Luke  xvii:  1.)    Then  said  he  unto  the  dis- 
ciples. //  is  impossible  but  that  offences  will  come; 


ey  also  cone  into  this 

•  satlAuHio  him.  "They  ■^"*"-^'-  the  return. 
;  Ulthem  hear  them," 

•  Abraham:  hut  if  one      but  woe  unto  him,  through  whom  Ihey  c 
•ad,  Ihey  will  repent,"       were  Setter  Jor  him  that  a  millstone  wet 


168 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


about  Ms  neck,  and  he  cast  into  the  sea,  than  thai  he 
should  offend  one  of  these  Hltle  ones. 

Take  heed  to  yourselves;  If  thy  brother  trespass 
against  thee,  rebuke  him;  and  ij  he  repent,  forgive 
hint.  Andifhe  trespass  against  thee  seven  times  in 
a  diqi,  and  seven  times  in  a  day  turn  again  to  thee, 
saying,  "1  repent,"  thou shatt forgive  him.  And 
the  apostles  said  unto  the  Lord,  "  Increase  our 
faith."  And  the  Lord  said,  If  ye  had  faith  as  a 
grain  of  mustard  seed,  ye  might  say  unto  this 
^camine  tree,  "Be  thou  plucked  up  by  the  root,  and 
be  thou  planted  in  the  sea, ' '  and  it  should  obey  you. 
But  which  of  you,  having  a  servant  plowing  or 
feeding  cattle,  will  say  unto  him  by  and  by.  when 
he  is  come  from  the  field,  "Go  and  sit  down  to 
meat?"  and  will  not  rather  say  unto  him,  "Make 
ready  wheretvith  I  may  sup,  and  gird  thyself,  and 
serve  me,  till  I  have  eaten  and  drunken;  and  after- 
ward thou  shall  eat  and  drink?  "  Doth  he  thank 
that  servant  because  he  did  the  things  that  were 
commanded  himf  I  trow  not.  So  tikeuiise  ye, 
when  ye  shall  have  done  all  those  things  which  are 
commanded  you,  say,  "  We  are  unprofitable  servants; 
we  have  done  that  which  was  our  duly  to  do." 


Jews  came  to  Martha  and  Mary,  to  comfort  them 
concerning  their  brother.  Then  Martha,  as  soon 
as  she  heard  that  Jesus  was  coming,  went  and  met 
him;  but  Mary  sat  still  in  the  house.  Then  said 
Martha  unto  Jesus,  "Lord,  if  thou hadst been  here, 
my  brother  had  not  died.  But  I  know,  that  even 
now,  whatsoever  thou  wilt  ask  of  God,  God  will 
give  it  thee."  Jesus  saith  unto  her.  Thy  brother 
shall  rise  again.  Martha  saith  unto  him,  "I  know 
that  he  shall  raise  again  in  the  resurrection  at  the 
last  day,"  Jesus  said  unto  her,  "/  am  the  resur- 
rection, and  the  life;  he  that  believelh  in  me,  though 


Cbe  Kalsfng  of  lasarus. 

A.  D.  30.  Btlb*ny, 

(John  xir  I.)  Now  a  certain  man  was  sick, 
named  Lazarus,  of  Bethany,  the  town  of  Marj-  and 
her  sister  Martha.  (It  was  that  Mary  which 
anointed  the  Lord  with  ointment,  and  wiped  his 
feet  with  her  hair,  whose  brother  Lazarus  was 
sick.)  Therefore  his  sisters  sent  unto  him,  saying, 
"Lord,  behold,  he  whom  thou  lovest  is  sick." 
When  Jesus  heard  that,  he  said,  This  sickness  is 
not  unto  death,  but  for  the  glory  of  God,  that  the 
Son  of  God  might  be  glorified  thereby.  Now  Jesus 
loved  Martha,  and  her  sister,  and  Lazarus.  When 
he  had  heard  therefore  that  he  was  sick,  he  abode 
»wo  days  still  in  the  same  place  where  he  was. 
Then  after  that  saith  he  to  his  disciples.  Let  us  go 
into  fudea  again.  His  disciples  say  unto  him, 
"  Master,  the  Jews  of  late  sought  to  stone  thee;  and 
goest  thou  thither  again  ?"  Jesus  answered.  Are 
there  not  twelve  hours  in  the  day?  If  any  man 
walk  in  the  day,  he  stumbleth  not,  because  he  seeth 
the  light  of  this  world.  But  if  a  man  walk  in  the 
nighl,  he  stumbleth,  because  there  is  no  light  in 
him.  These  things  said  he;  and  after  that  he  saith 
unto  them,  Our  friend  Lazarus  sleepeth;  but  I  go, 
that  I  may  awake  him  out  of  sleep.  TTien  said  his 
disciples,  "Lord,  if  he  sleep,  he  shall  do  well." 
Howbeit  Jesus  spoke  of  his  death;  but  they  thought 
that  he  had  spoken  of  taking  of  rest  in  sleep.  Then 
said  Jesus  unto  them  plainly,  Lazarus  is  dead. 
And  lam  glad  for  your  sates  that  I  was  not  there, 
to  the  intent  ye  may  believe;  nevertheless  let  us  go 
unto  him.  Then  said  Thomas,  which  is  called 
Didymus,  unto  his  fellow  disciples,  "Lei  us  also 
go,  that  we  may  die  with  him."  Then  when  Jesus 
came,  he  found  that  he  had  lain  in  the  grai-e  four 
days  already.  Now  Bethany  was  nigh  unto  Jeru- 
salem, about  fifteen  furlongs  off;  and  many  of  the 


S.  DtlPiamio. 


OP  LAZARUS. 


he  were  dead,  yet  shall  he  live;  and  tuhosoeter 
Hveth  and  believelh  in  me  shall  never  die.  Believed 
thou  this?  She  saith  unto  him,  "  Yea;  Lord;  I 
believe  that  thou  art  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God, 
which  should  come  into  the  world."  And  when 
she  had  so  said,  she  went  her  way,  and  called  Mary 
her  sister  secretly,  saying,  "The  Master  is  come, 
and  ealleth  for  thee."  As  soon  as  she  heard  that, 
quickly,  and  came  unto  him.     Now  Jes 


I  yet  c 


)  the  t 


I,  but  \ 


ndut 


place  where  Martha  met  him.  The  Jews  then 
which  were  with  her  in  the  house,  and  comforted 
her,  when  they  saw  Mary,  that  she  rose  up  hastily 
and  went  out,  followed  her,  saying,  "  She  goeth 
unto  the  grave,  to  weep  there."  Then  when  Mafy 
was  come  where  Jesus  was,  and  saw  him,  she  fell 
down  at  his  feet,  saying  unto  him,  "  Lord,  If  Ihoo 
hadst  been  here,  my  brother  had  not  died."  WTien 
Jesus  therefore  saw  her  weeping,  and  the  Jews  also 
weeping  which  came  with  her,  he  groaned  in  ihe 
spirit,  and  was  troubled,  and  said,  Where  have  y* 


THE  WUNDERKUI,  SIOKV 


iaid  bimf    They  say  uiilo  mm,  "Lord,  come  and 

]esus  «ept. 

Then  said  the  Jews,  "  Behold,  how  he  loved 
him  ! "  And  some  of  them  Said,  "  Could  not  thi^ 
man,  which  opened  the  eyes  of  the  blind,  have 
caused  that  even  this  man  should  not  have  died  ? " 
]esus  therefore  again  groaning  in  himself  comelh  to 
the  grave.  It  was  a  cave,  and  a  stone  lay  upon  it. 
Jesus  said,  Take  ye  away  the  stone.  Martha,  the 
sister  of  him  that  was  dead,  saith  unto  him.  "Lord, 
by  this  time  he  stinkelh;  for  he  hath  been  dead  four 
daj-s."  Jesus  sailh  unto  her.  "Said  I  not  utilo 
thee,  fhal,  if  thou  wouldest  believe,  thou  shouldest 
see  the  glory  of  God?  Then  they  took  away  the 
Stone  from  the  place  where  the  dead  was  laid. 
And  Jesus  lifted  up  his  eyes  and  said.  Father,  I 
thank  thee  that  thou  hasi  heard  me.  And  I  knew 
that  tkoit  hcarest  me  altvays;  but  because  of  the 
people  which  stand  by  I  said  it,  that  they  may 
believe  thai  thou  hast  sent  me.  And  when  he  thus 
had  spoken,  he  cried  with  a  loud  voice,  Lazarus, 
come  Jorlh.  And  he  that  was  dead  came  forth, 
bound  hand  and  foot  with  gravecloihes;  and  his  face 
was  bound  about  with  a  napkin.  Jesus  saith  unto 
them.  Loose  him,  and  let  him  go.  Then  many  of 
the  Jews  which  came  to  Mary  and  had  seen  the 
things  which  Jesus  did,  believed  on  him.  But  some 
of  them  went  their  ways  to  the  Pharisees,  and  told 
them  what  things  Jesus  had  done. 


"TjObere  are  tbe  Hine." 

.  D.  N.  Border  o[  Sam 

(Luke  xvii:  11.)    And  it  came  to  pass, 


he 


went  to  Jerusalem,  that  he  passed  through  the 
of  Samaria  and  Galilee.  And  as  he  entered 
into  a  certain  village,  there  met  him  ten  men  that 
were  lepers,  which  stood  afar  off;  and  they  lifted 
up  their  voices  and  said,   "Jesus,   Master,   have 


iMMtiiits  oi  tbe  9ew9. 


t.  D.  30. 


(John  xi;  47.)  Thengaihered  the  chief  priests  and 
the  Pharisees  a  council,  and  said,  "What  do  we? 
forthismandoeth  many  miracles.  If  we  let  him  thus 
alone,  all  men  will  believe  on  him;  and  the  Romans 
shall  come  and  take  away  both  our  place  and 
nation."  And  one  of  them,  named  Caiaphas, 
being  the  high  priest  that  same  year,  said  unto 
them,  '■  Ve  know  nothing  at  all,  nor  consider  that 
it  is  ex|ieclient  for  us  that  one  man  should  die  for 
the  people,  and  that  the  whole  nation  perish  not." 
And  this  spoke  he  not  of  himself;  but  being  high 
priest  that  year,  he  prophesied  that  Jesus  should 
die  for  that  nation;  and  not  lor  that  nation  only,  but 
that  also  he  should  gather  together  in  one  the 
children  of  God  that  were  scattered  abroad.  Then 
from  that  day  forth  they  took  council  together  for 
to  put  him  to  death.  Jesus  therefore  walked  no 
more  openly  among  the  Jews;  but  went  thence  into 
a  country  near  to  the  wilderness,  into  a  city  called 
Ephraim,   and  there  continued  with  his  disciples. 

And  the  Jews'  passover  was  nigh  at  hand;  and 
many  went  out  of  the  country  up  to  Jerusalem 
before  the  passover,  to  purify  themselves.  Then 
soughtthey  for  Jesus,  and  spoke  among  themselves, 
as  they  stood  in  the  temple,  "What  think  ye,  that 
he  will  not  come  to  the  feast?"  Now  both  the 
chief  priests  and  the  Pharisees  had  given  a  com- 
mandment that  if  any  man  knew  where  he  were, 
he  should  show  it,  that  they  might  take  him. 


JESUS  HEALINr.  THE  TEV  LEPERS, 

mercy  on  us."  And  when  he  saw  them,  lie  said 
unto  them,  Co  show  yourselves  unto  the  priests. 
And  it  came  to  pass,  that,  as  they  went,  they  were 
cleansed.  And  one  of  them,  wheti  he  saw  that  he 
was  healed,  turned  back,  and  with  a  loud  voice 
glorified  God,  and  fell  dow  n  on  his  face  at  his  feet, 
giving  him  thanks;  and  he  was  a  Samaritan.  And 
Jesus  answering  said.  Were  there  not  ten  cleansedf 
but  where  are  the  nine?  There  are  not  found 
that  returned  to  give  glory  to  Cod,  save  this 
stranger.  And  he  said  unio  him,  Arise,  go  (l*y 
way:  thy  faith  hath  made  thee  whole. 

Cbe  Coming  ot  tbe  IcingMm. 


(Luke  xvii:  20.)  And  when  he  was  demanded 
of  the  Pharisees,  when  the  kingdom  of  God  should 
come,  he  answered  them  and  said.  The  kingdom 
of  God  Cometh  not  with  observation;  neither  shsUI 
they  say,  "Lo  herel"  or,  "Lo  there!"  for,  behold, 
the  kingdom  of  Cod  is  within  you.  And  he  said 
unto  the  disciples,  The  days  will  come,  when  ye 
Shalt  desire  lo  see  one  of  the  days  of  the  Son  of  man, 
and  ye  shall  not  see  it.  And  they  shall  say  to  you, 
*'See  here;  "  or,  "See  there;  "  go  not  after  them, 
nor  follow  them.  For  as  the  lightning,  thai  lighl- 
eneth  out  of  the  one  part  under  heaven  shineth 


JESUS   BLESSING    LITfLE  CHILDREN. 


/  atn  not  as  other  tnen  are^  exlor 
adulterers,  or  even  as  this  publican, 
tht  week,  I  give  tithes  of  all  thai  I 
the  publican,  standing  afar  off,  wou 
much  as  his  eyes  unto  heaven,  but 
breast,  saying,  **God  be  tnerciful  U 
I  tell  you,  this  man  went  down  to  h 
rather  than  the  other;  for  every  o 
himself  shall  be  abased  ;  and  he  tlu 
self  shall  be  exalted,  •""•  And  it  c 
when  Jesus  had  finished  these  saj-i 
from  Galilee,  and  came  into  the 
beyond  Jordan;  and  great  multituc 
and  he  healed  them  there.  "*^ 
wont  he  taught  them. 

Aattiagc  and  IMipc 

A.D.30. 

(Matt  xix:  3.)  The  Pharisees 
him,  tempting  him,  and  saying 
lawful  for  a  man  to  put  away  h 
cause?*'  And  he  answered  and 
Have  ye  not  read,  that  he  which  \ 
beginning  made  them  male  atidfe\ 

For  this  cause  shall  a  man  lea 
mother,  and  shall  cleave  to  his  u 
two  shall  be  onejlesh. 

Wherefore  they  are  no  more  t 
What  therefore  God  hath  joined 
man  put  asunder.  They  say  unt 
Moses  then  command  to  give  a  \ 
ment,  and  to  put  her  away  ?  '*  1^ 
Moses  because  of  the  hardftes. 
suffered  you  to  put  away  your  w 
beginning  it  was  ftot  so.  And  J, 
soever  shall  put  away  his  unfe^ 
fornication,  and  shall  ntarry  ai 
adultery ;  and  whoso  marrieUi 
away  doth  commit  adultery,  •^'' 
shall  put  away  her  husband^  a 
another,  she  committeth  adultery, 
say  unto  him,  **  If  the  case  of  th 
his  wife,  it  is  not  good  to  marr 
unto  them.  All  men  can  notreceii 
they  to  whom  it  is  given,  Fo, 
eunuchs,  which  were  so  bomfn 
womb ;  and  there  are  some  eun 
made  eunuchs  of  men  ;  and  there 
have  made  themselves  eunuchs  / 
heaven's  sake.  He  that  is  able  tc 
receive  it, 

Sutret  tl>e  Xittle  Cl 

A.D.30. 

(Matt  xix:  13.)  Then  wen* 
him  little  children,  *•"*'•  also  in 
should  put  his  hands  on  them, 
disciples  rebuked  *"*"•*  those  tl 
But  when  Jesus  saw  it,  lie  wa*: 
and  said  unto  them.  Suffer  tin 
come  unto  me,  and  forbid  thc\ 
is  the  kingdom  of  God.  l^cri 
Whosoever  shall  not  receive  the 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


163 


/  atn  not  as  other  fnen  are^  extortioners^  unjust^ 
adulterers  y  or  even  as  this  publican,  I  fast  twice  in 
iht  week^  I  give  tithes  of  all  that  /possess.^*  And 
the  publican^  standing  afar  offt  would  not  lift  up  so 
much  as  his  eyes  unto  heaven^  but  smote  upon  his 
breast^  sayings  **God  be  merciful  to  me  a  sinner,^* 
I  tell  you  ^  this  man  went  down  to  his  house  justified 
rather  than  the  other;  for  every  one  that  exalteth 
himself  shall  be  abased  ;  and  he  that  humbleth  him- 
self shall  be  exalted,  '**"'•  And  it  came  to  pass,  that 
when  Jesus  had  finished  these  sayings,  he  departed 
from  Galilee,  and  came  into  the  coasts  of  Judea 
beyond  Jordan;  and  great  multitudes  followed  him; 
and  he  healed  them  there.  '**"'*  And  as  he  was 
wont  he  taught  them. 

Aarriage  and  Divorce. 

A.  D.  30.  Perea. 

(Matt.  xix:3.)  The  Pharisees  also  came  unto 
him,  tempting  him,  and  saying  unto  him,  "Is  it 
lawful  for  a  man  to  put  away  his  wife  for  every 
cause?"  And  he  answered  and  said  unto  them, 
Have  ye  not  read^  that  he  which  made  them  at  the 
beginning  made  them  male  and  female  and  said, 

For  this  cause  shall  a  man  leave  father  and 
mother ^  and  shall  cleave  to  his  wife;  and  they 
two  shall  be  oneJlesK 

Wherefore  they  are  no  more  two^  but  one  flesh. 
What  therefore  God  hath  joined  together,  let  not 
man  put  asunder.  They  say  unto  him,  **  Why  did 
Moses  then  command  to  give  a  writing  of  divorce- 
ment, and  to  put  her  away  ?  **  He  said  unto  them, 
Moses  because  of  the  hardness  of  your  hearts 
suffered  you  to  put  aivay  your  wives;  but  from  the 
beginning  it  was  not  so.  And  I  say  unto  you.  Who* 
soever  shall  put  away  his  wife,  except  it  be  for 
fornication,  and  shall  marry  another,  commilteth 
adultery ;  and  whoso  marrieth  her  which  is  put 
away  doth  commit  adultery,  ^^^^And  if  a  woman 
shall  put  axvay  her  husband,  and  be  married  to 
another,  she  commilteth  adultery,  ***"•  His  disciples 
say  unto  him,  **  If  the  case  of  the  man  be  so  with 
his  wife,  it  is  not  good  to  marry."  But  he  said 
unto  them.  All  men  can  not  receive  this  saying,  save 
they  to  whom  it  is  given.  For  there  are  some 
eunuchs,  which  were  so  bom  from  their  fpwther's 
womb ;  and  there  are  some  eunuchs,  which  were 
made  eunuchs  of  men;  and  there  be  eunuchs,  which 
have  made  themselves  eunuchs  for  the  kingdom  of 
heaven's  sake.  He  that  is  able  to  receive  it,  let  him 
receive  it. 

Sutret  tl>e  Xittlc  CbilOrcm 

A.  D.  30.  Perea, 

(Matt,  xix:  13.)  Then  were  there  brought  unto 
him  little  children,  *•"•** also  infants,  "^^that  he 
should  put  his  hands  on  them,  and  pray;  and  the 
disciples  rebuked  '"^'^  those  that  brought  them. 
But  when  Jesus  saw  it,  he  was  much  displeased, 
and  said  unto  them,  Suffer  the  little  children  to 
come  unto  me,  and  forbid  them  not;  for  of  such 
is  the  kingdom  of  God,  Verily  /  say  unto  you, 
^Ttosoever  shall  not  receive  tlie  kingdom  of  God  as 


a  little  child^  he  shall  not  enter  therein.  And  he 
took  them  up  in  his  arms,  put  his  hands  upon 
them,  and  blessed  them. 

XTbe  "Rfcb  Ifouna  'Kulet. 

A,  D.  30.  Pens. 

(Matt  xix:  16.)  And  when  he  was  gone  forth 
into  the  way,  there  came  one  *■"•**  certain  ruler 
'*^'***  running,  and  kneeled  to  him,  and  asked  him, 
"  Good  Master,  what  shall  I  do  that  I  may  inherit 
eternal  life?"  And  Jesus  said  unto  him.  Why 
callest  thou  me  good  f  there  is  none  good  but  one, 
that  is,  God,  Thou  knowest  the  commandments, 
^'Do  not  commit  adulteiy.  Do  not  kill^  Do  not  steal. 
Do  not  bear  false  witness.  Defraud  not.  Honor  thy 
father  and  mother,'^  And  he  answered  and  said 
unto  him,  "  Master,  all  tliese  have  I  obser\'ed  from 
my  youth.  •"^"'  What  lack  I  yet  ?  * '  •^'^  Then  Jesus 
beholding  him  loved  him,  and  said  unlo  him,  One 
thing  thou  lackest;  •"*"•  if  thou  wilt  be  perfect; 
*^*^go  thy  way,  sell  whatsoever  thou  hast,  and  give 
to  the  poor,  and  thou  shall  have  treasure  in  heaven; 
and  come,  take  up  the  cross,  and  follow  me.  ■**" 
When  the  young  man  heard  that  saying,  •"^'»*he 
went  away  grieved;  for  he  had  great  possessions. 

XTbe  1)indrance  of  "RfcbeB. 

(Matt  xix:  23.)  And  Jesus  looked  round  about, 
and  saith  unto  his  disciples,  How  hardly  shall  they 
that  hare  riches  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  Godf 
And  tlie  disciples  were  astonished  at  his  words. 
But  Jesus  answereth  again,  and  saith  unto  them. 
Children,  how  hard  is  it  for  them  that  trust  in 
riches  to  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  God!  •^"-  And 
again  I  say  unto  you,  ft  is  easier  for  a  camel  to  go 
through  the  eye  of  a  needle  than  for  a  rich  man  to 
enter  into  the  kingdom  of  God,  When  his  disciples 
heard  it,  they  were  exceedingly  amazed,  saying, 
"Who  then  can  be  saved?"  But  Jesus  beheld 
them,  and  said  unto  them,  Ullh  men  this  is  impos- 
sible; but  with  God  all  things  are  possible.  Then 
answered  Peter  and  said  unto  him,  "  Behold,  we 
bave  forsaken  all,  and  followed  thee;  what  shall 
we  have  therefore?"  And  Jesus  said  unto  them 
Verily  f  say  unlo  you.  That  ye  which  have  followed 
me,  in  the  regeneration  when  the  Son  of  man  shall 
sit  in  the  throne  of  his  glory,  ye  also  shall  sit  upon 
twelve  thront  s,  judging  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel 
And  every  one  that  hath  forsaken  houses,  or  breth- 
ren, or  sisters,  or  father,  or  mother,  or  wife,  ot 
children,  or  lands,  for  my  name's  sake,  shall  receive 
^^^^now  in  this  time  '^"-  a  hundredfold,  ^^"^  and 
persecutions,  •^"*  and  shall  inherit  everlasting  life 
"*"•*  in  the  iv  or  Id  to  come,^^'  But  many  that  are  fir  U 
shall  be  last;  and  the  last  shall  be  first, 

Xabotctd  in  tbe  IDinei^ard. 

A.  D.  30.  Perea. 

(Matt  xx:  1.)  For  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is 
like  unto  a  man  that  is  a  householder,  which  went 
out  early  in  the  morning  to  hire  laborers  into  his 
vineyard.    And  when   he   had  agreed   Tvith   the 


immediately  he  received  his  sigl 
Jesus  in  the  way,"*" glorifying  C 
people,  when  they  saw  it,  gave  \ 

A.D.80. 

(Luke  xix:  1.)    And  Jesus  ei| 
through  Jericho.    And,  behold, 
named  Zaccheus,  which  was  the 
publicans,  and  he  was  rich.    Am 
Jesus  who  he  was,  and  could 
because  he  was  little  of  stature, 
and  climbed  up  into  a  sycamore  ti 
he  was  to  pass  that  way.    And  « 
the  place,  he  looked  up,  and  s 
unto  him,  Zaccheus,  mcJte  haste 
for  today  Inmsi  abide  at  thy  hm 
haste,  and  came  doun,  and  rec« 
And  when  they  saw  it,  they  all  t 
That  he  was  gone  to  be  guest  v 
sinner.    And  Zaccheus  stood. 
Lord,  •*  Behold,  Lord,  the  half  < 
to  the  poor;  and  if  I  have  taken 
man  by  false  accasation,  I  resU 
And  Jesus  said  unto  him,   Tki 
come  to  this  house,  for  as  much 
of  Abraham.    For  the  Son  of  m 
and  to  save  that  which  was  tost. 

parable  of  tbe  C< 

A.  D.  ao. 

(Luke  xix:  1 1. )  And  as  tint) 
he  added  and  spoke  a  par^bl 
nigh  to  Jerusalem,  and  beca-^s 
the  kingdom  of  God  shoul<fi  ii 
He  said  therefore,  A  certain  n\ 
far  country  to  receive  for  htms 
to  return.    And  he  called  hii 


;rbe  Bnotnttno  at  3 

Sftturday,  April  1. 

(Matt,  xxvi :  6.)  Now  w 
Bethany  in  the  house  oi  Sim* 
came  unto  him  a  woman  bavin 
of  very  precious  ointment,  an 
head  as  he  sat  at  meat  ••****"  F< 
him  a  supper;  and  Martha  ser\M 
one  of  them  that  sat  at  table  wi 
Mary  a  pound  of  ointment  of  sp 
and  anointed  the  feet  of  Jesus, 
with  her  hair;  and  the  house 
odor  of  the  ointment.  '^"*  Bui 
saw  it,  they  had  indignation,  sa 
pose  is  this  waste?  for  this  q 
been  sold  for  much,  and  Riven 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


166- 


immediately  be  received  his  sight,  and  followed 
Jesus  in  the  way, "-"^ glorifying  God;  and  all  the 
people,  when  they  saw  it,  gave  praise  unto  God. 

STaccbeua. 

A.  D.  80.  Jericho. 

(Luke  xix:  1.)  And  Jesus  entered  and  passed 
through  Jericho.  And,  behold,  there  was  a  man 
named  Zaccheus,  which  was  the  chief  among  the 
publicans,  and  he  was  rich.  And  he  sought  to  see 
Jesus  who  he  was,  and  could  not  for  the  press, 
because  he  was  little  of  stature.  And  he  ran  before, 
and  climbed  up  into  a  sycamore  tree  to  see  him  ;  for 
he  was  to  pass  that  way.  And  when  Jesus  came  to 
the  place,  he  looked  up,  and  saw  him,  and  said 
unto  him,  Zaccheus^  make  haste^  and  come  down; 
for  today  I  must  abide  at  thy  house.  And  he  made 
haste,  and  came  down,  and  received  him  joyfully. 
And  when  they  saw  it,  they  all  murmured,  saying. 
That  he  was  gone  to  be  guest  with  a  man  that  is  a 
sinner.  And  Zaccheus  stood,  and  said  unto  the 
Lord,  **  Behold,  Lord,  the  half  of  my  goods  I  give 
to  the  poor;  and  if  I  have  taken  any  thing  from  any 
man  by  false  accusation,  I  restore  him  fourfold." 
And  Jesus  said  unto  him,  This  day  is  salvation 
come  to  this  house  y  for  as  much  as  he  also  is  a  son 
of  Abraham,  For  the  Son  of  man  is  come  to  seek 
and  to  save  that  which  was  lost. 

parable  of  tbe  pounb0. 

A.  D.  80.  Near  Jericho. 

(Luke  xix:  11. )  And  as  they  heard  these  things 
he  added  and  spoke  a  parable,  because  he  was 
nigh  to  Jerusalem,  and  because  they  thought  that 
the  kingdom  of  God  should  immediately  appear. 
He  said  therefore,  A  certain  nobleman  went  into  a 
far  country  to  receive  for  himself  a  kingdom^  and 
to  return.    And  he  called  his  ten  servants^  and 


delivered  them  ten  pounds,  and  said  unto  them 
''Occupy  till  I  comer    But  his  citizens  hated  him, 
and  sent  a  message  after  him,  saying,  *'lVe  will 
not  have  this  man  to  reign  over  us.**    And  it  came 
to  pass,  that  when  he  was  returned^  having  received 
the  kingdom,  then  he  commanded  these  servants  to 
be  called  unto  him,  to  whom  he  had  given  the 
money,  that  he  might  know  how  much  every  man 
had  gained  by  trading.     Then  came  the  first,  say- 
ing, *'Lord,  thy  pound  hath  gained  ten  pounds,*' 
And  he  said  unto  him,  *'lVell,  thou  good  servant; 
because  thou  hast  been  faithful  in  a  very  little,  have 
thou  authority  over  ten  cities,**    And  the  second 
came,  saying,  ''Lord,  thy  pound  hath  gained  five 
pounds.**    And  he  said  liketvise  to  him,  *'Be  thou 
also  over  five  cities,**    And  another  came,  saying, 
"Lord,  behold,  here  is  thy  pound,  which  I  have 
kept  laid  up  in  a  napkin;  for  I  feared  thee,  because 
thou  art  an  austere  man;  thou  takest  up  that  thou 
layedst  not  down,  and  reapest  that  thou  didst  not 
sow,**    Andhe  saith  unto  him.  "Out  of  thine  own 
mouth  will  I  judge  thee,  thou  wicked  servant. 
Thou  knewest  that  I  was  an  austere  man,  taking  up 
that  I  laid  not  doTvn,  and  reaping  thcU  I  did  not 
sow;  wherefore  then  gavest  not  thou  my  money  into 
the  bank,  that  at  my  coming  I  might  have  requirea 
mine  own  with  usury  f**    And  he  said  unto  them 
that  stood  by,  "  Take  from  him  the  pound,  and  give 
it  to  him  that  hath  ten  pounds.**    (And  they  said 
unto  him,  ' '  Lord,  he  hath  ten  pounds.  *  *)     For  I  say 
untgyou.  That  unto  every  one  which  hath  shall  be 
given;  and  from  him  that  hath  not,  even  that  he 
hath  shall  be  taken  away  from  him.     But  those 
mine  enemies,  which  would  not  that  /should  reign 
over  them,  bring  hither,  and  slay  them  before  me 
And  when  he  had  thus  spoken,  he  went  before 
ascending  up  to  Jerusalem. 


PASSION  WEEK. 

Pnoi  tiM  AaolatlBff  at  Bethany  to  th«  Crudflxloo. 

Timet  April  1  to  7,  A.  D.  8a 


XTbe  Bnointing  at  Betbani^. 

Saturday,  April  1.  Bethany. 

(Matt,  xxvi :  6.)  Now  when  Jesus  was  in 
Bethany  in  the  house  of  Simon  the  leper,  there 
came  unto  him  a  woman  having  an  alabaster  box 
of  very  precious  ointment,  and  poured  it  on  his 
head  as  he  sat  at  meat  ''**^  For  there  they  made 
him  a  supper;  and  Martha  served;  but  Lazarus  was 
one  of  them  that  sat  at  table  with  him.  Then  took 
Mary  a  pound  of  ointment  of  spikenard,  very  costly, 
and  anointed  the  feet  of  Jesus,  and  wiped  his  feet 
with  her  hair;  and  the  house  was  filled  with  the 
odor  of  the  ointment.  '^"-  But  when  his  disciples 
saw  it,  they  had  indignation,  saying,  *'  To  what  pur- 
pose is  this  waste?  for  this  ointment  might  have 
been  sold  for  much,  and  given  to  the  poor.*'    ******* 


Then  saith  one  of  his  disciples,  Judas  Iscariott 
Simon's  son,  which  should  betray  him,  '*  Wliy  was 
not  this  ointment  sold  for  three  hundred  pence,  and 
given  to  the  poor?"  This  he  said,  not  that  he 
cared  for  the  poor;  but  because  be  was  a  thief,  and 
had  the  bag,  and  bare  what  was  put  therein.  *^*^ 
And  Jesus  said.  Let  her  alone;  why  trouble  ye  her? 
she  hath  wrought  a  good  work  on  me.  For  ye  have 
the  poor  with  you  always,  and  whensoever  ye  will 
ye  may  do  them  good;  but  me  ye  have  not  always. 
She  hath  done  what  she  could;  she  is  come  afore* 
hand  to  anoint  my  body  to  the  burying.  Verify  I 
say  unto  you,  wheresoever  this  gospel  shall  be 
preached  throughout  the  whole  world,  this  also  that 
she  hath  done  shall  be  spoken  of  for  a  memoricU  of 
her. 


heard  that  Jesus  was  coming  to  ]> 
branches  of  palm  trees,  and  went  (ut 
"*' saying,  "Blessed  be  the  King 
the  name  of  the  Lord;  peace  in  he 
b  the  highest. ""  Blessed  be  the 
father  David,  that  comelh  in  the  na 
Hosanna  in  the  highest."  "™An 
Pharisees  from  among  the  multitui! 
"  Master,  rebuke  thy  disciples."  i 
and  said  unto  them,  /  UU  yo. 
should  hold  their  peace,  the  Uon4^ 
aUfy  cry  out. 

iKIeepfnfi  9pet  Scnu, 

Sunriiy,  April  C. 

(Luke  nix:  41.)    And  when  he 
he  beheld  the  city,  and  wept  over  il 


"™"'  THE  ANOINTING  AT  BET 

hadsi  inoum,  even  thou,  al  least  in  • 
things  which  belong  unio  thy  peace 
are  hid  from  thine  eyes.  For  the  i 
upon  thee,  that  thine  enemies  shai 
aboutlhee,  and  compass  thee  round 
on  ei'ery  side,  and  shall  lay  tl5, 
ground,  and  thy  children  within 
shall  not  leave  in  thee  one  slone 
because  thou  knewest  not  the  titne  c 
'""These  things  understood  not  hit 
first ;  but  when  Jesus  was  glorifie 
bered  they  that  these  things  were 
and  that  they  had  done  these  th 
The  people  therefore  that  was  wii 
called  Lazarus  out  of  his  grave, 
from  the  dead,  bore  record.  Fot 
people  also  met  him,  for  that  the 
had  done  this  miracle.  The  Ph^ 
said  among  themselves,  "  Perceive 
vail  nothing?  behold,  the  world  is 
"™*  And  when  he  was  come  into  ] 
rity  was  moved,  saying,  "  Who  is 
multitude  said,  "This  is  Jesus  the 
reth  of  Galilee."  And  when  the 
seniles  saw  the  wonderful  things 
ttie  children  crying  in  the  teiTi[ 
"  Hosanna  to  the  Son  of  Das'id, ' 
displeased,  and  said  unto  hiin,  "  i^ 


IE    WONDERFUL  STORY 


isaletn,  took 
to  meet  him, 
It  Cometh  in 
:n,  and  glory 
igdon  of  our 
oi  the  Lord; 
some  of  the 
aid  unto  him, 
I  he  answered 
that,  if  these 
'ottld  intmedi- 


rHANV. 


these    sayp"    And  Jesus  saith    ui 
have  ye  never  read. 

Out  nf  t/it  moulk  o/ iaifi  and  su 
hatl  pitffCUd  praiii  t 

And  he  left  them,  and  went  o 
Bethany;  and  he  lodged  there. 

Cucsltifl  tbe  f  |0  ITtee. 

Moiulsy,  April  3.  Mouiii  of  OUva. 

(Mark  xi:  11.)  And  Jesus  entered  into  Jerusa- 
lem, and  into  the  temple;  and  whei'  he  had  looked 
round  about  upon  all  things,  and  now  the  eventide 
was  come,  he  went  out  unto  Bethany  with  the 
twelve. 

And  on  the  morrow, 
city,  """when  they  wei 

was  hungry;  and  seeing  a  fig  tree  ""■  by  the  way- 
side, "*""  afar  off,  having  leaves,  he  came,  if  haply 
he  might  tind  any  thing  thereon;  and  when  he  came 
to  it,  he  found  "*"■  thereon  "*""  nothing  but  leaves; 
for  the  time  of  figs  was  not  yet  And  Jesus  an- 
swered and  said  unto  it,  No  matt  eat  frail  of  thee 
hereafter  forever.     And  his  disciples  heard  JL 

Second  Gleanelitfi  at  tbe  Semple. 

Monday.  April  S.  Jeninlon. 

(Markxi:  16.)  And  they  come  to  Jerusalem; 
and  Jesus  went  into  the  temple,  and  began  to  cast 
out  them  that  sold  and  bought  in  the  temple,  and 
overthrew  the  tables  of  the  money  changer.s,  and 
the  seats  of  them  that  sold  doves;  and  would  not 
suffer  that  any  man  should  carry  any  vessel  through 


t  of  the  city  Into 


'■  as  he  returned  to  the 
e  from  Bethany,  he 


I  this  Ihy  day,  the 
ce!  bill  now  Ihey 
■  days  shall  come 
all  cast  a  trench 
i,  and  keeplhee  in 
'.ee  even  with  Ihe 
n  thee;  and  they 
ne  upon  another; 
f  of  thy  visitation. 
his  disciples  at  tiie 
fied,  then  remem- 
;Te  written  of  him, 

things  unto  him. 
with  him  when  he 
e,  and  raised  liim 
For  this  cause  the 
they  heard  lliat  he 
Pharisees  therefore 
;iveye  how  ye  pre- 

is  gone  after  him." 
0  Jerusalem,  all  the 
)  is  this?"  And  the 
iheprophetof  Naza- 
ihe  diief  priests  and 
igs  that  he  did,  and 
smple,  and  saying. 

"  Hearest  thou  what 


My  toHse  tkall  be  caOed  <if  alt  natient  tht 
Mmie  of  proy^f 

but  ye  have  made  il  a  den  of  thieves.  *"■"  And  die 
blind  and  the  lame  came  to  him  in  Che  temple  and 
he  healed  them,  """and  he  taught  daily  in  the 
temple,  and  at  night  he  went  out  and  abode  in  tlie 
mount  that  is  called  the  Mount  of  Olives,  and  all  the 
people  came  early  in  the  morning  to  him  in  the  tem- 
ple for  to  hear  him.  "™'  And  the  scribes  and  chief 
priests  heard  it,  and  sought  how  they  might  destroy 


TH 


Jesus  answering  saith  unto  them,  Mi) 
you  by  what  authority  I  do  thesethk^ 

Tuesday,  April! 


(Matt,  xm:  28.)  Bui  what 
tain  man  had  two  sons;  and  he  c 
ond  said,  ''Son,  go  work  today  « 
He  answered  and  said,  ''IwiUnot 
he  repented,  and  went.  Andheci 
and  said  likewise.  And  he  an 
"I go,  sir; "  and  went  not.  Wht 
did  the  will  of  his  father^  T 
"The  first"  ]esus  saith  unto 
wito  you,  that  the  publicans  am 
the  kingdom  of  God  before  y^ 
untoyouin  the  wayofrighleoh 
him  not;  but  the  publicans  am 
him;  and  ye,  when  ye  hui 
afterward,  that  ye  might  beh 

Tnesday,  April  4. 

(Matt.  X3d:  83.)    Heat 

was  a  certain  householde 

yard,  and  hedged  it  roun 

press  in  it,  and  built  a 

husbandmen,  and  wenti 

long  time;  •■*"•  and  Tvhe 

near,  he  sent  his  serva 

they  might  receive  thi 

bundmen  took  his  serv 

another,  and  stoned  q 

servants  more  than  U 

Hfceivise.     '■^^  A.ni  i 

servant;  and  at  him 

htm  in  the  head,  « 

handled.     *^^-  But 

"^'^  well  beloved  *• 

ence  tny  son^      B 

son,    they   saidC  a 

heir;  come^  let  u 

inheritance^^      ^ 

emt  of  the  znttey 

therefore    of    tl 

do  unto   those 

**I:Ie  ztnll  mise 

Tuill   let   au.t  h 

wuhich  shall  n 

Jesus  saith   uj 

tcr^p/u  res , 

Ther-efore 

Gad  shiUI  be  ic 
^rirt^in^  forth 
shall  Jail  on  t 
tvh<>f9tsoeverii^ 
And  when  the  < 
his  parables,  th 
But  when  they 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY  17X 

Jesus  answering  sajth  unto  them,  Neither  do  I  Utl      feared  the  multitude,  because  they  took  him  for  a 
you  by  what  authorily  I  do  these  things.  prophet 

mbo  1H^  -bis  mm  i 

Taoday,  April  4.  In  the  Temple. 

(Matt,  xxi:  28.)  But  what  think  ye  f  A  cer- 
tain man  had  two  sons;  and  he  catne  to  the  first, 
and  said,  "Son,  go  work  today  in  my  vineyard." 
He  answered  and  said,  "  IwUlnol;"  but  afterward 
he  repented,  and  went.  And  he  came  to  the  second, 
and  said  like-wise.  And  he  answered  and  said, 
"I go,  sir;"  and  went  not.  Whether  of  thent  twain 
did  the  will  of  his  father  f  They  say  unto  him, 
"The  first,"  Jesus  sailh  unto  them,  Verify  I  say 
unto  you,  that  the  publicans  and  the  harlots  go  into 
the  kingdom  of  God  before  you.  For  John  came 
unto  you  in  the  way  of  righteousness,  and  ye  believed 
him  not;  but  the  publicans  and  the  harlots  believed 
him;  and  ye,  when  ye  had  seen  it,  repented  not 
afterward,  that  ye  might  believe  him. 


Vbe  iKlT  Ca0t  9ut. 

Tnesday,  April  4.  In  ihe  Tempk. 

(Matt,  xxi:  33.)  Hear  another  parable;  There 
was  a  certain  householder,  which  planted  a  vine- 
yard, and  hedged  it  round  about,  and  dug  a  wine- 
press in  it,  and  built  a  tower,  and  let  it  out  to 
husbandmen,  and  went  into  a  far  country  ""'for  a 
long  time;  ""■  and  when  ihe  time  of  the  fruit  drew 
near,  he  sent  his  servants  to  the  husbandmen,  thai 
they  might  receive  the  fruits  of  it.  And  the  hus- 
bandmen took  his  servants,  and  beat  one,  and  killed 
another,  and  stoned  another.  Again,  he  sent  other 
servants  more  than  the  first;  and  they  did  unto  them 
likewise.  "*""  And  again  he  sent  unto  them  another 
servant;  and  at  him  they  cast  stones,  and  wounded 
him  in  the  head,  and  sent  him  away  shamefully 
handled.  '""■  But  last  of  all  he  sent  unto  them  his 
""^  well  beloved  ""^^  son.  saying,  "  They  will  rever- 
ence my  son."  But  when  the  husbandmen  saw  the 
son,  they  said  among  themselves,  "This  is  the 
heir;  come,  let  us  kill  him,  and  let  us  seize  on  his 
inheritance."  Andthey  caught  him,  and  cast  him 
out  of  the  vineyard,  and  slew  him.  When  the  lord 
therefore  of  the  vineyard  cometk,  what  will  he 
da  unto  those  husbandmen  f  Thty  say  unto  him, 
"He  will  miserably  destroy  those  wicked  men.  and 
will  let  out  his  vineyard  unto  other  husbandmen, 
which  shall  render  him  the  fruits  in  their  seasons." 
Jesus  saith  unto  them,  Did  ye  never  read  in  the 
tcriptures, 

Thi  tiBHt  ulkich  Ihe  iuildtri  rejiclid,  Ike 
same  is  btcomi  Ihr  Head  of  Ike  comer:  this  is  Ihe 

Therefore  say  I  unto  you.  The  kingdom  of 
God  shall  be  taken  from  you,  and  given  to  a  nation 
bringing  forth  the  fruits  thereof  And  whosoever 
shall  fall  on  this  stone  shall  be  broken;  but  on 
whomsoever  it  shall  fall,  it  wilt  grind  him  to  powder. 
And  when  the  chief  priests  and  Pharisees  had  heard 
his  parables,  they  perceived  that  he  spoke  of  them. 
But  when  they  sought  to  lay  hands  on  him,  they 


Ratable  of  tbe  ®ie«t  Suppec. 

Tuesdar,  April  1.  In  the  Temple. 

(Malt  xxii:  1.)  Jesus  answered  and  spoke 
unto  them  again  by  parables,  and  said.  The  king- 
dom of  heaven  is  like  unto  a  certain  king,  which 
made  a  marriage  for  his  son,  and  sent  forth  his 
servants  to  call  Ihetn  that  were  bidden  to  ihe  wed- 
ding; and  they  would  not  come.  Again,  he  sent 
forth  other  servants,  saying,  "  Tell  them  which  are 
bidden,  Behold,  /  have  prepared  my  dinner;  my 
oxen  and  my  fallings  are  killed,  and  all  things  are 
ready;  come  unto  the  marriage."  But  they  made 
light  of  it,  and  wenl  their  ways,  one  lo  his  farm, 
another  to  his  merchandise;  and  the  remnant  took 
his  servants,  and  entreated  them  spitefully,  and 
slew  them.  But  tvhen  the  king  heard  thereof,  he  was 
wroth,  and  he  sent  forth  his  armies,  and  destroyed 
those  murderers,  and  burned  up  their  city.  Then 
saith  he  to  his  servants,  "  The  wedding  is  ready, 
but  they  which  were  bidden  were  not  worthy.  Go 
ye  therefore  into  the  highways,  and  as  many  as  ye 
shall  find,  bidto  the  marriage."  So  those  servants 
went  out  into  the  highways,  and  gathered  together 
alias  many  as  they  found,  both  bad  and  good;  and 
the  wedding  was  furnished  with  guests.  And 
when  the  king  came  in  to  see  the  guests,  he  saw 
there  a  man  which  had  not  on  a  wedding  garment; 
and  he  saith  unto  him,  "Friend,  how  earnest  thott  in 
hiihernot  having  a  wedding  garment?"  And  he 
was  speechless.  Then  said  the  king  to  the  servants, 
"Bind  him  hand  and  foot,  and  take  him  away,  and 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


cast  him  into  outer  darkness;  there  shall  be  weeping 
and  gnoiking  of  teeth"  For  many  are  called,  but 
few  are  chosen. 

Cbe  Queetlon  of  llrlbute. 

(Matt,  xxii:  15.)  Then  went  the  Pharisees,  and 
took  council  how  they  might  entangle  him  in  his 
talk.  ""And  they  watched  him,  and  sent  forth 
spies,  which  should  feign  themselves  just  men,  that 
they  might  take  hold  of  his  words,  that  so  they 
might  deliver  him  unto  the  power  and  authority  of 


They  say  unto  him,  "Cxsar's."    Then  saith  he 

unto  them.  Render  therefore  unto  Cirsar  the  t/iingt 
which  are  Casar's;  and  unto  God  the  things  that 
are  Gods.  When  they  had  heard  these  words, 
they  marveled,  and  left  him,  and  went  their  way 
"™  and  held  their  peace. 

Aarrlage  delation  tn  tbe  VeeuTiectlon. 

(Matt,  xxii:  23.)  The  same  day  came  to  him 
the  Sadducees,  which  say  that  there  is  no  resur- 
rection, and  asked  hira,  saying,  "Master,  Moses  said 
"  If  a  man  die.  having  no  children,  his  brother  shall 
marry  his  wife,  and  raise  up  seed  unto  his  brother." 
Now  there  were  with  us  seven  brethren;  and  the 
lirst,  when  he  had  married  a  wife,  deceased,  and, 
having  no  issue,  left  his  wife  unto  his  brother;  like- 
wise the  second  also,  and  the  third,  unto  the 
seventh.  And  last  of  all  the  woman  died  also. 
Therefore  in  the  resurrection,  whose  wife  shall  she 
be  of  the  seven?  for  they  all  had  her."  Jesus 
answered  and  said  unto  them,  Ve  do  err,  not  Imonh 
ing  the  Scriptures,  nor  the  power  of  God.  ""TTte 
children  of  this  world  marry,  and  are  given  m 
marriage;  dut  th^  which  shall  de  accounted  a'orthy 
to  obtain  that  world,  and  the  resurrection  from  the 
dead,  neither  marry,  nor  are  given  in  marriage; 
neither  can  they  die  any  more;  for  tttey  are  equal 
unto  the  angels;  and  are  the  children  of  God,  being 
the  children  of  the  resurrection.  ""^And  as  touch- 
ing the  dead,  that  they  rise;  have  ye  not  read  in  the 
book  of  Moses,  how  in  the  itush  God  spoke  unto  Amu, 
saying, 

Ike  God  of 


He  is  not  the  God  of  the  dead,  but  the  God  of  the 
living;  ye  therefore  do  greatly  err. ' ' 


Zbe  (Bteateet  aommanOment. 

Tooday,  April  4.  In  the  Temple. 

But  when  the  Pharisees  had  heard  that  he  had 
put  the  Sadducees  to  silence,  they  were  gathered 
together.  (Mark  xii:  28.)  And  one  of  the  scribes 
came,  and  having  heard  them  reasoning  together, 
and  perceiving  that  he  had  answered  them  welt, 
asked  him,  "*"■  tempting  him,  "*"  "  Which  is  the 
first  commandment  of  all?"  And  Jesus  atisvrered 
him.   The  ^rst  of  all  the  commandments  is. 


:    Tkt  Lord  I 


r  God  it 


THE  TRIBUTE  MONEY. 

the  governor.  "*"And  they  sent  out  unio  him  their 
disciples  with  the  Herodians,  saying,  "Master,  we 
know  that  thou  art  true,  and  teachest  the  way  of 
God  in  truth,  neither  carest  thou  for  any  man;  for 
thou  regardesl  not  the  person  o(  man.  Tell  us 
therefore,  What  thinkesl  thou  ?  Is  it  lawful  to  give 
tribute  unto  Casar,  or  not  ? "  But  Jesus  perceived 
their  wickedness,  and  said  Why  tempt  ye  me,  ye 
hypocrites?  Show  me  the  tribute  money.  And 
they  brought  unto  him  a  penny.  And  he  saith  unto 
them.    Whose   is   this   image   and  superscription  T 


God;  and  Ikon  tkaU  love  Ike  Lord  Iky  God  with 
all  thy  hrarl.  and  anl/i  all  Iky  soul,  aitd  witk  all 
Ihy  mind,  and  wilk  all  Iky  tirtnglk! 

this  is  the  first  commandment.  And  the  second 
commandment  is  Hke,  namely,  this; 

Tkau  tkaU  lost  Iky  neigkbtt  at  IkyteV. 

There  is  none  other  commandment  greater  than 
these.  "*"■  On  these  two  commandments  hang  ail  the 
law  and  the  prophets.  ""'And  the  scribe  said  unto 
him,  "Well,  Master,  thou  hast  said  the  truth,  for 
there  is  one  God;  and  there  is  none  other  but  he; 
and  to  love  him  with  all  the  heart,  and  with  all  the 
understanding,  and  with  all  the  soul,  and  with  all 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


173 


the  strength,  and  to  love  his  neighbor  as  himself 
is  more  than  all  whole  burnt  offerings  and  sacri- 
fices.'* And  when  Jesus  saw  that  he  answered 
discreetly,  he  said  unto  him.  Thou  art  not  far  front 
the  kingdom  of  God,  And  no  man  after  that  dare 
ask  him  any  question.  '^"*  While  the  Pharisees 
were  gathered  together,  Jesus  asked  them,  •*^'* 
while  he  taught  in  the  temple,  '^"-  saying,  What 
think  ye  of  Christ?  whose  son  is  he?  They  say 
unto  him,  "The  son  of  David.'*  He  saith  unto 
them,  How  then  doth  David  in  spirit  call  him  Lord 
"**■  in  the  book  of  Psalms,  '*^"*  saying. 

The  Lord  said  unto  my  Lord,  **Sit  thou  on 
my  right  hand,  till  I  make  thine  enemies  thy 
footstool  f  •• 

If  David  then  call  him  Lord,  how  is  he  his  son? 
And  no  man  was  able  to  answer  him  a  word,  neither 
dare  any  man  from  that  day  forth  ask  him  any  more 
questions.  '^'*'*  And  the  common  people  heard  him 
gladly. 


Scribe0  ant)  Pbati0ee0  S)enouncet). 


Tuesday,  April  4. 


In  the  Temple. 


(Matt,  xxiii:  1.)  Then  spoke  Jesus  to  the  mul- 
titude, and  to  his  disciples,  saying.  The  scribes  and 
the  Pharisees  sit  in  Moses*  seat;  all  therefore  what- 
soever they  bid  you  observe,  that  observe  and  do; 
but  do  not  ye  after  their  works,  for  they  say,  and 
do  not.  For  they  bind  heavy  burdens  and  grievous 
to  be  borne,  and  lay  them  on  men's  shoulders;  but 
they  thetnselves  will  not  move  them  tvith  one  of 
their  fingers.  But  all  their  works  they  do  for  to 
be  seen  of  men;  they  make  broad  their  phylacteries, 
and  enlarge  the  borders  of  their  garments,  ""^•^  and 
love  to  walk  in  long  clothing,  '^"-  and  love  the 
uppermost  rooms  at  feasts,  and  the  chief  seats  in  the 
synagogues,  and  greetings  in  the  markets,  and  to 
be  called  of  men,  ''Rabbi,  Rabbi.''  But  be  not  ye 
called  Rabbi;  for  one  is  your  Master,  even  Christ; 
and  all  ye  are  brethren.  And  call  no  man  your 
father  upon  the  earth;  for  one  is  your  Father, 
which  is  in  heaven.  Neither  be  ye  called  masters; 
for  one  is  your  Master,  even  Christ.  But  he  that 
is  greatest  among  you  shall  be  your  servant.  And 
whosoever  shall  exalt  himself  shall  be  abased;  and 
he  that  shall  humble  himself  shall  be  exalted. 

But  woe  unto  you,  scribes  and  Pharisees,  hypo- 
crites /  for  ye  shut  up  the  kingdom  of  heaven  against 
men;  for  ye  neither  go  in  yourselves,  neither  suffer 
ye  them  that  are  entering  to  go  in.  IVoe  unto  you, 
scribes  and  Pharisees,  hypocrites  f  for  ye  devour 
widows^  houses,  and  for  a  pretence  make  long 
prefer;  therefore  ye  shall  receive  the  greater  dam- 
nation.  IVoe  unto  you,  scribes  and  Pharisees, 
hypocrites !  for  ye  compass  sea  and  land  to  make 
one  proselyte ;  and  when  he  is  made,  ye  make  him 
twofold  more  the  child  of  hell  than  yourselves.  Woe 
unto  you, ye  blind  guides,  which  say,  ''Whosoever 
shall  swear  by  the  temple,  it  is  nothing;  but  whoso- 
ever shall  swear  by  the  gold  of  the  temple,  he  is  a 


debtor  f*  Ye  fools  and  blind;  for  whether  is 
greater,  the  gold,  or  the  temple  that  sanctifieth  the 
gold?  And,  "  Whosoever  shall  swear  by  the  altar, 
it  is  nothing;  but  whosoever  sweareth  by  the  gift 
that  is  upon  it,  he  is  guilty.^*  Ye  fools  and  blind; 
for  whether  is  greater,  the  gift,  or  the  altar  that 
sanctifieth  the  gift  f  Whoso  therefore  shall  swear 
by  the  altar,  sweareth  by  it,  and  by  all  things 
thereon.  And  whoso  shall  swear  by  the  temple, 
sweareth  by  it,  and  by  him  that  dwelleth  therein. 
And  he  that  shall  swear  by  heaven,  sweareth  by  the 
throfie  of  God,  and  by  him  that  sitteth  thereon. 
Woe  unto  you,  scribes  and  Pharisees,  hypocrites! 
for  ye  pay  tithe  of  mint  and  anise  and  cummin,  and 
have  omitted  the  weightier  matters  of  the  law,  judg- 
ment, mercy y  and  faith;  these  ought  ye  to  have 
dofie,  and  not  to  leave  the  other  undone.  Ye  blind 
guides,  which  strain  at  a  gnat,  and  swallow  a 
camel.  Woe  unto  you,  scribes  and  Pharisees, 
hypocrites!  for  ye  make  clean  the  outside  of  the  cup 
and  of  the  platter,  but  xvithin  they  are  full  of  extor- 
tion and  excess.  Thou  blind  Pharisee,  cleanse  first 
that  which  is  within  the  cup  and  platter,  that  the 
outside  of  them  may  be  clean  also.  Woe  unto  you, 
scribes  and  Pharisees,  hypocrites!  for  ye  are  like 
unto  whited  sepulchres,  which  indeed  appear  beauti- 
ful outward,  but  are  with  in  full  of  dead  men' s  bones, 
and  of  all  uncleanness.  Even  so  ye  also  outwardly 
appear  righteous  unto  men,  but  within  ye  are  full  of 
hypocrisy  and  iniquity.  Woe  unto  you,  scribes  and 
Pharisees,  hypocrites !  because  ye  build  the  tombs 
of  the  prophets,  and  garnish  the  sepulchres  of  the 
righteous,  and  say,  "If  we  had  been  in  the  days  of 
our  fathers,  he  would  not  have  been  partakers  with 
them  in  the  blood  of  the  prophets."  Wherefore  ye 
be  ivitnesses  unto  yourselves,  that  ye  are  the  children 
of  them  which  killed  the  prophets.  Fill  ye  up  then 
the  measure  of  your  fathers.  Ye  serpents,  ye 
generation  of  vipers,  how  can  ye  escape  the  damna- 
tion of  hell  f 

Wherefore,  behold,  I  send  unto  you  prophets,  and 
wise  men,  and  scribes;  and  some  of  them  ye  shall 
kill  and  crucify;  and  some  of  them  shall  ye  scourge 
in  your  synagogues,  and  persecute  them  from  city 
to  city,  that  upon  you  may  come  all  the  righteous 
blood  shed  upon  the  earth,  from  the  blood  of 
righteous  Abel  unto  the  blood  of  Zacharias  son  of 
Barachias,  whom  ye  slew  between  the  temple  and 
the  altar.  Verily  I  say  unto  you,  all  these  things 
shall  come  upon  this  generation. 


Xamentatfon  Vepeatet). 

(Matt,  xxiii:  37.)  O  ferusalem,  ferusalem, 
thou  that  killest  the  prophets,  and  stonest  them 
which  are  sent  unto  thee,  how  often  would  I  have 
gathered  thy  children  together,  even  as  a  hen 
gathereth  her  chickens  under  her  wings,  ana  ye 
would  not!  Behold,  your  house  is  left  unto  you 
desolate.  For  I  say  unto  you,  ye  shall  not  see  me 
henceforth,  till  ye  shall  say,  "Blessed  is  he  mat 
cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord." 


174 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


Tuesday,  April  4.  In  the  Temple. 

(Mark  xii:  41. )  And  Jesus  sat  over  against  the 
treasury,  ""**  and  he  looked  up,  ""^^  and  beheld  how 
the  people  cast  money  """  gifts  **^^  into  the  treas- 
ury; and  many  that  were  rich  cast  in  much.  And 
there  came  a  certain  poor  widow,  and  she  threw  in 
two  mites,  which  make  a  farthing.  And  he  called 
unto  him  his  disciples,  and  saith  unto  them,  yerify 
I  say  unto  you  that  this  poor  ividow  hath  cast  more 
in  than  all  they  which  have  cast  into  the  treasury: 
for  all  they  did  cast  in  of  their  abundance;  but  she 
of  her  want  did  cast  in  all  that  she  had,  even  all  her 
living, 

S)e0tructfon  ot  Cemple  foretold. 

Tuesday,  April  4.  Mount  of  Olives. 

(Matt,   xxiv:  1.)    And  Jesus    went   out,    and 
departed  from  the  temple;  and  his  disciples  came 
to  him  for  to  show  him  the  buildings  of  the  temple, 
"'•^'how  it  was  adorned  with  goodly  stones  and 
gifts,  ""^""^  and  one  of  his  disciples  saith  unto  him, 
"Master,    see  what  manner  of  stones  and  what 
buildings  are  here.'*      '*^"-  And  Jesus  said    unto 
them.  See  ye  not  all  these  *^*^^ great  buildings? 
"^"-  Verily  I  say  unto  you.   There  shall  not  be  left 
here   one  stone    upon  another  that   shall   not  be 
thrown  down.    And  as  he  sat  upon  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  '*^**over  against   the    temple,   Peter  and 
James  and  John  and   Andrew    •*^"-  the   disciples 
came  unto  him  privately,  saying,  *'TelI  us,  when 
shall  these  things  be  ?  and  what  shall  be  the  sig^n  of 
thy  coming,  and  of  the  end  of  the  world,  •"^•*  when 
all  these  things  shall  be  fulfilled  ?  "    ^^  And  Jesus 
answered  and  said  unto  them,   Take  heed  that  no 
man  deceive  you.    For  many  shall  come  in  my  name^ 
saying  ''I  am  Christ;'*  and  shall  deceive  many. 
And  ye  shall  hear  of  wars  and  rumors  of  wars,^^ 
and  commotions;  *^^'  see  that  ye  be  not  troubled; 
for  all  these  things  must  come  to  pass,  but  the  end 
is  not  yet.    For  naMon  shall  rise  against  nation, 
and  kingdom  against  kingdom;  and  there  shall  be 
famines,  and  pestilences,  and  earthquakes,  in  divers 
places,  ^^^  and  fearful  sights  and  great  signs  shall 
there  be  from  heaven.  '*^"-  All  these  are  the  begin* 
ning  of  sorrows.     Then  shall  they  deliver  you  up 
to  be  afflicted,  and  shall  kill  you;  and  ye  shall  be 
hated  of  all  nations  for  my  name's  sake.    ••""  But 
before  all  these,  they  shall  lay  their  hands  on  you, 
and  persecute  you,  delivering  you  up  to  the  syna- 
gogues, and  into  prisons,  being  brought  before  kings 
and  rulers  for  my  name's  sake.    And  it  shall  turn 
to  you  for  a  testimony.    Settle  it  therefore  in  your 
hearts,  not  to  meditate  before  what  ye  shall  answer; 
for  I  will  give  you  a  mouth  and  wisdom,  which  all 
your  adversaries  shall  not  be  able  to  gainsay  nor 
resist;  **^^for  it  is  not  ye  that  speak,  but  the  Holy 
Ghost.  "*•"  And  ye  shall  be  betrayed  both  by  parents, 
find  brethren,  and  kinsfolks,  and  friends;  and  some 
of  you  %hall  they  cause  to  be  put  to  death.    And  ye 
shall  be  hated  of  all  men  for  my  name's  sake.    But 
there  shall  not  a  hair  of  your  hecui  perish.    In  your 
patience  possess  ye  your  souls.  "**"•  And  many  false 


prophets  shall  rise,  and  shall  deceive  many.  And 
because  iniquity  shall  abound,  the  love  of  many  shall 
wax  cold.  But  he  that  shall  endure  unto  the  end^ 
the  same  shcUl  be  saved.  And  this  gospel  of  the 
kingdom  shall  be  preached  in  all  the  world  for  a 
witness  unto  all  nations ;  and  then  shall  the  end 
come.  When  ye  therefore  shall  see  the  abomination 
of  desolaMon,  spoken  of  by  Daniel  the  prophet^ 
stand  in  the  holy  place  (whoso  readeth,  let  him 
understand).  ""*■  When  ye  shall  see  ferusalem  cont- 
passed  with  armies,  then  know  that  the  desolation 
thereof  is  nigh.  Then  let  them  which  are  in  Judea 
flee  to  the  mountains;  and  let  them  which  are  in  the 
midst  of  it  depart  out ;  and  let  not  them  that  are  in 
the  countries  enter  thereinto.  "*^"'  Let  him  which  is 
on  the  housetop  not  come  down  to  take  anything  out 
of  his  house;  neither  let  him  which  is  in  the  field 
return  back  to  take  his  clothes.  ^^  For  these  be  the 
days  of  vengeance,  that  all  things  which  are  written 
may  be  fulfilled.  "*^"-  And  woe  unto  them  that  are 
with  child,  and  to  them  that  give  suck  in  those  days/ 
^^^for  there  shall  be  great  distress  in  the  land^ 
and  wrath  upon  this  people.  "^"-  Bui  pray  ye  that 
your  flight  be  not  in  the  winter,  neither  on  the 
sabbath  day;  for  then  shall  be  great  tribulation^ 
such  as  was  not  since  the  beginning  of  the  world 
to  this  time,  no,  nor  ever  shall  be.  ""**  And  they 
shall  fall  by  the  edge  of  the  sword,  and  shall 
be  led  away  captive  into  all  nations;  and  ferusalem, 
shall  be  trodden  down  of  the  Gentiles  until  the 
times  of  the  Gentiles  be  fulfilled.  •^"-  And  except 
those  days  should  be  shortened,  there  should  no  flesh 
be  saved;  but  for  the  elect's  sake  those  days  shall  be 
shortened.  Then  if  any  man  shall  say  unto  you^ 
**Lo,  here  is  Christ,*'  or  ''there,*'  believe  it  not 
For  there  shall  arise  false  Christs,  and  false 
prophets,  and  shall  show  great  signs  and  wonders; 
insomuch  thaty  if  it  were  possible,  they  shall  deceive 
the  very  elect.  Behold,  I  have  told  you  before. 
Wherefore  if  they  shall  say  unto  you,  ''Behold,  he 
is  in  the  desert**  go  not  forth;  "behold,  he  is  in 
the  secret  chambers,**  believe  it  not.  For  as  the 
lightning  cometh  out  of  the  east,  and  shineth  even 
unto  the  west,  so  shall  also  the  coming  of  the  Son 
of  man  be.  For  wheresoever  the  carcass  is,  there 
will  the  eagles  be  gathered  together. 

Secont)  Coming  propbedtet). 

Tuesday,  April  4.  Mount  of  Olives. 

( Matt,  xxiv:  29. )  Immediately  after  the  tritmlor 
turn  of  those  days  shall  the  sun  be  darkened,  and  the 
moon  shall  not  give  her  light,  and  the  stars  shall 
fall  from  heaven,  and  the  powers  of  the  heavens 
shall  be  shaken;  ••"•*■  and  there  shcUl  be  signs  in  the 
sun,  and  in  the  moon,  and  in  the  stars;  and  upon  the 
earth  distress  of  nations,  with  perplexity;  the  sea 
and  the  waves  roaring;  men*s  hearts  failing  them 
for  fear,  and  for  looking  after  those  things  which 
are  cotning  on  the  earth;  •^"*  and  then  shall  appear 
the  sign  of  the  Son  of  man  in  heaven;  and  then  shall 
all  the  tribes  of  the  earth  mourn,  and  they  shall  see 
the  Son  of  man  coming  in  the  clouds  of  heaven  with 
power  and  great  glory.    And  he  shall  send  his 


THE  WONDERFUI-  STORV 


ind  of  a  trumpet,  and  they 
s  elect  from  the /our  winds, 
■■  to  the  other,  """  from  the 
'Ik. 

ableof  the  fig  tree;  "'"and 
J  his  branch  is  yet  tender, 
;  ye  know  that  summer  is 
vhen  ye  shall  see  all  these 
■  near,  even  at  the  doors. 
This  generation  shall  not 
be  fulfilled.  Heaven  and 
nt  my  words  shall  not  pass 
fd  to  yourselves,  lest  at  any 
ercharged  with  surfeiting, 
res  of  this  life,  and  so  that 
tares.  For  as  a  snare  shall 
/  dwell  on  the  /ace  of  the 
therefore,  and  pray  always, 
'.  worthy  to  escape  all  these 
I  pass,  and  to  stand  be/ore 


<xnd  hour  knoweth  no  man, 
■aven,  but  my  father  only. 
ah  were,  so  shall  also  the 
■an  be.  For  as  in  the  days 
ood  they  were  eating  and 
'  giving  in  marriage,  until 
'ed  into  the  ark,  and  knew 
,  and  took  them  all  away; 
\g  o/  the  Son  of  man  be. 
the  field;  the  one  shall  be 
ft.  Two  women  shall  be 
■  one  shall  be  taken,  and  the     Seheiken. 


ing  suddenly  he  find  you  sleeping.    And  what  t  say 
unto  you  I  say  unto  all.  Watch. 

JNoc  miee  an&  f oollsb  Vfrfllne. 

Tuesday.  April  4. 

(Matt,  xxv;  1.)  Then  shall  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  be  likened  unto  ten  virgins,  which  took  their 
lamps,  and  went  forth  to  meet  the  bridegroom. 
And  five  of  them  were  wise,  and  five  were  /aolish. 
They  that  were /oolish  took  their  tamps,  and  took  no 
oil  with  them ;  but  the  wise  took  oil  in  their  vessels 
with  their  lamps,  '.iihile  the  bridegroom  tarried, 
they  all  slumbered  and  slept.  And  at  midnight 
there  was  a  cry  made.  "Behold,  the  bridegroom 
Cometh;  go  ye  out  to  meet  him."  Then  all  those 
virgins  arose,  and  trimmed  their  lamps.    And  the 


THE  TEN  VIRGINS. 


-  ye  know  not  what  hour 
But  know  this,  that  if  the 
■d  known  in  what  watch  the 
would  have  watched,  and 
his  house  to  be  broken  up. 
•dy;  /or  in  such  an  hour  as 
nan  comelh.  Who  then  is 
vant,  whom  his  lord  Hath 
ehold,  to  give  them  meatin 
f  that  servant,  whom  his 
II  find  so  doing.  Verily  I 
II  make  him  ruler  over  all 
ml  evil  servant  shall  say  in 
elayeth  his  coming,"  and 
fellow  servants,  and  to  eat 
en,  the  lord  o/  that  servant 
•I  he  looketh  not  /or  him, 
s  not  aware  of,  and  shall 
toint  him  his  portion  with 
I  be  weeping  and  gnashing 
ed,  watch  and  pray;  for  ye 
s.  For  the  Son  of  man  is 
umey.  who  left  his  house, 
servants,  and  to  every  man 
ded  the  porter  to  watch. 
■  ye  know  not  when  tlu 
■h,  at  even,  or  at  midnight, 
in  the  morning;  lest  com- 


/oolish  said  unto  the  wise,  "Give  us  of  your  oil; 
/or  our  lamps  are  gone  out."  But  the  wise 
answered,  saying,  "Not  so;  lest  there  be  not  enough 
for  us  and  you ;  but  go  ye  rather  to  them  that  sell, 
and  buy  /or  yourselves."  And  while  titey  went  to 
buy,  the  bridegroom  came ;  and  they  that  were  ready 
went  in  with  kim  to  the  marriage ;  and  the  door 
was  shut.  Afterward  came  also  the  other  virgins, 
saying,  "Lord,  Lord,  open  to  us."  But  he 
answered  and  said,  "  Verily  I  say  unto  you,  I  know 
you  not."  Watch  therefore;  /or  ye  know  neither 
the  day  nor  the  hour  wherein  the  Son  of  man 
Cometh. 

parable  ol  tbe  Calents. 

Tuesday,  April  4. 
(Matt  xxv;  14.)  For  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is 
as  a  man  traveling  into  a  far  country,  who  called 
his  own  servants,  and  delivered  unto  them  his  goods. 
And  unto  one  he  gave  five  talents,  to  another  two, 
and  to  another  one ;  to  every  man  according  to  his 
several  abitify ,-  and  straightway  took  his  jowmey. 
Then  he  that  had  received  the  five  talents  went  and 
traded  with  Ike  same,  and  made  them  other  five 
talents.  And  likewise  he  that  had  received  two,  he 
also  gained  other  two.  But  he  that  had  received 
one  went  and  digged  in  the  earth,  and  hid  his  lords 
tnoney.     A/ter  a   long  time  the    lord  of  tAofe 


176 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


servants  cotneih^  andreckoneth  with  them.  And  so 
he  that  had  received  five  tatents  came  and  brought 
other  five  talents ^  sayings  **Lord  thou  deliveredst 
unto  me  five  talents ;  behold^  I  have  gained  beside 
them  five  talents  more.'*  His  lord  said  unto  him, 
^'Wiell  done,  thou  good  and  faithful  servant;  thou 
hast  been  faithful  over  a  few  things,  I  zvill  make 
thee  ruler  over  many  things  ;  enter  thou  into  the  joy 
of  thy  lord.  * '  He  also  that  had  received  two  talents 
came  and  said,  *  *  Lord  thou  deliveredst  unto  me  two 
talents  ;  behold,  I  have  gained  two  other  talents 
beside  them. '  *  His  lord  said  unto  him,  *  *  Well  done, 
good  and  faithful  servant;  thou  hast  been  faithful 
over  a  few  things,  I  will  make  thee  ruler  over  mat^ 
things  ;  enter  thou  into  the  joy  of  thy  lord.  * '  Then 
he  which  had  received  the  one  talent  came  and  said, 
*^Lord,  I  knew  thee  that  thou  art  a  hard  man,  reap- 
ing where  thou  hast  not  sown,  and  gathering  where 
thou  hast  not  strewed;  and  I  was  afraid,  and  went 
and  hid  thy  talent  in  the  earth;  to,  there  thou  hast 
that  is  thine.''  His  lord  answered  and  said  unto 
him,  "  Thou  wicked  and  slothful  servant,  thou  knew- 
est  that  I  reap  where  I  sowed  not,  and  gather 
where  I  have  not  strewed;  thou  oughtest  therefore  to 
have  put  my  money  to  the  exchangers,  and  then  at 
my  coming  I  should  have  received  mine  own  with 
usury.  Take  therefore  the  talent  from  him,  and 
give  it  unto  him  ivhich  hath  ten  talents."  For  unto 
every  one  that  hath  shall  be  given,  and  he  shall 
have  abundance;  but  from  him  that  hath  not  shall 
be  taken  away  even  that  which  he  hath.  And  cast 
ye  the  unprofitable  servant  into  outer  darkness; 
there  shall  be  weeping  and  gnashing  of  teeth. 

Separation  at  tbe  Su^oment. 

Tuesday,  April  4. 

(Matt.  XXV :  31.)  When  the  Son  of  man  shall 
come  in  his  glory,  and  all  the  holy  angels  with  him, 
then  shall  he  sit  upon  the  throne  of  his  glory;  and 
before  him  shall  be  gathered  all  nations;  and  he 
shcUl  separate  them  one  from  another,  as  a  shepherd 
divideth  his  sheep  from  the  goats;  and  he  shall  set 
the  sheep  on  his  right  hand,  but  the  goats  on  the 
left.  Then  shall  the  King  say  unto  them  on  his 
right  hand,  ''Come,  ye  blessed  of  my  Father,  in- 
herit the  kingdom  prepared  for  you  from  the 
foundcUion  of  the  world;  for  I  was  a  hungered,  and 
ye  gave  me  meat;  I  was  thirsty,  and  ye  gave  me 
drink;  I  was  a  stranger,  and  ye  took  me  in;  naked, 
and  ye  clothed  me;  I  was  sick,  and  ye  visited  me; 
I  was  in  prison,  and  ye  came  unto  fpte. ' '  Then  shall 
the  righteous  answer  him,  saying,  ''Lord,  when 
saw  we  thee  a  hungered,  and  fed  thee  ?  or  thirsty, 
and  gave  thee  drink  f  When  saw  we  thee  a  stranger, 
and  took  thee  in  ?  or  naked,  and  clothed  thee  f  Or 
when  saw  we  thee  sick,  or  in  prison,  and  catne  unto 
thee  f  "  And  the  King  shall  answer  and  say  unto 
them,  "  Verily  I  say  unto  you.  Inasmuch  as  ye  have 
done  it  unto  one  of  the  least  of  these  my  brethren,  ye 
have  done  it  unto  me."  Then  shall  he  say  also  unto 
them  on  the  left  hand,  ' '  Depart  from  me,  ye  cursed, 
into  everlasting  fire,  prepared  for  the  devil  and  his 


angels;  for  I  was  a  hungered,  atid  ye  gave  me  no 
meat;  I  was  thirsty,  and  ye  gave  tne  no  drink;  I 
was  a  stranger,  and  ye  took  me  not  in;  naked,  and 
ye  clothed  me  not;  sick,  and  in  prison,  and  ye  visited 
me  not. ' '  Then  shall  they  also  answer  him,  saying, 
"Lord,  when  saw  we  thee  a  hungered,  or  atkirst, 
or  a  stranger,  or  naked,  or  sick,  or  in  prison,  and 
did  not  minister  unto  thee  f  Then  shall  he  answer 
them,  saying,  "Verily  I  say  unto  you.  Inasmuch  as 
ye  did  it  not  to  one  of  the  least  of  these,  ye  did  it  not 
to  me"  And  these  shall  go  away  into  everlasting 
punishment;  but  the  righteous  into  life  eternal. 

Sol^  tot  tTbfrti?  pieced  ot  Silt^er. 

(Matt,  xxvi:  1.)  And  it  came  to  pass,  when 
Jesus  had  finished  all  these  sayings,  he  said  unto 
his  disciples,  Ye  know  that  after  two  days  is  the 
feast  of  the  Passover,  and  the  Son  of  man  is  be- 
trayed to  be  crucified.  Then  assembled  together 
the  chief  priests,  and  the  scribes,  and  the  elders  of 
the  people,  unto  the  palace  of  the  high  priest,  who 
was  called  Caiaphas,  and  consulted  that  they  might 
take  Jesus  by  subtilty,  and  kill  him.  But  they  said, 
'*  Not  on  the  feast  day,  lest  there  be  an  uproar 
among  the  people.'* 

LUKE-phen  entered  Satan  into  Judas  surnamed 
Iscariot,  being  of  the  number  of  the  twelve.  And 
he  went  his  way,  and  communed  with  the  chief 
priests  and  captains,  '*^"-  and  said,  *'  What  will  ye 
give  me,  and  I  will  deliver  him  unto  you.*'  *-***» 
And  they  were  glad,  and  covenanted  to  give  him 
money,  **^"-  thirty  pieces  of  silver.  '■"^*  And  he 
promised,  and  sought  opportunity  to  betray  him 
unto  them  in  the  absence  of  the  multitude. 

tTbe  pa90Oi?et  prepared. 

Thursday,  April  6.  Jerusalem. 

( Luke  xxii :  7. )  Then  came  the  day  of  unleavened 
bread,  when  the  passover  must  be  killed.  And  he 
sent  Peter  and  John,  saying,  Go  and  prepare  us  the 
passover,  that  we  may  eat.  And  they  said  unto 
him,  **  Where  will  thou  that  we  prepare?"  And 
he  said  unto  them,  Behold,  when  ye  are  entered 
into  the  city,  there  shall  a  man  meet  you,  bearing  a 
pitcher  of  water;  follow  him  into  the  house  wftere 
he  enter eth  in.  And  ye  shall  say  unto  the  goodman 
of  the  house,  "The  Master  saith  unto  tfiee.  Where 
is  the  guestchamber,  where  I  shall  eat  the  passover 
with  my  disciples  f ' '  And  he  •*^'^  himself  ""*''  shall 
show  you  a  large  upper  room  furnished;  there  make 
ready.  And  they  went,  and  found  as  he  had  said 
unto  them;  and  they  made  ready  the  passover;**^* 
and  it  was  evening.  "^"^'And  when  the  hour  was 
come,  he  sat  down,  and  the  twelve  apost'es  with 
him.  And  he  said  unto  them,  With  desire  I  have 
desired  to  eat  this  passover  with  you  before  I  suffer; 
for  I  say  unto  you,  I  will  not  any  more  eat  thereof 
until  it  be  fulfilled  in  the  kingdom  of  God.  And  he 
took  the  cup,  and  gave  thanks,  and  said.  Take  this 
and  divide  it  among  yourselves;  for  I  say  unto  you, 
I  will  not  drink  of  the  fruit  of  the  vine,  until  the 
kingdom  of  God  shall  come. 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


177 


AuiJ  Llicre  was  also  a  strife  among  them,  which 
of  iliciii  should  be  accounted  the  greatest.  And  he 
said  unto  them,  The  kings  and  the  Gentiles  exer- 
cise, lordship  over  them;  and  they  that  exercise 
authority  upon  t/tem  are  called  benefactors.    But  ye 


the  towel  wherewith  he  was  girded.  Then  cometh 
he  to  Simon  Peter;  and  Peter  saith  unto  him, 
"Lord,  dost  thou  wash  my  feet?"  Jesus 
answered  and  said  unto  him.  What  I  do  thou 
knowest  not  now;  but  thou  shatt  know  hereafter. 


CHRIST  WASHING  THE  DISCIPLES'  FEET. 


shall  not  be  so;  but  he  that  is  greatest  among  you, 
let  him  be  as  the  younger;  and  he  that  is  chief  as 
he  that  doth  serve.  For  whether  is  greater,  he  that 
silteth  at  meal,  or  he  that  serveth  f  is  not  he  that 
sitteth  at  tneatf  but  I  am  among  you  as  he  that 
servelh.  Ye  are  they  which  have  continued  with 
me  in  my  temptations.  And  I  appoint  unto  you  a 
kingdom,  as  my  Father  hath  appointed  unto  me; 
that  ye  may  eat  and  drink  at  my  table  in  my  king- 
dom, and  sit  cm  thrones  judging  the  twelve  tribes 
of  Israel. 

liaaeblnfl  tbe  SHACioIeo'  feet. 

Thursda>'  evening,  April  fl.  Jemulem. 

(John  xiii:  I. )  Now  before  the  feast  of  the  pass- 
over,  when  Jesus  knew  that  his  hour  was  come 
that  he  should  depart  out  of  this  world  unto  the 
Father,  having  loved  his  own  which  were  in  the 
world,  he  loved  them  unto  the  end.  And  supper  be- 
ing ended,  the  devil  having  now  put  into  the  heart 
of  Judas  Iscariot.  Simon's  son,  to  betray  him,  Jesus 
knowing  that  the  Father  had  given  all  things  mto 
his  hands,  and  that  he  was  come  from  God.  and 
went  lo  God.  he  riseth  from  supper,  and  laid  aside 
his  garments,  and  look  a  towel  and  girded  himself. 
After  that  he  puureth  water  into  a  basin,  and  began 
to  wash  the  disciples'  feet,  and  to  wipe  them  with 


Peter  saith  unto  him,  "  Thou  shalt  never  wash  my 
feet."  Jesus  answered  him.  If  I  wash  thee  not, 
thou  hast  no  part  with  me.  Simon  Peier  saith  unto 
him,  "  Lord,  not  my  feet  only,  but  also  my  liands 
and  my  head."  Jesus  saith  to  him.  He  that  is 
washed  needeth  not  save  to  wash  his  feet,  but  is 
clean  every  whit;  and  ye  are  clean,  but  not  all.  For 
he  knew  who  should  betray  him;  therefore  said  he, 
Ve  are  not  all  clean.  So  after  he  had  washed  their 
feet,  and  had  taken  his  garments,  and  was  set  down 
again,  he  said  unto  them.  Know  ye  what  I  have 
done  to  you  f  Ye  call  me  Master  and  Lord;  and 
ye  say  well;  for  so  I  am.  If  I  then,  your  Lord  and 
Master,  have  washed  your  feet,  ye  also  ought  lo 
wash  one  another's  feel.  For  I  have  given  you  an 
example,  that  ye  should  do  as  f  have  done  lo  you. 
Eerily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you.  The  servant  is  not 
greater  than  his  lord;  neither  he  that  is  sent  greater 
than  he  ihal  sent  him.  If  ye  hnow  these  things, 
happy  are  ye  if  ye  do  them.  I  speak  not  of  you  all; 
I  know  whom  I  have  chosen;  but  that  the  Scripture 
may  be  fulfilled, 

Hi  ihal  laltth  triad  with  iw  hoik  lifted  up 

Now  I  tellyou  before  it  come,  that,  when  it  is  come 
lo  pass,  ye  may  believe  that  I  am  he.  Verily, 
verily,  I  say  unto  you.  He  that  receiveth  whomso- 


so,  I  woutd  have  told  you.  I  go  (o 
for  you.  And  i/  /  go  Ofid  prepfMre 
I  wUl  come  again,  and  receifrs  j 
that  where  I  am,  there  ye  ft^ay 
Tt/iiiher  I  go  ye  know,  and  er'ht 
Thomas    saitb  unto  him,  "  Lc^ri 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORV 


179 


they  said,  "  Lord,  behold,  here  are  two  sworda." 
And  he  said  unto  them,  //  is  enough. 

Zbe  XOT&'0  Suppct  InetltuteO. 

Thuraday  Evening,  April  6.  A.  D.  30.  Je  .alem. 

(Matt,  xxvi;  26.)  As  they  were  eating,  Jesus 
took  bread,  and  blessed  it,  and  broke  it,  and  gave 
it  to  the  disciples,  and  said,  Take,  eal;  Ibis  is  my 
body,  "^  which  is  given  for  you;  I  his  do  ia  remetn- 
brance  of  tne.  "*"■  And  he  took  the  cup,  and 
gave  thanks,  and  gave  it  to  them,  saying,  Drink 
ye  alt  of  il;  for  this  is  wy  btood  of  the  new  testa- 
ment, ivhich  is  shed  for  many  for  the  remission  of 
sins,  ^'"whichis  shed  for  you.  ""And  they  all 
drank  of  it.    ■""■  Rut  I  say  unto  you,  I  will  not 


whither  thou  goest;  and  ho*  can  we  know  the 
way?"  Jesus  saith  unto  him,  /am  the  way,  the 
truth  and  the  life;  no  man  comelh  unto  the  Father, 
but  by  me.  If  ye  had  known  me,  ye  should  have 
known  my  Father  also;  and  from  henreforth  ye 
know  him.  and  have  seen  him.  Philip  saith  unto 
him,  "Ijard,  show  us  the  Father,  and  it  suRiceth 
us."  Jesus  saith  unto  him,  Have  I  been  so  long 
time  with  you,  and  yet  hast  thou  not  knoivn  me, 
Philip  f  he  that  hath  seen  me  hath  seen  (he  Father; 
and  how  sttyest  thou  then,  "Show  us  the  Fatherf" 
Beiievcit  thou  not  that  I  am  in  the  Father,  and  the 
Father  in  me  T  the  words  thai  I  speak  unto  you  I 
speak  not  of  myself:  but  the  Father  that  dwelleth  in 
me,  he  doeth  the  works.  Believe  me  that  /  am  in 
tite  Father,  and  ttte  Father  in  me;  or  else  believe 


E  IN  THE  GARDEN  OF  CETHSEMANS. 


drink  henceforth  of  this  fruit  of  the  vine,  until  that 
day  wlien  /drink  it  new  with  you  in  my  Father's 
kingdom. 

tibti0t'0  Xnzx  S>iecoui0e. 

ThuradBf  Evming,  April  8.  Jenualen. 

(John  xiv:  1.)  Let  not  your  heart  be  troubled; 
ye  believe  in  God,  believe  also  in  me.  In  my 
Father's  house  are  many  mansions;  if  it  were  not 
so,  /  would  have  told  you.  I  go  to  prepare  a  place 
for  you.  And  if  /go  and  prepare  a  place  for  you, 
/  will  come  again,  and  receive  you  unto  myself; 
that  where  /  am,  there  ye  may  be  also.  And 
whither  I  go  ye  know,  and  the  way  ye  know. 
Thomas    saith  unto  him,  "Lord,  we  know  not 


me  for  the  very  work^  sake,  feri/y,  verify,  I  say 
unloyou,  he  that  betieveth  on  me,  the  works  that  / 
do  sImU  he  do  also;  and  greater  works  than  these 
shall  he  do;  because  I  go  unto  my  Father.  And 
whatsoever  ye  shall  ask  in  my  name,  that  will  /  do, 
that  the  Father  may  be  glorified  in  the  Son.  /f  ye 
Shalt  ask  anything  in  my  name,  /  will  do  it. 

COMFORTER  PROMISED. 

/f  ye  love  me,  tieep  ti^  commandments.  And  I 
wiUprw^  the  Fattier,  and  he  sliail  give  you  another 
Comforter,  that  he  may  abide  with  you  forever; 
even  the  ^nrit  of  truth;  whom  the  world  can  not 
receive,  because  it  steth  him  not,  neither  knoweth 
him;  but  ye  know  him,  for  Ite  dwelleth  with  you, 
and  shall  be  in  you.     /will  not  leave  you  comfort- 


fidl.  This  is  my  commandment,  7 
another,  as  f  have  loved  you.  Greai 
man  than  this,  that  a  man  lay  down 
friends.  Ve  are  »»f  frirnds,  if  yi 
I  command  you.  Hentejorth  I  eai 
ants ;  for  the  servant  latoweth  nol 
doeth;  but  /  have  called  you  friendi 
thai  I  have  heard  of  my  Father  J  ha 
unto  you.  Ve  have  not  chosen  me.  hi 
you.  and  ordained  you,  that  ye  shou 
forth  fruit,  and  thai  your  fruit  shot. 
whatsoever  ye  shall  oji  of  the  Fail 
he  may  give  it  you. 

These  thinzs  I  command  you.  i 
another.    Jf  the  world  hate  you, : 


hated  me  be/ore  it  hated  you.  I] 
world,  the  world  would  love  hi^  x, 
ye  are  not  of  the  world,  but  I  ^a 
of  the  world,  therefore  the  &■ 
Remember  the  word  that  I  sesia 
servant  is  not  greater  than  his  Iota 
persecuted  me.  they  will  also  fiersc, 
have  kept  my  saying,  they  Ji-ii/  / 
But  all  these  things  will  they  ito 
nam^s  sake,  because  they  inoa-  „ 
me.  If  I  had  not  come  and  spokrt 
had  not  had  sin ;  but  natr  they  /,,. 
their  sin.     He  that  hateth   mt  ha 


:he  wonderful  story  im 

al  ye  love  one  also.     1/  I  had  not  done  among  them  the  works 

riovekalhno  which  none  other  man  did,  they  had  not  had  tin; 

■is  li/e /or  his  but  now  have  they  both  seen  and  hated  both  tne  and 

h  whatsoever  my  Fattier.     But  this  cometh  to  pass.,  that  the  word 

yoa  not  serv-  might  be  /utfilted  that  is  written  in  their    law, 

ihat  his  totd  "They  hatedme  wittiouta  cause."     But  when  the 

for  all  things  Comforter  is  come,  whom  I  nnll  send  unto  you  from 

made  known  the  Father,  even  the  Spirit  of  truth,  which  pro- 

l  have  chosen  ceedethfrom  the  Father,  lie  shall  testify  ofme;  and 

zo  and  bring  ye  also  slialt  bear  witness,  because  ye  liave  been 

remain;  that  with  me  from  the  beginning. 

in  wji  name.  These  things  have  I  spoken  unto  you.   that  ye 

should  not  be  offended.     They  shall  put  you  out  of 

'ye  love  one  the  synagogues; yea,  the  time  fometh,  that  whoso- 

inow  that  it  ever  killelh  you  will  think   thai  he  doeth    God 


vere  of  the  service.    And  these  things  will  they  do  untoyou, 

hut  because  because  they  have  not  known  the  Fattier,  nor  me. 

ten  you  out  But  these  things  have  I  told  you,  that  when  the 

latelh  you.  time  shall  come,  ye  may  remember  Ihat  I  told  you 

you,  ' '  T/te  of  thetn.    And  t/iese  things  I  said  not  unto  you  at 

f  they  have  the  beginning,  because  1  was  with  you.     But  now 

7U  ;  if  they  I  go  my  way  to  him  that  sent  me;  and  none  of  you 

■/ours  also,  asketh  me.   Whither  goest  thou  f    But  because  I 

vou  /or  my  have  said  these  things  unto  you,  sorrow  halh  filled 

n  thai  sent  your  heart. 

them,  they  mission  OP  holv  spirit. 

I  cloak  for  Nevertheless  I  tell  you  the  truth;  it  is  expedient 

•ny    Father  for  you  that  /  go  away    for  if  I  go  not  away,  the 


^atne;  and  I  say  not  tint 
Father  for  you;  for  the 
because  ye  have  loved  ii, 
:ame  out  from  God. 
Father,  and  am  come  in 
the  world,  and  go  to 
said  unto  him,  "  Lo,  i 
and  speakest  no  provei 
thou  knowest  all  thing 
man  should  ask  thee;  I 
earnest  forth  from  Goi 
Do  ye  now  believe  f  h 
is  now  come,  that  ye  .'. 
to  his  own,  ami  shall  > 


FIELD  OP  A( 

itot  alone,  because  the 
things  I  have  spoken 
might  have  peace,  i 
tribulation;  but  be  of  i 
the  world. 

last  prucet 

Tbursday  evening.  April  S 

(John  ivii:  1,)  Th 
lifted  up  his  eyes  to  h< 
hour  is  come;  glorify  (i 
glorify  thee;  as  Ihou  hi 
fiesh,  thai  he  shcMld  gi 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


IS3 


natite;  and  I  say  not  unto  you.  (hat  I  will  pray  the 
Father  for  you;  for  the  Father  himself  lovflh  you, 
because  ye  have  loved  me,  and  have  believed  thai  I 
■Mme  out  from  God.  I  came  forth  from  the 
Father,  and  am  come  into  the  world;  again,  I  leave 
the  world,  and  go  to  the  Father.  His  disciples 
said  unto  him,  "  Lo,  now  speakest  thou  plainly, 
and  speakest  no  proverb.  Now  are  we  sure  that 
thou  knowest  all  things,  and  needest  not  that  any 
man  should  ask  thee;  by  this  we  believe  that  thou 
earnest  forth  from  God."  Jesus  answered  them, 
Do  ye  now  believe  t  Hehold,  the  hour  cometk,  yea, 
is  now  come,  that  ye  shall  be  scattered,  every  man 
to  his  own,  and  shall  leave  me  akme;  and  vel  I  ant 


thou  hast  given  him.  And  this  is  life  eternal,  /hat 
they  might  know  thee  the  only  true  God,  and  fesus 
Christ,  whom  thou  hast  sent.  I  have  glorified  thee 
an  Ihe  earth;  I  have  finished  (he  worit  which  thou 
gavest  me  to  do.  And  now.  O  Father,  glorify  thou 
me  with  thine  own  self  with  the  glory  which  I  had 
with  thee  before  the  world  was.  !  have  manifested 
thy  name  unto  the  men  which  thou  gavesl  me  out  of 
ihe  world;  thine  they  were,  and  thou  gavest  (hem 
me;  and  they  have  kept  thy  word.  Now  they  have 
known  that  all  things  whatsoever  thou  hast  given 
me  are  of  thee.  For  I  have  given  unto  (hem  the 
words  which  (hou  gavest  me;  and  they  have  reteived 
them  and  have  known  surety  that  I  came  out  from 


FIELD  OF  ACELDAMA.    (PoHtt'B  Field,  dirtcily  o 


r  Ihe  nun's  betd  when  Ihe  wall  appears.) 


nol  alone,  became  the  Father  is  with  me.  These 
things  I  have  spoken  unto  you,  thai  in  me  ye 
might  have  peace.  In  the  world  ye  shall  have 
tribulation;  but  be  of  good  cheer;  I  have  overcome 
the  world. 

Xaet  pia^ei  rot  "btB  StlBdples. 

Thursday  evening,  April  6  Jerusaiem. 

(John  ivii:  1.)  These  words  spoke  Jesus,  and 
lifted  up  his  eyes  to  heaven,  and  said,  Father,  the 
hour  is  come;  glorify  thy  Son.  that  thy  Son  also  may 
glorify  thee;  as  thou  hast  given  him  power  over  all 
fiesh,  that  he  should  give  eternal  Hfe  to  as  many  as 


thee,  and  they  have  believed  that  thou  didst  send  tne. 
I  Pray  for  them:  I  pray  not  for  the  world,  but  for 
them  which  thou  hasl  given  me;  for  (hey  are  thiw. 
And  all  mine  are  thine,  and  (hine  are  mine;  and  I 
am  glorified  in  them.  And  now  I  am  no  more  in 
the  world,  but  these  are  in  (he  world,  and  I  came  to 
thee.  Holy  Father,  keep  through  thine  own  name 
those  whom  thou  hasl  given  me,  that  (hey  may  be 
one,  as  we  are.  llTtile  I  was  with  them  in  the  world, 
I  kept  (hem  in  thy  name;  those  (hat  thou  gavest  me 
I  have  kept,  and  none  of  them  is  lost,  but  the  son  of 
Perdition;  (hat  the  Scripture  might  be  fulfilled. 
And  now  come  I  to  thee;  and  these  things  /speak 


THK    lUCniAVAL. 


■:  WONDERFUL  STORY  187 

er,  U^al,  judas  then,  having  received  a  band  of  men  and 

f'aich  and  officers  from  the  chief   priests  and   Pharisees,  "*" 

Ike  sfiiril  and  the  elders,  """  cometh  thither  "*'"■  while  he  yet 

He  went  spoke, ''*™  with  lanterns  and  torches  and  weapons, 

I,  saying,  "*"■  swords  and  staves.  -"""Jesus  therefore,  know- 

uay  from  ing  all  things  that  should  come  upon  him.  went 

And  he  forth,  and  said  unto  them.  Whom  seek  yef    They 

heir  eyes  answered  him,  "Jesus  of  Nazareth."    Jesus  saith 

0  answer  unto  them,  /  am  he.  And  Judas  also,  which 
gain,  and  betrayed  him,  stood  with  them.  As  soon  then  as 
/ords,""'  he  had  said  unto  them,  "  I  am  he,"  they  went  back- 

1  heaven,  ward,  and  fell  to  the  ground.  Then  asked  he  them 
Rony  he  again,  Whom  seek  yet  And  they  said,  "Jesus  of 
/as  as  It  Nazareth."   ]es»s  B,i&vieKil,  I  have  laid  you  l'">f  I 


SRUSALEM.  fCalnrv  at  the  upper  left-band  comer-l 

>  the  am  he;  if  there/ore  ye  seek  me,  let  these  go  their 
■,*""■  way;  that  the  saying  might  he  fulfilled  which  he 
unto       spoke, 

■  il  is  Of  Ihem  which  thou  gavest  me  have  I  lost  none. 

MATT.  fiQ^  he  that  betrayed  him  gave  them  a  sign, 

"^■*'       saying,  "  Whomsoever  I  shall  kiss,  that  same  is  he, 

hold  him  fast,  """and  lead  him  away  safely."  ""- 

And  forthwith  he  came  to  Jesus,  and  said,  "  Hail, 

Master;"  and  kissed  him.    And  Jesus  said  unto  him, 

FHend,  wherefore  art  thou  come?  """Judas.,  betray- 

"■"*■        est  thou  the  Son  of  man  with   a  kiss?  ■""Then 

le  of       came  they,  and  laid  hands  on  Jesus,  and  took  him. 

ace;       "-""When  they  which  were  about  him  saw  what 

lies.        would  follow,  they  said  unto  him,  "  Lord,  shall  wff 


PETER'S   DENIAL. 


thou  the  hig^  priest  so ! 
If  I  have  spoken  evil,  bt 
if  well,  why  stmlest  thoi 
sent  hbn  bound  unto  C 
And  Simon  Peter  stoo 
Phey  said  therefore  unto 
one  of  his  disciples?" 
with  an  oath  ""^  and  said 
not  the  man."-  """And 
hour  after'*"  one  of  the  \ 
being  his  kinsman  whcx 
"Did  not  I  see  thee  in  t> 
and  they  that  stood  by  s 
of  them,  for  thy  speech  b- 
an  a  Galilean."  But  h< 
swear,  saying,  ' '  I  know 
speak."  -""Peter  then 
diately  the  cock  crew, 
and  looked  upon  Peter, 
the  word  of  the  Lord,  h< 
"before  the  cockcrow,  tt 
And  Peter  went  out  and  ■ 


Srlal  JtefOK 

Friday  Moming. 

""■And  the  chief  pries 
sought  for  witness  gainst 
death,  and  found  none.  F( 
ness  against  him.  but  thei 
t<%ether.  And  there  arose 
witness  against  him,  saying, 
'  I  will  destroy  this  temple  ll 
and  within  three  days  I  wi 
without  hands.'  "  But  nelti 
agree  together.  And  the  h 
the  midst,  and  asked  Jesus 
thou  nothing?  what  is  it 
against  thee?"  Butheheldh 
nothing.  Again  the  high  p 
said  unto  him,  ".\rt  Ihou  ll 
the  Blessed  """God?"  """; 


E  WONDERFUL  STORY 


191 


wered  him, 
'he  evil;  but 
Annas  had 
gh  priest.) 
:d  himself. 
.  thou  also 

ace  of  one 
[ligh  priest, 
:t  off,  saiCh 

■^  tor  thou 
whom  ye 


and  ye  shall  see  the  Son  of  man  silting  on  the 
rigkl  hand  of  power;  and  cmning  in  the  clouds 
o/  heaven.  Then  the  high  priest  rent  his  clothes, 
and  saith,  "  What  need  we  any  further  witnesses? 
Ye  have  heard  the  blasphemy;  what  think  ye?" 
And  they  all  condemned  him  to  be  guilty  of  death. 
^^*  And  the  men  that  held  Jesus  mocked  him,  and 
smote  him.  "*"'  Then  did  they  spit  in  his  face  and 
buffeted  him.  '-""'And  when  they  had  blindfolded 
him,  they  struck  him  on  the  face,  and  asked  him, 
saymg,  "Prophesy  "*"■  unto  us  thou  Christ;  """ 
who  is  it  that  smote  thee  ? ' '  "*""  And  the  servants 
did  strike  him  with  the  palms  of  their  hands.  '-"'" 
And  many  other  things  blasphemously  spoke  they 
against  him. 

And  as  soon  as  it  was  day,  the  elders  of  the 
people,  and  the  chief  priests  and  the  scribes  came 
together,  and  led  him  Into  their  council,  saying, 
"Art  thou  the  Christ?  tell  us."  And  he  said  unto 
ihem.  If  I  tell  you,  ye  jvill  not  believe.  And  if  I 
also  a.ti  yoa.  ye  will  not  answer  me,  nor  let  me  go. 
Hereafter  shall  the  Son  of  man  sit  on  the  rizht  hatr/t 


)F  THE  BODY  OF  JESUS  FOR  BURIAL. 


council 


IS  wered 
im,  and 
Son  of 


of  the  power  of  God.  Then  said  they  all,  "Art  thou 
then  the  Son  of  God?"  And  he  said  unto  them.  Ye 
say  thai  I  am.  And  they  said.  "What  need  we 
any  further  witness  ?  for  we  ourselves  have  heard  of 
his  own  mouth." 

Su&ae  Kepentfl. 

(Matt  xxvii:  3.)  Then  Judas,  which  had  be- 
trayed him,  when  he  saw  that  he  was  condemned, 
repented  himself,  and  brought  jgain  the  thirty 
pieces  of  silver  to  the  chief  priests  and  elders, 
saying,  "  I  have  sinned  in  that  1  have  betrayed  the 
innocent  blood."  And  they  said,  "  What  is  that  to 
us?  see  Ihou  to  that."  And  he  cast  down  the 
pieces  of  silver  in  the  temple,  and  departed  and 
went  and  hanged  himself.  And  the  chief  priests 
took  the  silver  pieces,  and  said,  "It  is  not  law^tJ,.', 


and  mocked  him,  i 
robe,  and  sent  him 
day  Pilate  and  Her 
for  before  they  wer« 


f 

(Mark  xv:  6.) 
unto  them  one  pri< 
And  there  was  oi 
bound  with  them  t 
him,  who  had  comi 
And  the  multitude 
aloud  began  to  des 
to  do  as  he  had  ev< 
unto  them.  But 
answered  them, 
••  Will  ye  that  I  re 
lease  unto  you  the 
Kin^  of  the  Jews?* 
For  he  knew  tha 
the  chief  priest 
had  delivered  hin 
for  envy."^"  Whei 
he  was  set  dowi 
on  the  judgmen 
seat,  his  wife  sen 
unto  him,  saying 
"  Have  thou  noth 
ing  to  do  with  iha 
just  man;  for  Ihav 
suffered  man 
things  this  day  i 
a  dream  becaut 
of  him.*'  "'"Ar 
Pilate,  when  1 
had  called  togeth 
the  chief  pries 
and  the  rulers  ai 
the  people,  sa 
unto  them,  •*\ 
have  brought  tli 
man  unto  me 
one  that  perverie 
the  people;  andb 
hold,  1.  having  e 
amined  him  befo 
you,  have  foui 
no  fault  in  thism; 
touching  thus 
things  whereof 
accuse  him;  no, 
him;  and,  lo,  not 
him.  I  will  there 
And  they  cried  o 
this  man,  and  re 
chief  priests  ai\< 
that  they  should 
The  governor 
••  Whether  of  tl 
you?  *  They  S3 
them,  "What  si 
called  Christ    na 


THE  WONDERFUI.  STORY 


193 


and  mocked  him,  and  arrayed  him  in  a  gorgeous 
robe,  and  sent  him  again  to  Pilate.  And  the  same 
day  Pilate  and  Herod  were  made  friends  together; 
(or  before  they  were  at  enmity  between  themselves. 

Satabbas. 

FtitUji  Forenoon. 

(Mark  xv:  6.)     Now  at  that  feast  he  released 
unto  them  one  prisoner,  whomsoever  they  desired. 
And  there  was  one  named  Barabbas,  which  lay 
bound  with  them  that  had  made  insurrection  with 
him,  who  had  committed  murder  in  the  insurrection. 
And  the  multitude  cr-'"" 
alovid  began  to  desin 
to  do  as  he  had  ever 
unto   them.      But    I 
answered    them,   sa 
"Will  ye  that  I  re- 
lea.se  unto  you  the 
King  of  the  Jews?" 
For  he  knew  that 
the    chief     priests 
had  delivered  him 
lor  euvy. """When 
he  was  set  doi.n 


on  the  judgment 
seat,  his  wife  sent 
unto  him,  saying, 
"  Have  thou  noth- 
ing to  do  with  that 
fust  man;  for  I  have 
suffered  many 
things  this  day  In 
a  dream  because 
ot  him."  '"'And 
Pilate,  when  he 
had  called  together 
the  chief  priests 
and  the  rulers  and 
the  people,  said 
unto  them.  -'Ve 
have  brought  this 

one  that  perverleth 
the  people;  and  be- 
hold, 1,  having  ex- 
amined him  before 
you,  have  found 
no  fault  in  this  man 

touching     those     O  Mttstibctg.  EfrE 

things   whereof  ye 

aizrusf  him;  no,  nor  yet  Herod,  lor  I  seul  you  lo 
him;  and,  lo,  nothing  worthy  of  dc.ith  is  done  unlo 
him.  I  will  therefore  chaslisehim,  and  release  him." 
And  they  cried  out  all  al  once,  saying,  ''Away  with 
this  man.  and  releaseunto  us  Barabbas."  "*"  The 
chief  priests  and  elders  persuaded  the  multitude 
that  they  should  ask  Barabbas.  and  destroy  Jesus. 
The  governor  answered  and  said  unto  them. 
'■  Whether  of  the  two  will  ye  thai  I  release  unto 
you?'  They  said,  ■'Barabbas."  Pilate  saith  unto 
Ihem,  "What  shall  I  do  then  with  Jesus  which  is 
called  Christ,  ""'  whom  ye  call  King  of  the  Jews." 


"•"*  TTiey  all  say  unto  him,  "  Let  him  be  crucified.* 
And  the  governor  said,  "  Why,  what  evil  hath  he 
done?"  But  they  cried  out  the  more,  saying, 
"  Let  him  be  crucified."  When  Pilate  saw  that  he 
could  prevail  nothing,  but  that  rather  a  tumult  was 
made,  he  took  water,  and  washed  his  hands  before 
the  multitude,  saying,  "  I  am  innocent  of  the  blood 
of  this  just  person;  see  ye  to  it."  Then  answered 
all  the  people,  and  said,  "  His  blood  be  on  us,  and 
on  our  children."  Then  released  he  Barabbas  unto 
them,  '■'""  whom  they  had  desired;  *""■  and  when 
he  had  scourged  Jesus,  he  delivered  him  ""to 
''"'■r  will  ■""■  to  be  era- 
<l. 

3e9ue  flSoclteb. 


Jesus  into  the  com- 
mon hall,  and 
gathered  unto  him 
the  whole  band  ot 
soldiers.  And  they 
stripped  him,  and 
put  on  him  a  scar- 
let "**■  purple  "*"■ 
robe.  And  when 
they  had  platted 
ti  crown  of  thorns, 
they  put  it  upon 
his  head,  and  a 
reed  in  his  right 
hand;  and  they 
bowed  the  knee 
before  him,  and 
mocked  him  say- 
ing. "  Hail,  King 
of  the  Jews!"  and 
they  spit  upon  him, 
and  took  the  reed, 
and  .smote  him  on 
the  head. 

ftilate  Seelie  to 
netease  Dim. 

(John   :tix:    4.) 
■'°~"  Pilate  therefore 
went   forth   again, 
HOMO.  and     saiih     u  n  I  o 

them,  "  Behold,  I 
bring  him  forth  to  you,  that  ye  may  know  that  1  find 
no  fault  in  him."  Then  came  Jesus  forth,  wearing 
the  crown  of  thorns,  and  the  purple  robe.  And 
Pilate  saith  unlo  them.  "  Behold  the  man!"  When 
the  chief  priests  therefore  and  officers  saw  him.  they 
cried  out  saying,  "Crucify  him.  crucify  him."  Pilate 
saith  unlo  tliem,  "  Take  ye  him,  and  crucify  him  ; 
for  [  find  no  fault  In  him."  The  Jews  answered 
him.  "We  have  a  law.  and  by  our  law  he  ought  to 
die.  because  he  made  himself  the  son  of  God." 
When  Pilate  therefore  heard  that  saying,  he  was  the 
more  afraid;  and  went  again  into  the  judgment  halL 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORV 


197 


parts,  to  every 
>w  the  coal  was 
)p  throughout. 


did.  '*"''  And 
ing  their  heads, 
he  temple,  and 
M.  If  ihou  be 
cros.>i."  Like- 
hitn,  with  the 


reward  of  our  deeds;  but  this  man  hath  done  nothing 
amiss."  And  he  said  unto  Jesus,  "  Lord,  remem- 
ber me  when  thou  comest  into  thy  kingdom."  And 
Jesus  said  unto  him,  Verily  I  say  tmio  thee,  Todi^ 
shall  thou  be  with  me  in  Paradise.  "™  Now  there 
stood  by  the  cross  of  Jesus  his  mother,  and  his 
tnother's  sister,  Mary  the  wife  of  Cleophas,  and 
Mary  Magdalene.  When  Jesus  therefore  saw  his 
mother,  and  the  disciple  standing  by,  whom  he 
loved,  he  saith  unto  his  mother,  Woman,  behold  l^ 
son!  Then  saith  he  to  the  disciple.  Behold  thy 
mother !  and  from  that  hour  that  disciple  took  her 
unto  his  own  home. 

"  ft  Is  yinlsbeo." 

(Matt,  xxvii:  45.)  Now  from  the  sixth  hour 
there  was  darkness  over  all  the  land  unto  the  ninth 
hour.  And  about  the  ninth  hour  Jesus  cried  with 
a  loud  voice,  saying,  Eli,  Eli,  lama  sabachihanif 
that  is  to  say,  "  My  God,  my  God,  why  hast  thou 
forsaken  me?"  Some  of  them  that  stood  there, 
when  they  heard  that,  said,  "  This  man  calleth  for 
F.lias."  And  Straightway  one  of  them  ran,  and  took 
a  sponge,  and  filled  it  with  vinegar,  and  put  it  on  a 
reed,  and  gave  him  to  drink.  The  rest  said,  "  Let 
be,  let  us  see  whether  Elias  will  come  to  save  him." 

■™™  After  this,  Jesus  knowing  that  all  things  were 
now  accomplished,  that  the  Scripture  might  be  ful- 
filled, saith,  /  thirst.  Now  there  was  set  a  vessel 
full  of  vinegar;  and  they  fiJIed  a  sponge  with  vinegar, 
and  put  it  upon  hyssop,  and  put  it  to  his  mouth. 
When  Jesus  therefore  had  received  the  vinegar,  he 
said,  //  is  finished.  '■'"■  And  when  Jesus  had  cried 
with  a  loud  voice,  he  said,  Father,  iitlo  (hy  hands  I 


hers;  himself 
hrist,  •"■"■  the 
wr)  from  the 
isted  ill  God; 

nd  they  that 
"™And  the 
itn  and  offer- 
be  the  King 


'e. 


le  factors 

' '  If  thou 
lie   other 

condemna- 
■ive  the  due 


PETER  A 


n  JOHN. 


commend  my  spirit;  and  having  said  thus,  he  ■** 
bowed  his  head  and  ""'  gave  up  the  ghost  "*"■ 
And,  behold,  the  veil  of  the  temple  was  rent  in 
twain  from  the  top  lo  the  bottom;  and  the  earth  did 
quake,  and  the  rocks  rent;  and  the  graves  were 
opened  and  many  bodies  of  the  saints  which  slept 
arose,  and  came  out  of  tlie  graves  alter  his  resur- 
rection, and  went  into  the  holy  ciiy,  and  appeared 
unto  many.  Now  when  the  centurion,  and  they  that 
were  with  him,  watching  Jesus,  saw  the  earthquake. 


198 


THE   WONDERFUL  STORY 


and  those  things  that  were  done,  they  feared 
greatly,  saying,  "Truly  this  was  the  Son  oi  God." 
And  many  women  were  there  beholding  afar  off, 
which  followed  Jesus  from  Galilee,  ministering 
unto  him,  among  which  was  Mary  Mi^alene,  and 
Mary  the  mother  of  James  and  Joses,  and  the 
mother  of  Zebedee's  children,  "*"and  many  other 
women  which  came  up  with  him  unto  Jerusalem. 


Zbe  Snrial. 

x  tot  p.  H.  Pridar.  Gardea  dot  Calnrr 

(Mark  xv:  42.)  And  now  when  the  even  was 
come,  because  it  was  the  preparation,  that  is, 
the  day  before  the  sabbath,  """■  a  rich  man,  ■"■ 
Joseph  of  Arimathea,  an  honorable  counselor, 
which  also  waited  for  the  kingdom  of  God,  "*"-  and 
himself  was  Jesus'  disciple,  ■™™  but  secretly  for  fear 
o(  the  Jews  """came,  and  went  in  boldly  unto 
Pilate,  and  craved  the  body  of  Jesus.  And  Pilaie 
marveled  if  he  were  already  dead  ;  and  calling  unto 
him  the  centurion,  he  asked  him  whether  he  had 
been  any  while  dead.  And  when  he  knew  it  of  the 
centurion,  he  gave  the  body  to  Joseph.  ■™*"  And 
there  came  also  Nicodemus  (which  at  the  finit 
came  to  Jesus  by  night),  and  brought  a  mi.xture  of 
m^Trh  and  aloes,  about  a  hundred  pound  weight 
Then  took  they  the 'body  of  Jesus,  and  wound  it  in 


HOLY  WOMEN  AT  THE  TOMB. 

S>e0cent  from  tbe  Cross. 
(John  xix:  31.)  The  Jews  therefore,  because  it 
was  the  preparation,  that  the  bodies  should  not  re- 
main upon  the  cross  on  the  sabbaih  day  (for  that 
sabbath  day  was  a  high  day),  besought  Pil.ite  th.it 
their  legs  might  be  broken,  and  that  they  might  be 
taken  away.  Then  came  the  soldiers,  and  broke  Ihe 
legs  of  the  first,  and  of  Ihe  other  which  was  cruci- 
fied with  him.  But  when  they  came  to  Jesus,  and 
saw  that  he  was  dead  already,  they  broke  iiot  hi< 
legs;  but  one  of  the  soldiers  with  a  spenr  pierced  his 
side,  and  forthwith  came  there  out  blood  and  water. 
And  lie  that  saw  it  bare  record,  and  his  record  is 
true;  and  he  knowelh  that  he  sailh  true,  tiiat  ye 
might  believe.  For  these  things  were  done,  that 
the  Scripture  should  be  fulfilled, 

A  ho.ie  of  him  shall  not  be  broken. 


And  again  another  Scriptur 


ailh, 


/^Bfj/.  THE  JOURNEY  TO 

linen  clothes  with  the  spices,  as  the  manner  of  tlie 
Jews  is  lo  bury.  Now  in  the  place  where  he  was 
crucified  there  was  a  garden  ;  and  in  the  garden  a 
new  sepulcher,  wherein  was  never  man  yet  laid,"*^ 
which  was  hewn  out  of  a  rock.  -"^  There  laid  they 
Jesus  therefore  because  of  the  Jews'  preparation 
day,  for  the  sepulcher  was  nigh  at  hand  ;  """and 
they  rolled  a  stone  unio  the  door  of  the  sepulcher. 
"■""And  the  women  also,  which  came  with  him 
from  Galilee,  followed  after,  and  beheld  the  sepul- 


THE   WONDERFUL  STORY  190 

laid.       And   they      he  was  yet  alive,    'After  three  days  I  will  rise 

nd  ointments;  and      again.'    Command  therefore  that  the  sepulcherbe 

g  to  the  command-      made  sure  until  the  third  day,  lest  his  disciples 

come  by  night,  and  steal  him  away,  and  say  unto 

the  people,  '  He  is  risen  from  the  dead; '  so  the  last 

Sepuicher.      error  shall  be  worse  than  the  first."    Pilate  said 

the   next  day,  that      unto  them,  "  Ye  have  a  watch  ;  go  your  way,  make 

ion,  the  chief  priests      it  as  sure  as  ye  can."     So  they  went,  and  made  the 

into  Pilate,  saying,      sepuicher  sure,  sealing  the  stone,  and  setting  a 

deceiver  said,  while      watch. 


TER  THE  RESURRECTION. 

Pron  th«  RHurrectloD  to  tb(  Awanilon. 


SepulCber.  themselves,  "  Who  shall  roll  us  away  the  stone  from 

At  the  Scpuicber.  thedoor  of  the  sepuicher?  "  And  when  ihey  looked, 

.  the  sabbath  was  past,  they  saw  that  the  stone  was  rolled  away,  for  it  was 

.t  earthquake;  for  the  very  great.     And  entering  into  the  sepuicher,  they 

-om  heaven,  and  came  saw  a  young  man  sitting  on  the  right  side,  clothed 

om  the  door,  and  sat  in  a  long  white  garment;  and  they  were  affrighted, 

as  like  lightning,  and  Andhesaith  untothem.  "  Benotaffrighted;  "*' why 

nd  for  fear  of  him  the  seek  ye  the  living  among  the  dead?    """Ye  seek 


THE  MIRArULOtra  DRAUGHT  OF  FISHES. 

i«anieasdead  men.     And  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  which  was  crucified;  he  is  risen; 

,tid   Mary  Ihe   mother   of  he  is  not  here;  "■"■' remember  how  he  spoke  unto 

1  bought  sweet  spices,  that  you  when  he  was  yet  in  Galilee,  saying,  'The  Son 

loiiil  him.    And  very  early  of  man  must  be  delivered  into  the  hands  of  sinful 

;n  it  was  yet  d.nrk,  """the  men,  and  be  crucified,  and  the  third  day  rise  again.' 

ty  came  unto  the  sepuicher  """  Behold  the  place  where  they  laid  him.     But  go 

n.    And  Ihey  said  among  your  way,  tell  his  disciples  and  Peter  that  he  goeth 


i 


H 

tr 

s 

flC 


o 

9 

c 

5* 

n 
o 

r 

D 


X 

w 


a  o 


o 
B 

er 

tr 
o 


o 

o 
o 

H 


a* 


a 
S 

S* 

o 

er 
Q 


StOIB  Ol 
(MatLMviii;!!.)  > 
behold,  some  of  ihe  xa 
showed  unto  the  chid 
were  done.  And  when 
the  elders,  and  had  takt 
money  unto  Ihe  sMit 
discipks  came  by  nigh 
we  slept.'  And  if  this  < 
we  will  persuade  him, . 
took  Ihe  money,  and  di 
this  sajing  is  comtnonl; 
until  this  day. 


Afleinoon,  Aprtl  9. 

(Luke  xxiv: 
went  that  same 
which  was  froni 
longs.  And  the\ 
which  had  hapfx: 
while  they  comti 
himself  drew  ne; 
eyes  were  hold^i 
And  he  said  tii 
munications  afe , 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


203 


[  tbe  ctuaic>. 

Now  when  they  were  going, 
itch  came  inlo  the  city,  and 
priests  all  the  things  that 
they  were  assembled  with 
en  counsel,  they  gave  large 
;rs,  saying,  "Say  ye,  'His 
It,  and  stole  him  away  while 
::ome  to  the  governor's  ears, 
and  secure  you."  So  they 
:d  as  they  were  taught;  and 
f  reported  among  the  Jews 


as  ye  walk  and  are  sad?  And  the  one  o(  them. 
whose  name  was  Cleopas,  answering  said  unto  him. 
"Art  thou  only  a  stranger  in  Jerusalem,  and  hast 
not  known  the  things  which  are  come  to  pass  there 
in  these  days?"  And  he  said  unto  them,  What 
things?  And  they  said  unto  him.  "Concerning 
Jesus  of  Nazareth,  which  was  a  prophet  mighty  in 
deed  and  word  before  Cod  and  all  the  people;  and 
how  the  chief  priests  and  our  rulers  delivered  him 
to  be  condemned  to  death,  and  have  crucified  him. 
But  we  Inisted  that  it  had  been  he  which  should 
have  redeemed  Israel;  and  beside  all  this,  today  is 
the  third  day  since  these  things  were  done.    Yea, 


Near  Jeivsalem. 

And,  behold,  two  of  them 
o  a  village  called  Emmaus, 
alem  about  threescore  fur- 
d  together  of  all  these  things 
And  it  came  to  pass,  that, 
logether  and  reasoned,  Jesus 
went  with  them.  But  their 
they  should  not  know  him. 
em,  What  manner  of  corn- 
hat  ye  have  one  to  another. 


feting  ot  Oie  dlKiple?  after  ihc  Ascension.) 

and  certain  women  also  of  our  company  made  us 
astonished,  which  were  early  at  the  sepulcher;  and 
when  Ihey  found  not  his  body,  they  came,  saying 
thzt  they  had  also  seen  a  vision  of  angels,  which 
said  that  he  was  alive.  And  certain  of  them  which 
were  with  us  went  to  the  sepulcher,  and  found  it 
even  so  as  the  women  had  said;  but  him  Ihey  saw 
not."  Then  he  said  unlo  them,  O  fools,  and  slow 
of  heart  to  believe  all  that  the  prophets  have  spoken; 
ought  not  Christ  to  have  suffered  these  things,  and 
to  enter  inlo  his  glory?  And  beginning  at  Moses 
and  all  the  prophets,  he  expounded  unto  them  in 
all  the  Scriptures  the  things  concerning  himself. 


(^- 


SIM 


THE  WONDERFUL  STORY 


And  they  drew  nigh  unto  the  village,  whither  they 
went;  and  he  made  as  though  he  would  have  gone 
(urther.  But  they  constrained  him,  saying,  "Abide 
with  us;  for  it  is  toward  evening,  and  the  day  is  far 
spent."  And  he  went  in  to  tarry  with  them.  And 
it  came  to  pass,  as  he  sat  at  meat  with  them,  he 
took  bread  and  blessed  it,  and  broke,  and  gave  to 
them.  And  their  eyes  were  opened,  and  they 
knew  him;  and  he  vanished  out  of  their  sight. 
And  they  said  one  to  another,  "  Did  not  our  heart 
bum  within  us,  while  he  talked  with  us  by  the  way, 
and  while  he  opened  to  us  the  Scriptures  ? "  And 
they  rose  up  the  same  hour,  and  returned  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  found  the  eleven  gathered  together,  and 
them  that  were  with  them,  saying,  "The  Lord  is 
risen  indeed,  and  hath  appeared  to  Simon."  And 
they,  told  what  things  were  done  in  the  way,  and 
how  be  was  known  of  them  in  breaking  of  bread. 


THE  ASCENSrON. 

first  appearance  to  tbe  Disciples. 

Sunday  Evening.  April  9.  Cjipfr  Room.  Jetusalem. 

{ Luke  xxiv:  3(1. )  And  as  they  thus  spoke,  Jesus 
himself  stood  in  tlie  midst  of  them  ■'"""when  'he 
doors  ttiTe  shut  where  the  disciples  were  assembled 
forfear  of  ihe  Jews,  '■""'and  saith  unto  them,  f^ace 
be  nolo  you.  Hut  they  were  terrified  and  af- 
frighted, and  supposed  that  they  had  seen  a  spirit. 
And  he  said  unto  them.  Why  are  ye  troubled?  and 
ivhy  do  thoughts  arise  in  yoiit*  hearts  f  Behold 
my  hands  and  my  /eel,  that  it  is  I  myself;  handle 
me,  and  see;  for  a  spirit  hath  not  flesh  and  bones, 
as  ye  see  me  have.    And  when  he  had  thus  spoken, 


he  showed  them  his  hands  and  his  feet.  And 
while  they  yet  believed  not  for  )oy,  and  wondered, 
he  said  unto  them.  Have  ye  here  any  meat  f  And 
they  gave  him  a  piece  of  a  broiled  lish,  and  of  a 
honeycomb.  And  he  took  it  and  did  eat  before 
them.  And  he  said  unto  them.  These  are  the 
words  which  I  spoke  unto  you,  while  I  2vas  yet 
with  you,  thai  all  things  must  be  fulfilled,  which 
mere  written  in  the  law  of  Moses,  and  in  the 
prophets,  and  in  the  psalms,  concerning  me. 
Then  opened  he  their  understanding,  that  they 
might  understand  the  Scriptures,  and  said  unto 
them.  Thus  it  is  written,  and  thus  it  behooved 
Christ  to  suffer,  and  to  rise  from  the  dead  the 
third  day;  and  thai  repentance  and  remission  of 
sins  should  be  preached  in  his  name  among  aO 
nations  beginning  at  Jerusalem.  And  ye  are 
witnesses  of  these  things.  And,  behold,  I  send 
the  promise  of  my  Father  upon  you;  but  tarry  ye 
in  the  city  of  Jerusalem  until  ye  be  endued  with 
power  from  on  high.  """^  And  when  he  had  so 
said,  he  showed  unto  them  his  hands  and  his  side. 
Then  were  his  disciples  glad,  when  they  saw  the 
Lord.  Then  said  Jesus  to  them  again,  Peace  be 
unto  you;  as  my  father  haih  sent  me,  even  so 
send  I  you.  And  when  he  had  said  this,  be 
breathed  on  them,  and  saith  unto  them,  Receiveyt 
the  Hbfy  Ghost;  whose  soever  sins  ye  remit,  they 
are  remitted  unto  Ihem;  and  whose  soever  siitsyl 
retain,  they  are  retained. 

appears  to  Cbomas  anH  tbe  Otbers. 

Sund«y  Evening,  April  iS.  Upper  Room,  Jenudtm. 

(John  XX:  24.)  But  Thomas,  one  of  the  tweh-e, 
called  Didymus,  was  not  with  them  when  Jesus 
came.  The  other  disciples  therefore  said  unto  him, 
"We  have  seen  the  Lord."  But  he  said  unto  Ihem, 
"  Except  I  shall  see  in  his  hands  the  print  of  the 
nails,  and  put  my  finger  into  the  print  of  the  nails, 
and  thrust  my  hand  into  his  side,  I  will  not  believe." 
And  after  eight  days  again  his  disciples  were  within, 
and  Thomas  with  them;then  came  Jesus,  the  doors 
being  shut,  and  stood  in  the  midst  and  ^\A,  Peace 
be  unto  you.  Then  saith  he  to  Thomas,  Reach 
hilher  thy  finger,  and  behold  my  hands;  ami 
reach  hither  thy  hand,  and  thrust  it  into  tuy 
side;  and  be  not  faithless,  but  believing.  And 
Thomas  answered  and  said  unto  him,  "  .\ly 
LordandmyGod."  Jesus  said  unto  him,  Thomas, 
because  thou  hast  seen  me,  thou  hast  ielieved; 
blessed  are  they  that  have  not  seen,  and  yet  havf 
believed.  And  many  other  signs  truly  did  Jesus  in 
the  presence  of  his  disciples,  which  are  not  written 
in  this  book;  but  these  are  written,  that  yemigW 
believe  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  OoJ, 
and  that  believing  ye  might  have  life  through  hi* 

appearance  at  tbe  Seasftw. 

April  or  May,  A.  D.  80.  S™  of  CiNlet 

(John  xxi  r  L )  After  these  things  Jesus  showal 
himself  again  to  the  disciples  at  the  sea  of  Tiberias, 


THE  WONDERFUL   STORY 


90S 


and  on  this  wise  showed  he  himself.  There  were 
logelher  Simon  Peter,  and  Thomas  called  Didymus 
and  Nathanael  of  Cana  in  Galilee,  and  the  sons  of 
Zebedee,  and  two  other  of  his  disciples.  Simon 
Peter  sailh  unto  them,  "  I  go  a  fishing."  They 
say  unto  him,  "We  also  go  with  thee."  They 
went  forth,  and  entered  into  a  ship  immediately ; 
and  that  night  they  caught  nothing.  But  when  the 
morning  was  now  come,  Jesus  stood  on  the  shore ; 
but  the  disciples  knew  not  that  it  was  Jesus.  Then 
Jesus  saith  unto  them,  Childrrn,  have  ye  any  meat? 
They  answered  him,  "No."  And  he  said  unio  them. 
Cast  the  net  on  the  right  side  of  the  ship,  and  ye 
shall  find.  They  cast  therefore,  and  now  they 
were  not  able  to  draw  it  for  the  multitude  of  fishes. 
Therefore  that  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved  saith  unto 
Peter.  "  It  is  the  Lord."  Now  when  Simon  1't.itr 
heard  iliat  it  was  the  Lord,  he  girt  his  fisher's  coat 
unto  him  (for  he  was  naked),  and  did  cast  himself 
into  the  sea.  And  the  other  disciples  came  in  a 
little  ship  ( for  they  were  not  far  from  land,  but  as  it 
were  two  hundred  cubits),  dragging  the  net  with 
fishes.  As  soon  then  as  they  were  coroe  to  land, 
they  saw  a  fire  of  cuals  there,  and  fish  laid 
thereon,  and  bread,  Jesus  saith  unto  them,  Bring 
of  the  fish  which  ye  have  now  caught.  Simon 
I'eler  went  up,  and  drew  the  net  to  land  full  of 
great  fishes,  a  hundred  and  fifty  and  three;  and  for 
all  Ihere  were  so  many,  yet  was  not  the  net  broken, 
lesus  saith  unto  them.  Come  and  dine.  And  none 
of  the  disciples  dare  ask  him,  "  Who  art  thou  ? " 
kno«  ing  lh,it  it  was  the  Lord.  Jesus  then  comelh 
and  takelh  bread,  and  giveth  them,  and  fish  like- 
wise. This  is  now  the  third  time  thai  Jesus  showed 
himself  to  his  disciples,  after  that  he  was  risen  from 
the  dead. 

|>etet'0  Commlsaion. 

(John  xxi:  15.)  So  when  they  had  dined,  Jesus 
saith  to  Simon  Peter,  Sitnmt,  son  of  Jonas,  lovest 
thou  iiie  more  than  these  f  He  saith  unlo  him, 
'■Yen,  Lord;  thou  knowest  that  I  love  thee."  He 
sailh  unto  him,  Feed  my  lambs.  He  sailh  to  him 
again  the  second  lime,  Simon,  son  of  Jonas,  loval 
thou  mef  He  saith  unto  him,  "  Yea  Lord  ;  thou 
knowest  ih.it  I  luve  Ihee."  He  saith  unto  him, 
Feed  my  sheep.  He  saith  unto  him  Ihe  third  time, 
Simon,  son  of  Jonas,  lovest  thou  me*  Peter  was 
grieved  because  he  said  unto  him  the  third  time, 
"  Lovest  thou  me  ? "  And  he  said  unto  him,  "Lord, 
thou  knowest  all  things;  thou  knowest  that  I  love 
thee.''  Jesus  saith  unto  him.  Feed  my  sheep. 
Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  thee.  When  thou  mast 
young,  thou  girdedst  thyself,  and  walkedst  whither 
thou  wouldest;  but  when  thou  shall  be  old,  Ihou 
shall  stretch  forth  thy  hands,  and  another  shall 
gird  thee,  and  earry  thee  whither  thou  wouldest  not. 
This  spoke  he  signifying  by  what  death  he  should 
glorify  God.  And  when  he  had  spoken  this,  he 
saith  unlo  him,  Follow  me.  Then  Peter,  turning 
about,  seeth  the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved  follow- 
ing; which  also  leaned  on  his  breast  at  supper,  and 
said,  "Lord  which  is  he  that  betrayeth  thee  ? "  Peter 


seeing  him  said  to  Jesus,  "  Lord,  and  what  shall 
this  man  do?"  Jesus  saith  unto  him.  If  I  will  that 
he  tarry  till  I  come,  what  is  that  to  IheeT  follow 
thou  me.  Then  went  this  saying  abroad  among  the 
brethren,  that  that  disciple  should  not  die;  yet  Jesus 
said  not  unto  him.  He  shall  not  die;  but.  If  I  wilt 
that  he  tarry  till  I  come,  what  is  that  to  thee  f 
This  is  the  disciple  which  testifieth  of  these  things, 
and  wrote  these  things ;  and  we  know  that  his 
testimony  is  true.  And  there  are  also  many  other 
things  which  Jesus  did,  the  which,  if  they  should  be 


Sppeaeance  to  tbe  Cteven  on  a  Aountaln. 

April  or  May.  A.  D.  30.  Galilrc. 

(Matt,  xxviii:  16.)  Then  the  eleven  disciples 
went  away  into  Galilee,  into  a  mountain  where 
Jesus  had  appointed  them.  And  when  they  saw 
him  they  worshiped  him;  but  some  doubted.  And 
Jesus  came  and  spoke  unto  them,  saying,  All  power 
is  given  unlo  me  in  heaven  and  in  earth. 


"BEHOLD  I  STAND  AT  THE   DOOR   AND    KNOCK."